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Xature  "1 

iiibet  lo,  1 903  J 


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Nature 


A  WEEKLY 


ILLUSTRATED    JOURNAL    OF    SCIENCE 


r  Nature, 

\_December  lo,  1903 


Dccenilcr  lo,  1903 J 


Nature 


A    WEEKLY 


ILLUSTRATED   JOURNAL   OF    SCIENCE 


VOLUME    LXVIII 

MAY     to     OCTOBER     1903 


"  To  the  solid  ground 
Of  Nature  trusts  the  mind  which  builds  for  aye" — Wordsworth 


MACMILLAN     AND    CO.,     Limited^ 
NEW    YORK:     THE    MACMILLAN    COMPANY 


Nature. 
^December  lo,  1903 


Q 


top-  "2- 


Richard  Clay  and  Sons,  Limited, 

bread  street  hill.  e.c.,  and 

bungay,  suffolk. 


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Nature, 

December  lo,  1903 


INDEX 


)i's  (J.  E.),  Conditions  of  Oxidation  of  Salicylic  Alde- 
tde  by  Organs  and  Extracts  of  Organs,  216 

ation  of  the  Eye,  Spherical,  W.  L.,  8;  Edwin  Edser, 

W.  Betz,  8 

ty     (Sir    William    de    W.,     K.C.B.,     D.C.L.,     D.Sc, 

|R.S.),    the   Advancement   of   Photography,    Lecture   at 

Royal  Photographic  Society,  89  ;  Opening  Address  in 

:tion    L     at    the    Southport    Meeting    of    the    British 

sociation,  581 

izzi  (H.R.H.  Luigi  Amedeo  of  Savoy,  Duke  of  the),  on 
ie  Polar  Star  in  the  Arctic  Sea,  79 
idenxy,   the   British,   204 
Accidents  in   Factories,    Prevention  of,   E.   Magrini,    G.    H. 

Baillie,  219 
Ackroyd  (William),  Radium  and  its  Position  in  Nature,  66 ; 
a    New    Case    of    Phosphorescence    Induced    by    Radiuiu 
Bromide,  269 
Acoustics  :   Experimental  Phonetics,   Prof.  E.  W.  Scripture, 

397 
Action   of   Live   Things    in    Mechanics,    Sir    Oliver    Lodge, 

F.R.S.,  31 
Adams  (A.),  a  Mite  whose  Eggs  Survive  the  Boiling  Point, 

437 

Adie  (R.  H.),  on  Bismuth,  239 

Aeronautics  :  Notable  Performance  of  Lebaudy's  Balloon, 
('<5  :  the  Lebaudy  Balloon,  253  ;  International  Scientific 
Balloon  Ascents  on  March  5,  85;  on  April  2,  109;  on 
May  7,  206 ;  on  June  4,  278 ;  Spontaneous  Combustion 
I  if  Balloons,  W.  de  Fonvielle,  95  ;  Balloon  belonging  to 
<  ierman  Aeronautical  Society  Crosses  the  Baltic,  M.  de 
Fonvielle,  135  ;  Scientific  Kite  Flying,  W.  H.  Dines,  154 ; 
the  Kite  Competition  of  the  Aeronautical  Society,  200 ; 
Dr.  Graham  Bell's  Tetrahedral  Cell  Kites,  347;  Kite- 
flying Competition  at  Alexandra  Palace,  551  ;  Santos- 
Dumont's  Experiments,  206;  Prof.  Langley's  i2-foot 
Aerodrome  Tested,  421  ;  Prof.  Langley's  Aerodrome,  577; 
Balloon  Ascent  on  September  26,  M.  de  la  Vaulx,  529  ; 
Latest  Experiments  in  Aerial  Gliding,  Wilbur  Wright, 
552 

^ther,  a  New  Mechanical  Theory  of  the,  Osborne  Reynolds, 
F.R.S.,  Prof.  G.  H.  Bryan,  F.R.S.,  600 

Africa  :  Death  and  Obituary  Notice  of  Paul  du  Chaillu,  13  ; 
Native  Food  Resources  of  German  East  Africa,  15  ;  the 
Tanganyika  Problem,  an  Account  of  the  Researches 
L'ndertaken  Concerning  the  Existence  of  Marine  Animals 
in  Central  Africa,  J.  E.  S.  Moore,  56;  the  South  African 
Association,  59,  165 ;  Discoveries  of  Gold  along  Lake 
\ictoria.  Commander  Whitehouse,  R.N.,  136;  Entom- 
ology at  the  Cape,  Mr.  Lounsbery,  140 ;  Meteorological 
Observations  at  the  Abbassia  Observatory  during  1900, 
181  ;  Trypanosomatous  Epidemic  among  Domesticated 
Animals  in  Mauritius,  D.  Edington,  181  ;  Trypanosoma 
Disp.'ise  in  Upper  Gambia,  Drs.  Dutton  and  Todd,  254  ; 
Wet  and  Dry  Season  Forms  of  Rhodesian  Butterflies, 
tiuy  A.  K.  Marshall,  185  ;  Experiments  upon  the  Rate  of 
Evaporation,  J.  R.  Sutton,  232  ;  les  Richesses  Min^rales 
<|p  I'Afrique,  L.  de  Launay,  313;  Irrigation  in  South 
Africa,  Sir  Charles  Metcalfe.  40-;  ;  Forestry  of  Africa, 
I).  E.  Hutchins,  405;  News  of  Major  Powell-Cotton,  458; 
Ill-health  of  the  Rand  Miners,  527;  the  Okapi,  Herr 
Hesse,  605 

Agamennone   (Dr.    G.),    Earthquake   on   June   29,    1896,    in 
Cyprus,   235 
riculture:  Le  Froment  et  sa  Mouture,   Prof.  Girard  and 


M.  Lindet,  William  Jago,  i  ;  Agricultural  Geology,  J.  E. 
Marr,  29  ;  the  Principles  of  Animal  Nutrition  with  Special 
Reference  to  the  Nutrition  of  Farm  Animals,  Henry 
Prentiss  Armsby,  30 ;  Methods  of  Reclaiming  Alkali 
Lands,  41  ;  the  Soil  :  an  Introduction  to  the  Scientific 
Study  of  the  Growth  of  Crops,  A.  D.  Hall,  52  ;  Yield  ot 
Corn  in  the  West  Indies,  87  ;  Agriculture  in  the  West 
Indies,  Ground  Nuts,  W.  G.  Freeman,  490;  Con- 
siderazioni  Agrarie  sul  Piano  di  Capitanata,  Dr.  Nestore 
Petrilli,  100;  a  National  Diploma  in  Agriculture,  155; 
the  Potato  in  Germany,  304 ;  Agricultural  Notes,  357, 
427 ;  some  Injurious  Flea-beetles,  Mr.  Theobald,  357 ; 
Manurial  Experiments  on  the  Hop,  Principal  Hall,  357  ; 
Manures  in  Use  in  Egypt,  E.  P.  Foaden,  358 ;  E.xperi- 
ments  in  Testing  Milk,  Messrs.  Dymond  and  Bull,  358 ; 
Scientific  Poultry  Raising  in  Ohio,  358 ;  Mechanical 
Analysis  of  Soils,  Th.  Schloesing,  sen.,  384 ;  ficonomie 
rurale,  E.  Jouzier,  388 ;  Mongooses  in  Barbados,  423; 
the  Dalmeny  Experiment  Station,  427 ;  the  Composition 
of  the  Swedish  Turnip,  S.  H.  Collins,  427;  the  Mango  in 
Porto  Rico,  428;  Report  on  Field  Experiments  in  Vic- 
toria, 1887-1900,  A.  N.  Pearson,  467  ;  Surface  Geology  of 
Cheshire  in  its  Relation  to  Agriculture,  William  Edwards, 
579  ;  the  Experiment  Station  Record,  621  ;  the  Fixation  of 
Atmospheric  Nitrogen,  Dr.  Frank,  630 
Aitken    (Prof.),    the    System    of    e    Hydrae,    305 ;    Borrelly's 

Comet  (1903  c),  353  ;  Return  of  Brooks's  Comet,  398 
Albarran  (J.),  Comparative  Phvsiologv  of  the  Two  Kidnevs, 

96 
Albinism,  Heredity  of,  Messrs.  Castle  and  Allen,   136 
Albumins,  the  Chemistry  of  the.  Dr.  Arthur  Harden,  307 
Albuquerque  (Prof,  d').  Analysis  of  Ash  from  Soufri^re,  87 
Alcock    (Dr.    N.    H.),    Method    of    Determining    the    Tem- 
perature-limits  of    Nerve   Activity    in   Warm-blooded   and 
Cold-blooded  Animals,  238 
Alcoholic    Fermentation  :     Die    Zymasegarung    Untersuch- 
ungen  iiber  den  Inhalt  der  Hefezellen  und  die  biologische 
Seite     des     Garungsproblems,     Eduard     Buchner,     Hans 
Buchner,  and  Martin  Hahn,  Dr.  Arthur. Croft  Hill,  385 
Alexander  (Prof.  T.),  Elementary  Applied  Mechanics,  29 
Alexanderzuges,  Botanische  Forschungen  des.  Dr.  H.  Bretzl, 

292 
Algeria  :  Monographie  des  Cvnipides  d 'Europe  et  d'.\lg6rie, 

rAbb6  J.  J.  Kieffer,  221 
Algol  Variable,  a  Remarkable,  Prof.  E.  C.  Pickering,  42 
Alison  (John).  Arithmetic  for  Schools  and  Colleges,  547 
Allchin  (Dr.  W.  H.),  Radio-activity  and  the  Constitution  of 

Matter  and  its  Bearing  on  Biological  Processes,  603 
Allegheny  Observatory,  the,  Prof.  F.  L.  O.  Wadsworth,  398 
.\llen   (H.    S.),    a    Regulating   or   Recording   Thermometer, 

69  ;  Radio-active  Gas  from  Bath  Mineral  Waters,  343 
Allen  (.Mr.),  Heredity  of  Albinism,   136 
Allied  Colonial  Universities  Conference,  the,  250 
Aloy  (J.),  Conditions  of  Oxidation  of  Salicylic  Aldehyde  by 
Organs  and  Extracts  of  Organs,  216;  Thiosulphuric  Acid, 
263 
Alpine  Flora,  D.  J.  Hoffman,  175 
Alps,  Tectonics  of  the  Eastern,  Dr.  Maria  Ogilvie-Gordon, 

413 
Alternate,  la  Tecnica  delle  Correnti,  G.  Sartori,  221 
Aluminium-Industrie,  die,  Dr.  F.  Wintelen,  293 
.Amann  (M.).  Visibility  of  the  Eclipsed  Lunar  Disc  during 

the  Second  Half  of  the  Eclipse  of  April   11-12,  96 
Ambron  (Prof.),  Comet  1903  c,  255 


VI 


Index 


r  Nature, 

Ir       ■ 


_Decentber  lo,  1903 


America  :  the  Fossil  Man  of  Lansing,  Kansas,  Prof.  Karl 
Pearson,  F.R.S.,  7;  American  Symbolism,  Dr.  Alfred  L. 
Kroeber,  20  ;  American  Journal  of  Science,  46  ;  Transac- 
tions of  the  American  Mathematical  Society,  94 ;  Bulletin 
of  the  American  Mathematical  Society,  94;  American 
Electrochemical  Society,  Presidential  Address,  Dr.  Joseph 
W.  Richards,  299  ;  the  American  Tariff  and  the  St.  Louis 
Exhibition,  Prof.  C.  V.  Boys,  F.R.S.,  320;  the  Fisher- 
man in  America,  363  ;  the  Seventh  Annual  Report  of  the 
New  York  Zoological  Society,  376;  Forestry  in  the  United 
States,  406 ;  the  Forests  of  Oregon,  Henry  Gannett,  406  ; 
Forestry  in  the  State  of  Washington,  Henry  Gannett 
406;  Forestry  in  the  Cascade  Range,  Fred  G.  Plummerj 
406;  American  Botanic  Laboratory  in  Jamaica,  N.  L.' 
Britton,  415  ;  American  Ethnology,  427  ;  the  Geology  and 
Petrography  of  Crater  Lake,  National  Park,  Joseph  Silas 
Diller  and  Horace  Bushnell  Patton,  Prof.  T.  G.  Bonney, 
F.R.S.,  574;  Popular  American  Entomology,  595 
Amylose  und  Amyloseartige  Korper,  Untersuchungen  iiber 
O.  Biitschli,  495  ' 

Analytical  Chemistry,  E.  P.  Treadwell,   loi 
Anatomic  artistique  des  Animaux,  Ed.  Cuyer,  50 
Ancient  Calendars  and  Constellalions,   Hon.  'Emmeline  M. 

Plunket,  593 
Anderson  (Mrs.  Garrett),  the  1901-2  Epidemic  of  Small-pox 

and  the  Protective  Power  of  Infant  Vaccination,  529 
Andr^  (G.),   Nutrition   of  Plants   Deprived  of  their  Cotyle- 
dons, 168  ^ 
Andrews  (Dr.  C.  W.),  Giant  Land  Tortoise  from  the  Eocene 
of  the   Fayum    District,    255;   Skull   of   Egyptian    Eocene 
Mammal    Arstnotheriutn    zitteli    in    the    Natural    History 
Museum,   349 
Andrews  (E.   S.),    Method  of  Determining  the  Viscosity  of 

Pitch-like  Solids,   190 
Angot  (Alfred),   Value  of  Averages   in   Meteorology   and   on 
the   Variability   of   Temperatures    in    France,    96';    on    the 
Simultaneous    Variation    of    Solar    Spots    and    Terrestrial 
Temperatures,   119 
Animal    Electricity;    Contribution    k    I'litude    du    Mode    de 
Production   de   i'^lectricit^    dans   les  Etres   vivants,    Dr. 
Louis  Querton,  5 
Animal  Nutrition,  the  Principles  of,  with  Special  Reference 
to    the    Nutrition    of     Farm    Animals,     Henry     Prentiss 
Armsby,  30 
Animals,    Experiments  on,   Stephen   Paget,   74 
Animaux,  Anatomic  artistique  des,  Ed.  Cuyer,  50 
Annandale  (N-),  on  Skulls  from  the  Malay  Peninsula,  635  ; 
Collection    of    Survivals    of    Primitive    Implements    in    the 
Fa;roes  and  Iceland,  636 
Anodonta    cygtiea,    the    Nervous    System    of,     Oswald     H. 

Latter,  623 
Anstie  (James),  Colloquies  of  Common  People,  246 
Antarctica  :    Work  and   Position   of  the   National   Antarctic  1 
Expedition,     12  ;    Additional    Particulars    of    the    British 
■Antarctic  Expedition,   38;   Mr.   Balfour  and  the  National 
Antarctic  Expedition,    106;   Narrative  of  the   British  Ant- 
arctic Expedition,  Sir  Clements  Markham,   159  ;  Antarctic 
Relief  Expedition,  84;   the  Antarctic   Relief  (Terra  Nova) 
Expedition,  373,  420;  Expedition  to  Relieve  the  Nordensk- 
jold   Expedition,    13,   85,   394 ;   the  Charcot  S.earch   Expe- 
dition for  Nordenskjold,  373,  420;   Death  .of  Josef  Enzen- 
berger,   38 ;    Relief   Expedition   for  the   German   Antarctic 
Expedition,    107 ;    the    German    South    Polar    Expedition, 
420 ;    Return    of    Gauss    Expedition,    133  ;    the    Antarctic 
Expeditions,  Capt.  Scott,  307 
Antelope-snake      Ceremonies,      Mishongnovi,      George     A. 

Dorsey  and  H.  R.  Voth,  iii 
Anthropology  :  Faces  in  Embroidered  Designs  of  East 
Siberian  Decorative  Art,  39  ;  Tools  used  by  the  Natives  of 
North-west  Australia  in  the  Manufacture  of  Glass  Spear- 
heads, H.  Balfour,  46;  Anthropological  Institute,  46, 
118;  Inheritance  of  Psychical  and  Physical  Characters  in 
Man,  Prof.  Karl  Pearson,  F.R.S.,  at  "the  Anthropological 
Institute,  607;  Classification  of  the  Subject-matter  of 
Anthropology,  E.  N.  Fallaize,  47;  Measurements  of  the 
Colonial  Coronation  Contingent,  J.  Gray,  47  ;  the 
Mishongnovi  Ceremonies  of  the  Snake  and  Antelope 
Fraternities,  George  A.  Dorsey  and  H.  R.  \'oth,  in  :  on 
Some  Stone  Circles  in  Derbyshire,  A.  L.  Lewis,  118;  on 
Some  Notes  on  Orientation,  A.  L.  Lewis.  118;  Drawings 
on  the  Walls  of  the  Cave  of  Altamira,   Emile  Cartailhac 


and  Abb6  H.  Breuil,  216;  Salomon  Reinach,  216;  Fasci- 
culi Malayenses,  298 ;  Anthropological  Notes,  332  ';  Chota 
Nagpore,  a  little  known   Province  of  the  Empire,   F.   B. 
Bradley   Birt,   J.    F.    Hewitt,   369;   Reports  of  the  Cam- 
bridge   Anthropological     Expedition    to    Torres     Straits, 
W.  H.  R.  Rivers,  C.  G.  Seligmann,  C.  S.  Myers,  and  w! 
McDougall,   Dr.  A.  C.   Haddon,  409;  the  Eight  Months' 
Foetus  of  the  Malay  and  Melanesian  Races,  Prof.  Hagen, 
588 ;    Hum.an   Remains  Recently   Discovered   in   Croatia— 
the    so-called    Homo    crapinensis,    Prof.    Gojanovic-Kram- 
berger,  588  ;  see  also  British  Association 
Antoniadi  (E.  M.),  the  Canals  on  Mars,  461 
Ants  :  Ants  and  Cuckoo-wasps,  Lieut.-Colonel  C.  T.   Bing- 
..ham,  220;  an  Ant  Robbed  by  a  Lizard,  J.  W.  Stack,  600 
Apiculture  :      Die      stammgeschichtliche      Entstehung     des 
Bienenstaates   sowie   Beitrage  zur   Lebensweise   der   soli- 
tjiren   u.    sozialen   Bienen   (Hummeln,    Meliponinen,    &c.), 
174 
Applied   Mechanics,    Elementary,    Profs.    T.    Alexander   and 

A.  W.  Thomson,  29 
Arachnidae  :     Geographical     Distribution     of    the     Mygalo- 

morphae,  R.  I.  Pocock,  47 
Arber    (E.    A.    Neville),    Fossil    Plants    from    the    Ardwick 

Series,  639 
Arc  and  Spark  Spectra,  the  Relationships  between,  Prof.  J. 

Hartmann,  163 
Archaeology  :  Discovery  of  Pre-historic  Implements  in  the 
"  Camp  "  in  Bigbury  Wood,  Prof.  W.  B.  Dawkins,  no; 
Recent  Excavations  at  Nippur,  177  ;  the  Celtic  Gold  Orna- 
ments, 201  ;  Archaeology  of  the  Southport  District,  225  ; 
Archaeological  Discoveries  in  Crete  and  Egypt,  229;  In- 
vestigation of  Palace  of  Knossos  in  Crete,  A.  J.  Evans 
and  Mr.  Mackenzie,  229  ;  Italian  Excavations  at  Palace 
of  Agia  Triada,  near  Dib^ki,  Prof.  Halbherr,  Dr.  Pernier 
and  Dr.  Peribeni,  229;  Excavations  in  Egypt  at  Beni 
Hasan,  Mr.  Garstang,  229  ;  the  Shell-heaps  of  the  Lower 
Eraser  River,  British  Columbia,  Harlan  I.  Smith,  232  ; 
Archaeological  Excavations  in  the  Tumuli  of  Killi',  near 
Timbuktu,  Lieut.  L.  Desplanges,  233  ;  the  Annual  of  the 
British  School  at  Athens,  391  ;  Death  of  Rev.  Maxwell 
Henry  Close,  488  ;  Pre-historic  British  Barrow  at  Martins- 
town,  Dorset,  489  ;  Ancient  Calendars  and  Constellations, 
Hon.  Emmeline  M.  Plunket,  593  ;  an  Image  of  the  Sun 
Found  at  Trundholm,  W.  R.  Prior,  629 
Architecture  :  Building  Superintendence,  T.  M.  Clark,  414 
Arctica  :  Presentation  of  the  Royal  Scottish  Geographical 
Society's  Gold  Medal  to  Captain  Sverdrup,  13  ;  Norwegian 
Expedition  to  the  North  Pole,  65  ;  on  the  Polar  Star  in 
the  Arctic  Sea,  H.R.H.  Luigi  Amedeo  of  Savoy,  Duke  of 
the  Abruzzi,  79;  Arctic  Geology,  105;  Dr.  P.  Schei,  Prof. 
T.  G.  Bonney,  F.R.S.,  418;  the  Baron  Toll  Relief 
Expedition,  327 ;  Magnetic  Observations  in  the  Bay  of 
Teplitz,  Captain  Umberto  Cagni,  397 
Arithmetic,  H.  G.  Willis,  31  ;  Technical  Arithmetic  and 
Geometry,  C.  T.  Millis,  43J  :  the  Modern  Arithmetic  for 
-Advanced  Grades,  Archibald  Murray,  434;  the  Junior 
Arithmetic,  beiner  an  Adaptation  of  the  Tutorial  Arith- 
metic, Suitable  for  Junior  Classes,  R.  H.  Chope,  434  ; 
Arithmetic  for  Schools  and  Colleges,  John  Alison  and 
John  B.  Clark,  547  ;  the  Arithmetic  of  Elementary  Physics 
and  Chemistry,  H.  M.  Timpany,  597 
.\rmies  of   Europe,    Statistics  of  the   Health   of  the  Great, 

Dr.  y.  Lowenthal,  605 
Armsby   (Henry   Prentiss),    the   Principles   of  Animal   Nutri- 
tion   with    Special    Reference    to    the    Nutrition   of    Farm 
Animals,  30 
Armstrong   (Prof.    Henry    E.,    F.R.S.),    the   Phenomena,  of 
Luminosity    and    their    Possible    Correlation    with    Radio- 
activity,   430 ;    another   Theory   as   to   the   Nature   of   the 
Processes  going  on  in  Radio-active  Materials,  611 
Arnold  (Prof.  J.  O.),   Influence  of  Sulphur  and  Manganese 

on  Steel,  44 
Arnold's     Country-side     Readers,     175;     Arnold's     Seaside 

Readers,   175 
Art,  Maori,  A.  Hamilton,  Prof.  A.  C.  Haddon,  F.R.S.,  35 
.Art,  Spirals  in  Nature  and,  Theodore  .'\ndrea  Cook^  221,  296 
Arthropoda,    on    the   Relationships   between   the   Classes   of 

the,  G.   H.  Carnenter,   iiq 
Aschan  (Ossian),  Die  Konstitution  des  Kamphers  und  seiner 
wichtigsten  Derivate,  293  ; 


Nature,         ~\ 
December  lo,  1903J 


Index 


Vll 


A-.hby  (T.,  jun.),  Excavations  at  Caer\vent,  in  Monmouth- 
shire (1899-IQ03),  637 
Aston  (Mr.),  Rimu  Resin,  238  ;  the  Karaka  Fruit,  238 
Astronomy  :  the  Solar  and  Meteorological  Cycle  of  Thirty- 
tive  Years,  Dr.  William  J.  S.  Lockyer,  8;  Donohoe 
Comet-medals  of  the  Astronomical  Society  of  the  Pacific 
Awarded  to  Michel  Giacobini,  12  ;  Proposed  Reconstruc- 
tion of  the  Coelostat  Reflecting  Telescope  of  the  Verkes 
Observatory  as  a  Memorial  to  Prof.  Snow,  13 ;  Our 
Astronomical  Column,  16,  42,  68,  89,  m,  138,  162,  183, 
^07.  233,  255,  279,  305,  330,  353,  376,  397,  424,  461,  491, 
519.  531.  S54i  580,  60b,  030;  Evidence  for  Life  on  Mars, 
A.  R.  Hinks,  16;  a  Reported  Projection  on  Mars,  m  ; 
Projection  on  Mars,  Messrs.  Lowell  and  Slipher,  353  ; 
the  South  Polar  Cap  of  Mars,  Prof.  Barnard,  138 ;  the 
"  Canals  "  on  Mars,  E.  W.  Maunder  and  J.  E.  Evans, 
190;  E.  M.  .Antoniadi,  461;  Observations  of  Mars,  MM. 
Flammarion  and  Benoit,  606 ;  a  New  Comet,  Mr.  Grigg, 
lO ;  Nova  Geminorum,  Prof.  E.  C.  Pickering,  16 ;  Prof. 
Hale,  68;  Prof.  Frost,  68;  Variability  of,  Prof.  E.  C. 
Pickering,  89 ;  Observations  of,  Prof.  Barnard,  207 ; 
Spectroscopic  Observations  of.  Prof.  Perrine,  279 ;  the 
Spectrum  of  Nova  Geminorum,  Dr.  H.  D.  Curtis,  425  ; 
the  Eclipse  of  the  Moon,  .April  11-12,  16,  306  ;  M.  Montan- 
gerand,  16 ;  A.  Kannapell,  23  ;  P.  Puiseux,  23  ;  at  Mar- 
seilles, M.  Stephan,  23  ;  at  Bordeaux,  G.  Rayet,  23  ; 
Cause  of  Moon's  Obscurity  on  April  11,  Rev.  S.  J.  John- 
son, 46 ;  Visibility  of  the  Eclipsed  Lunar  Disc  during  the 
Second  Half  of  the  Eclipse  of  April  11-12,  M.  Amann, 
96;  the  Occurrence  of  Spark  Lines  in  .Arc  Spectra,  J. 
Hartmann  and  G.  Eberhard,  17 ;  Four  Stars  with 
Variable  Radial  \'elocities,  H.  M.  Reese,  17 ;  Newly 
Determined  Stellar  Radial  \'elocities,  Prof.  \'ogel,  519  ; 
the  Harvard  Meridian  Photometer  Observations,  Prof. 
E.  C.  Pickering,  17 ;  Rumford  Medal  .Awarded  to  Prof. 
George  E.  Hale,  39 ;  Comet  1903  h,  M.  Ebell  and  H. 
Kreutz,  42  ;  a  Remarkable  Algol  Variable,  Prof.  E.  C. 
Pickering,  42  ;  New  Value  for  the  Solar  Parallax,  B.  Wein- 
berg, 42  ;  Instructions  to  Observers  of  the  Sun,  43  , 
Stonyhurst  College  Observatory  Report  for  1902,  43  ; 
Royal  .Astronomical  Society,  46,  190 ;  Methods  of  De- 
veloping Photographs  of  Nebulze,  Mr.  Ritchey,  46  ;  Period 
of  the  Sunspots  and  the  Mean  .Annual  Temperature 
Variations  of  the  Earth,  Charles  Nordmann,  47  ;  Connec- 
tion between  Sun-spots  and  Atmospheric  Temperature, 
Charles  Nordmann,  162  ;  on  the  Simultaneous  A'ariation 
of  Solar  Spots  and  Terrestrial  Temperatures,  -Alfred 
.Angot,  119;  Sun-spots  and  Terrestrial  Temperatures,  C. 
.Nordmann,  184 ;  Sun-spots  and  Phenology,  .Alex.  B. 
MacDowall,  389 ;  Cooperation  in  .Astronomy,  Prof. 
Edward  C.  Pickering,  61  ;  Parallax  of  the  Binary  System 
5  Equulei,  W.  J.  Hussey,  69;  Prof.  .A.  .A.  Rambaut,  69; 
Recent  Observations  made  at  Greenwich  and  Paris  for 
the  Determination  of  the  Difference  of  Longitude,  85  ; 
-Astronomical  Occurrences  in  June,  89  ;  in  July,  183  ; 
in  August,  305;  in  September,  397;  in  October,  531;  ir 
November,  630 ;  Origin  of  the  H  and  K  Lines  of  the 
Solar  SpectruTi,  Prof.  J.  Trowbridge,  89;  the  Leeds 
Astronomical  Society,  89 ;  the  Stellar  Heavens, 
Ellard  Gore,  loi  ;  Death  of  Dr.  .A.  .A.  Common, 
F.R.S.,  108;  Obituary  Notice  of,  Dr.  William  J.  S. 
Lockyer,  132  ;  Death  of  Prof.  Deichmiiller,  135  ;  Report 
of  the  Oxford  University  Observatory,  Prof.  H.  H. 
Turner,  iii  ;  Periodicities  of  the  Tidal  Forces  and  Earth- 
quakes, R.  D.  Oldham,  iii  ;  Harvard  Photographs  of  the 
Entire  Sky,  Prof.  E.  C.  Pickering,  138  ;  the  Royal  Observ- 
atory, Greenwich,  138 ;  the  Question  of  Prominence, 
1-^acula  and  Spot  Circulation,  Prof.  Bigelow,  139  ;  Sonnen- 
tlecken.  Prof.  K.  Kassner,  140 ;  the  Crossley  Reflector  of 
the  Lick  Observatory,  162  ;  the  Mirror  of  the  Crossley 
Reflector,  D.  G.  Johnstone  Stoney.  183  ;  the  Relationships 
between  Arc  and  Spark  Spectra,  Prof.  J.  Hartmann,  163  ; 
Photographic  Observations  of  Comet  1902  ni.,  Prof. 
Sykora,  183  ;  Radiant  Points  of  July  and  August  Meteors, 
Mr.  Denning,  184;  the  Satellites  of  Saturn,  W.  J. 
Hussey,  184 ;  Reported  Change  on  Saturn,  Prof. 
Barnard,  207 ;  White  Spot  on,  W.  F.  Denning, 
229  ;  another  White  Spot  on,  W.  F.  Denning,  247  ;  the 
White  Spots  on  Saturn,  J.  Comas  Sold,  425  ;  Bright  Spots 
on  Saturn,  W.  F.  Denning,  279 ;  the  Spots  on,  W.  F. 
Denning,    390 ;    the   Rotation   Period   of   Saturn,    W.    F. 


Denning,  ^ig  ;  Leo  Brenner,  554;  Search-Ephemeris  for 
Faye's  Comet,  Prof.  E.  Stromgren,  207,  461  ;  the  Red 
Spot  on  Jupiter,  Stanley  J.  Williams,  208 ;  Retarded 
Motion  of  the  Great  Red  Spot  on,  W.  F.  Denning,  390 ; 
Occultation  of  a  Star  by,  T.  Banachiewlcz,  631  ;  Herr 
Kostinsky,  631  ;  Mr.  Denning,  631  ;  the  Study  of  Very 
Faint  Spectra,  Harold  K.  Palmer,  208 ;  Structure  and 
History  of  the  Lunar  Crust,  MM.  Lcewy,  and  P.  Puiseux, 
215;  Radium  and  Solar  Energy,  Dr.  W.  E.  Wilson, 
F.R.S.,  222  ;  Comet  1903  c,  G.  Fayet,  233  ;  M.  Ebell,  255  ; 
Dr.  Meyermann,  255  ;  Prof.  Ambron,  255  ;  Prof.  Hartwig, 
255;  Prof.  Millosevich,  255;  Dr.  Aitken,  353  ;  Comet 
1903  c  Discovered  by  .M.  Borrelly  on  June  21,  E.  Stephan, 
239 ;  Elements  of  the  Borrelly  Comet,  G.  Fayet,  239 ; 
Photograph  of  Borrelly 's  Comet  1903  c,  .M.  Qudnisset, 
336 ;  the  Spectrum  of.  Dr.  Curtis,  376 ;  Prof.  Perrine, 
376 ;  M.  Deslandres,  424  ;  Spectroscopic  Observations  of, 
H.  Deslandres,  408 ;  Ephemeris  for,  M.  Knapp  and  W. 
Dziewulski,  398;  Penetrative  Solar  Radiations,  R. 
Blondlot,  233  ;  the  Spectra  of  Metals  and  Gases  at  High 
Temperatures,  Prof.  J.  Trowbridge,  234;  Zenith-telescope 
Results,  C.  L.  Doolittle,  234 ;  Comets  and  their  Tails, 
and  the  Gegenschein  Light,  Frederick  G.  Shaw,  245 ; 
Search-ephemeris  for  Comet  1896  V.  (Giacobini),  M. 
Ebell,  256,  491,  606;  the  Limits  of  Unaided  Vision, 
Heber  D.  Curtis,  256;  on  a  Probable  Relationship  be- 
tween the  Solar  Prominences  and  Corona,  Dr.  William 
J.  S.  Lockyer,  at  Royal  Astronomical  Society,  257;  the 
Lyrids,  1903,  Alphonso  King,  270;  John  R.  Henry,  526; 
the  Tenth  "Eros"  Circular,  Prof.  H.  H.  turner, 
F.R.S.,  276;  the  Opposition  of  Eros  in  1905,  Prof! 
Pickering,  580 ;  Measurement  of  the  Intensitv  of  Feeble 
Illuminations,  M.  Touchet,  279 ;  the  German  Royal 
Naval  Observatory,  280  ;  the  Spectroscope  in  .Astronomy, 
Agnes  M.  Gierke,  Prof.  R.  A.  Gregory,  338;  Photo- 
graphs of  Comet  1902  h,  Prof.  R.  H.  Curtiss,  305  ;  the 
new  Observatory  for  Buluwayo,  305  ;  the  System  of 
€  Hydrae,  Prof.  Aitken,  305 ;  Wave-lengths  of  Silicon 
Lines,  Pr^f.  Hartmann,  306;  Death  and  Obituary  Notice 
of  Prosper  Henry,  326;  the  Spectrum  of  o  Ceti,  Joel 
Stebbins,  330;  Photographic  Efficiencv  of  a  Short  Focus 
Reflector.  Prof.  Schaeberle,  330 ;  the  Godlee  Observatory 
330 ;  the  Satellite  of  Neptune,  Prof.  Perrine,  353  ; 
Diameter  of,  C.  W.  Wirtz,  580 ;  the  Estimation  of  Stellar 
Temperatures,  Prof.  Kayser,  353;  Observations  of  the 
Mmima  of  Mira,  Prof.  A.  A.  Niiland,  354;  the  Size  of 
Stellar  Systems,  354  ;  Recently  Determined  Stellar  Paral- 
laxes, Prof.  A.  Donner,  354;  Prof.  J.  C.  Kaptevn  and 
Dr.  \\.  de  Sitter,  354;  the  Spectroscopic  Binary  )3 
Scorpii,  V.  .M.  Slipher,  376  ;  Effects  of  Absorption  on  the 
Resolvmg  Power  of  Spectroscopes,  Prof.  Wadsworth,  376  ; 
a  New  Circumzenithal  .Apparatus,  Fr.  Nusl  and  M.  J.  J. 
Fric,  376  ;  the  Secchi  Commemoration,  376 ;  New  Table 
for  ex-Meridian  Observations  of  Altitude,  H.  B.  Good- 
win, 397;  Return  of  Brooks's  Comet,  Prof.  .Aitken,  398; 
a  Corona;  a  Spectroscopic  Binary,  Prof.  Hartmann,  398  , 
the  Allegheny  Observatory,  Prof.  F.  L.  O.  Wadsworth, 
398 ;  United  States  Naval  Observatory,  425  ;  Radiation 
in  the  Solar  System,  its  Effect  on  Temperature  and  its 
Pressure  on  Small  Bodies,  J.  H.  Poynting,  F.R.S.,  430; 
Radiation  Pressure  and  Cometary  Theory,  E.  F.  Nicholls 
and  G.  F.  Hull,  461  ;  a  Catalogue  of  1520  Bright  Stars, 
462  ;  Intensity  of  Spectral  Lines,  Prof.  Pickering,  491  ;  a 
Provisional  Catalogue  of  Variable  Stars,  Prof.  W^  M. 
Reed  and  Miss  A.  J.  Cannon,  491  ;  Mass  of  Mercury, 
Prof.  T.  J.  J.  See,  491  ;  Corrections  to  Existing  Star  Cata- 
logues, G.  Boccardi,  491  ;  Radio-activity  and  the  Age  of 
the  Sun,  Prof.  G.  H.  Darwin,  F.R.S',  496;  Death  of 
Washington  Teasdale,  516;  Report  of  the  Cape  Observ- 
atory, Sir  David  Gill,  519;  Liverpool  .Astronomical 
Society,  519;  Recent  Papers  on  Meteorites,  532;  Report 
of  the  Paris  Observatory  for  1902,  M.  Lcewy,  532  ;  the 
Rigidity  of  Piers  for  Meridian  Circles,  Prof.  G.  W. 
Hough,  532  ;  the  Broadening  of  Spectral  Lines,  G.  W. 
Walker,  554;  the  Spectrum  of  Hydrogen.  Louis  .A.  Par- 
sons, 554  ;  the  Orbit  of  {  Bootis,  Prof.  W'.  Doberck,  555  ; 
Errata  in  Various  Star  Catalogues,  G.  Boccardi,  555 ; 
Reported  Discovery  of  a  Nova,  Prof.  Wolf,  580 ;  Prof. 
Pickering,  580 ;  Prof.  Hale,  580 ;  Prof.  Barnard,  580 ; 
Dr.    Parkhurst,    580;    1903-4   Ephemeris   for   Winnecke's 


VUl 


Index 


r  Nature, 


December  lo,  1903 


Periodical  Comet,  C.   Hiilebrand,  580;  the  Royal  Univer- 
sity Observatory,   Vienna,   580 ;  Astronomical   Mechanics, 
Dr.    Schwarzschild,    586 ;    Ancient    Calendars    and    Con- 
stellations,   Hon.    Emmeline   M.    Plunket,    593  ;    a    Novel 
Feature  for  Geodetical   Instruments,   Sir  Howard  Grubb, 
606;  the  Path  of  Comet  1894  I.  (Denning),  Dr.  P.  Gast, 
606 ;    Natal    Government    Observatory,    E.    Nevill,    607 ; 
Recent  '  Spectrographic     Observations     of     Novae,     Prof. 
Perrine,    631  ;     Rotational    Velocity    of    Venus,     V.     M. 
Slipher,  631  ;  sec  also  British  Association 
Astrophysics  :     Work     at     the     Smithsonian     Astrophysical 
Observatory,  Dr.  S.  P.  Langley,  22  ;  Problems  in  Astro- 
physics, Agnes  M.  Gierke,  Prof.  R.  A.  Gregory,  338 
Athens,  the  Annual  of  the  British  School  at,  391 
Atlantic?     Can   Carrier-pigeons   Cross   the,    H.    B.    Guppy, 

497 
Atmosphere,   Height  of  the,   Determined  from  the  Time  of 

Disappearance  of   Blue   Colour  of  the   Sky   after   Sunset, 

Dr.  T.  J.  J.  See,  526 
Atmosphere,   Physical  Constitution  of  the,   Louis  Maillard, 

216 
Atmospheric  Electricity,  C.  T.   R.  Wilson,  F.R.S.,   102 
Atmospheric    Temperature,    Connection    between    Sun-spots 

and,  Charles  Nordmann,   162 
Atmospheric  Variations,  Prof.  F.  H.  Bigelow,  Prof.  T.   H. 

Davis,  Prof.  K.  Kassner,  139-140 
Atomic    Theory,     the,    and    the     Development    of    Modern 

Chemistry,  P.  J.  Hartog,  82 
Aubel  (Edmond  van).  Electrical  Conductivity  of  Selenium  in 

the  Presence  of  Bodies  Treated  with  Ozone,  96 
Aurora  borealis,  the  Diurnal  Period  of  the,  Charles  Nord- 
mann, 191 
Austin  (Prof.),  Loss  of  Weight  of  the  Platinum  Metals,  66 
Austin  (L.),  the  Coefficient  of  Thermal  Surface-conductivity 

Across  the  Surface  of  Separation  of  a  Solid  and  a  Fluid, 

374 
Australasian  Association   for   the  Advancement   of   Science, 

Forthcoming  Meeting  of  the,  85 
Australia  :  Nature  Studies  in  Australia,  W' .  Gillies  and  R. 

Hall,   100 
Austria-Hungary,   Geology  of,   Prof.    Grenville  A.  J.   Cole, 

550 
Automobiles  :  Proposed  Service  of  Motor  Carriages  on  Some 

Sections  of  the  Great  Western  Railway,  40;  Automobile 

Races  in  Ireland,   the,   230 ;   Electric  Automobile  Chairs, 

421  ;  Alkaline  Storage  Battery  Developed  for  Commercial 

Use,   Mr.   Edison,   460 
Avebury   (Rt.    Hon.    Lord,    F.R.S.),   on   Nature   Study,   39 ; 

Experiment  in  Mountain-building.    191 
Aveline  (William  Talbot),  Death  and  Obituary  Notice  of,  65 

Babel,  Bible  and.  Prof.  Paul  Haupt,  349  | 

Bach  (A.),  the  Degradation  of  Carbohydrates  in  the  Anmial 
Organism,    144  . 

Bacon,  Scientific  Investigation  and  Experimental  Phil- 
osophy, Sidney  Lee,  552  .„,,,,.. 

Bacteriology  :  Phosphorescent  Bacteria,  Prof.  Molisch,  41  ; 
Bacillus  of  Salmon  Disease,  Hume  Patterson,  86 ; 
Phenomenon  of  Agglutination,  Dr.  A.  E.  Wright,  86; 
Experiments  on  the  Effects  of  Freezing  and  Other  Tem- 
peratures upon  the  Viability  of  the  Bacillus  of  Typhoid 
Fever,  with  Considerations  Regarding  Ice  as  a  Vehicle 
of  Infectious  Disease,  Prof.  William  T.  Sedgwick  and 
Charles  Edward  A.  Winslow,  Dr.  Allan  Macfadyen,  127  ; 
Typhoid-infected  Blankets,  134;  Not  Possible  for 
Organisms  to  exist  Appreciably  Smaller  than  those  which 
can  be  observed  with  Microscopes,  Prof.  Errera,  136; 
Bacteriological  Examination  of  Irish  Butter,  David 
Houston,  135  ;  Colon  Bacillus  in  Oysters,  Bacteriological 
Examination  of  Digestive  Tract  of  Oysters,  Caleb  A. 
Fuller  13s ;  the  Study  of  Bacterial  Toxins,  Dr.  Allan 
Macfadyen,  152  ;  Dangers  of  the  New  Method  for  Sewage 
Disposal  by  Bacterial  Treatment,  206;  Bacterial  Treat- 
ment of  Sewage  bv  Different  Methods,  Ce-:il  Duncan, 
278  •  Power  of  the  'Typhus  Bacillus  of  Spreading  along 
the 'surfaces  of  Solids  in  Contact  with  the  Nutrient 
Liquid  Dr.  Constantino  Gorini,  231  ;  Bactericidal  Action 
of  Ultra-violet  Radiations  Produced  by  the  Continuous- 
current  Arc,  J.  E.  Barnard  and  H.  de  R.  Morgan,  261  ; 
an  Oxidising  Bacterium,   R.   Sazerac,  264;  a  Slime  Bac- 


terium from  the  Peach,  Almond,  and  Cedar,  Dr.  R. 
Grieg  Smith,  264  ;  Bacterial  Disease  of  Tobacco,  G. 
Delacroix,  492  ;  Bacterial  Origin  of  the  Gums  of  the 
Arabin  Groups,  Dr.  R.  Grieg  Smith,  520 ;  Canker-areas 
on  Trees  Due  to  Bacteria,  J.  Brzeziriski,  518;  Death  of 
A.  Certes,  528  ;  Insect,  Vermin  and  Plague  Bacilli,  Prof. 
Simpson,  603 

Baillie  (G.  H.),  Infortuni  sul  lavoro,  Mezzi  Tecnici  per 
Prevenirli,  E.  Magrini,  219 

Bain  (Dr.  Alexander),  Death  of,  516 

Bainbridge  (F.  A.),  on  the  Adaptation  of  Pancreas  to 
Different  Foodstuffs,  189 

Baker  (Thomas),  the  Influence  of  Silicon  on  Iron,  463 

Baker  (W.  M.),  Graphical  Statics  Problems  with  Diagrams, 
436 

Balfour  (Mr.),  and  the  National  Antarctic  Expedition,   106; 

Balfour  (Graham),  the  Educational  Systems  of  Great 
Britain  and  Ireland,    175 

Balfour  (H.),  Tools  Used  by  the  Natives  of  north-west 
Australia  in  the  Manufacture  of  Glass  Spearheads,  4(5 

Ball  (Henry),  Botany  of  the  Southport  District,  225 

Ball  (L.  C),  Wide  Bay,  Queensland,  182 

Baly  (E.  C.  C),  Spectra  of  Neon,  Krypton,  and  Xenon,  237 

Ban'achiewicz  (T.),  Occultation  of  a  Star  by  Jupiter,  631 

Barber  (Samuel),  the  Cloud  World,  its  Features  and  Signi- 
ficance, 436 

Barger  (G.),  Microscopic  Method  of  Comparing  Molecular 
Weights,  46 

Barnard  (Prof.),  the  South  Polar  Cap  of  Mars,  138 ;  Re- 
ported  Change  on  Saturn,  207 ;  Observations  of  Nova, 
Geminorum,  207  ;  Reported  Discovery  of  a  Nova,  580 

Barnard  (J.  E.),  Bactericidal  Action  of  Ultra-violet  Radia- 
tions Produced  by  the  Continuous-current  Arc,   261 

Barnes  (Prof.  H.  T.),  Heating  Effect  of  the  Radium 
Emanation,  622 

Barnes  (J.),  Microscopic  Structure  of  the  Mountain  Lime- 
stones of  Derbyshire,  304 

"  Barometer,"  First  Use  of  the  Word,  86 

Barren  (Prof.  Frank  R.),  Elementary  Geometry,  147; 
School  Geometry  Reform,  296 

Barrett-Hamilton  (Captain  G.  E.  H.),  on  the  Position  of  the 
Legs  of  Birds  in  Flight,  41  ;  on  Winter  Whitening  in 
Mammals  and  Birds  Inhabiting  Snowy  Countries,  and 
on  the  Occurrence  of  White  Markings  in  Vertebrates 
generally,  119;  Remarkable  Addition  to  the  list  of  British 
Mammals  of  Boreal  Type,  119 

Barron  (T.),  Topography  and  Geology  of  the  Eastern 
Desert  of  Egvpt  (Central  Portion),  569 

Bartlett  (Clarence),  Death  of,  12  ;  Obituary  Notice  of,  40 

Barus  (Dr.  Carl),  Experiments  with  Ionised  Air,  21;  the 
Structure  of  the  Nucleus,  548 

Basil,  a,  Ocimum  viride,  which  is  a  Protection  against 
Mosquitoes,  Sir  George  Birdwood,  41  ^         ■ 

Basil  Plant  in  Relation  to  its  Effects  on  Mosquitoes,  Experi- 
ments on  the,  Dr.  W.  T.  Prout,  302  ^  „      , 

Bass    Pike,  Perch,  and  Others,  James  A.  Henshall,  363 

Bassett  (H.,  jun.).  Note  on  the  Corrosion  of  an  Egyptian 
Image,  238  ,   ^^ 

Bastian  (Dr.  H.  C,  F.R.S.),  Development  of  Vauchena 
Resting  Spores,  94  .     ,  ,       .       .  ,. 

Bastiani  (Flavio),  Lavori  marittimi  ed  Impianti  portuali,  571 

Bate  (Dorothy  M.  A.),  Discovery  of  a  Pigmy  Elephant  in 
the  Pleistocene  of  Cyprus,  71 

Bateson  (W.,  F.R.S.),  Mendel's  Principles  of  Heredity  in 
Mice,  33  ;  Mendelian  Heredity  of  Three  Characters  Allelo- 
morp'hic  to  Each  Other,   142  „    c     a„ 

Bath  Mineral  Waters,  Radio-active  Gas  from,  H.  S.  Allen, 


343 
Batson  (H.   M.), 


Concise  Handbook  of  Garden  Flowers, 


Ba^t^elli  (F.),  the  Degradation  of  Carbohydrates  in  the 
Animal  Organism,    144  •       r^  • 

Baubigny  (H.),  Estimation  of  the  Halogens  in  Organic 
Compounds,   96  .  c-   1   u  •  k 

Baud  (E.),  a  Combination  of  Aluminium  Sulphate  with 
Sulphuric  Acid,  568 

Baum  (I.)    Electrolytic  Refining  of  Copper,  630 

Baxendell  (J.),  Report  of  the  Fernley  Observatory  for  1902, 
Comparisons  between  Instruments  and  Methods,  135  ;  the 
Dines-Baxendell  Anemograph  and  Anemometer,  262 


Nature,         T 
December  to,  1903  J 


Index 


IX 


Beach  (Hicks),  Journey  Through  Eastern  Mongolia,  516 
Beadnell   (Mr.),    Giant   Land  Tortoise   from   the   Eocene  of 

the  Fayum  District,  253 
Beaulard  (F.),  Silk  not  Isotropic,  143 

Becquerel  (Henri),  Radiation  of  Polonium  and  on  its 
Secondary  Radiation,  23  ;  Conductivity  and  Residual 
lonisation  of  Solid  Paraffin  under  the  Influence  of  the 
Radium  Radiation,  95  ;  a  Property  of  the  a-Rays  of 
Radium,  215 
Becquerel  Rays,  Action  of  the,  on  the  Nervous  System  and 

on  the  Eye,  Dr.  London,   180 
Beddard  (Frank  E.,  F.R.S.),  Normally  Unequal  Growth  as 
a  Possible  Cause  of  Death,  497  ;   a  Little-known  Peculi- 
arity of  the  Hamadryad  Snake,  623 
Behring  (Prof,  von).  New  Conceptions  Regarding  Tubercu- 
losis, 528  ;  the  F"ight  against  Tuberculosis,   587 
Beis   (Constantin),    a   New   Method   for   the   Preparation   of 

Ketones,  616 
Bell  (Dr.  Alexander  Graham),  Radium  and  Cancer,  320 
Bell  (A.   M.),   Liquid   Fuel,   635 
Bell  (Dr.  Graham),  Tetrahedral  Cell  Kites,  347 
Bennett    (William),    Cheap    Electric    Switchboard    for    Use 

with  Continuous  Current,  580 
Henoit  (M.),  Observations  of  Mars,  606 
Hensley   (B.    Arthur),    on    the    Evolution    of    the   Australian 

Marsupialia,    119 
Benson    (Miss   C.    C),    Composition    of    Surface    Layers   of 

Solution,  630 
Bentley  (W.  A.),  Photographs  of  Snow  Crystals,  129 
Beresford      (Mr.),      Relations      Existing      between      Vespa 

ausiriaca  and   V.  rufa,  460 
Berlin    Conference  on    Wireless   Telegraphy,    the,    Maurice 

Solomon,  437 
Bermuda  Islands,  the,  A.  E.  Verrill,  53 
Bert  (M.  Chailley),  Irrigation  in  India,  404 
Berthelot  (M.),  Studies  on  a  Law  Relating  to  the  Electro- 
motive   Forces    Developed    by    the    Reciprocal    Action    of 
Saline    Solutions,    91; ;    New    General    Relation    between 
Electro-motive  Forces  of  Saline  Solutions,   167  ;  the  State 
of  Vaporised  Carbon,  639 
Bertiaux    (M.),    the    Electrolytic    Separation    of    Manganest 
and  Iron,  of  Aluminium  from  Iron  or  Nickel,  and  of  Zinc 
from  Iron,   120 
Bertrand  (Gabriel),   Existence  of  Arsenic  in  the  Egg  of  the 
Fowl,  48 ;   Use  of  a  Calorimetric  Bomb  to  Demonstrate 
the  Presence  of  Arsenic  in  the  Organism,  336 
Bessemer  (the  late  Sir  Henry),  Proposed  Memorial  to,   13 
Betz  (W.),  Spherical  Aberration  of  the  Eye,  8 
Bevan  (P.  V.),  the  Combination  of  Hydrogen  and  Chlorine 

under  the  Influence  of  Light,   n6 
Bewegungsiibertragung,  Theorie  der,  Richard  Manno,  294 
Bianco  (Ottavio  Zanotti),  the  Moon's  Phases  and  Thunder- 
storms. 296 
Bible  and  Babel,  Prof.  Paul  Haupt,  349 
Biblica,  Encyclopaedia,  a  Critical  Dictionary  of  the  Literary, 
Political,     and     Religious       History,      the     Archaeology, 
Geography,  and  Natural  History  of  the  Bible,  Rev.  T.  K. 
Cheyne  and  J.  Sutherland  Black,  148 

■nenstaates,     die    Stammgeschichtliche    Entstehung   des, 
sowie  Beitrage  zur  Lebensweise  der  solitaren  u.   sozialen 
Bienen  (Hummeln,  Meliponinen,  &c.),  174 
Big  Game  Fishes  of  the  United  States,  Chas.  F.  Holder,  363 
Bigelow  (Prof.),    the  Question  of   Prominence,    Facula  and 
Spot    Circulation,    139 ;    Theory    of    Cyclones    and    Anti- 
cyclones,   139  ;  Atmospheric  Variations,   139 
Bigge  (Selby),  Use  of  Electricity  in  Mines,  14 
Biles  (Prof.  J.  H.),  on  Cross  Channel  Steamers,  208 
Biltz  (Prof.),  the  Precipitation  of  Colloids  by  Salts,  587 
Hinary,  a  Coronae  a  Spectroscopic,  Prof.  Hartmann,  398 
liinary  )3  Scorpii,  the  Spectroscopic,  V.  M.  Slipher,  376 
Hinary  System  8  Equulei,   Parallax  of  the,   W.  J.   Hussey, 

(>9  ;  Prof.  A.  A.  Rambaut,  69 
Bingham  (Lieut. -Colonel),  the  Fauna  of  British  India,  in- 
cluding Burma  and  Ceylon,   Hymenoptera,  vol.  ii..  Ants 
and  Cuckoo-wasps,  220 
Hio-chemistry,   the  Chemical  Changes  and  Products  result- 
ing from  Fermentations,  R.  H.  Aders  Plimmer,  99 
Biology  :   Physikalische  Chemie  der  Zelle  und  der  Gewebe, 
Dr.  Rudolf  Hober,  Dr.  Benjamin  Moore,  4  ;  Formic  .\cid 
in    .Alcoholic    Fermentation,    Pierre   Thomas,    24;    Conju- 


gation in  Amoeba  utidulans,  Signora  Margherita  Traube 
Mengarini,  87  ;  Coleridge's  Theory  of  Life,  Sir  Samuel 
Wilks,  Bart.,  F.R.S.,  102  ;  the  Permanence  of  the 
Maternal  and  Paternal  Chromosomes  in  the  Germ  Cells 
of  the  Offspring,  Dr.  Hacker,  160  ;  the  Role  of  Diffusion 
and  Osmotic  Pressure  in  Plants,  B.  E.  Livingston,  174  ; 
Physical  Chemistry  for  Physicians  and  Biologists,  Ernst 
Cohen,  245 ;  Scottish  Fresh-water  Plankton,  W.  West 
and  Prof.  G.  S.  West,  262  ;  the  Reduction  Phenomena  of 
Animals  and  Plants,  Prof.  J.  B.  Farmer,  F.R.S.,  and 
J.  E.  S.  Moore,  335 ;  Biological  Laboratory  Methods, 
P.  H.  Mell,  343  ;  Local  Adaptation  to  Abnormal  Con- 
ditions,  the  Fresh-water  Limpet  {Ancylus  nioricandi). 
Baron  E.  Nordenskjold,  351  ;  the  Origin  of  the  Pineal 
Body  Deduced  from  the  Study  of  its  Development  in 
Amphibia,  Dr.  John  Cameron,  383  ;  Die  Zymasegarung 
Untersuchungen  iiber  den  Inhalt  der  Hefezellen  und  die 
biologische  Seite  des  Garungsproblems,  Eduard  Buchner, 
Hans  Buchner,  and  Martin  Hahn,  Dr.  Arthur  Croft  Hill, 
385  ;  Fermentation  Organisms,  a  Laboratory  Handbook, 
Alb.  Klocker,  387 ;  Parthenogenesis  by  Carbonic  Acid 
Obtained  with  Eggs  after  the  Emission  of  the  Polar 
Globules,  Yves  Delage,  544  ;  Radio-activity  and  the  Con- 
stitution of  Matter  and  its  Bearing  on  Biological  Pro- 
cesses, Dr.  W.  H.  Allchin,  603  ;  the  Application  of  Low 
Temperatures  to  the  Study  of  Biological  Problems, 
Dr.  Allan  Macfadyen,  608 ;  Relationships  between 
the  Classes  of  Arthropods,  Dr.  G.  H.  Carpenter,  628 ; 
Marine  Biology,  the  Tanganyika  Problem,  an  Account 
of  the  Researches  undertaken  Concerning  the  Existence 
of  Marine  .Animals  in  Central  Africa,  J.  E.  S.  Moore, 
56  ;  the  Ingolfiellidas,  fam.  n.  ;  a  New  Type  of  Amphipoda, 
Dr.  H.  Hansen,  118;  Interesting  case  of  "  Commen- 
salism,"  Dr.  R.  Horst,  207;  Bionomics  of  Convoluta 
roscoffensis,  Dr.  F.  W.  Gamble  and  Frederick  Keeble, 
237  ;  Distribution  of  some  .Amphipoda,  Dr.  Fowler,  239  ; 
Regeneration  in  Starfishes,  Miss  S.  P.  Monks,  328  ;  the 
Huxley  Investigations  in  the  North  Sea,  331  ;  the  Marine 
Biological  Association,  331  ;  a  New  Ascidian  (Oligotrema 
psanimites),  Dr.  G.  C.  Bourne,  422  ;  the  Japanese 
"  Palolo  "  Worm  {Ceratocephale  osawai),  A.  Isuka,  518; 
Birds:  Complimentary  Singing  by  Birds,  J.  R.  Paul,  14; 
Sympathetic  Song  in  Birds,  Edgar  R.  Waite,  322  ; 
Open-air  Studies  in  Bird  Life,  Sketches  of  British,  in 
their  Haunts,  C.  Dixon,  52  ;  How  to  Attract  the  Birds, 
Neltje  Blanchan,  76 ;  St.  Kilda  and  its  Birds,  W.  Wigles- 
worth,  268;  Can  Carrier-pigeons  Cross  the  Atlantic? 
H.  B.  Guppy,  497 
Birdwood  (Sir  George),  a  Basil,    Ocwnim  viride,   which  is 

a   Protection   against  Mosquitoes,   41 
Birt    (F.     B.     Bradley),    Chota    Nagpore,    a    little    known 

Province  of  the  Empire,  369 
Bishop's    Ring    and    the    Eruptions    at    Martinique,    F.    A. 

Forel,  384,  390 
Bishop's  Ring,  the  New,  Dr.  A.  Lawrence  Rotch,  623 
Bjerknes  (Prof.  C.  A.),   Death  of,  84;  Obituary  Notice  of. 

Prof.  G.  H.   Bryan,  F.R.S.,   133 
Bjerknes    (\'.),    Vorlesungen    iiber    hydrodynamische    Fern- 

krafte  nach    C.  A.  Bjerknes'  Theorie,   172 
Black    (J.    Sutherland),     Encyclopaedia    Biblica,    a    Critical 
Dictionary  of  the  Literary,   Political,   and   Religious  His- 
tory,  the  Archaeology,    Geography,    and   Natural    History 
of  the  Bible,   148 
Blackman  (V.   H.),   Bipolar  Plants,   239 
Blake  (R.  F.),  on  the  Reduction  of  Nitrates  by  Sewage,  611 
Blakesley  (T.  H.),  Direct  Vision  Spectroscope,  71  ;  Diagram 
for    Single-piece    Lenses,     1 17 ;    Geometrical    Optics,    an 
Elementary   Treatise  upon   the  Theory   and   its   Practical 
Application  to  the  More  Exact  Measurements  of  Optical 
Properties,  217 
Blanc  (G.),   Preparation  of  Primary  Alcohols  by  Means  of 

the  Corresponding  Acids,   240,   263 
Blanchan  (Neltje),  How  to  Attract  the  Birds,  76 
Blomefieid     (Leonard)     (formerly     Jenyns),     a     Naturalist's 
Calendar  kept  at  Swaffham  Bulbeck,  Cambridgeshire,  389 
Blondlot  (R.),   Existence  of  Radiations  Capable  of  Passing 
through  Wood  and  Certain  Metals  in  the  Rays  from  an 
Incandescent  Mantle,  95  ;  on  New  Sources  of  Radiations 
Capable    of   Traversing    Metals,    Wood,    and    other    Sub- 
stances,   and    on    the    New    Actions    Produced    by    these 


Index 


[Nature, 
J 


^December  lo,  1903 


Radiations,  119  ;  Solar  Radiations  Capable  of  Traversing 
Metals,  Woods,  &c.,  191  ;  New  Light  Obtained  after 
Filtering  the  Rays  from  a  Focus  Tube  through 
Aluminium  or  Black  Paper,  232  ;  Penetrative  Solar 
Radiations,  233  ;  New  Action  Produced  by  the  Rays  n, 
311  ;  New  Form  of  Radiation  Found  with  Rontgen  Rays, 
396 ;  the  N.  Rays,  578 

Blue  Colour  of  the  Sky  after  Sunset,  Height  of  the  Atmo- 
sphere Determined  from  the  Time  of  Disappearance  of. 
Dr.  T.  J.  J.  See,  526 

Boccardi  (G.),  Corrections  to  Existing  Star  Catalogues, 
491  ;  Errata  in  Various  Star  Catalogues,  555 

Bodroux  (F.),  Organometallic  Derivatives  of  Aromatic 
Hydrocarbons  containing  two  Halogen  Atoms  in  the 
Nucleus,  and  their  Inter-action  with  Iodine,  95 

Bohm  (E.),  Two  Incandescent  Electric  Lamps  Designed  to 
Give  Good  Illumination  Vertically  Downwards,  350 

Bohn  (Prof.),  Catalogues  of  Instruments  and  Models  taken 
from  the  Schaffer  Museum,  87-88 

Bohn  (G.),  Action  of  the  Magnetic  Field  on  the  Infusoria, 
216 

Bolton  (W.  von).  Luminosity  of  the  Ions,  211 

Boltzimann  (Prof.),  on  the  Introduction  of  Vectorial 
Methods  into  Physics,  610 

Bombay,  the  Flora  of  the  Presidency  of,  Theodore  Cook, 
Prof.  Percy  Groom,  386 

Bone  (Dr.  W.  A.),  on  the  Slow  Combustion  of  Methane 
and  Ethane,  612 

Bonney  (Prof.  T.  G.,  F.R.S.),  on  Primary  and  Secondary 
Devitrification  in  Glassy  Igneous  Rocks,  239 ;  Arctic 
Geology,  Dr.  P.  Schei,  418;  The  Geology  and-  Petro- 
graphy of  Crater  Lake,  National  Park,  Joseph  Silas 
Diller  and  Horace  Bushnell  Patton,  574 

Bonnier  (Gaston),  Influence  of  Water  on  the  Structure  of 
the  Aerial  Roots  of  Orchids,  592 

Bootis,  the  Orbit  of.  Prof.  W.  Doberck,  555 

Borns  (Dr.  H.),  International  Congress  for  Applied 
Chemistry,    156,   209 

Borrelly  (M.),  Comet  1903  c  Discovered  by,  on  June  21,  E. 
Stephan,  239 

Borrelly  Comet  1903  c,  Elements  of  the,  G.  Fayet,  239 ; 
Photograph  of,  M.  Qu^nisset,  336;  Borrelly's  Comet 
(1903  c),  Dr.  Aitken,  353  ;  Spectroscopic  Observations  of, 
H.  Deslandres,  408.     See  also  Astronomy. 

Bosanquet  (Mr.),  on  the  Excavation  of  a  Pre-Mycenjean 
Town,  637 

Botany  :  the  Influence  of  Light  and  Darkness  upon  Growth 
and  Development,  D.  T.  Macdougal,  10;  Osmotic  ."Vction 
of  Certain  Salts  on  Marine  Algae,  Prof.  Duggar,  15 ; 
Bacterial  Diseases  Attacking  Japanese  Plum  Trees  and 
Sweet  Corn,  Dr.  E.  F.  Smith,  15  ;  .a  Leguminous  Lliane, 
Derris  uUginosa,  Mr.  Perr^d^s  and  Dr.  Power,  15 ; 
Temperature  of  the  Subterranean  Organs  of  Plants,  Dr. 
Henry  H.  Dixon,  23  ;  Occurrence  in  the  Philippines  of 
an  Indigenous  Representative  of  the  Australasian  Gum- 
trees,  41  ;  the  Tanganyika  Problem,  an  Account  of  the 
Researches  undertaken  Concerning  the  Existence  of 
Marine  Animals  in  Central  Africa,  J.  E.  S.  Moore,  56; 
Enlargement  of  Kew  Herbarium,  W.  Botting  Hemsley, 
F.R.S.,  58;  Infection-powers  of  Ascospores,  E.  S.  Salmon, 
66 ;  Infection-power  of  Ascospores  in  the  Erysipheas,  E.  S. 
Salmon,  182  ;  Ecological  Botany,  67 ;  Cvtologv  of  Apo- 
gamy  and  Apospory,  J.  B.  Farmer,  F.R.S.,  'j.  E.  S. 
Moore  and  Miss  L.  Digby,  71  ;  New  South  Wales 
Linnean  Society,  72,  264,  384,  520,  640;  Extraction  of 
the  Perfume  from  Flowers,  Dr.  Albert  Hesse,  89 ;  De- 
velopment of  Vaucheria  Resting-spores,  Dr.  H.  C 
Bastian,  F.R.S.,  94;  Linnean  Society,  94,  191,  262; 
Influence  of  Formaldehyde  on  the  Growth  of  White  Mus- 
tard, MM.  Bouilhac  and  Giustiniani,  95;  Embryogeny 
of  Zamia,  Profs.  Coulter  and  Chamberlain,  109  ;  Report 
for  1902  of  the  Royal  Botanic  Gardens,  Ceylon,  J.  B. 
Carruthers,  160 ;  Nutrition  of  Plants  Deprived  of  their 
Cotyledons,  G.  Andr^,  168;  Alpine  Flora,  D.  J.  Hoffman, 
175  ;  Landolphia,  a  New  Source  of  Indiarubber,  182  ; 
Instances  of  Plant  Adaptations,  Sir  W.  T.  Thiselton- 
Dyer,  F.R.S.,  185;  Transition  of  Opposite  Leaves  into 
Alternate  Arrangement,  Percy  Groom,  191  ;  Distribution 
of  Organic  Substances  in  the  Geranium,  E.  Charabot  and 
G.  Lalone,  192  ;  the  Cohesion  Theory  of  the  Ascent  of 
Sap,    Dr.    H.    H.    Dixon,    207 ;    Purple   Flowers,    Captain 


F.  W\  Hutton,  F.R.S.,  223;  Bipolar  Plants,  V.  H. 
Blackman,  239;  Pathologische  Pflanzenanatomie,  Dr. 
Ernst  Kuster,  244  ;  an  Abnormal  Corolla  of  a  Foxglove, 
B.  Timothy,  254 ;  .Anatomy  of  the  Leaves  of  British 
Grasses,  L.  Lev^-ton-Brain,  262  ;  the  Part  Played  by  the 
Mesophyll  Cells  in  Transpiration,  Henry  H.  Dixon,  262  ; 
the  Germination  of  the  Seeds  of  Davidia  involucrata,  W. 
Botting  Hemsley,  F.R.S.,  262  ;  New  West  Australian 
Plants,  W.  V.  Fitzgerald,  264 ;  the  Vegetation  of  New 
England,  N.S.W.,  Fred  Turner,  264;  a  Slime  Bacterium 
from  the  Peach,  Almond,  and  Cedar,  Dr.  R.  Grieg  Smith, 
264  ;  Willkurliche  Entwickelungsanderungen  bei  Pflanzen. 
Ein  Beitrag  zur  Physiologie  der  Entwickelung,  Dr.  Georg 
Klebs,  Francis  Darwin,  F.R.S.,  265;  Cyanogenesis  in 
Plants,  Phaseolunatin,  Wyndham  R.  Dunstan,  F.R.S., 
and  T.  A.  Henry,  287 ;  Botanische  Forschungen  des 
Alexanderzuges,  Dr.  H.  Bretzl,  292;  on  the  Phospho- 
organic  Reserve  Material  of  Plants,  S.  Posternak,  312, 
360  ;  the  Constitution  of  the  Phospho-organic  Acid  in  th(- 
Reserve  Material  of  Green  Plants  and  on  the  First  Re- 
duction Product  of  Carbonic  Acid  in  the  Act  of  Chloro- 
phyll Assimilation,  S.  Posternak,  432  ;  on  Roots  Trained 
by  experiment  to  Grow  Upwards,  H.  Ricome,  312  ;  a 
Resinous  Granadilla,  Henri  Jumelle,  312  ;  the  Eucalypts, 
D.  E.  Hutchins  and  E.  Hutchins,  320 ;  a  Gloucestershire 
Wild  Garden,  342  ;  an  Introduction  to  Botany,  W.  C. 
Stevens,  364 ;  the  Origin  of  Seed-bearing  Plants,  Dr. 
D.  H.  Scott,  F.R.S.,  at  the  Royal  Institution,  377;  Die 
Zvmasegarung  Untersuchungen  iiber  den  Inhalt  der 
Hefezellen  und  die  biologische  Seite  des  Garungspro- 
blems,  Eduard  Buchner,  Hans  Buchner,  and  Martin 
Hahn,  Dr.  Arthur  Croft  Hill,  385  ;  Fermentation 
Organisms,  a  Laboratory  Handbook,  Alb.  Klocker,  387  ; 
the  Flora  of  the  Presidency  of  Bombay,  Theodore  Cook, 
Prof.  Percy  Groom,  386 ;  American  Botanic  Laboratory 
in  Jamaica,  N.  L.  Britton.  415 ;  Training  of  Forest 
Officers,  Sir  W'.  T.  Thiselton-Dyer,  F.R.S.,  416;  Glycogen 
in  Fungi  Cultivated  in  Weak  Sugar  Solutions,  Emile 
Laurent  492  ;  Bacterial  Disease  of  Tobacco,  G.  Delacroix, 
492  ;  Resin-Tapping,  499  ;  a  New  Method  of  Turpentine 
Orcharding,  Dr.  C.  H.  Hertz,  499 ;  Canker-areas  on 
Trees  Due  to  Bacteria,  J.  Brzeziriski,  518  ;  Bacterial  Origin 
of  the  Gums  of  the  Arabian  Group,  Dr.  R.  Greig  Smith, 
520 ;  Flora  of  the  Island  of  Jersey,  L.  V.  Lester  Garland, 
525;  Botany  in  Boys'  Schools,  H.  J.  Glover,  548;  Proteid 
Metabolism,  E.  Godlewski,  553  ;  a  Concise  Handbook  of 
Garden  Flowers,  H.  M.  Batson,  571  ;  Anthocyanin  in 
Hydrangea  Flowers,  T.  Ischimura,  579 ;  Influence^  of 
Water  on  the  Structure  of  the  Aerial  Roots  of  Orchids, 
Gaston  Bonnier,  502  ;  a  Class  Book  of  Botany,  G.  P. 
Mudge  and  A.  J.  Maslen.  506;  Flowering  Plants,  their 
Structure  and  Habitat,  Charlotte  L.  Laurie,  621;  the 
Etherisation  System  of  Horticulture,  A.  Maumen^,  629 

Bouasse  (M.),  Modulus  of  Traction  and  the  Coefficient  ol 
Expansion  of  Vulcanised  Indiarubber,  95 

Boudouard  (O.),  Metallographic  Study  of  the  Alloys  of 
Copper  and  Magnesium,   143 

Bouilhac  (.M.),  Influence  of  Formaldehyde  on  the  Growth  of 
White  Mustard,  95 

Boulouch  (R.),  Mixtures  of  Iodine  and  Sulphur,  216 

Boulton  (W.  S.),  on  the  Distinction  between  Intrusive  and 
Contemporaneous  Igneous  Rocks,  613 

Boulud  (M.),  the  Production  of  Sugar  in  the  Blood  during 
the  Passage  of  the  Latter  Through  the  Lungs,  544 

Bourne  (Dr.  G.  C),  a  New  Ascidian  {Oligotrema  psant- 
mites),  422 

Bourquelot  (Ed.),  Mechanism  of  the  Saccharification  of 
the  Mannanes  of  Corrozo  by  the  Seminase  of  Lucerne,  168 

Bourquelot  (Em.),  Lactase,  263 

Bouty  (E.),  Relation  between  the  Dielectric  Cohesion  of  a 
Gas  and  its  Temperature,  240 

Bouveault  (L.),  Preparation  of  Alkyl  Nitrates  and  Nitrites, 
216;  Preparation  of  Primary  Alcohols  by  Means  of  the 
Corresponding  Acids,  240,  263  ;  on  the  Isonitroso- 
malonic  Ethers  and  their  Conversion  into  Mesoxalic 
Ethers,  312 

Bouzat  (A.),  Dissociation  Curves,  168 ;  Pressure  Curves 
of  Univariant  Systems  Containing  One  Gaseous  Phase, 
360 

Bowman  (A.),  Psychophysical  Interaction,   151 


Nature,         1 
December  lo,  1903J 


Index 


(A.),    Elastic   Radial    Deformations   in   the   Rims  and 
rms  of  Flywheels,  640 

[TS  (Charles  Vernon,  F.R.S.),  the  American  Tariff  and 
le  St.  Louis  Exhibition,  320 ;  Opening  Address  in  Section 
at  the  Southport  Meeting  of  the  British  Association,  447 
its'  Schools,  Botany  in,  H.  J.  Glover,  1^48 
ibrook  (Edward  W.,  C.B.,  F.S.A.,  V.P.S.S.).  Opening  | 
Address  in  Section  F  at  the  Southport  Meeting  of  the 
British  Association,  534  | 

chin  (M.),  on  Acetones  Containing  Acetylene  Linkages, 
a  New. Synthesis  of  the  Pyrazols,   120 
Bradbury  (R.    H.),    Elementary  Chemistry,    125 
Bransom  (F.  W.),   Experiments  with  a  Alixture  of  Radium 
and  Barium  Chlorides  in  a  Dry  and  in  a  Moist  State,  302 
Breeding,  the  Physiology  of,  Francis  H.  A.  Marshall,  429 
Brenans  (P.),  a  New  Diiodophenol,  48 
Brenner  (Leo),  the  Rotation  of  Saturn,  554 
Hrereton    (Cloudesley),    Thirty    Years    of    University    Edu- 
cation in  France,  323 
Brereton   (C.   A.),   on  the  New   King   Edward  VIL    Bridge 

over  the  River  Thames  at  Kew,  633 
Bretzl    (Dr.    H.),    Botanische    F"orschungen    des    Alexander- 

zuges,  292 
Hreuil  (Abb6   H.),   Drawings  on  the  Walls  of  the  Cave  of 

.■Mtamira,  216 
Brewster,   Smith,   and  Co.   (Messrs.),   Improved   Form  of  a 
Double  Surface  Condenser,  606 ;  New  Bunsen  Burner  and 
Midget  Furnace,  606 
British  .Academy,  The,  204 

British  Association  :  Forthcoming  Meeting  at  Southport, 
224,  344,  368,  390;  F.  H.  Cheetham,  224;  Geology  of 
the  Southport  District,  Harold  Brodrick,  225  ;  Botany 
of  the  Southport  District,  Henrv  Ball,  226 ;  Zoology  of 
the  Southport  District,  Isaac  C.  Thompson,  226 ;  Archae- 
ology of  Southport  District,  226 ;  Sectional  Arrangements, 
368' 
British  Association  :  Meeting  at  Southport,  438,  467,  499  ; 
Inaugural  Address  by  Sir  Norman  Lockyer,  K.C.B., 
LL.D.,  F.R.S.,  Correspondent  de  I'lnstitut  de  France, 
President  of  the  Section,  439 

Section  A  {Mathematics  and  Physics). — Opening  Address 
by  Charles  Vernon  Boys,  F.R.S.,  President  of  the  Sec- 
tion, 447;  Physics  at  the  British  .Association,  Dr.  C.  H. 
Lees,  609 ;  on  the  Introduction  of  Vectorial  Methods 
into  Physics,  Prof.  Henrici,  609  ;  Sir  Oliver  Lodge,  610; 
Dr.  Sumpner,  610 ;  Prof.  Larmor,  610;  Prof.  Boltzi- 
mann,  610;  on  the  Treatment  of  Irreversible  Processes 
in  Thermodynamics,  Mr.  Swinburne,  610  ;  Prof.  Perry, 
610;  Prof.  Larmor,  610;  on  the  Nature  of  the  Eman- 
ations from  Radio-active  Substances,  Prof.  Rutherford, 
610;  Sir  Oliver  Lodge,  611  ;  Another  Theory  as  to  the 
Nature  of  the  Processes  Going  on  in  Radio-active 
Materials,  Lord  Kelvin,  611  ;  Prof.  Armstrong,  611  ; 
Mr.  Soddy,  611;  Experiments  on  the  Effects  of  Low 
Temperature  on  the  Properties  and  Spectrum  of 
Radium,  Prof.  Dewar  and  Sir  W.  Crookes,  611;  Prof. 
Schuster,  611  ;  Prof.  Larmor,  611  ;  Mr.  Whetham,  611  ; 
Dr.  Lowry,  611 
Section  A  {Sub-section  of  Astronomy  and  Meteorology). — 
Opening  Address  by  W.  N.  Shaw,  Sc.D.,  F.R.S., 
Chairman  of  the  Sub-section,  "  Methods  of  Meteor- 
ological Investigation,"  468 
Section  B  {Chemistry). — Opening  .Address  bv  Prof.  W.  N. 
■  Hartley,    D.Sc,    F.R.S.,    F.R.S.E.,    President    of    the 

Section,  Absorption  Spectra,  472  ;  the  Application  of 
Low  Temperatures  to  the  Study  of  Biological  Problems, 
Dr.  Allan  Macfadyen,  608  ;  Apparatus  for  Determining 
Latent  Heats  of  Evaporation,  Prof.  J.  Campbell  Brown, 
611  ;  on  Some  Derivatives  of  Fluorene,  Miss  Ida  Smed- 
ley,  611;  on  the  .Action  of  Diastase  on  the  Starch 
Granules  of  Raw  and  Malted  Barley,  A.  R.  Ling,  611  ; 
on  the  Action  of  Malt  Diastase  on  Potato  Starch  Paste, 
A.  R.  Ling  and  B.  F.  Davis,  611  ;  the  Chemical  and 
Physical  Characteristics  of  the  So-called  Mad-stone, 
Dr".  H.  C.  White,  611  ;  on  the  Reduction  of  Nitrates 
by  Sewage,  Prof.  E.  A.  Letts.  R.  F.  Blake  and  J.  S. 
Totton,  611  ;  Method  for  the  Separation  of  Cobalt  from 
Nickel  and  for  the  Volumetric  Determination  of  Cobalt, 
R.  L.  Taylor,  611  ;  Description  of  the  More  Recent 
Results  Obtained  from  Investigations  at  Low  Tempera- 


tures, Prof.  J.  Dewar,  F.R.S.,  611  ;  on  the  Cause  of  the 
Lustre  Produced  on  Mercerising  Cotton  under  Tension, 
J.  HiJbner  and  Prof.  W.  J.  Pope,  F.R.S.,  611  ;  on  the 
Theory  of  Dyeing,  Prof.  G.  von  Georgievics,  612  ;  on 
the  Slow  Combustion  of  Methane  and  Ethane,  Dr. 
W.  A.  Bone,  612  ;  Preliminary  Note  on  Some  Electric 
Furnace  Reactions  under  High  Gaseous  Pressures, 
J.  E.  Petavel  and  R.  S.  Hutton,  612  ;  on  the  Atomic 
Latent  Heats  of  Fusion  of  the  Metals  Considered  from 
the  Kinetic  Standpoint,  H.  Crompton,  612  ;  the  Methyl- 
ation  of  Cane-sugar  and  Maltose,  Prof.  Purdie,  P.R.S., 
and  Dr.  J.  C.  Irvine,  612 
Section  C  {Geology).— Opening  Address  by  Prof.  W.  W. 
Watts,  M.A.,  M.Sc,  President  of  the  Section,  481  ; 
Geology  of  the  Southport  District,  Harold  Brodrick, 
225;  Geology  of  the  Country  Around  Southport,  J. 
Lomas,  612  ;'  Martin  Mere,  Harold  Brodrick,  612  ;  on 
the  Land  Gaining  on  the  Sea  at  Southport,  J.  Lomas, 
612  ;  on  a  Raised  Beach  in  County  Cork,  Messrs.  Muff 
and  Wright,  612  ;  on  a  Raised  Beach  at  Sewerby,  Mr. 
Lamplugh,  612  ;  Raised  Beaches,  Clement  Reid,  612  ; 
the  Relations  of  an  Estuarine  Deposit  at  Kirmington 
in  Lincolnshire  to  the  Glacial  Drift,  612  ;  Report  of 
the  Committee  on  Irish  Caves,  613  ;  Implements  Mainly 
Palaeolithic  from  the  District  Between  Reading  and 
Maidenhead,  Llewellyn  Treacher,  613  ;  on  the  Lakes  of 
the  Upper  Engadine,  Andr^  Delebecque,  613  ;  Origin 
of  Rock  Basins,  .Andri^  Delebecque,  613  ;  Mr.  Marr,  613  ; 
Mr.  Lamplugh,  613;  Clement  Reid,  613;  on  Dedolo- 
mitisation,  Mr.  Teall,  613  ;  on  the  Disturbances  of 
Junction  Beds  from  Differential  Shrinkage  and  Similar 
Local  Causes,  G.  W.  Lamplugh,  613 ;  on  the  Dis- 
tinction between  Intrusive  and  Contemporaneous 
Igneous  Rocks,  W.  S.  Boulton,  613;  T.  H.  Cope,  613; 
J.  Lomas,  613  ;  on  the  Origin  of  Eruptive  Rocks,  J.  G. 
Goodchild,  613  ;  on  the  Fossil  Floras  of  South  Africa, 
A.  C.  Seward,  613  ;  on  Some  Fragments  of  Bone  from 
Brazil,  Dr.  Smith  Woodward,  613  ;  on  the  Discovery  of 
Fossils  Round  the  South-west  and  North-west  Flanks 
of  Snowdon,  W.  G.  Fearnsides,  613 

Section  D  {Zoology).— Opening  Address  by  Prof.  Sydney  J. 
Hickson,  M. A.,  D.Sc,  F.R.S. ,  President  of  the  Section, 
452 ;  Zoology  of  the  Southport  District,  Isaac  C. 
Thompson,  226  ;  West  Indian  Corals,  Dr.  J.  E.  Duerden, 
614  ;  Coral  Reefs  of  the  Indian  Ocean,  Prof.  Herdman, 
614  ;  on  the  .Assimilation  and  Distribution  of  Nutriment 
in  .Alcyonium  digitatum,  Miss  Pratt,  614  ;  Eggs  of  the 
Shannv,  Dr.  Rennie,  614:  Dredging  Expedition,  614 

Section  E  {Geographv).—Opening  Address  by  Captain 
Ettrick  W.  Creak,  C.B.,  R.N.,  F.R.S.,  President  of  the 
Section,  Terrestrial  Magnetism  in  its  Relation  to 
Geography,  500  ;  on  the  Effect  of  Ice  Melting  on  Oceanic 
Circulation,  Prof.  Pettersson,  632  ;  a  Problem  in  Applied 
Geography,  E.  D.  Morel,  633  ;  on  the  History  of  Geo- 
graphy, E.  Heawood,  633 ;  Geographical  Education, 
H.  J.'Mackinder,  633 

Section  F  {Economic  Science  and  Stattsttcs).— Opening 
Address  bv  Edward  W.  Brabrook,  C.B.,  F.S.A., 
V.P.S.S.,  President  of  the  Section,  534 

Section  G  {En siineering). —Opening  Address  by  Charles 
Hawksley,  Past  President  Inst.C.E.,  President  of  the 
Section,  504;  on  the  New  King  Edward  VIL  Bridge 
over  the  River  Thames  at  Kew,  C.  A.  Brereton,  633  ; 
Illustrations  of  Graphical  Analysis,  J.  Harrison,  633; 
on  the  New  Manchester  Municipal  Technical  Institute, 
Principal  J.  H.  Reynolds,  634;  on  Improvements  m 
Locomobile  Design,  t.  Clarkson,  634  ;  on  the  Problem  of 
Modern  Street  Traffic,  Lieut. -Colonel  Crompton,  634  : 
on  Protective  Devices  for  High  Tension  Electrical 
Systems,  W.  B.  Woodhouse,  634  :  on  .Aluminium  as  an 
Electrical  Conductor,  J.  B.  C.  Kershaw,  634:  Prof. 
Wilson,  634  ;  on  Twenty-five  Years'  Progress  m  Fmal 
and  Sanitarv  Refuse  Disposal,  W.  F.  Goodrich,  634; 
Liquid  Fuel',  A.  M.  Bell,  63:;  :  on  the  Rate  of  Fall  of 
Rain  at  Seathwaite.  Dr.  H.  R.  Mill.  635  ;  on  Natural 
Gas  in  Sussex,  R.  Pearson,  63.S  ;  on  Some  Experiments 
to  Determine  the  Power  Wasted  by  the  Windage  of  Fly- 
wheel and  Dynamo  Armatures,  W.  Odell,  635 ;  on 
Single  Phase  Repulsion  Motors.  W.  Cramp,  635 

Section   H  {Anthropologv).— Opening    .Address    by    Prof. 


Index 


[Nature, 
December  lo,  1903 


Johnson  Symington,  M.D.,  F.R.S.,  F.R.S.E.,  President 
of  the  Section,  the  Relations  between  Brain  and  Skull 
and  the  Problems  which  Result,  539  ;  on  the  Skulls  from 
Round  Barrows  in  East  Yorkshire,  Dr.  \Vm.  Wright, 
635  ;  on  the  Physical  Anthropology  of  Crete  and  Greece, 
W.  L.  H.  Duckworth,  635  ;  on  the  Pads  and  Papillary 
Ridges  on  the  Palrn  of  the  Hand,  Dr.  E.  J.  Evatt,  635  ; 
on  Skulls  from  the  Malay  Peninsula,  N.  Annandale, 
635  ;  Report  of  the  Committee  Appointed  to  Organise 
Anthropometric  Research,  635  ;  Researches  on  the 
Psychology  and  Sociology  of  the  Todas,  Dr.  W.  H.  R. 
Rivers,  636 ;  on  the  Ritual  of  the  Toda  Dairy,  Dr. 
W.  H.  R.  Rivers,  636;  on  the  Rapid  Evolution  of  the 
Jamaica  Black,  Miss  Pullen  Burry,  636 ;  on  the  Pro- 
gress of  Islam  in  India,  W.  Crooke,  636 ;  on  the 
Ethnology  of  Early  Italy  and  its  Linguistic  Relations 
with  that  of  Britain,  Prof.  R.  S.  Conway,  636  ;  on  the 
Survival  of  Skin-covered  Canoes  in  N.W.  Europe, 
D.  MacRitchie,  636  ;  Collection  of  Survivals  of  Primi- 
tive Implements  in  the  Faeroes  and  Iceland,  Mr. 
Annandale,  636 ;  on  the  Megalithic  Monument  of  Cold- 
rum  in  Kent,  G.  Clinch,  636 ;  Suggestive  Theory  of  the 
Origin  of  Jewellery,  Prof.  W.  Ridgeway,  636  ;  on  the 
Origin  of  the  Brooch,  E.  Lovett,  637  ;  Celtic  Crosses, 
Miss  Bulley,  637 ;  Egyptian  Burial  Customs,  John 
Garstang,  637 ;  on  the  Antiquities  of  Kharga  in  the 
Great  Oasis,  Dr.  C.  S.  Myers,  637  ;  the  Beginning  of 
the  Egyptian  Kingdom  and  the  Temple  of  Abydos, 
Prof.  Flinders  Petrie,  637;  on  the  Latest  Discoveries  in 
the  Palace  of  Knossos,  Dr.  Arthur  Evans,  637  ;  on  the 
Excavation  of  a  pre-Mycenaen  Town,  Messrs.  Bosanquet 
and  Myers,  637 ;  Excavations  at  Caerwent  in  Mon- 
mouthshire (1899-1903),  T.  Ashby,  jun.,  637;  the 
Roman  Fortress  Bremettenacum  (Ribchester),  John 
Garstang,  638 
Section  K  {Botany). — opening  Address  by  A.  C.  Seward, 
F.R.S.,  Fellow  and  Tutor  of  Emmanuel  College,  late 
Fellow  of  St.  John's  College,  Cambridge,  Lecturer  on 
Botany  in  the  University,  President  of  the  Section, 
Floras  of  the  Past  :  their  Composition  and  Distribution, 
556 ;  Botany  of  the  Southport  District,  Henry  Ball,  226 
Section  L  (Educational  Science). — Opening  Address  by 
Sir  William  de  W.  Abney,  K.C.B.,  D.C.L.,  D.Sc, 
F.R.S.,  President  of  the  Section,  581 
British  Association,  Papers  and  Procedure  at  the,  Dr.  Henry 

O.  Forbes,  622 
British  Birds  in  their  Haunts,  Sketches  of.  Open-air  Studies 

in  Bird  Life,  C.  Dixon,  52 
British  Medical  Association,  Swansea  Meeting,  346 
British   Medical  Journal :   a   Method   of  Applying  the   Rays 
from   Radium   and  Thorium   to   the    Treatment    of    Con- 
sumption, Frederick  Soddy,  306 
British  Museum  (Natural    History),    Catalogue    of    Books, 

Manuscripts,  Maps,  and  Drawings  in  the,  596 
British  New  Guinea,  Ethnological  Expedition  to,  256 
British    Rainfall,    1902,    366 
Britton  (N.  L.),  American  Botanic  Laboratory  in  Jamaica, 

415 
Brochet    (Andr^),    Electrolysis    of    Alkaline    Sulphides,    95 ; 
Electrolysis  of  the  Sulphides  of  the  Alkaline  Earths,  96 ; 
the  Electrolysis  of  Barium  Sulphide  with  a  Diaphragm, 
119 
Brodrick  (Harold),  Geology  of  the  Southport  District,  225  ; 

Martin  Mere,  612 
Brooks's  Comet,  Return  of,  Prof.  Aitken,  398 
Brough  (Prof.  J.),  the  Study  of  Mental  Science,  197 
Brown  (John  Allen),  Death  of,  529 
Brown   (Prof.    J.     Campbell),    Apparatus    for    Determining 

Latent   Heats  of  Evaporation,   611 
Bruce  (Lieut. -Colonel,   F.R.S.),   Sleeping  Sickness,   517 
Bruckner's   Cycle,    our    Rainfall    in    Relation    to,    Alex.    B. 

MacDowall,  56 
Bruckner's  Cycle,   our  Winters    in    Relation    to,    .Mex.     B. 

MacDowall,   600 
Brunei  (Henry  M.),  Death  and  Obituary  Notice  of,  577 
Brunei    (Leon),    Action    of    Ammonia  on  the  Compound  of 

Oxide  of  Ethylene  and  /3-o-cvclohexanediol,  312 
Briinnich  (J.  C),  Hydrogen  Cyanide  in  Fodder  Plants,   117 
Brussels  and  Tervueren  Museums,   the,   .^7=; 
Bryan  (Prof.  G.  H.,  F.R.S.).  Reform  in  School  Geometry, 
7;  Obituary  Notice  of  Prof.  C.  A.  Bjerknes,   133;  Vorle- 


sungen    iiber    hydrodynamische    Fernkrafte    nach    C.  A. 

Bjerknes'  Theorie,  V.  Bjerknes,   172  ;  Photographs  of  the 

Paths   of   Aerial     Gliders,    184 ;     Uniformity     in     Science 

Literature,    598 ;    the    Sub-Mechanics    of    the    Universe, 

Osborne  Reynolds,   F.R.S.,  600 
Brzeziiiski  (J.),  Canker-areas  on  Trees  Due  to  Bacteria,  518 
Buchanan  (H.  B.  M.),  a  Country  Reader,  246;  Lessons  on 

Country  Life,  496 
Buchanan  (J.  Y.,  F.R.S.),  Effect  Produced  by  the  Momentary 

Relief  of  Great  Pressure,   184,  334 
Buchner  (Eduard  and    Hans),    Die    Zymasegarung    Unter- 

suchungen   iiber  den   Inhalt  der   Hefezellen  und  die  bio- 

logische  Seite  des  Garungsproblems,  385  1 

Budgett  (J.  S.),  the  Development  of  Polypterus,  516 
Building  Superintendence,  T.  M.  Clark,  414 
Buisine  (A.),  Application  of  the  Reaction  to  the  Estimation 

of  Glycerol,  48  ;  Estimation  of  Glycerol,  96 
Bull  (Mr.),  Experiments  in  Testing  Milk,  358 
Bulletin  of  the  American  Mathematical  Society,  94 
Bulley  (Miss),  Celtic  Crosses,  637 

Bulstrode  (Dr.  Timbrell),  Alleged  Oysterborne  Illness  fol- 
lowing   the    Mayoral    Banquets    at    Winchester    and    at 

Southampton,  303 
Buluwayo,  the  New  Observatory  for,  305 
Bunte  (H.),  the  Luminous  Metals,  210 
Burdon-Sanderson    (Sir   J.,    Bart.,    F.R.S.),    Hermann    von 

Helmholtz,  Leo  Koenigsberger,  193 
Burns  (O.),  Colloids  of  Paper,  &'c.,  211 
Burry  (Miss  Pullen),  on  the  Rapid  Evolution  of  the  Jamaica 

Black,  636 
Busse  (Ludwig),  Geist  und  Korper,  Seele  und  Leib,  98 
Bussy  (M.  de).  Death  of,  12 
Butschli  (O.),  Untersuchungen  uber  Amylose  und  Amylose- 

a/tige     Korper,   495  ^  „  c- 

Butterflies  :    Mimicry     between,    Roland     Triman,     F.R.S., 

615  ;    Homoeochromatism    in    European    Butterflies,    Dr. 

T.  A.  Chapman,  615 

Cables,  Submarine,  Gutta-percha,  Suitable  for  Cable  Pur- 
poses in  New  Guinea,  Herr  Schlechter,  516 

Cagni  (Captain  Umberto),  Magnetic  Observations  in  the 
Bav  of  Teplitz,  397 

Cain' (J.    C),   on    Dianisidine  and   3   :  3'-Dichlorobenzidine, 

94 

Caldecott  (W.  A.),  the  Cyanide  Process,  165 

Calendars  and  Constellations,  Ancient,  Hon.  Emmeline  M. 
Plunket,  593 

Calostoma,  Distribution  of,  Kumagusu  Minakata,  296, 
George  Massee,  296 

Cambridge  :  Cambridge  Philosophical  Society,  90,  142,  239  ; 
Lecture  at  the.  Radio-active  Gas  from  Tap-water,  Prof. 
Thomson,  F.R.S.,  90;  Mathematical  Reform  at  Cam- 
bridge, 178;  Reports  of  the  Cambridge  Anthropological 
Expedition  to  Torres  Straits,  W.  H.  P.  Rivers,  C.  G. 
Seligmann,  C.  S.  Mvers  and  W.  McDougall,  409  :  Dr. 
A.  C.  Haddon,  409  ;  the  Psychological  Society  at  Cam- 
bridge, the  Teaching  of  Psvchology  in  the  Universities 
of  the  United  States,  Dr.  C.  S.  Myers.  425  ;  the  New  Cam- 
bridge Curriculum  in  Economics,  Alfred  Marshall,  524 ; 
Cambridge  in  the  Old  World  and  in  the  New,  Dr.  C.  S. 
Myers,  572 

Camera  for  Naturalists,  a,  140 

Camera,  Photomicrography  with  a  Brownie,  W^  Moss,  234 

Cameron  (Dr.  John),  the  Origin  of  the  Pineal  Body  Deduced 
from  the  Studv  of  its  Development  in  Amphibia,  383 

Cameron  (W.  E'.),  Kangaroo  Hills  Mineral  Field,  182  ;  the 
Ravenswood  Gold  Field,  Queensland,  579 

Campagne  (Em.),  the  Estimation  of  Vanadium  in  Metal- 
lurgical Products,  616 

Campbell  (Prof.  E.  D.),  Experiments  on  the  Diffusion  of 
Sulphides  throueh  Steel,  462 

Campbell  (Dr.  William),  Heat  Treatment  of  Steel,  463 

Canals  on  Mars,  the,  E.  M.  .\ntoniadi,  461 

Cancer  :  Occurrence  of,  in  Various  Countries,  86 :  Radium 
Rays  in  the  Treatment  of,  Prof.  Gussenbauer.  254 : 
Radium  and  Cancer,  Dr.  Alexander  Graham  Bell,  320 ; 
Dr.   Z.   T.   Sowers,   320 

Cannon  (Miss  A.  J.),  'a  Provisional  Catalogue  of  Variable 
Stars,  401 

Cantone  (Prof.  M.),  Elastic  Constants  of  a  Substance  not 
Affected  by  Surrounding  Medium,  552 


Nature,         1 
December  to,  1903  J 


Index 


ipe  Observatory,  Report  of  the,  Sir  David  Gill,  519 
apitanata,     Considerazioni    Agrarie    sul      Piano    di.     Dr. 
Xestore  Petrilli,  100 

Carbon  Photography  Made  Easy,  Thos.   Illingworth,  619 

(  arpenter  (G.  H.),  on  the  Relationships  between  the  Classes 
of  the  Arthropoda,  119,  628 

(arpenter  (Mr.),  Relations  Existing  between  Yes^a  aus- 
triaca  and   I',  rufa,  460 

(  arr6  (P.),  Action  of  Phosphorous  Acid  on  Erythrite,  48; 
Action  of  Phosphorus  Trichloride  upon  Glycerol,  192  ; 
.Vction  of  Phosphorous  Acid  upon  Mannite,  592 
arrier-pigeons.  Can,  Cross  the  Atlantic?  H.  B.  Guppy,  497 
irri^re  (M.),  Modulus  of  Traction  and  the  Coefficient  of 
•  Expansion  of  Vulcanised   Indiarubber,  95 

Carroll  (Dr.),  the  Mode  of  Transmission  of  Yellow  Fever, 
395 

t  arruthers  (J.  B.),  Report  for  1902  of  the  Roval  Botanic 
Gardens,  Ceylon,  160 

(arson  (C.  M.),  the  Action  of  Liquefied  Ammonia  on 
Chromic  Chloride,   117 

Cartailhac  (fimile),  Drawings  on  the  Walls  of  the  Cave  of 
Altamira,  216 

''arus-Wilson  (Cecil),  Musical  Sands,  152 

iscade  Range,  Forestry  in  the,  Fred.  G.  Plummer,  406 
issel,  the  German  Association  at,  586 

Castellani  (Dr.  Aldo),  on  the  Discovery  of  a  Species  of  Try- 
panosoma in  the  Cerebro-spinal  Fluid  of  Cases  of  Sleep- 
ing Sickness,  116;  Sleeping  Sickness,  517 

Castle  (Mr.),  Heredity  of  Albinism,  136 

Catalogue  of  Books,  Manuscripts,  Maps  and  Drawings  in 
the  British  Museum  (Natural  History),  596 

Caterpillar,  New  Case  of  Protective  Mimicry  in  a,  R. 
Shelford,  187 

Caves,  Exploration  of  the  Kesh,  Co.  Sligo,  215 

Cell   Kites,   Tetrahedral,    Dr.   Graham   Bell's,   347 

Celtic  Gold  Ornaments,  the,  201 

Centenary  of  Heidelberg  University,  the,  345 

Cephalopods,  Triassic,   115 

Certes  (A.),  Death  of,  528 

o  Ceti,  the  Spectrum  of,  Joel  Stebbins,  330 

Chaldea,  the  Re-creation  of,  and  Egypt  Fifty  Years  Hence, 
the  Restoration  of  the  Ancient  Irrigation  Works  of  the 
Tigris,  Sir  William  Willcocks,  81 

Chalk,  Zones  in  the.  Dr.  A.  W.  Rowe,  428 

Challenger  Society,  239 

Chalmers  (S.  D.),  Theory  of  Symmetrical  Optical  Objectives, 
3" 

Chamberlain  (Austen),  Relations  between  the  Post  Office 
and  the  Marconi  Wireless  Telegraph  Co.,  134 

Chamberlain  (Prof.),  Embrvogeny  of  Zamia,  109 

Chant  (C.  A.),  Theories  of  Colour  Vision,  181 

Chapman  (F.),  Red  Rain,  423 

Chapman  (R.  W.),  Tides  at  Port  Darwin,  295  ;  a  Simple 
Form  of  Tide  Predictor,  322 

Chapman  (Dr.  T.),  Homoechromatism  in  European  Butter- 
flies, 615 

Charabot  (E.),  Influence  of  the  Nature  of  the  External 
Medium  on  Plant  Acidity,  24 ;  Distribution  of  Organic 
Substances  in  the  Geranium,   192 

(  harlottenburg  Institute  for  London,  a,  203 
haron  (Ernest),  the  Chloride  of  Phenylpropargylidene,  288 
harpy  (Georges),  the  Cementation  of  Iron,  24  ;  the  Dilata- 
tion of  Steel  at  High  Temperatures,  231  ;  Action  of  Car- 
bon Monoxide  upon  Iron  and  its  Oxides,  288 

Chattaway  (Dr.  F.  D.),  Isomeric  Change  of  Dipropion- 
anilide  into  Propionyl-/>-aminopropiophenone,  46 

Chaudier  (J.),  the  Electrical  Dichroism  of  Liquids  Contain- 
ing Crystalline  Particles  in  Suspension,  336 

Chavanne  (G.),  PIstimation  of  the  Halogens  in  Organic 
Compounds,  96 

Cheetham  (F.  A.).  Forthcoming  Meeting  of  the  British 
Association  at  Southport,  224 

Chemistry  :  Le  Froment  et  sa  Mouture,  Prof.  Girard  and  M. 
Lindet,  William  Jago,  i  ;  Physikalische  Chemie  der  Zelle 
und  der  Gewebe,  Dr.  Rudolf  Hober,  Dr.  Benjamin  Moore, 
4;  Chemical  Society,  12,  46,  94,  117,  167,  238;  Louis 
Pillet  Prize  of  the  Chemical  Society  of  Paris,  awarded  to 
E.  Theulier,  12  ;  Modifications  of  Acetaldehyde,  R.  Holl- 
mann,  16  ;  Experiments  on  the  Interaction  of  Metals  and 
Hydrochloric  .Acid  in  Various  Perfectly  Anhydrous  Sol- 
vents,  H.   E.    Patten,     16 ;    Catalytic    Decomposition    of 


Alcohols  by  Finely  Divided  Metals,  &c.,  Paul  Sabatier  and 
J.  B.  Senderens,  23  ;  Reaction  Giving  Rise  to  Symmetrical 
Diphenyl-pyrones,  R.  Fosse,  24 ;  Chemical  Technology, 
vol.  iv..  Electric  Lighting,  A.  G.  Cooke,  Photometry, 
W.  J.  Dibden,  30;  Celebration  of  the  Centenary  of 
Dalton's  Enunciation  of  the  Atomic  Theory,  38,  64;  the 
Dalton  Celebrations  at  Manchester,  81  ;  the  Atomic 
Theory  and  the  Development  of  Modern  Chemistry,  P.  J. 
Hartog,  82  ;  Velocity  and  Mechanism  of  the  Reaction  be- 
tween Potassium  Ferrycyanide  and  Potassium  Iodide  in 
Neutral  Aqueous  Solution,  F.  G.  Donnan  and  R.  le 
Rossignol,  46 ;  Microscopic  Method  of  Comparing  Mole- 
cular Weights,  G.  Barger,  46 ;  Spectrum  of  Pilocarpino 
Nitrate,  W.  N.  Hartley,  46  ;  Isomeric  Change  of  Dipro- 
pionanilide  in  Propionyl-/>-aminopropiophenone,  Dr.  F.  D. 
Chattaway,  46 ;  Formation  of  Di-  and  He.xamethylam- 
monio-cad'mium  Chlorides,  W.  R.  Lang,  46 ;  Physical 
Properties  of  Trimethylcarbinol,  M.  de  Forcrand,  47 ; 
Action  of  Phosphorous  Acid  on  Erythrite,  P.  Carr^,  48  ; 
Heat  of  Formation  of  some  Barium  Compounds,  M.  Guntz, 
48 ;  a  New  Diiodophenol,  P.  Brenans,  48  ;  New  Bases  De- 
rived from  the  Pentoses,  E.  Roux,  48  ;  Application  of  the 
Reaction  to  the  Estimation  of  Glycerol,  A.  Buisine,  48  ; 
Estimation  of  Glycerol,  A.  Buisine,  96  ;  Action  of  Phos- 
phorus Trichloride  upon  Glycerol,  P.  Carr6,  192  ; 
Existence  of  Arsenic  in  the  Egg  of  the  Fowl,  Gabriel 
Bertrand,  48 ;  Action  of  Arsenic  on  Copper,  Albert 
Granger,  168 ;  Estimation  of  Arsenic  in  Fuel,  Prof.  T.  E. 
Thorpe,  F.R.S.,  238;  Electrolytic  Estimation  of  Minute 
Quantities  of  Arsenic,  Prof.  T'.  E.  Thorpe,  F.R.S.,  238; 
New  Method  for  the  Detection  of  Arsenic,  Armand 
Gautier,  311  ;  Use  of  a  Calorimetric  Bomb  to  Demonstrate 
the  Presence  of  Arsenic  in  the  Organism,  Gabriel  Bertrand, 
336 ;  a  History  of  Hindu  Chemistry  from  the  Earliest 
Times  to  the  Middle  of  the  Sixteenth  Century,  a.d.,  with 
Sanskrit  Texts,  Variants,  Translation  and  illustrations, 
Prafulla  Chandra  Ray,  51  ;  La  Pratique  des  Fermentations 
industrielles,  E.  Ozard,  53  ;  the  Chemical  Changes  and 
Products  Resulting  from  Fermentations,  R.  H.  Aders 
Plimmer,  99  ;  Hofmann  Gold  Medals  Awarded  to  Prof. 
Henri  Moissan  and  Sir  William  Ramsay,  64 ;  Loss  of 
Weight  of  the  Platinum  Metals,  Profs.  Holborn  and 
Austin,  66  ;  Method  of  Resolving  Racemic  Aldehydes  and 
Ketones  by  Means  of  an  Optically  Active  Hydrazine,  Carl 
Neuberg,  68  ;  Wandering  of  a  Methyl  Group  in  the  Con- 
version of  Pinacone  into  Pinacoline,  Herr  Knorr,  68  ; 
Tests  and  Reagents,  Chemical  and  Microscopical,  Known 
by  their  Authors'  Names,  C.  Simmonds,  75  ;  Death  of  Dr. 
G.  C.  Dibbits,  84  ;  Extraction  of  the  Perfume  from  Flowers, 
Dr.  Albert  Hesse,  8q  ;  a  New  Synthesis  of  Indigo,  Dr.  T. 
Sandmeyer,  93  ;  LongstafT  Medal  Awarded  to  Prof.  W.  J. 
Pope,  F.R.S.,  94;  Spontaneous  Decomposition  of  Nitro- 
camphor,  T.  M.  Lowry,  94;  Influence  of  Impurities  in 
Conditioning  Isomeric  Change,  T.  M.  Lowry,  94  ;  Elec- 
trolytic Reduction  of  Pheno-  and  Naphtho-morpholones, 
F.  H.  Lees  and  F.  Shedden,  94 ;  the  Coloured  Consti- 
tuents of  Butea  frondosa,  E.  G.  Hill,  94;  Butein,  J.  J. 
Hummell  and  A.  G.  Perkin,  94  ;  Chemical  Dynamics  of 
the  Reactions  between  Chlorine  and  Benzene  under  the 
Influence  of  Different  Catalytic  Agents  and  of  Light, 
A.  Slator,  94 ;  on  Dianisidine  and  3  :  3'-dichlorobenz- 
idine,  J.  C.  Cain,  94 ;  Benzene-azo-orthobenzyl  .Alcohol 
and  on  its  Transformation  into  Phenylindazol  and  Azo- 
diphenylmethane,  P.  Freundler,  95  ;  Organometallic 
Derivatives  of  Aromatic  Hydrocarbons  Containing  Two 
Halogen  Atoms  in  the  Nucleus,  and  their  Interaction  with 
Iodine,  F.  Bodroux,  95;  Diastatic  Hydrolysis  of  Salol, 
Emm.  Pozzi-Escot,  9^  ;  Influence  of  Formaldehyde  on  the 
Growth  of  White  Mustard,  MM.  Bouilhac  and  Giustiniani, 
95 ;  Preparation  and  Properties  of  Caesium  Ammoniutn 
and  Rubidium  Ammonium,  Henri  Moissan,  95  ;  Action  of 
Acetylene  on  Caesium  .Ammonium  and  Rubidium  Am- 
monium, Henri  Moissan,  119:  Reversibility  of  Lipolytic 
Actions,  Henri  Pottevin,  9^  ;  Studies  on  a  Law  Relating 
to  the  Electromotive  Forces  Developed  by  the  Reciprocal 
.Action  of  Saline  Solutions,  M.  Berthelot,  95  ;  Electrolysis 
of  Alkaline  Sulphides,  Andr6  Brochet  and  (leorges 
Ranson,  95  ;  Electrolysis  of  the  Sulphides  of  the  .Alkaline 
Earths,  Andr^  Brochet  and  Georges  Ranson,  06 :  Esti- 
mation of  the  Halogens  in  Organic  Compounds,  H. 
Baubigny    and    G.    Chavanne,    96 ;    Theory    of    Coloured 


Index 


V         Nature, 
[^December  lo,  1903 


Indicators,  P.  Vaillant,  96 ;  Electrical  Conductivity  of 
Selenium  in  the  Presence  of  Bodies  Treated  with  Ozone, 
Edmond  van  Aubel,  96 ;  Analytical  Chemistry,  E.  P. 
Treadwell,  loi  ;  the  Conditions  of  Decomposition  of  Am- 
monium Nitrite,  V.  H.  Veley,  117;  Freezing-  Point 
Curves  for  Some  Binary  Mixtures  of  Organic  Substances, 
Chiefly  Phenols  and  Amines,  Dr.  J.  C.  Philip,  117;  the 
Action  of  Liquefied  Ammonia  on  Chromic  Chloride,  W.  R. 
JLang  and  C.  M.  Carson,  117;  the  Action  of  Methylamine 
on  Chromic  Chloride,  W.  R.  Lang  and  E.  H.  Jolliffe, 
117;  Cholesterol,  R.  H.  Pickard  and  J.  Yates,  117; 
Hydrogen  Cyanide  in  Fodder  Plants,  J.  C.  Briinnich, 
117;  Chemical  Reactions  Involved  in  the  Rusting  of 
Iron,  Prof.  W.  R.  Dunstan,  F.R.S.,  117;  the  Rusting  of 
Iron,  Dr.  Moody,  167 ;  the  Thermal  Conductivity  of 
Crystallised  Bismuth,  F.  Louis  Perrot,  119;  on  Bismuth, 
R.  H.  Adie,  239;  Bismuth  Compounds,  G.  Urbain  and 
H.  Lacombe,  616 ;  Electrolysis  of  Barium  Sulphide  with  a 
Diaphragm,  Andr6  Brochet  and  Georges  Ranson,  119; 
Influence  Exerted  on  the  Rotatory  Power  of  Cyclic  Mole- 
cules by  the  Introduction  of  Double  Linkages  into  the 
Nuclei  Containing  the  Asymmetric  Carbon  Atom,  A. 
Haller,  119;  on  Acetones  Containing  Acetylene  Linkages, 
a  New  Synthesis  of  the  Pyrazols,  MM.  C'h.  Moureu  and 
Brachin,  120 ;  Preparation  of  Carbides  and  Acetylene 
Acetylides  by  the  Action  of  Acetylene  Gas  upon  the  Hy- 
drides of  the  Alkalis  and  the  Alkaline  Earths,  Henri 
Moissan,  215  ;  Action  of  a  Trace  of  Water  on  the  Decom- 
position of  the  Alkaline  Hydrides  of  Acetvlene,  Henri 
Moissan,  520 ;  on  the  Mode  of  Splitting  up  of  Mixed 
Organo-magnesium  Compounds,  the  Action  of  Ethylene 
Oxide,  V.  Grignard,  119,  120;  on  the  Presence  of 
Cadaverine  in  the  Products  of  the  Hydrolysis  of  Muscle, 
A.  Etard  and  M.  Vila,  120;  Die  Grosse  des  Eiweiss- 
molekuls,  Dr.  F,  N.  Schulz,  F.  Escombe,  123  ;  Elementary 
Chemistry,  R.  H.  Bradbury,  125 ;  Death  of  Eugene 
Demarcay,  134;  a  New  Refractory  Material,  "  Siloxicon," 
137 ;  Identification  of  Basic  Salts,  Messrs.  Miller  and 
Kenrick,  137 ;  Dibromoacetylene,  P.  Lemoult,  137 ;  the 
Purification  of  Hydrogen  on  the  Industrial  Scale  by 
Cold,  Ch.  Renard,  143  ;  Form  Assumed  by  Mercuric 
Iodide  on  Separating  from  Solution,  D.  Gernez,  143  ; 
Metallographic  Study  of  the  Alloys  of  Copper  and  Mag- 
nesium, O.  Boudouard,  143  ;  Silicides  of  Chromium.  P 
Lebeau  and  J.  Figueras,  143  ;  Electrolytic  Reduction  of 
Unsaturated  Acids,  C.  Marie,  144 ;  Text-book  of  Organic 
Chemistry,  Prof.  A.  F.  Holleman,  149  ;  the  International 
Congress  for  Applied  Chemistry,  Dr.  H.  Borns,  156,  209  ; 
the  Phase-law  of  Willard  Gibbs  and  the  Formation  of 
Natural  Salt  Deposits,  J.  H.  van  't  Hoff,  157;  Auto- 
oxidation,  Carl  Engler,  157;  Properties  of  the  Alkali 
Hydrides,  H.  Moissan,  157  ;  Evaporation  and  Boiling  of 
Metals  in  Quartz-glass  and  in  the  Electric  Furnace  in  the 
Vacuum  of  the  Kathode-light,  Dr.  F.  .  Krafft,  162  ;  an 
Anhydride  of  Camphoryloxime,  Dr.  Lowry,  167 ;  Muta- 
rotation  of  Glucose,  Dr.  Lowry,  167 ;  the  Solubility  of 
Dynamic  Isomerides,  Dr.  Lowry,  167 ;  Iminoethers  Cor- 
responding with  Ortho-substituted  Benzenoid  Amides, 
G.  D.  Lander  and  F.  T.  Jewson,  167  ;  Hydrolysis  of  Ethvi 
Mandelate  by  Lipase,  H.  D.  Dakin,  167;  Isomerism 
among  Quinquevalent  Nitrogen  Compounds,  Dr.  Kipping, 
167 ;  New  General  Relation  between  Electromotive 
Forces  of  Saline  Solutions,  M.  Berthelot,  167  ;  Formation 
of  Alcohol  in  the  Fermentation  of  Plant  Juices,  Armand 
Gautier,  167  ;  Mechanism  of  the  Saccharification  of  the 
Mannanes  of  Corrozo  by  the  Seminase  of  Lucerne,  Ed. 
Bourquelot  and  H.  H^rissey,  168  ;  Analysis  of  Osmiridium 
Alloys,  MM.  Leidi6  and  Quennessen,  168;  Condensation 
of  the  Radio-active  Emanations  of  Radium  and  Thorium 
by  Liquid  Air,  Prof.  E.  Rutherford,  F.R.S.,  and  F. 
Soddy,  184 ;  Gases  Occluded  by  Radium  Bromide,  Sir 
William  Ramsay,  K.C.B.,  F.R.S.,  and  Frederick  Soddv, 
246 ;  the  Oxidising  Action  of  the  Rays  from  Radium 
Bromide,  \\.  B.  Hardy,  F.R.S.,  and  Miss  E.  G. 
Willcock,  431  ;  the  Resolution  of  Elementary  Substances 
into  their  Ultimates  and  Molecular  Activity  of  Radium, 
Dr.  Henry  Wilde,  F.R.S.,  639;  Fusibilities  of  Mixtures 
of  Sulphide  of  Antimony  and  Sulphide  of  Silver,  H. 
Pelabon,  192  ;  Etherification  of  Sulphuric  Acid,  A. 
Villiers,  192  ;  the  Action  of  Hydrogen  Sulphide  upon 
Methyl-ethyl-ketone,    F.    Leteur,    192  ;    on    Formic    Acid 


from  the  Air,  H.  Henriet,  192  ;  Distribution  of  Organic 
Substances  in  the  Geranium,  E.  Charab'ot,  and  G.  Lalone, 
192  ;  Action  of  Iodine  Bromide  on  Albumenoid  Materials 
and  on  the  Organic  Nitrogen  Bases,  A.  Mouneyrat,  192  ; 
a  Method  of  Crystallising  Slightly  Soluble  Bodies,  A.  de 
Schulten,  192  ;  a  Treatise  on  the  Theory  of  Solution,  in- 
cluding the  Phenomena  of  Electrolysis,  W.  C.  D. 
Whetham,  197 ;  Mercury  Bubbles,  Dr.  Henry  H.  Dixon, 
199;  the  Auto-purification  of  Waters,  G.  Weigelt,  210; 
Herr  Vandevelde,  210;  Synthetic  Cyanide  Processes,  F. 
Rossler,  G.  Erlwein  and  A.  Frank,  210;  New  Resistance 
Furnaces  and  New  Iridium  Furnace,  H.  Heraeus,  210; 
Simple  High  Temperature  Furnaces,  W.  Hempel,  210; 
the  Luminous  Metals,  H.  Bunte,  210;  the  Critical  State 
of  Gases,  J.  Traube  and  G.  Teichner,  210;  Apparatus  for 
Determining  the  Vapour  Densities  of  COj,  &c.,  W. 
Nernst,  210;  Colloid  Zirconium,  E.  Wedekind',  211;  Col- 
loids of  Paper,  &c.,  O.  Burns,  211;  Concentration  of 
Solutions,  &c.,  by  Freezing,  Mr.  Monti,  211;  Production 
of  Very  High  Temperatures  by  Burning  Aluminium  in 
Oxygen  and  Other  Gases,  Mr.  Zengelis,  211  ;  Luminosity 
of  the  Ions,  \\'.  von  Bolton,  211;  an  Irish  Specimen  of 
Dopplerite,  Richard  J.  Moss,  215;  Influence  of  the  Sol- 
vent on  the  Rotatory  Power  of  Certain  Molecules,  A. 
Haller  and  J.  Minguin,  215;  Estimation  of  Vanadiurn  in 
Alloys,  Paul  Nicolardot,  216;  the  Estimation  of  Vanadium 
in  Metallurgical  Products,  Em.  Campagne,  616;  Pre- 
paration of  Alkvl  Nitrates  and  Nitrites,  L.  Bouveault  and 
A.  Wahl,  2i6;'Stachyose,  C.  Tanret,  216;  Conditions  of 
Oxidation  of  Salicylic  Aldehyde  by  Organs  and  Extracts 
of  Organs,  J.  E.  Abelous  and  J.  Aloy,  216;  Mixtures  of 
Iodine  and  Sulphur,  R.  Boulouch,  216;  Crystallised  Am- 
monium Sulphate  and  the  Position  of  Ammonium  m  the 
Alkali  Series,  Dr.  A.  E.  H.  Tutton,  238;  Action  of 
Halogens  on  Compounds  Containing  the  Carbonyl 
Group,  Dr.  Lapworth,  238;  Rimu  Resin,  Prof.  Easter- 
field  and  Mr.  Aston,  238;  the  Karaka  Fruit,  Prof. 
Easterfield  and  Mr.  Aston,  238 ;  Note  on  the  Corrosion  of 
an  Egyptian  Image,  H.  Basselt,  jun.,  238;  Properties  of 
Strong  Nitric  Acid,  Messrs.  Veley  and  Manley,  238  ;  Lois 
g^nc^rales  de  I'Action  des  Diastases.  Victor  Henri,  221; 
Two  Methods  for  the  Quantitative  Estimation  of  Chloro- 
form Vapour  in  Air,  Dr.  Waller,  238;  Influence  of  the 
Introduction  of  Unsaturated  Radicles  on  the  Rotatory 
Power  of  Active  Molecules,  A.  Haller  and  M.  Desfon- 
taines,  239 ;  an  Organic  Base  Containing  Phosphorus, 
P.  Lemoult,  240 ;  Silicon  Amide  and  Imide,  ^  Em. 
Vigouroux  and  M.  Hugot,  240 ;  Preparation  of  Primary 
Alcohols  by  Means  of  the  Corresponding  Acids,  L. 
Bouveault  and  G.  Blanc.  240,  263  ;  Action  of  Carbon 
Dioxide  on  the  Eggs  of  Echinoderms,  C.  Viguier,  240; 
Action  of  Emulsin  on  Salicin  and  Amygdalin,  Victor 
Henri  and  S.  Lalou,  240;  Physical  Chemistry  for 
Physicians  and  Biologists,  Ernst  Cohen,  245  ;  Precipita- 
tion of  Colloidal  Solutions  by  Electrolytes,  Dr.  Freundlich, 
255  ;  Behaviour  of  Chlorine  towards  Benzene  under  Cata- 
lytic Agents,  Mr.  Slator,  25=5 ;  Derivatives  of  Arabinose 
Prof.  Hugh  Ryan  and  George  Ebrill,  262  ;  Action  of 
Epichlorhydrin 'upon  the  Sodium  Derivatives  of  Acetone- 
dicarboxyiic  Esters,  A.  Haller  and  F.  March,  263  ;  Action 
of  Iodine  on  Pellicles  of  Copper,  M.  HouUevigue,  263  ; 
Simplification  of  the  Analysis  of  Silicates  by  the  Use  of 
Formic  Acid,  A.  Leclere,  263;  Thiosulphuric  Acid,  J. 
Aloy,  263  ;  Dibromo-acetylene,  P.  Lemoult,  263  ;  Lactase. 
Em'.  Bourquelot  and  H.  H^rissev,  263  ;  Fatty  Acids  of 
Egg  Lecithine,  H.  Cousin,  263  ;  an  Oxidising  Bacterium. 
R.  Sazerac,  264;  Der  Stickstoff  und  seine  wichtigsten 
Verbindungen,  Dr.  Leopold  Spiegel,  266  ;  a  Combination 
of  Ferric  Sulphate  with  Sulphuric  Acid,  A.  Recoura,  288  ; 
Action  of  Carbon  Monoxide  upon  Iron  and  its  Oxides, 
Georges  Charpy,  288;  the  So-called  Colloidal  Silver.  M. 
Hanriot,  288 ;  'the  Action  of  Hypophosphorous  Acid  on 
Diethylketone  and  on  Acetophenone,  C.  Marie,  288;  the 
Chloride  of  Phenvlpropargylidene,  Ernest  Charon  and 
Edgar  Dugoujon,'  288 ;  the  Preparation  of  Secondary 
Amides,  J.  Tarbouriech,  288;  Die  Konstitution  des  Kam- 
phers  und  seiner  wichtigsten  Derivate,  Ossian  Aschan, 
293  ;  Die  Aluminium-Industrie,  Dr.  F.  Wintelen,  293 ; 
American  Electrochemical  Society,  Presidential  Address, 
Dr.  Joseph  W.  Richards,  299  :  the  Chemistry  of  the  Albu- 
mins, Dr.  Arthur  Harden,  307  ;  Reactions  between  Copper 


Nature, 
Dtcember  lo, 


Index 


or  Platinum  and  the  N'apour  of  Alcohols,  A.  Trillat,  312  ;  on 
Kerrisulphuric  Acid  and  Ethyl  Ferrisulphate,  A.  Recoura, 
312  ;  a  New  Class  of  Complex  Cyanides,  P.  Chretien,  312  ; 
on  the  Isonitrosomalonic  Ethers  and  their  Conversion  into 
Mesoxalic  Ethers,  L.  Bouveault  and  A.  Wahl,  312  ;  Action 
of  Ammonia  on  the  Compound  of  Oxide  of  Ethylene  and 
/3-o-cyclohexanediol,  Leon  Brunei,  312  ;  on  the  Phospho- 
urganic  Reserve  .Material  of  Plants,  S.  Posternak,  312,  3bo  ; 
the  Constitution  of  the  Phospho-organic  Acid  in  the  Re- 
serve Material  of  Green  Plants  and  on  the  First  Reduction 
Product  of  Carbonic  Acid  in  the  Act  of  Chlorophyll  Assimi- 
lation, S.  Posternak,  432  ;  on  the  Organic  Respiratory 
(jases  in  Diabetes,  J.  Le  GofT,  312;  Determination  of 
Radicles  in  Carbon  Compounds,  Dr.  H.  Meyer,  319;  the 
ICucalypts,  D.  E.  Hutchins  and  E.  Hutchins,  320;  Silitide 
of  Ruthenium,  Henri  Moissan  and  VVilhelm  Manchot, 
336  ;  Cyclohexane,  Paul  Sabatier  and  Alph.  Mailhe,  336  ; 
a  Double  Carbide  of  Chromium  and  Tungsten,  Henri 
Moissan  and  A.  Kouznetzovv,  360  ;  Addition  of  Hydrogen 
to  Aldehydes  and  Ketones  by  Catalysis,  Paul  Sabatier  and 
J.  B.  Senderens,  360;  Estimation  of  Pyridine  in  Aqueous 
Solution,  Maurice  Francois,  360;  Secondary  Amides,  M. 
Tarbouriech,  360;  Qualitative  Chemical  Analysis,  John  B. 
Garvin,  366 ;  Products  of  Combustion  in  Gas  and  Oil 
Stoves,  382  ;  Alkaline  Reaction  of  the  Blood,  H.  Labb6, 
384  ;  Apparatus  for  the  Preparation  of  Pure  Gases,  Henri 
Moissan,  384 ;  Mechanical  Analysis  of  Soils,  Th. 
Schloesing,  sen.,  384;  the  Relations  between  Scientific 
Research  and  Chemical  Industry,  Prof.  Raphael  Meldola, 
F.R.S.,  at  the  University  Extension  Meeting  at  Oxford, 
398  ;  Quantitative  Chemical  Analysis  by  Electrolysis,  Prof. 
Classen,  Dr.  F.  Molhvo  Perkin,  412  ;  Determinations  of 
the  CoetTicient  of  Thermal  Expansion  of  Fused  Quartz,  L. 
Holborn  and  F.  Hemming,  422  ;  Karl  Sheel,  422  ;  the 
Micro-balance  of  Prof.  Xernst,  422  ;  the  Composition  of  the 
Swedish  Turnip,  S.  H.  Collins,  427 ;  Synthesen  in  der 
Purin-  und  Zuckergruppe,  Emil  Fischer,  466 ;  Practical 
Chemistry,  A\'alter  Harris,  495 ;  Untersuchungen  iiber 
Amylose  und  Amyloseartige  Korper,  O.  Biitschli,  495  ;  Die 
Schule  der  Chemie,  Erste  Einfuhrung  in  die  Chemie  fiir 
Jedermann,  Wilhelm  Ostwald,  521  ;  Vessels  of  Quartz 
Glass,  531  ;  a  Combination  of  Aluminium  Sulphate 
with  Sulphuric  Acid,  E.  Baud,  568 ;  Nitrosite  of 
Pulegone,  P.  Genvresse,  568 ;  Production  of  Sulphur- 
etted Hydrogen  by  Yeast  Extract,  Emm.  Pozzi- 
Escot,  568 ;  Electrolytic  Preparations,  Dr.  Karl 
Elbs,  571  ;  Formation  of  "  Liesegang's  Rings  "  by  Pre- 
cipitation of  Silver  Chromate  in  Gelatin,  H.  W.  Morse 
and  G.  W.  Pierce,  578 ;  Iridium  Apparatus,  Prof. 
Xernst,  587  ;  the  Precipitation  of  Colloids  by  Salts,  Prof. 
Biltz,  587;  Optical  Isomerism,  Prof.  Wallach,  587; 
Theory  of  Ozone  Formation,  Prof.  Nernst,  587;  Dr. 
Srhenck's  Red-phosphorus,  Dr.  Marquart,  588  ;  Action  of 
Phosphorus  Acid  upon  Mannite,  P.  Carr^,  592  ;  Products 
of  Oxidation  of  Xitro-pyromucic  Acid,  R.  Marquis,  592  ; 
a  Laboratory  Manual  of  Phvsiological  Chemistry, 
Ralph  W.  Webster  and  Waldemar  Koch,  Prof.  W.  D. 
Halliburton,  F.R.S.,  594;  the  Arithmetic  of  Elementary 
Physics  and  Chemistry,  H.  M.  Timpany,  597  ;  Traits  d'e 
Chimie  physique,  Les  Principes,  Jean  Perrin,  597;  the 
Molecular  Composition  of  Sulphur  Vapour,  M.  Preuner, 
606;  the  Solubility  of  Iodine,  .M.  Stromholm,  606;  Im- 
proved Form  of  a  Double  Surface  Condenser,  Messrs. 
Brewster,  Smith  and  Co.,  606;  Xew  Bunsen  Burner  and 
.Midget  Furnace,  Messrs.  Brewster,  Smith  and  Co.,  606; 
the  -Abnormal  Fixation  of  Trioxymethylene  on  Certain 
Organo-magnesium  Derivatives,  '  M.  Tiffenau  and  R. 
Delange,  616;  a  New  Method  for  the  Preparation  of 
Ketones,  Constantin  B^is,  6i6 ;  on  the  Temperature  of 
Inflammation  and  on  the  Slow  Combustion  of  Sulphur  in 
Oxygen,  Henri  Moissan,  616;  the  Elementary  Chemistry 
of  Photographic  Chemicals,  C.  Sordes  Ellis,' 619;  Jahr- 
buch  der  Chemie,  621  ;  Composition  of  Surface  Layers  of 
Solution,  Miss  C.  C.  Benson,  630;  the  Fixation  of  At- 
mospheric Nitrogen,  Dr.  Frank,  630 ;  Analogy  between 
Asymmetric  Carbon  and  Nitrogen  in  Regard  to  Optical 
Rotation,  Dr.  Wedekind,  630;  Electrolytic  Refining  of 
Copper,  F.  J.  Schwab  and  I.  Baum,  630;  the  State  of 
\'aporised  Carbon,  M.  Berthelot,  639 ;  Estimation  of 
.\rgon  in  .Atmospheric  Air,  Henri  Moissan,  639  ;  Compo- 
sition of  Zinc  Peroxide,  M.  KurilofT,  639  ;  Separation  of 


Iron  from  Nickel  and  Cobalt    by    Lead    Oxide    (Field's 

Methods),  T.  H.  Laby,  640 
Ch^neveau  (C),  Action  of  the  Magnetic  Field  on  the  In- 

fusbria,  216    ■ 
Cheyne  (Rev.  T.  K.),  Encyclopaedia  Biblica,  a  Critical  Dic- 
I       tionary  of  the  Literary,   Political  and  Religious  History, 
I       the  Archaeology,   Geography  and  Natural   History  of  the 
I       Bible,   148 

i  Chlorine  Smelting,  with  Electrolysis,  Mr.   Swinburne,  285 
Chops  (R.  H.),  the  Junior  Arithmetic,  Being  an  Adaptation 

of  the  Tutorial  Arithmetic,   Suitable  for  Junior  Classes, 

434 
Chota  Nagpore,   a  Little  Known  Province  of  the  Empire, 

F.  B.  Bradley  Birt,  J.  F.  Hewitt,  369 
Chree  (Dr.  C,  F.R.S.),  Seismometry  and  GSite,  55,  176 
Chretien  (P.),  a  New  Class  of  Complex  Cyanides,  312 
Christen  (T.),  Das  Gesetz  der  Translation  des  Wassers,  246 
Circumzenithal  Apparatus,  a  New,   Fr.  Nusl  and  M.  J.  J. 

Fric,  376 
Clark  (John  B.),  Arithmetic  for  Schools  and  Colleges,  547 
Clark  (T.  M.),  Building  Superintendence,  414 
Clarkson  (T.),  on  Improvements  in  Locomobile  Design,  634 
Classen   (Prof.),    Quantitative   Chemical   Analysis   by    Elec- 
trolysis, 412 
Clay  (R.  S.),  Practical  Exercises  in  Light,  Being  a  Labora- 
tory Course  for  Schools  of  Science  and  Colleges,  217 
Clemow  (Frank  G.),  the  Geography  of  Disease,  171 
Gierke  (Agnes  M.),  Problems  in  Astrophysics,  338 
Clinch   (G.),   on   the   Megalithic   Monument  of   Coldrum   in 

Kent,  636 
Close  (Rev.  Maxwell  Henry),  Death  of,  488 
Cloud   World,   its   Features  and   Significance,    the,    Samuel 

Barber,  436 
Clouds,  Peculiar,  Alfred  O.  Walker,  416 
Clouds,    Photogrammetric  Measurement  of  the   Height  of, 

at  Simla,  W.  L.  Dallas,  604 
Cockerell  (Prof.   T.   D.  A.),   Some    Overlooked    Zoological 

Generic  Names,  526 
Cohen  (E.),  Meteoric  Iron  from  N'Goureyma,  46 
Cohen    (Ernst),     Physical    Chemistry    for    Physicians    and 

Biologists,  245 
Cole  (Prof.  Grenville  A.  J.),  the  Intrusive  Gneiss  of  Tirerril 

and  Drumahair,  215;  Geology  of  Austria-Hungary,  550 
Coleridge's   Theory   of    Life,    Sir    Samuel    Wilks,     Bart., 

F.R.S.,   102 
Colin  (P.),  Magnetic  Work  at  Madagascar,  143 
Collins  (H.  F.),  Remarkable  Mass  of  Wollastonite  at  Santa 

F^,  Mexico,  214 
Collins  (S.    H.),   the  Composition   of  the   Swedish   Turnip, 

427 
Colloquies  of  Common  People,  James  Anstie,  246 
Colomer  (F.),  Mise  en  Valeur  des  Gite's  Min^raux,  198 
Colonial  Universities  Conference,  the  Allied,  250 
Coloration  of  the  Quaggas,  the,  R.  I.  Pocock,  356 
Colour  Vision,  Theories  of,  C.  A.  Chant,  181 
Comets  :  a  New  Comet,  Mr.  Grigg,  16 ;  Comet  1903  5,  M. 
Ebell  and  H.  Kreutz,  42  ;   Photographic  Observations  of 
Comet  1902  iii.  Prof.  Sykora,  183  ;  Search  Ephemeris  for 
Fave's  Comet,    Prof.   E.    Stromgren,    207,   461  ;    Comet 
1903  c,  G.   Favet,  233  ;  M.   Ebell,  2.1^5  ;  Dr.   Meyermann, 
255 ;    Prof.    Ambron,    255  ;    Prof.    Hartwig,    255 ;    Prof. 
Mihosevich,  21^1^;  Borrelly's  Comet  (1903  c),   Dr.  Aitken, 
353  ;  Comet  1903  c  Discovered  by  M.  Borrelly  on  June  21, 
EV  Stephan,    239;    Elements   of   the    Borrelly   Comet,    G. 
Fayet,  239;  Photogr-aph  of  Borrelly's  Comet  1903  c,  M- 
Qu^nisset,     336 ;     Ephemeris    for,    M.     Knapp     and     W. 
Dziewulski,  398  :  the  Spectrum  of,  Dr.  Curtis,  376 ;  Prof. 
Perrine,  376";  M.  Deslandres,  424:  Spectroscopic  Observ- 
ations of,    H.   Deslandres.   408:   Comets  and   their  Tails 
and    the   Gegenschein    Light,    Frederick   G.    Shaw,    24=;  r 
Search-Ephemeris    for    Comet    1896    V.    (Giacobini),    M. 
Ebell,  256,  491,  606:  Photographs  of  Comet  iqo2  i^.  Prof. 
R.   H.   Curtiss,   305 ;   Return   of   Brooks's    Comet,     Prof. 
Aitken,   398;   Radiation   Pressure  and   Cortietary  Theory, 
E.   F.   NichoUs  and  G.   F.   Hull,   461  ;    1903-4   Ephemeris 
for   Winnecke's    Periodical    Comet,    C.    Hillebrand,    580; 
the  Path  of  Comet  1894  I.  (Denning),  Dr.  P.  Gast.  606 
Comit^  international  des  Poids  et  Mesures,  525 
Commensalism,  Interesting  Case  of.  Dr.  R.  Horst,  207 
Common    (Dr.   A.   A.,   F.R.S.),   Death    of,    108;    Obituary 
Notice  of,  Dr.  William  J.  S.  Lockyer,  132 


XVI 


Index 


[Nature, 
December  lo. 


1903 


Comstock  (Anna  Botsford),  Ways  of  the  Six-footed,  595 
Congress  of  the  Museums  Association,  310 
Congress  of  the  Sanitary  Institute,  E.  White  Wallis,  309 
Constellations,  Ancient  Calendars  and,  Hon.  Emmeline  M. 

Plunket,  593 
Consumption,  a  Method  of  Applying  the  Rays  from  Radium 

and  Thorium  to  the  Treatment  of,  Frederick  Soddy,  306 
Conway  (Prof.  R.  S.),  on  the  Ethnology  of  Early  Italy  and 

its  Linguistic  Relations  with  that  of  Britain,  636 
Cook  (Theodore  Andrea),   Spirals  in  Nature  and  Art,   221, 

296 
Cook  (Theodore),   the  Flora  of  the  Presidency  of  Bombay, 

386 
Cooke  (A.  G.),  Electric  Lighting,  30 
Coolidge  (C.  E.),  a  Manual  of  Drawing,  319 
Cooperation  in  .'\stronomy.  Prof.   Edward  C.   Pickering,  61 
Cope   (T.    H.),    on   the    Distinction    between    Intrusive   and 

Contemporaneous  Igneous  Rocks,  613 
Corfield  (Prof.  W.  H.),  Death  of,  420 
Corn,     Infection-power    of    Ascospores    in    the    Erysipheae, 

E.  S.  Salmon,   182 
Corona,   on   a    Probable    Relationship    between    the  Solar 

Prominences  and.   Dr.  William  J.  S.  Lockyer    at  Royal 

Astronomical   Society,   257 
a  Coronae,  a  Spectroscopic  Binary,  Prof.  Hartmann,  398 
Cosmical  Time  Scale,  Radium  and  the,  W.  B.  Hardy,  548 
Coste  (Eugene),  the  Origin  of  Natural  Gas  and  Petroleum, 

20 
Coulter  (Prof.),  Embryogeny  of  Zamia,  109 
Country  Life,  Lessons  on,  H.  B.  M.  Buchanan  and  R.  R.  C. 

Gregory,  496 ;  A.   H.   H.   Matthews,   574 ;   the  Reviewer, 

574 
Country  Rambles  :  a  Field  Naturalist's  and  Country  Lover's 

Note  Book  for  a  Year,  W.  Percival  Westell,  149 
Country  Reader,  a,  H.  B.  M.  Buchanan,  246 
Cousin  (H.),  Fatty  Acids  of  Egg  Lecithine,  263 
Cramp  (W.),  on  Single  Phase  Repulsion  Motors,  635 
Crater  Lake,  National  Park,  the  Geology  and  Petrography 

of,  Joseph  Silas  Diller  and  Horace  Bushnell  Patton,  Prof. 

T.  G.   Bonney,   F.R.S.,  574 
Creak  (Captain  Ettrick  W.,  C.B.,   R.N.,   F.R.S.),   Elemen- 
tary Manual  for  the  Deviations  of  the  Compass  in   Iron 

Ships,    148,    199 ;   Opening  Address  in   Section   E   at  the 

Southport  Meeting  of  the  British  Association,  500 
Cr^mieu  (M.),  Magnetic  Action  of  Convection  Currents,  87 
Cremona  (Prof.  Luigi),  Death  of,   180 ;  Obituary  Notice  of, 

393 
Crete,   Italian  Flxcavations  at  Palace  of  Agia  Triada,   near 

Dibaki,  Prof.  Halbheer,  Dr.  Pernier  and  Dr.  Peribeni,  229 
Crete,   Investigation  of  Palace  of  Knossos  in,  A.  J.   Evans 

and  Mr.  Mackenzie,  229 
Crompton  (H.),  on  the  Atomic  Latent  Heats  of  Fusion  of 

the  Metals  considered  from  the  Kinetic  Standpoint,  612 
Crompton    (Lieut. -Colonel),     on    the    Problem    of    Modern 

Street  Traffic,   634 
Crooke  (W.),  on  the  Progress  of  Islam  in  India,  636 
Crookes  (Sir  William,   F.R.S.),   Effect  of  Extreme  Cold  on 

the  Emanations  of  Radium,   213;  the  "Spinthariscope," 

303  ;  Experiments  on  the  Effects  of  Low  Temperature  on 

the  Properties  and  Spectrum  of  Radium,  611 
Crops,   the  Soil  :  an  Introduction  to  the  Scientific  Study  of 

the  Growth  of,  A.  D.  Hall,  52 
Crossley  Reflector  of  the  Lick   Observatory,   the,    162  ;   the 

Mirror  of  the,  Dr.  G.  Johnstone  Stoney,   183 
Grossman     (Ralph     Wallace),     a     Laboratory     Guide     for 

Beginners  in  Zoology,  319 
Crustacea  :   Copepoda  Calanoida,  chiefly  Abyssal,   from  the 

Faroe   Channel    and   other   Parts   of   the    North   Atlantic, 

Canon  A.  M.  Norman,  F.R.S.,   119 
Crystallography  :  Results  of  the  Observation  of  the  Growth 

of  Crystals  by  a  New  Method,  Prof.  H.  A.  Miers,  214 
Crystals,  Photographs  of  Snow,  W.  A.  Bentley,   129 
Cuckoo-Wasps,   Ants  and,   Lieut. -Colonel   C.   T.    Bingham, 

220 
Culex  at  Ismailia,  the  Extirpation  of.  Major  Ronald  Ross 

F.R.S.,  246 
Cullen     (William),     Meteorological     Observations     at     the 

Dynamite  Factory  of  Modderfontein,   165  ;  Nitro-glycerine 

Explosives  :    their    Influence    on    Industrial    Development 

165 


Culture,     Experimental    Psychology    and    its    Bearing    on 

George  Malcolm  Stratton,  Dr.  C.  S.  Myers,  465 
Culverwell  (Edward  P.),  Psychophysical  Interaction,   150 
Cunningham  (Lieut.-Colonel  A.),   Discovery  of  Seven   New 

Factors  of  Fermat's  Numbers,  72 
Curie  (P.),    the   Emanation   of   Radium   and   its  Coefficien' 

of   Diffusion  in  Air,    143;  the  Heat   Radiating  Power  O 

Radium,  372 
Curties  (C.  L.),  New  Monochromatic  Light  Apparatus,  142 
Curtis   (Dr.    Heber    D.),    Limits   of    Unaided    Vision,    256 , 

the   System   of   e    Hydras,    305  ;    the   Spectrum   of   Come: 

1903  '^.  376 ;  the  Spectrum  of  Nova  Geminorum,  425 
Curtiss  (Prof.  R.  H.),  Photographs  of  Comet  1902  h,  305 
Curves,    Expansion,    Prof.    J.    Perry,    F.R.S.,    548;    Prof. 

Alfred  Lodge,  599 
Cuyer  (Ed.),  Anatomic  artistique  des  Animaux,  50 
Cyclones  and  Anticyclones,  Theory  of.  Prof.  F.  H.  Bigelow, 

139 
Cylindrical     Wave,     the     Undistorted,     Oliver     Heaviside, 

F.R.S.,  54 
Cynipides  d 'Europe  et  d'Algerie,   Monographic  des,   I'Abb^ 

J.  J.  Kieffer,  221 


Dakin  (H.  D.),  Hydrolysis  of  Ethyl  Mandelate  by  Lipas''. 
167 

Dallas  (W.  L.),  Photogrammetric  Measurement  of  the 
Height  of  Clouds  at  Simla,  604 

Dalton  Celebrations  at  Manchester,  the,  81 

Dalton's  Enunciation  of  the  Atomic  Theory,  Celebration 
of  the  Centenary  of,  38,  64  ;  the  Atomic  Theory  and  the 
Development  of  Modern  Chemistry,   P.  J.   Hartog,  82 

Daly  (R.  A.),  Mechanics  of  Igneous  Intrusion,  46 

Darite  Alighieri,  a  Key  to  the  Time  Allusions  in  the  Divine 
Comedy  of,  Gustave  Pradeau,  414 

Darwin  (Francis,  F.R.S.),  Willkiirliche  Entwickclungs- 
anderungen  bei  Pflanzen.  Ein  Beitrag  zur  Physiologic 
der  Entwickelung,  Dr.  Georg  Klebs,  265 

Darwin  (Prof.  G.  H.,  F.R.S.),  Radio-activity  and  the  Age 
of  the  Sun,  496 

Daune  (J.),  the  Emanation  of  Radium  and  its  Coefficient  of 
Diffusion  in  Air,   143 

Davidson  (James  W.),  the  Island  of  Formosa,  243 

Davis  (B.  F.),  on  the  Action  of  Malt  Diastase  on  Potato 
Starch  Paste,  611 

Davis  (Prof.  T.  H.),  Atmospheric  Variations,  139 

Davis  (W.  G.),  Climate  of  the  Argentine  Republic,  604  ' 

Dawkins  (Prof.  W.  B.),  Discovery  of  Prehistoric  Imple- 
ments in  the  "  Camp  "  in  Bigbury  Wood,  no 

Dean  (Prof.  B.),  Albinism  in  the  Hag-fishes,  ^79 

Deichmiiller  (Prof.),  Death  of,  135 

Dekhuyzen  (M.  C),  a  Fixing  Liquid  Isotonic  with  Sea- 
Water,  408,  464 

Delacroix  (G.),  Bacterial  Disease  of  Tobacco,  492 

Delage  (Yyes),  Parthenogenesis  by  Carbonic  Acid  obtained 
with  Eggs  after  the  Emission  of  the  Polar  Globules,  544 

Delange  (R.),  the  Abnormal  Fixation  of  Trioxymethylen° 
on  certain  Organo-magnesium  Derivatives,  616 

Delebecque  (Andr^),  on  the  Lakes  of  the  Upper  Engadinc 
613  ;  Origin  of  Rock  Basins,  613 

Demarcay  (Eugene),  Death  of,   134 

Dendrologische  Winterstudien,  Camilla  Karl  Schneider,  220 

Deniker  (Dr.  J.),  Obituary  Notice  of  Dr.  Jean  Baptiste 
S'incent  Laborde,   105 

Denning  (W.  F.),  Radiant  Points  of  July  and  August 
Meteors,  184  ;  White  Spot  on  Saturn,  229  ;  another  White 
Spot  on  Saturn,  247  ;  Bright  Spots  on  Saturn,  279  ;  the 
Spots  on  Saturn,  390  ;  the  Rotation  Period  of  Saturn,  519  ; 
Retarded  Motion  of  the  Great  Red  Spot  on  Jupiter,  390  ; 
Occultation  of  a  Star  by  Jupiter.  631 

Denning,  the  Path  of  Comet  1894  I.,  Dr.  P.  Gast,  606 

Dep^ret  (Ch.),  Ancient  Lines  of  the  Pliocene  and  Quaternary 
Beaches  on  the  French  Coasts  of  the  Mediterranean,  47 

Desfontaines  (M.),  Influence  of  the  Introduction  of  Un- 
saturated Radicles  on  the  Rotatory  Power  of  Active  Mole- 
cules, 239 

Deslandres  (H.),  Spectroscopic  Observations  of  the  Borrelly 
Comet  (1903  c),  408;  Spectrum  of  Comet  1903  c,  424; 
Simplicity  of  the  Spectra  of  the  Kathode  Light  in  Gaseous 
Compoimds  of  Nitrogen  and  Carbon,  520 


Nature, 
Detember  lo, 


J 


Index 


xvn 


besplagnes  (Lieut.   L.),   Archaeological   Excavations  in   the 

'Jumuli  of  Killi,  near  Timbuktu,  233 
Dewar  (Prof.  James,  F.R.S.),  Effect  of  Extreme  Cold  on 
the  Emanations  of  Radium,  213;  the  Heat  Radiating 
Power  of  Radium,  372  ;  Experiments  on  the  Effects  of 
Low  Temperature  on  the  Properties  and  Spectrum  of 
Radium,  611;  Description  of  the  More  Recent  Results 
obtained  from  Investigations  at  Low  Temperatures,  6n 
D'Eyncourt  (E.  H.  Tennyson),  Fast  Coaling  Ships  for  our 

Navy,  208 
Diameter  of  Neptune,  C.  W.  Wirtz,  580 
Diastases,  Lois  g^n^rales  de  I'Action  des,  Victor  Henri,  221 
Hibbits  (Dr.  G.  C),  Death  of,  84 
Dibden  (W.  J.),  Photometry,  30 
Dickson   (H.    N.),    Sea   Temperature   Observations   between 

the  Shetland  and  Faeroe  Islands,  ,86 
Dictionary  of  Philosophy  and  Psychology,  76 
Dietrichkeit    (O.),    Siebenstellige    Logarithmen    und    Anti- 

iogarithmen,  388 
Differential  Equations,  a  Treatise  on,  Prof.  A.  R.  Forsyth 

F.R.S.,   121 
Diffusion,    the   R6le  of,    and   Osmotic   Pressure  in   Plants, 

B.   E.  Livingston,   174 
Digby  (Miss  L.),  Cytology  of  Apogamy  and  Apospory,  71 
Diller    (Joseph    Silas),    the    Geology    and    Petrography    of 

Crater  Lake,  National  Park,  574 
Dines  (W.  H.),  Scientific  Kite  Flying,   154 
Disease,  the  Prevention  of,  49  ;  the  Geography  of  Disease, 

Frank  G.  Clemow,   171 
Di?iribution  of  Diseases,  the,  Frank  G.  Clemow,  171 
Dixie  (Lady  Florence),  Ijain  ;  or,  the  Evolution  of  a  Mind, 

343  ;  Isola;  or,  the  Disinherited,  343 
Dixon    (C),    Open-air   Studies    in    Bird    Life  :    Sketches   of 

British  Birds  in  their  Haunts,  52 
Dixon  (Dr.    Henry   H.),   Temperature  of  the  Subterranean 
Organs   of   Plants,    23  ;    Mercury    Bubbles,    199 ;    the   Co- 
nesion  Theory  of  the  Ascent  of  Sap,  207 ;  the  Part  Played 
by  the  Mesophyll  Cells  in  Transpiration,  262 
Doberck  (Prof,  W.),  the  Orbit  of   i  Booiis,  555 
Dogs  :  Can  Dogs  Reason  ?  Dr.  Alex.  Hill,  7 
Doncaster  (L.),  Experiments  in  Hybridisation,  94 
Dongier    (R.),    the    Measurement    of    Coefficients    of    Self 

induction  by  Means  of  the  Telephone,  288 
Donnan  (F.   G.),   Velocity  and  Mechanism  of  the  Reaction 
between    Potassium    Ferrycyanide   and    Potassium    Iodide 
in  Neutral  Aqueous  Solution,  46 
Donner  (Prof.  A.),  Recently  Determined  Stellar  Parallaxes, 

354 
Doolittle  (C.  L.),  Zenith  Telescope  Results,  234 
Dopplerite,  an  Irish  Specimen  of,  Richard  J.  Moss,  215 
Dorsey   (George  A.),    the   Mishongnovi   Ceremonies  of   the 

Snake  and  Antelope  Fraternities,   m 
Drawing,  a  Manual  of,  C.  E.  Coolidge,  319 
Drovvned,  the  Resuscitation  of  the  Apparently,  326 
Dublin  Royal  Irish  Academy,   119,  215,  262 
Dublin  Royal  Society,  215,  262 

du  Chaillu  (Paul),  Death  and  Obituary  Notice  of,   13 
Duckworth    (Sir    Dyce),     Reverence    and    Hopefulness    in 

Medicine,  555 
Duckworth   (W.   L.   H.),   on  the  Physical  Anthropology  of 

Crete  and  Greece,  635 
Duerden  (Dr.  J.  E.),  West  Indian  Corals,  614 
Duggar  (Prof.),  Osmotic  Action  of  Certain  Salts  on  Marine 

Alga;,  15 
Dugoujon   (Edgar),   the  Chloride  of   Phenylpropargylidene, 

288 
Dumont's  (Santos)  Experiments,   206 
Duncan  (Cecil),  Bacterial  Treatment  of  Sewage  by  Different 

Methods,  278 
Dunstan   (Prof.    W.    R.,    F.R.S.),    the   Chemical    Reactions 

Involved  in  the  Rusting  of  Iron,  117 
Dunstan  (VVyndham   R.,    F.R.S.),   Cyanogenesis  in   Plants, 

Phaseolunatin,   287 
Duporcq  (E.),  Death  of,  13 
Durley  (R.  J.),  Kinematics  of  Machines,  318 
Dust   Storm  of   February  22,   "Red   Rain"  and  the.    Dr. 

T.  E.  Thorpe,  C.B.,  F.R.S.,  53,  222 
Dust  Storms  in  New  Zealand,  P.  Marshall,  223 
Dutton  (Dr.  J.  E.),  Trypanosoma  Disease  in  Upper  Gambia, 
254 ;    Report   of   the   Malaria   Expedition   to   the  Gambia, 


1902,  of  the  Liverpool  School  of  Tropical  Medicine  and 
Medical  Parasitology,  428 
Dymond  (Mr.),  Experiments  in  Testing  Milk,  358 
•  Dynamics  :  Action  of  Live  Things  in  Mechanics,  Sir  Oliver 
Lodge,    F.R.S.,   31  ;   the   Glorification   of   Energy.    Prof 
George  M.  Minchin,  F.R.S.,  31 
Dynamometer,  Transmission,  MM.  Gaiffe  and  Gunther,  47 
Dziewulski  (W.),  Ephemeris  for  Comet  1903  c,  398 

Earp  (R.  S.),  Analysis  of  Red  Rain,   109 

Earth,  Radium  and  the  Geological' Age  of  the.  Prof.  J.  Joly, 

F.R.S.,  526 
Earth-history  of  Central  Europe,  the.  Prof.  Joseph  Partsch 

196 
Earthquakes :  Earthquake  in  Derbyshire,  12  ;  in  Turkish 
Armenia,  85  ;  Earthquake  Shock  in  Italy,  85,  327  ;  Earth- 
quake at  Van,  108  ;  in  Constantinople,  108 ;  Periodicities 
of  the  Tidal  Forces  and  Earthquakes,  R.  D.  Oldham,  11 1  ; 
Earthquake  Shocks  in  North  Wales  and  Anglesey,  180  ; 
Earthquake  at  Erlau,  205  ;  Velocity  with  which  Earth- 
quake Waves  are  Propagated,  Dr.  F.  Omori,  235  ;  Violent 
Earthquake  which  Originated  near  Manila,  Rev.  Marcial 
Sold,  235  ;  Earthquake  on  June  29,  1896,  in  Cyprus,  Dr. 
G.  Agamennone,  235  ;  Earthquake  at  Cape  Town,  253  ; 
at  St.  Vincent,  277  ;  Earthquake  Shocks  in  Spain,  327  ; 
Sudden  Change  in  the  Magnetic  Declination  at  Rome 
Attt^ibuted  to  the  Effect  of  Earthquakes  in  Spain,  Father 
Francesco  Eschinardi,  374 ;  Earthquake  in  Lisbon,  350, 
488  ;  Earthquake  Shocks  at  Malta,  at  Syracuse,  at  Naples, 
and  at  Canea,  350 ;  Earthquake  at  Mendoza,  South 
America,  372  ;  Earthquake  Shock  at  Kimberley,  J.  R. 
Sutton,  389  ;  Earthquake  Observatory  in  Strassburg,  416 ; 
Earthquake  in  Bucharest,  488;  at  Santiago  de  Cuba,  516; 
Earthquakes  at  Blidah,  at  Algiers,  and  in  the  Canaries, 
529 
Easterfield  (Prof.),  Rimu  Resin,  238 ;  the  Karaka  Fruit,  238 
Ebell  (M.),  Comet  1903  b,  42  ;  Comet  1903  c,  255  ;  Search- 

ephemeris  for  Comet  1896  V.  (Giacobini),  256,  491,  606 
Eberhard    (G.),    the    Occurrence    of    Spark    Lines    in    Arc 

Spectra,  17 
Ebner  (Victor  v.),  A.  Koelliker's  Handbuch  der  Gewebelehre 

des  Menschen,  414 
Ebrill  (George),  Derivatives  of  Arabinose,  262 
Eclipses:    the   Partial    Eclipse   of   the   Moon   on   April    11, 

M.   Montangerand,    16.     See  also  Astronomy 
Economics  :    Establishment  of  an   Economic  TripoS"  in   the 
University  of  Cambridge,  159  ;  the  New  Cambridge  Curri- 
culum in  Economics,  Alfred  Marshall,  524 ;  Wages,  Emile 
Levasseur,  372  ;  Economie  rurale,  E.  Jouzier,  388 
Edinburgh,    Reports    from    the    Laboratory    of.  the    Royal 
College  of  Physicians,  123  ;  Edinburgh  Royal  Society,  143, 
214,     383,    408;     the    Wild    Horse    {Equus    ptzewalskii, 
Poliakoff),  Prof.  J.  C.  Ewart,  F.R.S.,  271 
Edington      (Dr.),      Trypanosomatous      Epidemic      among 

Domesticated  Animals  in  Mauritius,  181 
Edison  (Mr.),  Alkaline  Storage  Battery  Developed  for  Com- 
mercial Use,  460 
Edser  (Edwin),  Spherical  Aberration  of  the  Eye,  8 ;  Pheno- 
mena of  Vision,  177 ;  Manual  of  Advanced  Optics, 
C.  Riborg  Mann,  217;  Practical  Exercises  in  Light: 
being  a  Laboratory  Course  for  Schools  of  Scienpe  and 
Colleges,  R.  S.  Clay,  217  ;  Elementary  Ophthalmic  Optics, 
Freeland  Fergus,  217;  Geometrical  Optics:  an  Elemen- 
tary Treatise  upon  the  Theory  and  its  Practical  Appli- 
cation to  the  more  Exact  Measurements  of  Optical  Proper- 
ties, Thomas  H.  Blakesley,  217;  Das  Stereoskop,  Seine 
anwendung  in  den  technischen  Wissenschaft.  Uber 
Entstehung  und  Konstruktion  Stereoskopischer  Bilder, 
Wilhelm  Manchot,  217 
Education  :  Engineering  Education  Abroad,  17 ;  the  Uni- 
versity and  the  Modern  State,  25,  241,  337;  the  London 
Education  Bill,  36 ;  Education  in  Accordance  with  Natural 
Law,  Charles  B.  Ingham,  150 ;  Establishment  of  an 
Economic  Tripos  in  the  University  of  Cambridge,  159 ; 
the  New  Cambridge  Curriculum  in  Economics,  Alfred 
Marshall,  524  ;  the  Educational  Systems  of  Great  Britain 
and  Ireland,  Graham  Balfour,  175 ;  Arnold's  Country- 
side Readers,  175  ;  Arnold's  Sea-side  Readers,  175  ;  School 
Geometry  Reform,  R.  W.  H.  T.  Hudson,   177;  the  Uni- 


XVlll 


Index 


[Nature, 
December  lo,  1903 


versity  of  London,  201;  a  •  Charlottenburg  Institute  for 
London,  203  ;  the  Allied  Colonial  Universities  Conference, 
ffljl)  250  ;  School  Geometry  Reform,  Prof.  Frank  R.  Barrell, 
296 ;  Thirty  Years  of  University  Education  in  France, 
Cloudesley  Brereton,  323  ;  a  School  Geometry,  H.  S.  Hall 
and  F.  H.  Stevens,  414;  the  Teaching  of  Psychology  in 
.  the  Universities  of  the  United  States,  Dr.  C.  .S.  Myers  at 
Psychological  Society  at  Cambridge,  425  ;  an  Introduction 
to  Nature-study,  E.  Stenhouse,  546  ;  Arithmetic  for  Schools 
and  Colleges,  John  Alison  and  John  B.  Clark,  547 ; 
Botany  in  Boys'  Schools,  H.  J.  Glover,  548;  University 
Education,  Sir  Victor  Horsley,  555  ;  Cambridge  in  the 
Old  World  and  in  the  New,  Dr.  C.  S.  Myers,  572  ;  Human 

.  Science  and  Education,  Prof.  P.  Gardner,  597  ;  the  Effect 
of  Education  and  Legislation  on  Trade,  Dr.  F.  Mollwo 
Perkin,  602  ;  Higher  Technical  Education  in  Great 
Britain  and  Germany,  Dr.  F.  Rose,  Prof.  J.  Wertheimer, 
274;  a  Technical  School  for  the  Highlands  of  Scotland, 
^97;  Technical  Education  and  Industry,  Sir  William 
Ramsay,  576 

Edwards  (William),  Surface  ■  Geology  of  Cheshire  in  its 
Relation  to  Agricjlture,  579 

Egypt  :  Survey  of  the  Fishes  of  the  Nile,  W.  S.  Loat,  no; 
Manures  in  Use  in  Egypt,  E.  P.  Foaden,;358;  Topo- 
graphy and  Geology  of  the  Eastern  Desert  of  Egypt 
((Central  Portion),  T.  Barron  and  W.  F.  Hume,  569 

Egyptology  :  the  Restoration  of  the  Ancient  Irrigation 
Works  of  the  Tigris  :  or  the  Re-creation  of  Chaldea  and 
Egypt  Fifty  Years  Hence,  Sir  William  Willcocks,  81  ; 
Fossil  Vertebrata  from  the  Fayum,  185  ;  Excavations  at 
Beni    Hasan,    Mr.    Garstang,    229;    Giant    Land   Tortoise 

.  from  the  Eocene  of  the  Fayum  District,  Dr.  Andrews 
and  Mr.  Beadnell,  255  ;  Note  on  the  Corrosion  of  an 
Egyptian  Image,  H.  Bassett,  jun.,  238  ;  Skull  of  Egyptian 
Eocene  Mammal  Arsinotherium  zUteli  in  the  Natural 
History  Museum,  Dr.  C.  W.  Andrews,  349 

Eiffel  (G.),  Experiments  on  the  Resistance  of  the  Air,  263 

Eiweissmolekiils,  Die  Grosse  des.  Dr.  F.  N.  Schulz, 
F.  Escombe,  123 

Elb6e  (L.),  Mammoth  Discovered  in  lakousk,   109 

Elbs  (Dr.  Karl),  Electrolytic  Preparations,  571 

Electricity  :  Contribution  a  1 'Etude  du  Mode  de  Production 
de  I'Electricitc^  dans  les  fitres  vivants.  Dr.  Louis  Querton, 
5  ;  Commencement  of  the  Proposed  Electric  Railway  to 
the  Summit  of  Mont  Blanc,  12  ;  Proposed  Wireless  Tele- 
graphy with  Iceland,  14  ;  the  Power  of  the  Marconi  Wire- 
less  Telegraph    Station    at    Poldhu,    Prof.    Fleming,    134; 

-  Relations  between  the  Pest  Office  and  the  Marconi  Wire- 
less Telegraph  Co.,  Austen  Chamberlain,  134;  Wireless 
Telegraphy,  E.  A.  N.  Pochin,  187 ;  Wireless  Telegraph 
Experiments    by    the    Navy    Department    of    the    United 

.  States,  395 ;  Wireless  Telegraphy  in  Mid-Atlantic,  Mr. 
Marconi,  420 ;  the  Berlin  Conference  on  Wireless  Tele- 
graphy, Maurice  Solomon,  437  ;  System  of  Wireless  Tele- 
graphy for  Warning  Ships  at  Sea  of  Approaching  Danger, 

C.  E.  Kelway,  604;  Use  of  Electricity  in  Mines,  Selby 
Bigge,  14 ;  on  the  Carrying  of  the  Charge  in  Experi- 
ments on  Electric  Convection,  N.  Vasilesco-Karpen,  24  ; 
Electric  Lighting,  A.  G.  Cooke,  30;  New  Pattern  of 
Electric  Lamp,   41  ;   the  Cleanliness  of  Electric  Lighting, 

D.  S.  Munro,  181  ;  Nernst  Lamps,  J.  Stottner,  117;  Two 
Incandescent  Electric  Lamps  Designed  to  give  Good 
Illumination  Vertically  Downwards,  E.  .  Bohm,  350  ; 
Death  of  Worms  de  Romilly,  38 ;  Electrification  of  the 
Mersey  Railway,  40  ;  Use  of  a  Rotating  Kathode  in  the 
Electrolytic  Determination  of  the  Metals,  F.  A.  Gooch 
and  H.  E.  Medway,  46 ;  Metallic  Diaphragms,  Andr6 
Trochet,  47 ;  Transmission  Dynamometer,  MM.  Gaiffe 
and  Giinther,  47 ;  Electrical  Problems  for  Engineering 
Students,  W.   L.   Hooper  and  R.   T.  Wells,   52  ;  the  Un- 

■  distorted  Cylindrical  W'ave,  Oliver  Heaviside,  F.R.S.,  54; 
Photograph  of  Oscillatory  Electric  Spark,  C.  J.  Watson, 
56 ;  Behaviour  of  the  Weston  Galvanic  Cell,  66 ;  Construc- 
tion and  Attachment  of  Galvanometer  Mirrors,  Dr. 
■  Watson,  71;  Telephone  Lines,  W.  C.  Owen,  76 ;  Tele- 
phonic Communication  between  London  and  Brussels, 
158;  Extension  of  Kelvin's  Thermoelectric  Theory,  Oliver 
Heaviside,  F.R.S.,  78;  Opening  of  London  County 
Council's  Electrical  Tramways,  85;  Electric  Installation 
for  Electromedical  work  at  Middlesex  Hospital,  85  ;  Mag- 


netic Action  of  Convection  Currents,  MM.  Cr^mieu  and 
Pender,  87 ;  Electrolytic  Reduction  of  Pheno-  and 
Naphtho-morpholones,  F.  H.  Lees  and  F.  Sheddon,  94 ; 
Electrolysis  of  Alkaline  Sulphides,  Andr^  Brochet  and 
Georges  Ranson,  95  ;  Electrical  Conductivity  of  Selenium 
in  the  Presence  of  Bodies  Treated  with  Ozone,  Edmond 
van  Aubel,  96  ;  Atmospheric  Electricity,  G.  T.  R.  Wilson, 
F.R.S.,  102  ;  lonisation  of  Air  by  an  Electrified  Point, 
Prof.  A.  Righi,  109 ;  on  the  Photo-electric  Discharge 
from  Metallic  Surfaces  in  Different  Gases,  W.  Mansergh 
Varley,  116;  the  Electrolysis  of. Barium  Sulphide  with  a 
Diaphragm,  Andr6  Brochet  and  Georges  Ranson,  119; 
the  Electrolytic  Separation  of  Manganese  and  Iron,  of 
Aluminium  from  Iron  or  Nickel,  and  of  Zinc,  from  Iron, 
MM.Hollard  and  Bertiaux,  120;  Cause  of  the  Electrical 
Conductivity  of  the  Air  in  the  Neighbourhood  of  Phos- 
phorus Undergoing  Slow  Oxidation,  Messrs.  Elster  and 
Geitel,  137 ;  Thompson  Effect  in  Alloys  of  Bismuth  and 
Tin,  S.  C.  Laws,  142  ;  Electrolytic  Reduction  of  Un- 
saturated Acids,  C.  Marie,  144 ;  Mono-rail  High  Speed 
Electric  Railway  between  Liverpool  and  Manchester,  158  ; 
New  General  Relation  between  Electromotive  Forces  of 
Saline  Solutions,  M.  Berthelot,  167 ;.  Electrical  Osmosis, 
Jean  Perrin,  167;  Internal  Combustion  Engines  for 
Driving  Dynamos,  H.  A.  Humphrey,  186 ;  the  Positive 
lonisation  Produced  by  Hot  Platinum  in  Air  at  Low 
Pressures,  O.  W.  Richardson,  190 ;  Discharge  of  Elec- 
tricity from  Hot  Platinum,  Harold  A.  Wilson,  261;  Con- 
ditions which  Determine  the  Sense  and  Magnitude  of 
Electrification  by  Contact,  Jean  Perrin,  191;  New  Ex- 
pression of  the  Law  of  Electrical  Stimulation,  M.  and- 
Mme.  L.  Lapicque,  192  ;  a  Treatise  on  the  Theory  of 
Solution,  including  the  Phenomena  of  Electrolysis, 
W.  C.  D.  Whetham,  197  ;  Luminosity  of  the  Ions,  W.  von 
Bolton,  211;  La  Tecnica  delle  Correnti  .  Alternate, 
G.  Sartori,  221  ;  Investigation  of  the  Bending  of  Electric 
Waves  Round  a  Spherical  Obstacle,  H.  M.  MacUonald, 
F.R.S.,  232  ;  the  "  Blaze  "  Currents  in  Animal  and  Vege- 
table Tissues,  Dr.  Waller, .  238  ;  Electrolytic  Estimation 
of  Minute  Quantities  of  Arsenic,  Prof.  T.  E.  Thorpe, 
F.R.S.,  238;  Influence  of  Electrons  on  Colloidal  Solutians, 
W^  B.  Hardy,  F.R.S.,  239 ;  Precipitation  of  Colloidal 
Solutions  by  Electrolytes,  Dr.  Freundlich,  255 ;  Contact 
Electrification  and  the  Theory  of  Colloid  Solutions,  Jean 
Perrin,  6i6;  the  Action  of  the  Electrophorus,  Dr.  Otto 
Geschoser,  253  ;  lonisation  in  Atmospheric  Air,  J.  A. 
McClelland,  262  ;  the  Power  Transmission  Installation 
from  St.  Maurice  to  Lausanne,  Dr.  D.  K.  Morris,  278  ; 
Chlorine  Smelting  with  Electrolysis,  Mr.  Swinburne,  285  ; 
the  Theory  of  Electrolysis,  W.  C.  Dampier  Whetham, 
288 ;  American  Electrochemical  Society,  Presidential 
Address,  Dr.  Joseph  W.  Richards,  299  ;  Relation  between 
the  Dielectric  Cohesion  of  a  Gas  and  its  Temperature, 
E.  Bouty,  240 ;  Determination  of  the  Electrochemical 
Equivalent  of  Silver,  MM.  Pellat  and  Leduc,  240 ;  Action 
of  Tesla  Coil  on  Radiometer,  Prof.  P.  L.  Narasu,  295  ; 
the  Electrical  Dichroism  of  Liquids  Containing  Crystal- 
line Particles  in  Suspension,  J.  Chaudier,  336;  Electrical 
Type-setting  Machine,  M.  Tavernier,  351  ;  Summer 
Lightning,  Sir  Arch.  Geikie,  F.R.S.,  367;  the  Fire  on 
the  Paris  Metropolitan  Railway,  373  ;  Apparatus  for 
Determining  Latent  Heats  of  Evaporation  in  Electrical 
Units,  A.  Cameron  Smith,  383  ;  Quantitative  Chemical 
Analysis  by  Electrolysis,  Prof.  Classen,  Dr.  F.  Mollwo 
Perkin,  412;  Electric  Automobile  Chairs,  421;  Alkaline 
Storage  Battery  Developed  for  Commercial  Use,  Mr. 
Edison,  460;  Electric  Railway  at  Zossen,  516;  Electric 
Railway  Trials  between  Zossen  and  Marienfeld,  529 ; 
Trials  of  the  High  Speed  Electric  Cars  on  the  Berlin- 
Zossen  Military  Line,  577  ;  High-speed  Trials  of  Siemens 
Car  at  Berlin,  627  ;  a  Treatise  on  Electromagnetic  Pheno- 
mena and  on  the  Compass  and  its  Deviations  Aboard 
Ship,  Commander  T.  A.  Lyons,  524;  an  Unpublished 
Manuscript  of  Volta,  Prof.  Alessandro  Volta,  552  ;  II 
Moto  degli  loni  nelle  Scariche  elettriche,  Augusto  Righi, 
571  ;  Cheap  ■  Electric  Switchboards  for  Use  with  Con- 
tinuous Current,  William  Bennett,  580 ;  Electrolytic  Pre- 
parations,. Dr.  Karl  Elbs,  571  ;  Atmospheric  Electricity  at 
High  Altitudes,  W.  Saake,  578  ;  Conditions  which  Deter- 
mine the  Sign   and   the   Magnitude  of   Electrification   by 


Nature, 
December  lo,  1903. 


Index 


XIX 


Contact,  Jean  Perrin,  592  ;  Electrolytic  Refining  of 
Copper,  F.  J.  Schwab  and  I.  Baum,  630;  the  Standard- 
isation of  Electrical  Pressures  and  Frequencies,  631 

i^llis  (C.  Sordes),  the  Elementary  Chemistry  of  Photographic 
Chemicals,  619 

leister  (Mr.),  Cause  of  the  Electrical  Conductivity  of  the 
Air  in  the  Neighbourhood  of  Phosphorus  Undergoing 
Slow  Oxidation,  137 

I.mbryoiogy  :  Furchung  und  Keimblattbildung  bei  Tarsius 
Spec  trum,  A.  A.  W.  Hubrecht,  341  ;  Lehrbuch  der 
vergieichenden  Entwicklungsgeschichte  der  wirbellosen 
Thiere,  Profs.  E.  Korschelt  and  K.  Heider,  523 

Kncyclop;cdia  Biblica,  a  Critical  Dictionary  of  the  Literary, 
Political,  and  Religious  History,  the  Archaeology,  Geo- 
graphy, and  Natural  History  of  the  Bible,  Rev.  T.  K. 
Cheyne  and  J.  Sutherland  Black,   148 

ICncytiopjedia  Britannica,  the  New,  98 

i;nprgy  Emitted  by  Radio-active  Bodies,  Hon.  R.  J. 
Strult,   6 

Ivnergv,  the  Glorification  of.  Prof.  George  M.  Minchin, 
F.R'.S..  31 

i:ngineering  :  Engineering  Education  Abroad,  17;  Electrical 
Problems  for  Engineering  Students,  W.  L.  Hooper  and 
R.  T.  Wells,  52  ;  Telephone  Lines,  W.  C.  Owen,  76 ; 
London  County  Council,  Shrinkage  of  the  Thames  and 
Lea,  Report  by  Maurice  Fitzmaurice,  104  ;  an  E^lementary 
Treatise  on  the  Mechanics  of  Machinery,  with  Special 
Reference  to  the  Mechanics  of  the  Steam  Engine,  Joseph 
N.  Le  Conte,  124;  some  Unsolved  Problems  in  Engineer- 
ing, "  James  Forrest  "  Lecture  at  Institution  of  Civil 
ivngineers,  W.  H.  Maw,  163 ;  Death  of  Prof.  Luigi 
Cremona,  180;  Obituary  Notice  of,  393;  the  Engineering 
Conference,  185  ;  the  Design  of  Permanent  Way  and 
Locomotives  for  High  Speeds,  J.  C.  Inglis,  i8b ;  the 
Speed  of  Overhead  and  other  Cranes  as  a  Factor  in  the 
Economic  Handling  of  Material  in  Working  Crane  Work, 
Archd.  P.  Head,  186;  Internal  Combustion  Engines  for 
Driving  Dynamos,  H.  A.  Humphrey,  186  ;  the  Com- 
parative Merits  of  Drilling  and  Punching  in  Steel  for 
Shipbuilding,  A.  F.  Yarrow,  187  ;  Fast  Coaling  Ships  for 
our  Navy,  E.  H.  Tennyson  D'Eyncourt,  208;  Means  for 
Converting  a  Moderate  Speed  Steamer  into  One  of  Very 
High  Speed  for  Warlike  Purposes,  James  Hamilton,  208  ; 
on  Cross  Channel  Steamers,  Prof.  J.  H.  Biles,  208;  some 
New  Features  of  Superheaters,  Prof.  W.  H.  Watkinson, 
209  ;  A.  F.  Yarrow,  209  ;  A.  Morcom,  209  ;  Modern  Steam 
Turbines  and  their  Application  to  the  Propulsion  of 
\essels,  Hon.  C.  A.  Parsons,  209 ;  the  Parsons  Steam 
Turbine,  331;  the  Power  Transmission  Installation  from 
St.  Maurice  to  Lausanne,  Dr.  D.  K.  Morris,  278;  La 
Prospection  des  Mines  et  leur  Mise  en  Valeur,  Maurice 
Lecomte-Denis,  267  ;  Duty  of  Providing  for  the  Medical 
and  Sanitary  Requirements  of  the  Men  Collected  for 
Carrying  out  Engineering  Works,  Mr.  Fitzmaurice,  309  ; 
Lehrbuch  der  technischen  Physik,  Prof.  Dr.  Hans  Lorenz, 
364 ;  Coal  as  Fuel  at  Barrow-in-Furness,  W.  F.  Petti- 
grew,  463  ;  Death  and  Obituary  Notice  of  Henry  M. 
Hrunel,  577;  the  Standardisation  of  Electrical  Pressures 
and  Frequencies,  631  ;  the  Protection  of  Iron  and  other 
Metal-work,  William  M.  Hamlet,  639 ;  Elastic  Radial 
Deformations  in  the  Rims  and  Arms  of  Flywheels, 
A.    Boyd,   640 

ICngler  (Carl),  Auto-oxidation,   157 

Entomology  :  "  Dentition  "  of  Flies,  W,  H.  Haris,  41  ; 
Venation  of  the  Wings  of  Dragon-flies,  J.  G.  Needham, 
67 ;  Experiments  in  Hybridisation,  L.  Doncaster,  94 ; 
Labial  and  Maxillary  Palpi  in  Diptera,  Mr.  Wesch6,  91?  ; 
Departmental  Notes  on  Insects  that  Affect  Forestry,  E.  P. 
Stebbing,  loi  ;  Entomological  .Society,  118,  213,  615; 
Nest  Cells  of  Osmia  xanthromelana  from  Conway,  North 
Wales,  Willoughby  Gardner,  118;  Neophaedimus  mela- 
h'uctis,  Fairm.,  a  Goliath  Beetle  from  Upper  Tonkin, 
O.  E.  Janson,  118;  on  Polygonia  C-alhtim  in  the  Attitude 
of  Prolongetl  Repose,  Prof.  Poulton,  118;  the  Destruction 
of  Termites,  A.  Loir,  120;  the  "Diffusion"  of  Insects 
in  North  America,  F.  M.  Webster,  136 ;  Entomology  at 
the  Cape,  Mr.  Ix)unsbery,  140 ;  New  Case  of  Protective 
Mimicry  in  a  Caterpillar,  R.  Shelford,  187;  Dry  Form 
of  Precis  actio  Bred  by  Guy  A.  K.  Marshall  from  an  Egg 
Laid  by  a  Female  of  the  Wet  Form,  213;  the  Fauna  of 
British   India,    including   Burma   and   Ceylon.     Hymeno- 


ptera.  Vol.  ii.  Ants  and  Cuckoo-wasps,  Lieut. -Colonel 
Bingham,  220 ;  Monographie  des  Cynipides  d'Europe  et 
d'Algdrie,  I'Abb^  J.  J.  Kieffer,  221  ;  Coleopterous  Insect 
Embedded  in  the  Wall  of  the  Human  Intestine,  D.  Sharp, 
F.R.S.,  239;  some  Injurious  F"lea-beetles,  Mr.  Theobald, 
357 ;  a  Mite  whose  Eggs  Survive  the  Boiling  Point, 
J.  Adams,  437;  Relations  Existing  between  Vcspa 
austriaca  and  V.  rufa,  Messrs.  Carpenter  and  Beresford, 
460  ;  the  Insect  Folk,  Margaret  Warner  Morley,  595  ;  Ways 
of  the  Six-footed,  Anna  Botsford  Comstock,  595  ;  Mimicry 
between  Butterflies,  Roland  Trimen,  F.R.S.,  615 ; 
HomoDOchromatism  in  European  Butterflies,  Dr.  T.  A. 
Chapman,  615 
Entwicklungsgeschichte,  Lehrbuch  der  vergleichenden,  der 
wirbellosen  Thiere,   Profs.   E.   Korschelt  and   K.   Heider, 

Enzenberger  (Josef),   Death  of,  38 

Ephemeris  for  Faye's  Comet,  Search,  Prof.  E.  Stromgren, 
207 

Ephemeris  for  Winnecke's  Periodical  Comet,  1903-4, 
C.  Hillebrand,  580 

5  Equulei,  Parallax  of  the  Binary  System,  W.  J.  Hussey, 
69  ;  Prof.  A.  A.   Rambaut,  69 

Erlwein  (G.),   Synthetic  Cyanide  Processes,   210 

"  Eros  "  Circular,  the  Tenth,  Prof.  H.  H.  Turner,  F.R.S., 
276 

Eros,  the  Opposition  of,  in  1905,  Prof.  Pickering,  580 

Errata  in  Various  Star  Catalogues,  G.  Boccardi,  555 

Errera  (Prof.),  Not  Possible  for  Organisms  to  Exist  Appreci- 
ably Smaller  than  those  which  can  be  Observed  with 
Microscope,   136 

Eruptions  :  Santa  Maria  Volcano  in  Guatemala  in  Active 
Eruption,  12;  Eruption  of  Soufri^re  on  April  22,  66; 
Mont  Pel^e  and  the  Tragedy  of  Martinique,  Angelo  Heil- 
prin,  Dr.  John  S.  Flett,  73  ;  see  also  Volcanoes 

Eschinardi  (Father  Francesco),  Sudden  Change  in  the  Mag- 
netic Declination  at  Rome  Attributed  to  the  Effect  of 
Earthquakes  in  Spain,  374 

Esclangon  (M.),  Twilights  Observed  at  Bordeaux  During 
the  Winter  of  1902-1903,  47 

Escombe  (F.),  Die  Grosse  des  Eiweissmolekiils,  Dr.  F.  N. 
Schulz,  123 

Etard  (A.),  on  the  Presence  of  Cadaverine  in  the  Products 
of  the  Hydrolysis  of  Muscle,   120 

Ethnography:  Maori  Art,  A.  Hamilton,  Prof.  A.  C. 
Haddon,  F.R.S.,  35;  Ethnographical  Studies  in  North 
Queensland,  Superstition,  Magic,  and  Medicine,  Walter 
E.  Roth,  235  ;  Ethnographical  Expedition  to  British  New 
Guinea,  256 

Ethnology  :  American  Symbolism,  Dr.  Alfred  L.  Kroeber, 
20;  the  Ethnology  of  the  Malay  Peninsula,  298;  Chota 
Nagpore  :  a  Little  Known  Province  of  the  Empire,  F.  B. 
Bradley  Birt,  J.  F.  Hewitt,  369;  American  Ethnol(^y, 
427 

Etiolation,  D.  T.  Macdougal,  10 

Eucalypts,  the,  D.  E.  Hutchins  and  E.  Hutchins,  320 

Eulenberg  (Dr.  F.),  Ages  of  German  University  Professors 
in  1901,  231 

Europe:  Central  Europe,  Prof.  Joseph  Partsch,  196 ;  Mono- 
graphic des  Cynipides  d'Europe  et  d'Alg^rie,  I'Abb^  J.  J. 
Kieffer,  221 

Eustace  (Dr.  G.  W.),  Rudimentary  Horns  in  Horses,  262 

Evans  (Dr.  A.  J.),  Investigation  of  Palace  of  Knossos  in 
Crete,  229;  on  the  Latest  Discoveries  in  the  Palace  of 
Knossos,  637 

Evans  (J.  E.),  the  "  Canals  "  on  Mars.  190     . 

Evatt  (Dr.  E.  J.),  on  the  Pads  and  Papillary  Ridges  on  the 
Palm  of  the  Hand,  635 

Everett  (Prof.  J,  D.,  F.R.S.),  on  a  Map  that  will  Solve 
Problems  in  the  Use  of  the  Globes,  294;  Rocket  Light- 
ning, 599 

Everett  (W.  H.),  Rocket  Lightning,  i^qg 

Ewart  (Prof.  J.  C,  F.R.S.),  the  Wild  Horse  {Equus  prze. 
walskii,  Poliakoff),  271 

Ex-Meridian  Observations  of  Altitude,  New  Table  for, 
H.  B.  Goodwin,  397 

Excavations  at  Nippur,  Recent,  177 

Expansion  Curves,  Prof.  J.  Perry,  F.R.S.,.  «;48  ;  Prof.  Alfred 
Lodge,  599 

Experiments  on  Animals,  Stephen  Paget,,  74 

Experiment  Station  Record,  the,  621 


xa 


tndedc 


\_Dece)>iie->'  lo,  1903 


Explosives  :  Nitro-Glycerine  Explosives,  their  Influence  on 
Industrial  Development,   William  Cullen,    165 

Eye,  Spherical  Aberration  of  the,  W.  L.,  8;  Edwin  Edser, 
8:  W.  Betz.  8 


Fabry  (Prof.  Ch.),  La  Structure  des  Spectres,  308 
Factories,   Prevention  of  Accidents  in,   E.   Magrini,    G.   H. 

Baillie,  219 
Factories  and  Workshops,  First  Report  of  the  Departmental 

Committee  Appointed  to  Inquire  into  the  Ventilation  of, 

Fallaize  (E.  N.),  Classification  of  the  Subject-matter  of  An- 
thropology, 47 

Faraday  Society,  285,  288 ;  Chlorine  Smelting  with  Elec- 
trolysis, Mr.  Swinburne,  285 

Farmer  (Prof.  J.  B.,  F.R.S.),  Cytology  of  Apogamy  and 
Apospory,  71  ;  the  Reduction  Phenomena  of  Animals  and 
Plants,  335 

Farmer's  Business  Handbook,  the,  J.  P,  Roberts,  173 

Farthest  North,  the,  H.R.H.  Luigi  Amedeo  of  Savoy,  Duke 
of  the  Abruzzi,  79 

Fasciculi    Malayenses :   Anthropology,   298 

Fassa,  the  Geological  Structure  of  Monzoni  and,  Dr. 
Maria  M.  Ogilvie-Gordon,  413 

Fauna  of  British  India,  Including  Ceylon  and  Burma,  the 
Hymenoptera,  vol.  ii,.  Ants  and  Cuckoo-wasps,  Lieut.- 
Colonel  C.  T.  Bingham,  220 

Faye's  Comet,  Search  Ephemeris  for.  Prof.  E.  Stromgren, 
207,  461 

Fayet  (G.),  Comet  1903  c,  233  ;  Elements  of  the  Borrelly 
Comet,  239 

Fearnsides  (W.  G.),  on  the  Discovery  of  Fossils  Round  the 
South-west  and  North-west  Flanks  of  Snowdon,  613 

Feeble  Illuminations,  Measufrement  of  the  Intensity  of, 
M.  Touchet,  279 

Fergus  (Freeland),  Elementary  Ophthalmic  Optics,  217 

Fermentation  :  La  Pratique  des  Fermentations  Industrielles, 
E.  Ozard,  53  ;  the  Chemical  Changes  and  Products  Re- 
sulting from,  R.  H.  Aders  Plimmer,  99 ;  Die  Zymase- 
garung  Untersuchungen  iiber  den  Inhalt  der  Hefezellen 
und  die  biologische  Seite  des  Garungsproblems,  Eduard 
Buchner,  Hans  Buchner  and  Martin  Hahn,  Dr.  Arthur 
Croft  Hill,  381^ ;  Fermentation  Organisms,  a  Laboratory 
Handbook,  Alb.  Klocker,  387  * 

Fern-cycads,  Were  the,  Seed-bearing  Plants?  Prof.  F.  W. 
Oliver  and  Dr.  D.  H.  Scott,  F.R.S.,  113 

Field  Experiments  in  Victoria,  1887-1900,  Report  on,  A.  N. 
Pearson,  467 

Field's  Method,  Separation  of  Iron  from  Nickel  and  Cobalt 
■by  Lead  Oxide,  T.  H.  Laby,  640 

Figueras  (J.),  Silicides  of  Chromium,  143 

Filters,  the  Danger  of  Faulty  Connections  in,  382 

Finsen  (Prof.),  the  Light  Treatment  of  Lupus,  254 

Fire,  Invention  to  Notify  Automatically  the  Outbreak  of, 
Emile  Guarini,   490 

Fischer  (Emil),  Synthesen  in  der  Purin-  und  Zuckergruppe, 
466 

Fish  (P.  A.),  Brain  of  the  Walrus,  15 

Fisher  (Amos  T.),  Elements  of  Physics,  Experimental  and 
Descriptive,  389 

Fisher  (Mr.),  Californian  Red  Wood  {Sequoia  sempervireus), 
no 

Fisheries  :  British  Fisheries  Investigations,  Prof.  W.  C. 
M'Intosh,  15  ;  Development  of  Some  South  African  Fishes, 
Dr.  J.  D.  F.  Gilchrist,  165 ;  Fisheries  Investigation  in 
Ireland,  419 

Fishes  :  Bass,  Pike,  Perch  and  Others,  James  A.  Henshall, 
363  ;  Big  Game  Fishes  of  the  United  States,  Chas.  F. 
Holder,  363 

Fitzgerald  (W.  V.),  New  West  Australian  Plants,  264 

Fitzmaurice  (Mr.),  Duty  of  Providing  for  the  Medical  and 
Sanitary  Requirements  of  the  Men  Collected  for  Carrying 
Out  Engineering  Works,  309 

Flammarion  (M.),  Observations  of  Mars,  606 

Fleming  (Prof.),  the  Power  of  the  Marcbni  Wireless  Tele- 
graph Station  at  Poldhu,    134 

Flett  (Dr.  John  S.),  Mont  Pel6e  and  the  Tragedy  of  Mar- 
tinique, Angelo  Heilprin,  73 

Flora  of  the  Island  of  Jersey,  L.  V,  Lester  Garland, 
525 


Flora  of  the  Presidency  of  Bombay,  the,  Theodore  Cook, 

Prof.  Percy  Groom,  386 
Flour  Milling,  the  Science  of,  Prof.  Girard  and  M.  Lindet, 

William  Jago,   i 
Flow  of  Steam  from  Nozzles,  Prof.  John  Perry,  F.R.S.,  624 
Flowering  Plants,  their  Structure  and  Habitat,  Charlotte  L. 

Laurie,  621 
Flowers,  a  Concise  Handbook  of     Garden,  H.  M.  Batson, 

571 
Flowers,  Purple,  Captain  F.  W,  Hutton,  F.R.S.,  223 
Fluorescence,  Radium,  F.  Harrison  Glew,  200 
Foaden  (E.  P.),  Manures  in  Use  in  Egypt,  358 
Foetal     or     New-born     Giraffes     Wanted,     Prof.     E.     Ray 

Lankester,  F.R.S.,  176 
Foley  (Mr.),   Californian  Red  Wood  Sequoia  sempervireus, 

no 
Fonvielle  (W.  de).  Spontaneous  Combustion  of  Balloons,  95  ; 

the   German  Aeronautical   Society's   Balloon   Crosses   the 

Baltic,   135 
Forbes  (Dr.  Henry  O.),  Papers  and  Procedure  at  the  British 

Association,  622 
Forcrand  (M.  de).  Physical  Properties  of  Trimethylcarbinol, 

47 

Forel  (F.  A.),  Bishop's  Circle  and  the  Eruptions  at 
Martinique,  384;  Bishop's  Ring  and  the  Eruption  of  Mont 
Pel^e,  396 

Forestry  :  Tree  Plantations  on  the  Gathering  Grounds  of 
Waterworks,  66 ;  Departmental  Notes  on  Insects  that 
Affect  Forestry,  E.  P.  Stebbing,  loi  ;  Californian  Red 
Wood  Sequoia  sempervireus,  Mr.  Fisher,  Prof,  von 
Schrenck,  Mr.  Foley,  no;  Dendrologische  Winterstudien, 
Camilla  Karl  Schneider,  220 ;  Sylviculture,  Albert  Fron, 
221  ;  the  Eucalypts,  D.  E.  Hutchins  and  E.  Hutchins, 
320 ;  Forestry  of  Africa,  D.  E.  Hutchins,  405  ;  Forestry 
in  the  United  States,  406  ;  the  Forests  of  Oregon,  Henry 
Gannett,  406  ;  Forestry  in  the  State  of  Washington,  Henry 
Gannett,  406 ;  Forestry  in  the  Cascade  Range,  Fred.  G. 
Plummer,  406 ;  Training  of  Forest  Officers,  .Sir  W.  T. 
Thiselton-Dyer,  F.R.S.,  416 

Formosa,  the  Island  of,  James  W.  Davidson,  243 

"  Forrest  (J^mes)  "  Lecture  at  Institution  of  Civil 
Engineers,  Some  Unsolved  Problems  in  Engineering, 
W.  H.  Maw,  163 

Forsyth  (Prof.  A.  R.,  F.R.S.),  a  Treatise  on  Differential 
Equations,  121 

Forthcoming  Books  of  Science,  588 

Fosse  (R.),  Reaction  Giving  Rise  to  Symmetrical  Diphenyl- 
pyrones,  24 

Fossil  Man  of  Lansing,  Kansas,  the,  Prof.  Karl  Pearson, 
F.R.S.,  7 

Fossils,  Method  for  Investigation  of,  by  Serial  Sections, 
Prof.  W.  J.  Sollas,  F.R.S.,  237 

Foster  (Prof.  C.  Le  Neve,  F.R.S.),  Mining  Accidents  in 
1902,  629 

Four-figure  Logarithms,  Tables  of.  Prof.  John  Perry, 
F.R.S.,  199,  270;  M.  White  Stevens,  270 

Fournier  (Lucien),  the  "  Flow  of  Marble,"  231 

Fowler  (Dr.  G.  H.),  on  the  Radiolarian  Plankionetta 
atlantica,   no;  Distribution  of  some  Amphipoda,  239 

Fox-Strangways  (C),  Geology  of  the  Country  near 
Leicester,   161 

P'rance  :  Thirty  Years  of  University  Education  in,  Cloudesley 
Brereton,  323 ;  the  Mineral  Resources  of  the  French 
Colonies,  Prof.  Laurent,  494 

Francois  (Maurice),  Estimation  of  Pyridine  in  Aqueous  Solu- 
tion, 360 

Frank  (A.),  Synthetic  Cyanide  Processes,  210 

Frank  (Dr.),  the  Fixation  of  Atmospheric  Nitrogen,  630 

Freeman  (W.  G.),  Agriculture  in  the  West  Indies,  Ground 
Nuts,  490 

Freundler  (P.),  Benzene-azo-orthobenzyl  Alcohol  and  on  its 
Transformation  into  Phenylindazol  and  Azodiphenyl- 
methane,  95 

Freundlich  (Dr.),  Precipitation  of  Colloidal  Solutions  by 
Electrolytes,   255 

Freycinet  (C.  de),  De  1 'Experience  en  G^ometrie,  5 

Eric  (M.  J.  J.),  a  New  Circumzenithal  Apparatus,  376 

Froment  et  sa  Mouture,  le.  Prof.  Girard  and  M.  Lindet, 
William  Jago,  1 

P'ron  (Albert),   Sylviculture,  221 

Frost  (Prof.),  Nova  Geminorum,  68 


Nature,         1 
December  lo,  1903J 


Index 


XXI 


Fuller  (Caleb  A.),  Colon  Bacillus  in  Oysters,  Bacteriological 
Examination  of  Digestive  Tract  of  Oysters,   135 

Gaden  (Captain),  New  Fossils  Found  by,  in  the  Soudan,  143 

Gaiffe  (M.),  Transmission  Dynamometer,  47 

Gamble  (Dr.  F.  W.),  Bionomics  of  Convoluta  roscoffensis, 

237 
Ciannett  (Henry),  the  Forests  of  Oregon,  406 ;   Forestry  in 

the  State  of  Washington,  406 
Garden   Flowers,   a  Concise  Handbook  of,   H.   M.   Batson, 
571 

Garden,  a  Gloucestershire  Wild,  342 

(iardner  (Prof.  P.),  Human  Science  and  Education,  597 

Gardner  (Willoughby),  Nest  Cells  of  Osmia  xanthomelana 
from  Conway,  North  Wales,    118 

(iarland  (I^.  V.  Lester),  Flora  of  the  Island  of  Jersey,  525 

Garrett  (H.),  Properties  of  Colloidal  Solutions,  137 

(iarrigou-Lagrange  (P.),  Kinematography  of  Barometric 
Movements,  168 

Garstang  (John),  Excavations  at  Beni  Hasan,  Egypt,  229  ; 
Egyptian  Burial  Customs,  637 ;  the  Roman  Fortress 
Bremettenacum  (Ribchester),  635 

Garungsproblems,  Die  Zymasegarung  Untersuchungen  iiber 
den  Inhalt  der  Hefezellen  und  die  biologische  S'eite  des, 
Eduard  Buchner,  Hans  Buchner,  and  Martin  Hahn,  Dr. 
Arthur  Croft  Hill,  385 

Garvin  (John  B.),  Qualitative  Chemical  Analysis,  366 

Gas  :  the  Origin  of  Natural  Gas  and  Petroleum,  Eugene 
Coste,  20 ;  Radio-active  Gas  from  Tap-water,  Prof. 
Thomson,  F.R.S.,  at  the  Cambridge  Philosophical 
Society,  90 

Gases  at  High  Temperatures,  the  Spectra  of  Metals  and, 
Prof.  J.  Trowbridge,  234 

Gases  Occluded  by  Radium  Bromide,  Sir  William  Ramsay, 
K.C.B.,  F.R.S.,  and  Frederick  Soddy,  246 

Gast  (Dr.  P.),  the  Path  of  Comet  1894  I.  (Denning), 
606 

Gaudrv  (Albert),  Palaeontological  Observations  in  Alaska, 
616 

Gautier  (Armand),  Formation  of  Alcohol  in  the  Ferment- 
ation of  Plant  Juices,  167  ;  New  Method  for  the  Detection 
of  Arsenic,  311 

Gegenschein  Light,  Comets  and  their  Tails  and  the, 
Frederick  G.  Shaw,  245 

(iehrcke  (Prof.),  Interference  of  Light-waves,  15 

Geikie  (Sir  Arch.,  F.R.S.),  Summer  Lightning,  367 

Geist  und  Korper,  Seele  und  Leib,  Ludwig  Busse,  98 

Geite,  Se'ismometry  and,  Dr.  C.  Chree,  F.R.S.,  55,  176; 
Prof.  John  Milne,  F.R.S.,  127 

Geitel  (Mr.),  Cause  of  the  Electrical  Conductivity  of  the 
Air  in  the  Neighbourhood  of  Phosphorus  Undergoing 
Slow  Oxidation,    137 

Geminorum,  Nova,  Prof.  E.  C.  Pickering,  16;  Prof.  Hale, 
68;  Prof.  Frost,  68;  Variability  of.  Prof.  E.  C.  Picker- 
ing, 89 ;  Observations  of.  Prof.  Barnard,  207 ;  Spectro- 
scopic Observations  of.  Prof.  Perrine,  279  ;  the  Spectrum 
of.  Dr.  H.  D.  Curtis,  425 

Generic  Names,  some  Overlooked  Zoological,  Prof.  T.  D.  A. 
Cockerell,  526 

<;pnvresse  (P!),  Nitrosite  of  Pulegone,  568 

G.odetical  Instruments,  a  Novel  Feature  for.  Sir  Howard 
( irubb,  606 

Geography:  Work  and  Position  of  the  National  Antarctic 
Expedition,  12  ;  Narrative  of  the  British  Antarctic  Ex- 
pedition, Sir  Clements  Markham,  159 ;  Death  and 
Obituary  Notice  of  Paul  du  Chaillu,  13  ;  the  Bermuda 
Islands,  A.  E.  Verrill,  53;  Royal  Geographical  Society's 
Medal  Awards,  65  ;  the  Coloured  Map  Problem,  W.  A. 
Price.  71  ;  the  Globe  Geography  Readers,  Intermediate, 
Our  Island  Home,  Vincent  T.  Murch^,  76  ;  Geographical 
Research,  Sir  Clements  Markham,  K.C.B..  F.R.S.,  at 
the  Royal  Geographical  Society,  91  ;  Central  Europe,  Prof. 
Joseph  Partsch,  196;  a  Year's  Residence  in  Lhassa,  M. 
Zybikofif,  205  ;  the  Island  of  F"ormosa,  James  W.  David- 
son, 243  ;  the  Antarctic  Expeditions,  Captain  Scott,  307  ; 
(ieographen-Kalender,  343  ;  Journey  through  Eastern 
Mongolia,  Claude  Russell  and  Hicks  Beach,  516 
igraphy  of  Disease,  the,  Frank  G.  Clemow,  171 
>logy  :  Work  and  Position  of  the  National  Antarctic  Ex- 
pedition, 12  ;  Great  Rock  Slide  at  Frank,  13  ;  the  Origin 
of  Natural  Gas  and  Petroleum,  Eugene  Coste,  20;  Geo- 


logical Society,  23,  117,  142,  191,  239,  262;  Agricultural 
Geology,  J.  E.  Marr,  29  ;  Mechanics  of  Igneous  Intrusion, 
R.  A.  Daly,  46 ;  Ancient  Lines  of  the  Pliocene  and 
Quaternary  Beaches  on  the  French  Coasts  of  the 
Mediterranean,  Ch.  Dep^ret,  47 ;  the  Tanganyika 
Problem,  an  Account  of  the  Researches  Undertaken  Con- 
cerning the  Existence  of  Marine  Animals  in  Central  Africa, 
J.  E.  S.  Moore,  56  ;  Death  and  Obituary  Notice  of  William 
Talbot  Aveline,  65  ;  Geology  of  Peru,  67 ;  Discovery  of 
a  Pigmy  Elephant  in  the  Pleistocene  of  Cyprus,  Dorothy 
M.  A,  Bate,  71  ;  Death  of  Charles  de  la  Valine  Poussin, 
84 ;  Traces  of  the  Lutitian  Sea  in  the  Soudan,  M.  de 
Lapparent,  95 ;  Report  on  the  Geological  Observations 
made  during  the  Recent  Polar  Expedition  of  the  Fram, 
105  ;  Arctic  Geology,  Dr.  P.  Schei,  Prof.  T.  G.  Bonney, 
F.R.S.,  418  ;  Copper  Deposits  of  New  Jersey,  W.  H.  Weed, 
109;  Triassic  Cephalopods,  115;  Age  of  the  Principal 
Lake-Basins  between  the  Jura  and  the  Alps,  Dr.  Charles 
S.  Du  Riche  Preller,  117;  on  a  Shelly  Boulder-clay  in  the 
so-called  Palagonite  Formation  of  Iceland,  Helgi 
Pjetursson,  118;  Geology  of  Kalahandi  State,  India,  Dr. 
T.  L.  Walker,  136 ;  Disturbances  in  the  Chalk  near 
Royston,  H.  B.  Woodward,  F.R.S.,  142;  Heterastrasa 
from  the  Lower  Rhaetic  of  Gloucestershire,  R.  F.  Tomes, 
142  ;  Geology  of  the  Country  neai*  Leicester,  C.  Fox- 
Strangways,  161  ;  Kangaroo  Hills  Mineral  Field,  W.  E. 
Cameron,  182  ;  Wide  Bay,  Queensland,  L.  C.  Ball,  182  ; 
Experiment  in  Mountain-building,  Right  Hon.  Lord  Ave- 
bury,  F.R.S.,  191  ;  Geology  of  the  Canonbie  Coalfield, 
Dr.  Home  and  Dr.  Peach,  214;  the  Intrusive  Gneiss  of 
Tirerrill  and  Drumahair,  Prof.  Grenville  A.  J.  Cole,  215; 
Geology  of  North  Arran  and  the  Cumbraes,  William 
Gunn,  233  ;  on  Primary  and  Secondary  Devitrification  in 
Glassy  Igneous  Rocks,  John  Parkinson,  239  ;  Prof.  T.  G, 
Bonney,  F.R.S.,  239;  Transported  Mass  of  Ampthill  Clay 
in  the  Boulder-clay  at  Biggleswade,  Henry  Home,  262  ; 
the  Rhietic  and  Lower  Lias  of  Sedbury  Cliff,  Linsdall 
Richardson,  262  ;  Lowest  Beds  of  the  Lower  Lias  at 
Sedbury  Cliff,  Arthur  Vaughan,  262  ;  Metamorphosed 
Rocks  of  Ox  Mountain  Range,  A.  McHenry,  263  ;  Death 
of  J.  Peter  Lesley,  277;  Microscopic  Structure  of  the 
Mountain  Limestones  of  Derbyshire,  J.  Barnes,  304; 
Chipped  Flints  from  Yenangyoung,  Burma,  R.  J.  C. 
Swinhoe,  328 ;  Geology  of  the  South  Wales  Coalfield, 
A.  Strahan,  R.  H.  Tiddeman  and  W.  Gibson,  329;  a 
Buried  Triassic  Landscape,  Prof.  Watts,  332  ;  the  Form- 
ation of  Chert,  Dr.  Catherine  A.  Raisin,  352  ;  Marl-slate 
and  Yellow  Sands  of  Northumberland  and  Durham,  Prof. 
G.  A.  Lebour,  352  ;  Diffusion  of  Granite  into  Schists, 
E.  Greenly,  352  ;  Geological  Structure  of  the  Central 
"  Plessurgebirge,"  Dr.  Henry  Hoek,  375;  General  Geo- 
logy of  Fiji,  W.  G.  Woolnough,  384 ;  the  Geological 
Structure  of  Monzoni  and  Fassa,  Dr.  Maria  M.  Ogilvie- 
Gordon,  413  ;  the  Building  of  the  Grampians, 
Peter  Macnair,  422  ;  Zones  in  the  Chalk,  Dr.  A.  W. 
Rowe,  428;  the  International  Geological  Congress,  515; 
Radium  and  the  Geological  Age  of"  the  Earth,  Prof.  J. 
Joly,  F.R.S.,  526;  Death  of  John  Allen  Brown,  529; 
Geology  of  Austria-Hungary,  Prof.  Grenville  A.  J.  Cole, 
i^ijo ;  Topography  and  Geology  of  the  Eastern  Desert  of 
Egypt  (Central  Portion),  T.  Barron  and  W.  F.  Hume, 
569 ;  the  Geology  and  Petrography  of  Crater  Lake, 
National  Park,  Joseph  Silas  Diller  and  Horace  Bushnell 
Patton,  Prof.  T.  G.  Bonney,  F.R.S.,  e^yd  :  Surface  Geology 
of  Cheshire  in  its  Relation  to  Agriculture,  William 
Edwards,  579 ;  Gisements  min^raux,  Stratigraphie  et 
Composition,  Fran(^ois  Miron,  597;  I'Evolution  compar^e 
des  Sables,  Jules  Girard,  620 ;  Progress  of  Geological 
Survey  of  the  United  Kingdom,  625 
Geometry  :  De  1 'Experience  en  G^ometrie,  C.  de  Freycinet, 
5 ;  Reform  in  School  Geometry,  Prof.  G.  H.  Bryan, 
F.R.S.,  7;  Prof.  John  Perry,  F.R.S.,  7 ;  R.  W.  H.  T. 
Hudson,  177 ;  Prof.  Frank  R.  Barrell,  296 ;  a  School 
Geometry,  H.  S.  Hall  and  F.  H.  Stevens,  147,  414 ; 
Experimental  and  Theoretical  Course  of  Geometry,  A.  T. 
Warren,  147 ;  Elementary  Geometry,  Frank  R.  Barrell, 
147 ;  Solid  Geometry,  Dr.  Franz  Hocevar,  147 ;  Geo- 
metrical Optics  :  an  Elementary  Treatise  upon  the  Theory 
and  its  Practical  Application  to  the  more  Exact  Measure- 
ments of  Optical  Properties,  Thomas  H.  Blakesley, 
Edwin   Edser,   217;   Practical   Plane  and  Solid  Geometry 


Index 


[Nature, 
])ccc>iibcr  lo,  1903 


for  Elementary  Students,  Joseph  Harrison,  293  ;  a  Junior 
Geometry,  Noel  S.  Lydon,  434 ;  Technical  Arithmetic  and 
Geometry,  C.  T.  Millis,  434 

Georgievics  (Prof.  G.  von),  on  the  Theory  of  Dyeing,  612 

Germany  :  Relief  Expedition  for  the  German  Antarctic  Ex- 
pedition, 107  ;  the  Return  of  the  Gauss  Expedition,  133  ; 
the  German  South  Polar  Expedition,  420  ;  Higher  Educa- 
tion in  Great  Britain  and  Germany,  Dr.  F.  Rose,  Prof.  J. 
Wertheimer,  274  ;  the  German  Royal  Naval  Observatory, 
280 ;  the  German  Association  at  Cassel,  586 

Gerney  (D.),  Form  Assumed  by  Mercuric  Iodide  on  Separ- 
ating from  Solution,  143 

Geschoser  (Dr.  Otto),  the  Action  of  the  Electrophorus,  253 

Gessard  (C.),  Formation  of  Melanic  Pigment  in  the  Tumours 
of  the  Horse,  48 

Giacobini  (Michel),  Donohoe  Comet-medals  of  the  Astro- 
nomical Society  of  the  Pacific  Awarded  to,   12 

Giacobini,  Search-ephemeris  for  Comet  1896  V.,  M.  Ebell, 
256,  491 

Gibbs  (Prof.  J.  Willard),  Obituary  Notice  of,  11 

Gibbs  (Willard),  the  Phase-law  of,  and  the  Formation  of 
Natural  Salt  Deposits,  J.  H.  van  't  Hoff,   157 

Gibson  (W.),  Geology  of  the  South  Wales  Coal-field,  329 

Gilchrist  (Dr.  J.  D.  F.),  Development  of  some  South 
African  Fishes,  165 

Gill  (Sir  David),  Report  of  the  Cape  Observatory,  519 

Gill  (E.  L.),  Occurrence  of  Keisley-Limestone  Pebbles  in 
the  Red  Sandstone-Rocks  of  Peel  (Isle  of  Man),  23 

Gillies  (W.),  Nature  Studies  in  Australia,   100 

Giraffes,  Foetal  or  New-born,  Wanted,  Prof.  E.  Ray 
Lankester,  F.R.S.,  176 

Girard  (Prof.),  le  Froment  et  sa  Mouture,  i 

Girard  (Jules),  revolution  compar^e  des  Sables,  620 

Gisements  min^raux,  Stratigraphie  et  Composition,  Francois 
Miron,  597 

Giustiniani  (M.),  Influence  of  Formaldehyde  on  the  Growth 
of  White  Mustard,  95 

Glaister  (Prof.),  the  High  Prevailing  Rate  of  Infantile 
Mortality  in  Populous  Centres,  459 

Glasgow,  the  Royal  Visit  to,  63 

Glew  (F.  Harrison),  Radium  Fluorescence,  200 

Globe  Geography  Readers,  the.  Intermediate,  Our  Island 
Home,  Vincent  T.  Murch^,  76 

Globes,  on  a  Map  that  will  Solve  Problems  in  the  Use  of 
the.  Prof.  J.  D.  Everett,  F.R.S.,  294 

Glorification  of  Energy,  the,  Prof.  George  M.  Minchin, 
F.R.S.,  31 

Gloucestershire  Wild  Garden,  a,  342 

Glover  (H.  J.),  Botany  in  Boys'  Schools,  548 

Glow-worm  and  Thunderstorm,  also  Milk,  Sir  Oliver  Lodge, 
F.R.S.,  527 

Godefroy  (Maurice),  Theorie  El^mentaire  des  S6ries,  97 

Godlee  Observatory,  the,  330 

Godlewski  (E.),  Proteid  Metabolism,  553 

Goebel  (H.),  the  Birds  of  Lapland,  553 

Gojanovic-Kramberger  (Prof.),  Human  Remains  Recently 
Discovered  in  Croatia,  the  so-called  Homo  crapinensis, 
588  .  _ 

Goldstein  (Dr.  Julius),  Die  empiristische  Geschichtsauff- 
assung,  David  Humes,  mit  Beriicksichtigung  moderner 
methodologischer  und  erkenntnistheoretischer  Probleme, 
.31 

Gooch  (F.  A.),  Use  of  a  Rotating  Kathode  in  the  Electro- 
lytic Determination  of  the  Metals,  46 

Goodchild  (J.  G.),  on  the  Origin  of  Eruptive  Rocks,  613 

Goodrich  (W.  F.),  on  Twenty-five  Years'  Progress  in  Final 
and  Sanitary  Refuse  Disposal,  634 

Goodwin  (H.  B.),  New  Table  for  Ex-meridian  Observations 
of  Altitude,  397 

Gordon  (J.  W.),  Optical  Theories  of  the  Microscope,  553 

Gore  (Ellard),  the  Stellar  Heavens,   loi 

Gorini  (Dr.  Constantino),  Power  of  the  Typhus  Bacillus 
of  Spreading  along  the  Surfaces  of  Solids  in  Contact  with 
the  Nutrient  Liquid,  231 

Gcttingen  Royal  Society  of  Sciences,   168,  464,  520 

Government  Laboratory,  the  Work  of  the,  Dr.  T.  E. 
Thorpe,  F.R.S.,  382 

Gowers  (Sir  W.  R.),  Designation  of  Musical  Notes,  15 

Grablovitz  (Dr.  Giulio),  a  Modified  Form  of  his  Vasca 
Sismica,  235 

Granger  (Albert),  Action  of  Arsenic  on  Copper,   168 


Graphical  Statics  Problems,  with  Diagrams,  W.  M.  Baker, 
436 

Grassi  (Dr.),  Award  of  the  Paris  Municipality  Prize  to,  38 ; 
our  Present  Knowledge  of  Malaria,  517 

Gray  (Prof.  Andrew,  F.R.S.),  Radiation  of  Helium  and 
Mercury  in  a  Magnetic  Field,  212 

Gray  (J.),  Measurements  of  the  Colonial  Coronation  Con- 
tingent, 47 

(irayson  (H.  J.),  "  Red  Rain,"  423 

Great  Britain  and  Germany,  Higher  Technical  Education 
in.  Dr.  F.  Rose,  Prof.  J.  Wertheimer,  274 

Greece,  the  Older  Civilisation  of,  391 

Green  (Alan  B.),  Use  of  Chloroform  in  the  Preparation  of 
Vaccine,  141  • 

Greenly  (E.),   Diffusion  of  Granite  into  Schists,  352 

Gteenv/ich,  the  Royal  Observatory,   138 

Gregory  (Prof.  R.  A.),  Problems  in  Astrophysics,  Agnes 
M.  Gierke,  338 

Gregory  (R.  R.  C),  Lessons  on  Country  Life,  496 

Gr^hant  (Nestor),  the  Detection  and  PZstimation  of  Urea 
in  the  Tissues  of  Vertebrate  Animals,  616 

Grenet  (L.),  the  Dilatation  of  Steel  at  High  Temperatures, 
231 

Grigg  (Mr.),  a  New  Comet,  16 

Grignard  (V.),  on  the  Mode  of  Splitting  up  of  Mixed 
Organo-magnesium  Compounds,  the  Action  of  Ethylene 
Oxide,   1 19-120 

Groom  (Prof.  Percy),  Transition  of  Opposite  Leaves  into 
Alternate  Arrangement,  191  ;  the  Flora  of  the  Presidency 
of  Bombay,  Theodore  Cook,  386 

Growth  and  Development,  the  Influence  of  Light  and  Dark- 
ness upon,  D.  T.  Macdougal,  10 

Growth,  Normally  Unequal,  as  a  Possible  Cause  of  Death, 
Frank  E.  Beddard,  F.R.S.,  497 

Grubb  (Sir  Howard),  a  Novel  Feature  for  Geodetical  Instru- 
ments, 606 

Guarini  (Emile),  Invention  to  Notify  Automatically  the 
Outbreak  of  Fire,  490 

Guide  to  Switzerland,  219 

Guilbert  (Gabriel),  the  Prediction  of  Barometric  Variations, 
192 

Guillet  (L6on),  Metallography  of  Nickel  Steel,  87 ;  the 
Cementation  of  Steel,   143  ;  the  Manganese  Steels,  544 

Guilloz  (T.),  New  Form  of  Stereoscope  for  X-ray  Work,  109 

Gunn  (William),  Geology  of  North  Arran  and  the  Cum- 
braes,  233 

Giinther  (M.),  Transmission  Dynamometer,   47 

Guntz  (M.),  Heat  of  Formation  of  Some  Barium  Com- 
pounds, 48 

Guppy  (H.  B.),  Can  Carrier-pigeons  Cross  the  Atlantic?  497 

Gurney  (J.  H.),  Migration  of  Crow  Family  from  East 
Coast,   October,    1902,    15 

Gussenbauer  (Prof.),  Radium  Rays  in  the  Treatment  of 
Cancer,  254 

Guyou  (E.),  Measurement  of  the  Velocity  of  Ships  at  Sea, 
95 

Hacker  (Dr.),  the  Permanence  of  the  Maternal  and  Paternal 

Chromosomes  in  the  Germ  Cells  of  the  Offspring,  160 
Haddon  (Dr.  A.  C,  F.R.S.),  Maori  Art,  A.  Hamilton,  35; 

Reports  of  the  Cambridge  Anthropological  Expedition  to 

Torres  Straits,  409 
Hadfield  (R.  A.),  Alloys  of  Iron  and  Tungsten,  462 
Hagen  (Prof.),  the  Eight  Months'  Foetus  of  the  Malay  and 

Melanesian  Races,  588 
Hahn   (Martin),    Die   Zymasegiirung   Untersuchungen   iiber 

den   Inhalt  der  Hefezellen  und   die  biologische  Seite  des 

Garungsproblems,  385 
Halbherr    (Prof.),    Italian    Excavations   at    Palace   of    Agia 

Triada,  near  Dibaki,  229 
Hale  (Prof.  George  E.),  Rumford  Medal  Awarded  to,  39 
Hale   (Prof.),    Nova   Geminorum,    68 ;    Reported    Discovery 

of  a  Nova,  580 
Hall   (A.    D.),    the   Soil  :    an    Introduction   to    the   Scientific 

Study   of   the   Growth   of   Crops,    52 
Hall  (Principal),  Manurial  Experiments  on  the  Hop,  357 
Hall  (H.   S.),   a  School  Geometry,   147,  414 
Hall  (R.),   Nature  Studies  in  Australia,    100 
Haller  (A.),    Influence   Exerted  on   the   Rotatory   Power  of 

Cyclic  Molecules  by  the  Introduction  of  Double  Linkages 

into    the    Nuclei     Containing    the    Asymmetric    Carbon 


Nature,         T 
December  lo,  1903  J 


Index 


XXIll 


Atom,  1 19  ;  Influence  of  the  Solvent  on  the  Rotatory  Power 
of  Certain  Molecules,  215;  Influence  of  the  Introduction 
of  Unsaturated  Radicles  on  the  Rotatory  Power  of  Active 
Molecules,  239 ;  Action  of  Epichlorhydrin  upon  the 
Sodium   Derivatives  of  Acetone-Dicarboxylic    Esters,    263 

Halliburton  (Prof.  W.  D.,  F.R.S.),  a  Laboratory  Manual 
of  Physiological  Chemistry,  Ralph  W.  Webster  and 
Waldemar  Koch,  594 

Hamadryad  Snake,  a  Little-known  Peculiarity  of  the 
Franli  E.  Beddard,  F.R.S.,  623 

Hamilton  (A.),  Maori  Art,  35 

Hamilton  (James),  Means  for  Converting  a  Moderate 
Speed  Steamer  into  One  of  V^ery  High  Speed  for  War- 
like  Purposes,    208 

Hamlet  (William  M.),  the  Protection  of  Iron  and  Other 
-Metal-work,  639 

Hammer  (William  J.),  Radium  and  Other  Radio-active 
Substances,  with  a  Consideration  of  Phosphorescent  and 
Fluorescent  Substances,  the  Properties  and  Applications 
of  Selenium  and  the  Treatment  of  Disease  by  the  Ultra- 
violet  Light,   621 

Hampshire   Days,   W.    H.    Hudson,    125 

llampstead   Scientific  Society,    Report  of  the,    16 

Hamy  (Maurice),  the  Use  of  Mercury  Baths  in  Preventing 
Oscillations,   23 

Hand   Camera  Photography,   Walter  Kilbey,    198 

Hann  (Prof.  J.),  Air-currents  at  the  Summit  of  the  Santis, 
254 

Hanna  (Mr.),  Venom  of  Russell's  Viper  {Dahoia  Russellii), 
^7 

Hanriot  (M.),  the  So-called  Colloidal  Silver,  288 

Hansen  (Dr.  H.  J.),  on  the  Genera  and  Species  of  the 
Myriopod  Order  Symphyla,  no;  the  Ingolfiellida, 
fam.    n.  ;  a  New  Type  of  Amphipoda,   118 

Harden  (Dr.  Arthur),  the  Chemistry  of  the  Albumins,  307 

Hardy  (W.  B.,  F.R.S.),  Influence  of  Electrons  pn  Colloidal 
Solutions,  239  ;  the  Oxidising  Action  of  the  Ravs  from 
Radium  Bromide,  431  ;  Radium  and  the  Cosmical  Time 
Scale,  548 

Harris  (Dr.  D.  Eraser),  Two  Fundamental  Properties  of 
Protoplasm,  408 

Harris  (Walter),   Practical  Chemistry,  495 

Harris  (W.   H.),  "  Dentition  "  of  Flies,  41 

Harrison  (Joseph),  Practical  Plane  and  Solid  Geometry  for 
Elementary  Students,  293  ;  Illustrations  of  Graphical 
Analysis,   633 

Hartley  (Prof.  W.  N.,  D.Sc,  F.R.S.,  F.R.S.E.),  Spectrum 
of  Pilocarpine  Nitrate,  46;  Opening  Address  in  Section 
B  at  the  Southport  Meeting  of  the  British  Association, 
472 

Hartmann  (Prof.  J.),  the  Occurrence  of  Spark  Lines  in 
Arc  Spectra,  17 ;  the  Relationships  between  Arc  and 
Spark  Spectra,  163  ;  Wave-lengths  of  Silicon  Lines,  306 ; 
a  Coronae  a  Spectroscopic  Binary,  398 

Hartog  (P.  J.),  the  Atomic  Theory  "and  the  Development 
of  Modern   Chemistry,   82 

Hartwig  (Prof.),  Comet   1903     c,   255 

Harvard  Meridian  Photometer  Observations,  the.  Prof. 
E.  C.  Pickering,  17 

Harvard  Photographs  of  the  Entire  Sky,  the.  Prof.  E.  C. 
Pickering,    138 

Harvard   Psychological   Studies,   342 

Haupt  (Prof.   Paul),   Bible  and   Babel,  349 

liaviland  (Alfred),   Death  of,   135 

Hawkins  (C.   H.),   the  Thunderstorm  of  May  31,   247 

Hawksley  (Charles),  Opening  Address  in  Section  G  at  the 
Southport    Meeting   of    the    British    Association.    504 

Head  (Archd.  P.).  the  Speed  of  Overhead  and  Other 
Cranes  as  a  Factor  in  the  Economic  Handling  of 
Material  in  Working,    186 

Health,  the  Royal  Institute  of  Public,  Prof.  R.  T.  Hewlett, 

Health  of  the  Great  Armies  of  Europe,  Dr.  V.  Lowenthal, 
b()5 

Heat:  Standard  Points  on  the  Temperature  Scale,  Messrs. 
Heycock  and  Neville,  no;  T.  W.  Richards  and  R.  C. 
Wells,  no;  on  the  Decomposition  of  Lithium  Carbonate 
by  Heat,  P.  Lebeau,  119;  on  the  Combined  Hydrogen 
contained  in  Reduced  Copper,  Anatole  Leduc,  119;  Effect 
of  Temperature  on  the  lonisation  of  Gases  Acted  on  by 
Rontgen  Rays,   R.  K.   McClung,    142  ;  Thompson  Effect 


in  Alloys  of  Bismuth  and  Tin,  S.  C.  Laws,  142  ;  Inter- 
relations of  the  Resistance  and  Magnetisation  of  Nickel 
at  High  Temperatures,  Prof.  C.  G.  Knott,  143;  Evapora- 
tion and  Boiling  of  Metals  in  Quartz-Glass  and  in  the 
Electric  Furnace  in  the  Vacuum  of  the  Kathode-light, 
Dr.  F.  KralTt,  162  ;  External  Thermal  Conductivity  of 
Silver  Wires  Plunged  in  Water,  E.  Ragovsky,  167 ;  the 
Positive  lonisation  Produced  by  Hot  Platinum  in  Air 
at  Low  Pressures,  O.  W.  Richardson,  190;  the  Dilatation 
of  Steel  at  High  Temperatures,  G.  Charpy  and  L. 
Grenet,  231;  the  Spectra  of  Metals  and  Gases  at  High 
Temperatures,  Prof.  J.  Trowbridge,  234;  Relation 
between  the  Dielectric  Cohesion  of  a  Gas  and  its 
Temperature,  E.  Bouty,  240;  Influence  of  Temperature 
on  the  Dichroism  of  Mixed  Liquids,  Georges  Meslin, 
312;  Estimation  of  Stellar  Temperatures,  Prof.  Kayser, 
353  ;  Pressure  Curves  of  Univariant  Systems  Containing 
One  Gaseous  Phase,  A.  Bouzat,  360 ;  the  Coefficient  of 
Thermal  Surface-conductivity  Across  the  Surface  of 
Separation  of  a  Solid  and  a  Fluid,  L.  Austin,  374 ; 
Apparatus  for  Determining  Latent  Heats  of  Evaporation 
in  Electrical  Units,  A.  Cameron  Smith,  383  ;  Determina- 
tions of  the  Coefficient  of  Thermal  Expansion  of  Fused 
Quartz,  L.  Holborn  and  V.  Hemming,  422  ;  Karl  Sheel, 
422  ;  Radiation  in  the  Solar  System,  its  Effect  on 
Temperature  and  its  Pressure  on  Small  Bodies,  J.  H. 
Poynting,  F.R.S.,  430;  Underground  Temperatures, 
F.  G.  Meachem,  517;  Iridium  Apparatus,  Prof.  Nernst, 
587  ;  on  the  Temperature  of  Inflammation,  and  on  the 
Slow  Combustion  of  Sulphur  in  Oxygen,  Henri  Moissan, 
bi6  ;  Heating  Effect  of  the  Radium  Emanation,  Prof.  E. 
Rutherford,    F.R.S.,   622;    Prof.    H.   T.    Barnes,   622 

Heaviside  (Oliver,  F.R.S.),  the  Undistorted  Cylindrical 
Wave,  54;  Extension  of  Kelvin's  Thermoelectric  Theory, 
78 ;    Psychophysical    Interaction,    102 

Heawood    (E.),    on   the    History   of   Geography,    633 

Hubert  (A.),  Influence  of  the  Nature  of  the  External 
Medium  on   Plant  Acidity,   24 

Heidelberg  University,   the  Centenary  of,  345 

Heider  (Prof.  K.),  Lehrbuch  der  vergleichenden  Entwick- 
lungsgeschichte   der    wirbellosen    Thiere,    523 

Heilprin  (Prof.  Angelo),  Mont  Pel^e  and  the  Tragedy  of 
Martinique,  73  ;  the  Ascending  Obelisk  of  Mont  Pel^e, 
530 

Helium  from  Radium,  Experiments  in  Radio-Activity  and 
the  Production  of.  Sir  William  Ramsay,  K.C.B.,  F.R.S., 
and    F'rederick   Soddy     at   the   Royal   Society,    354 

Helium  from  Radium,  the  Amount  of  Emantion  and.  Prof. 
E.    Rutherford,    F.R.S.,   366 

Helmholtz  (Hermann  von),  Leo  Koenigsberger,  Sir  J. 
Burdon-Sanderson,    Bart.,    F.R.S.,    and    Harold    Hilton, 

193  . 
Hemming  (V.),  Determinations  of  the  Coefficient  of  Thermal 

Expansion  of   Fused   Quartz,    422 
Hemming   (G.    W.),    Psychophysical    Interaction,    102 
Hempel  (W.),   Simple  High  Temperature  Furnaces,   210 
Hemsley    (W.    Botting,     F.R.S.),      Enlargement     of     Kew 

Herbarium,  58  ;  the  Germination  of  the  Seeds  of  Davidia 

involucrata,  262 
Henderson      (Dr.      G.),      Strange      Resemblance      between 

Withered  Leaf  of  Quercus  incana    and  Slugs,  94 
H^nocque   (A.),    Influence   of   Altitude   on    the    Duration   of 

the  Reduction  of  the  Oxyhjemoglobin  in  Man,  239 
Henri   (Victor),    Lois  g^n(5rales     de  1 'Action  des   Diastases, 

221  ;  Action  of  Emulsin  on   Salicin  and   Amygdalin,   240 
Henrici  (Prof.  O.),  on  the  Introduction  of  Vectorial  Methods 

into  Physics,  609  ;  Vectors  and  Rotors,  with  Applications, 

617 
Henriet  (H.),  on  -Formic  .Acid  from  the  Air,    192 
Henry    (Charles),    the    Luminous    Efficiency    of    Oil    Lamps 

and    Flames    Generally,    628 
Henry  (John  R.),  The  Lyrids  of  1903,  526 
Henry  (Prosper),    Death  and   Obituary   Notice  of,   326 
Henry  (T.  A.),  Cyanogenesis  in  Plants,  Phaseolunatin,  287 
Henshall  (James  A.),   Bass,    Pike,    Perch  and  Others,   363 
Heraeus  (H.),  New  Resistance  Furnaces  and  New  Iridium 

Furnace,   210 
Herbarium,    Enlargement   of    Kew,    W.    Botting    Hemsley, 

F.R.S.,  58 
Herdman  (Prof.),  Coral  Reefs  of  the  Indian  Ocean,  614 
Heredity  :    Mendel's,   Principles   of    Heredity    in    Mice,    W. 


XXIV 


Index 


r         Nature, 
\,December  lo,  1903 


Bateson,  F.R.S.,  33;  Prof.  W.  F.  R.  Weldon,  F.R.S., 
34  ;  Mendelian  Heredity  of  Three  Characters  Allelomorphic 
to  Each  Other,  W.  Bateson,  F.R.S.,  142  ;  Heredity  of 
Albinism,  Messrs.  Castle  and  Allen,  136 ;  Heredity  and 
Social  Progress,  Simon  N.  Patten,  174;  Inheritance  of 
Psychical  and  Physical  Characters  in  Man,  Prof.  Karl 
Pearson,  F.R.S.,  607 

Herissey  (H.),  Mechanism  of  the  Saccharification  of  the 
Mannanes  of  Corrozo  by  the  Seminase  of  Lucerne,  168 ; 
Lactase,  263 

Herpetology  :  Venom  of  Russell's  Viper  {Daboia  Russellii), 
Captain  Lamb  and  Mr.  Hanna,  87 ;  Action  of  the 
Venoms  of  the  Cobra  and  of  Russell's  Viper  upon  the 
Red-Blood  Corpuscles  and  upon  the  Blood  Plasma, 
Captain  Lamb,  351  ;  the  Specificity  of  Anti-Venene  for 
Snake  Poison,  Captain  Lamb,  395 ;  a  Little-known 
Peculiarity  of  the  Hamadryad  Snake,  Frank  E.  Beddard. 
F.R.S.,   623 

Herrick  (C.  J.),  Sense  Organs  in  the  Skin  of  Fishes,  279 

Hertz  (Dr.  C.  H.),  a  New  Method  of  Turpentine  Orchard- 
ing. 499 

Hesse  (Dr.  Albert),  Extraction  of  the  I^erfume  from 
Flowers,  89 

Hesse  (Herr),   the  Okapi,   605 

Hewitt  (J.  F.),  Chota  Nagpore  ;  a  Little  Known  Province 
of  the  Empire,   F.   B.   Bradley  Birt,  369 

Hewlett  (Prof.  R.  T.),  the  Royal  Institute  of  Public 
Health,  285  ;  Sanitary  Examination  of  Water  Supplies, 
Dr.    Arthur   R.    Reynolds,    420 

Heycock  (Mr.),  Standard  Points  on  the  Temperature  Scale, 
no 

Hickson  (Prof.  Sydney  J.,  M.A.,  D.Sc,  F.R.S.),  Opening 
Address  in  Section  D  at  the  Southport  Meeting  of  the 
British  Association,  452 

Hill  (Dr.  Alex.),  Can  Dogs  Reason?  7 

Hill  (Dr.  Arthur  Croft),  Die  Zymasegarung  Untersuch- 
ungen  iiber  den  Inhalt  der  Hefezellen  und  die  biologische 
Seite  des  Garungsproblems,  Eduard  Buchner,  Hans 
Buchner,  and  Martin  Hahn,  385 

Hill  (E.  G.),   Coloured  Constituents  of  Butea  frondosa,  94 

Hillebrand  (C),  1903-4  Ephemeris  for  Winnecke's 
Periodical  Comet,  580 

Hilton  (Harold).  Hermann  von  Helmholtz,  Leo  Koenigs- 
berger,   193 

Hindu  Chemistry,  a  History  of,  from  the  Earliest  Times 
to  the  Middle  of  the  Sixteenth  Century  a.d.,  with 
Sanskrit  Texts,  Variants,  Translation  and  Illustrations, 
Prafulla  Chandra   Ray,   51 

Hinks  (A.  R.),  Evidence  for  Life  on  Mars,   16 

Histology:  Annales  de  I'lnstitut  Central  Amp^lologique 
Royal  Hongrois,  Dr.  IstvdnfFi,  317;  A.  Koelliker's  Hand- 
buch  der  Gewebelehre  des  Menschen,  Victor  v.  Ebner, 
414 

Hober  (Dr.  Rudolf),  Physikalische  Chemie  der  Zelle  und 
der   Gewebe,    4 

Hobson  (Dr.  E.  W.,  F.R.S.),  Psychophysical  Interaction, 
77 

Hocevar   (Dr.    Franz),    Solid   Geometry,    147 

Hoek  (Dr.  Henry),  Geological  Structure  of  the  Central 
"  Plessurgebirge, "  375 

Hoff  (J.  H.  van  't),  the  Phase-law  of  Willard  Gibbs  and 
the  Formation  of  Natural  Salt  Deposits,    157 

Hoffman   (D.   J.),    Alpine   Flora,    175 

Holborn  (Prof.),  Loss  of  Weight  of  the  Platinum  Metals, 
66 ;  Determinations  of  the  Coefficient  of  Thermal  Ex- 
pansion   of    Fused    Quartz,    422 

Holder  (Chas.  F.),  Big  Game  Fishes  of  the  United  States, 
363 

Hollander  (Dr.  Bernard),  the  Revival  of.  Phrenology,  the 
Mental  Functions  of  the  Brain.  268 

Hollard  (M.),  the  Electrolytic  Separation  of  Manganese 
and  Iron,  of  Aluminium  from  Iron  or  Nickel,  and  of 
Zinc  from  Iron,   120 

Holleman  (Prof.  A.  F.),  Text-Book  of  Organic  Chemistry, 
149 

Hollmann   (R.),   Modifications  of  Acetaldehyde,    16 

Home  (Henry),  Transported  Mass  of  Ampthill  Clay  in  the 
Boulder-Clay  at  Biggleswade,   262 

Hooker  (C.  P.),  Relation  of  the  Rainfall  to  the  Depth  of 
Water  in  a  Well,   142 


Hooper    (W.    L.)    Electrical    Problems    for    EngineerinJ 

Students,  52 
Hop,  Manurial  Experiments  on  the,  Principal  Hall,  357 
Home  (Dr.),  Geology  of  the  Canonbie  Coalfield,  214 
Horse,    the   Wild   (Equus   przewalskii,    Poliakoff),    Prof.    J. 

C.    Ewart,    F.R.S.,    271 
Horse  Disease:  Trypanosomiasis  of  Horses  ("Surra")  in 
the  Philippine   Islands,   Messrs.    Musgrave  and  William- 
son,  396 
Horse  Sickness,  Cape,  Dr.  Watkins  Pitchford,  no 
Horsley  (Sir  Victor),  University  Education,  555 
Horst    (Dr.    R.),    Interesting    Case    of    "  Commensalism," 

Horticulture  :  the  Etherisation  System  of  Horticulture,  A. 

Maumen^,    629 
Hough  (Prof.  G.  W.),  the  Rigidity  of  Piers  for  Meridian 

Circles,  532 
Houllevigue  (M.),  Action  of  Iodine  on  Pellicles  of  Copper,  ,) 

263 
Houston    (David),    Bacteriological    Examination    of    Irish 

Butter,    135 
Houston   (Robert   A.),    Radiation   of   Helium   and    Mercury 

in  a  Magnetic  Field,  212 
Hcvey  (Dr.  E.  O.),  Soufri^re  Still  in  Agitation,   158 
Howard  (L.   O.),   Yellow   Fever  and   Mosquitoes,   578 
Howe  (Henry  M.),   Metallurgical  Laboratory  Notes,    100 
Hoyle    (Prof.),    Cuttle-fish    Loligo    eblanae    Identical    with 

Todaropsis  veranyi,  41 
Hiibner    (J.),    on    the    Cause    of    the    Lustre    Produced    on 

Mercerising  Cotton  Under  Tension,   611 
Hubrecht  (A.  A.  W.),  Furchung  und  Keimblattbildung  bei 

Tarsius    Spectrum,    341 
Hudson  (Dr.   C.  T.,   F.R.S.),   Death  and  Obituary  Notice 

of,  627 
Hudson  (R.  W.  H.  T.),  School  Geometry  Reform,   177 
Hudson  (W.   H.),   Hampshire  Days,    125 
Hugot  (M.),  Silicon  Amide  and  Imide,  240 
Hull    (G.    F.),    Radiation    Pressure   and   Cometary   Theory, 

461  ;   Experiments  for   Determining  the  Pressure  due   to 

Radiation,    530 
Human    Personality    and    its    Survival    of    Bodily     Death, 

Frederic  W.  H.  Myers,  Sir  Oliver  Lodge,  F.K.S.,  145 
Human  Science  and  Education,  Prof.  P.  Gardner,  597 
Hume  (W.    F.),   Topography  and  Geology  of  the   Eastern 

Desert  of  Egypt  (Central  Portion),  569 
Humes    (David),    Die    empiristische    Geschichtsauffassung, 

mit    Berucksichtigung    moderner    methodologischer    und 

erkenntnistheoretischer   Probleme,    Dr.    Julius    Goldstein, 

31 
Hummel  (J.  J.),   Butein,   94 
Humphrey    (H.    A.),     Internal    Combustion     Engines    for 

Driving  Dynamos,    186 
Hussey  (W.  J.)  Parallax  of  the  Binary  System  5  Equulei, 

69  ;  the  Satellites  of  Saturn,  184 
Hutchins  (C.  C),  the  Boys  Radiomicrometer,  46 
Hutchins  (D.  E.),  the  Eucalypts,  320 ;  Forestry  of  Africa, 

405 
Hutchins  (E.),  the  Eucalypts,  320 
Hutchinson    (Jonathan,    F.R.S.),    Leprosy    Connected    with 

the  Consumption  of  Fish,    135  ;  The  Cause  of  Leprosy, 

211 
Hutton  (Captain  F.  W.,  F.R.S.),  Purple  Flowers,  223 
Hutton  (R.  S.),  Preliminary  Note  on  Some  Electric  Furnace 

Reactions  under   High   Gaseous   Pressures,   612 
Huxley  Memorial  Lecture  for  1903,  Inheritance  of  Psychical 

and    Physical    Characters   in    Man,    Prof.    Karl    Pearson, 

F.R.S.,   607 
e   Hydras,   the  System  of,   Prof.   Aitken,   305 ;   Dr.   H.    D. 

Curtis,  305 
Hydraulics  :    Das  Gesetz  der  Translation  des  Wassers,   T. 

Christen,  246 ;  Treatise  on  Hydraulics,   Mansfield  Merri- 

man,  465 
Hvdrodynamics  :  Obituary  Notice  of  Prof.  C.  A.  Bjerknes, 

Prof.G.    H.    Bryan,    F.R.S.,     133;     Vorlesungen     iiber 

hvdrodynamische     Fernkrafte     nach     C.     A.      Bjerknes' 

Theorie,  V.  Bjerknes,  Prof.  G.  H.  Bryan,  F.R.S.,   172 
Hydrogen,  the  Spectrum  of,  Louis  A.  Parsons,  554 
Hydrography  :   Sea  Temperature  Observations  between  the 

Shetland   and   Faeroe    Islands,    H.    N.    Dickson,    86;   on 


Nature,         "1 

December  lo,  1903J 


Index 


XXV 


the  Sea-level   since   Historic  and   Prehistoric  Times,    Ph. 

Negris,  312  ;  International  Study  of  the  Sea,  417  ;  Current 

Papers,   H.  C.  Russell,  529 
Hygiene:  Death  of  Prof.  W.  H.  Corfield,  420;  Resolutions 

at  the  International  Congress  of  Hygiene,  459 
Uymenoptera,    vol.    ii..    Ants    and    Cuckoo-wasps,    Lieut. - 

Colonel  C.   T.    Bingham,  220 


Ichthyology  :     Cuttle-fish     Loligo     eblanae     Identical     with 
Todaropsis  veranyi,  Prof.  Hoyle,  41  ;  Bacillus  of  Salmon 

Disease,    Hume    Patterson,    86 ;    October   Salmon    in    the 

Sea,   Dr.   Noel  Paton,   408  ;   Survey  of  the  Fishes  of  the 

Nile,   W.   S.   Loat,    no;  Sawdust  and   F"ish  Life,   Dr.   A. 

P.    Knight,    161  ;    Development    of    Some    South    African 
Fishes,    Dr.    J.    D.    F.    Gilchrist,    165  ;    Albinism    in    the 

Hag-fishes,    Prof.    B.    Dean,    279 ;    Sense   Organs   in    the 

Skin  of  Fishes,    C.   J.    Herrick,   279 ;   Bass,    Pike,    Perch 

and  Others,  James  A.   Henshall,  363  ;   Big  Game  Fishes 

of  the  United  States,  Chas.  F.   Holder,  363 
Ijain,   or  the   Evolution  of  a   Mind,    Lady   Florence   Dixie, 

343 
Ill-health  of  the   Rand   Miners,   527 

lUingworth  (Thos.),   Carbon   Photography  Made  Easy,  619 
Impianti    portuali,    Lavori .  marittimi    ed,    F"lavio    Bastiani, 

571 
Index    of    Applied    Science,    New,     114 
India  :    Proposed   Tata    Institution    for   Scientific   Teaching 

at    Bangalore,     13  ;    Geology    of    Kalahandi    State,     Dr. 

T,  L.  Walker,   136 ;  Departmental  Notes  on  Insects  that 

Affect    Forestry,    E.    P.    Stebbing,    loi  ;    The    Fauna    of 

British  India,  including  Ceylon  and  Burma,  Hymenoptera, 

vol.    ii.,    Ants   and    Cuckoo-wasps,    Lieut. -Colonel    C.    T. 

Bingham,  220;  the  Flora  of  the  Presidency  of  Bombay, 
Theodore  Cook,    Prof.   Percy   Groom,  386 ;    Irrigation   in 

India,  M.  Chailley  Bert,  404  ;  Mortality  Caused  by  Wild 

Beasts  and  Snakes  in  India,  553 
India-rnbber,   Landolphia    a  New  Source  of,    182 
Indigo,  a  New  Synthesis  of.  Dr.  T.  Sandmeyer,  93 
Industry,   Technical   Education  and,    Sir  William   Ramsay, 

576 
Infinite  Series,  Maurice  Godefroy,  97 
Infortuni    sul    lavoro,    Mezzi    Tecnici    per    Prevenirli,     E. 

Magrini,  G.  H.  Baillie,  219 
Infusoria,  Action  of  the  Magnetic  Field  on  the,  C.  Ch6ne- 

veau  and  G.  Bohn,  216 
Ingham     (Charles     B.),     Education     in     Accordance     with 

Natural  Law,   150 
Inglis  (J.   C),    the   Design  of  Permanent  Way  and   Loco- 
motives for  High  Speeds,   186 
Iiisect  Folk,  the,  Margaret  Warner  Morley,  595 
Insects  that  Affect  Forestry,   Departmental   Notes  on,  E.  P. 

Stebbing,    loi 
Institution    of    Civil    Engineers,    Sir    William    H.    White, 

K.C.B.,   F.R.S.,  elected  President,   12 
Institution  of  Civil   Engineers,   "  James   Forrest  "  Lecture 

at.    Some    Unsolved    Problems    in    Engineering,    W.    H. 

Maw,    163 
Institution  of  Naval  Architects,  208 
Intensity    of    Feeble    Illuminations,    Measurement    of    the, 

M.  Touchet,  279 
Interaction,  a  Plea  for,  Ludwig  Busse,  98 
Interaction,    Psychophysical,   W.   McDougall,   32  ;   Prof.   A. 

M.  Worthington,   F.R.S.,  33  ;  Sir  Oliver  Lodge,  F.R.S., 

33,    53,     126,    150;    Dr.    E.    W.    Hobson,    F.R.S.,    77; 

J.  W.  Sharpe,  77;  Dr.  W.  Peddie,  78;  C.  T.  Preece,  78; 

Oliver   Heaviside,    F.R.S.,    102;   G.   W.    Hemming,    102; 

Prof.  J.   H.  Muirhead,   126,   198;  Edward  P.  Culverwcll, 

150;  A.    Bowman,    151 
International    Congress    for    Applied    Chemistry,    the.    Dr. 

H.  Borns,  156,  209 
International  Geological  Congress,   the,   515 
International   Meteorological  Committee,   34 
International  Study  of  the  Sea,   417 
Ireland,  Fisheries  Investigation  in,  419 
Iron,      Molecular     Conditions     of     Demagnetised,      James 

Russell,  408 
Iron  and  Steel  Institute,  44,  462  ;  Medals  Awarded  at,  44 
Irrigation  :  the  Restoration  of  the  Ancient  Irrigation  Works 

of  the  Tigris  :  or  the  Re-creation  of  Chaldea  and  Egypt 

Fifty  Years  Hence,  Sir  William  Willcocks,  8i  ;  Irrigation 


in    India,    M.    Chailley    Bert,    404 ;    Irrigation    in    South 

Africa,    Sir    Charles     Metcalfe,     405 ;     Experiments     for 

Irrigation  from  Wells  in  New  Mexico,  405 
Irvine    (Dr.    J.    C),    the    Methylation    of    Cane-sugar    and 

Maltose,  612 
Ischimura  (T.),  Anthocyanin  in  Hydrangea  Flowers,  579 
Ismailia,  the  Extirpation  of  Culex  at,  Major  Ronald  Ross, 

F.R.S.,  246 
Isola;   or  the   Disinherited,    Lady   Florence   Dixie,   343 
Istvdnffi  (Dr.),  Annales  de  ITnstitut  Central  Amp^lologique 

Royal  Hongrois,  317 
Isuka  (A.),   the  Japanese  "  Palolo  "  Worm   {Ceratocephale 

osawai),   518 

Jackson    (J.    T.),    New    Method    of    Producing    Tension    in 

Liquids,   262 
Jago  (William),   Le  Froment  et  sa  Mouture,    Prof.   Girard 

and  M.  Lindet,   i 
Jamaica,  American   Botanic  Laboratory  in,   N.   L.   Britton, 

415 
Janson     (O.     E.),     N  eophaedimus    melaleucus,     Fairm.,     a 

Goliath  Beetle  from  Upper  Tonkin,    118 
Jenner   Institute,   New  Serum   Department  of  the,   227 
Jersey,   Flora  of  the  Island  of,   L.  V.   Lester  Garland,   525 
Jewson    (F.    T.),    Iminoethers    Corresponding    with    Otho- 

substituted  Benzenoid  Amides,    167 
Johnson    (Lewis    J.),    Statics    by    Algebraic    and    Graphic 

Methods,  5 
Johnson    (Rev.    S.    J.),    Cause    of     Moon's     Obscurity     on 

April  II,  46 
Johnston   (Dr.   J.    P.),    to   Obtain   the  Cubic  Curve  having 

Three  Given  Conies  as  Polar  Conies,   263 
Johnston     Laboratories     for     Medical     Research     in     the 

University   College,    Liverpool,   Opening  ot   the,    43 
Jolliffe,  (E.  H.),  on  the  Action  of  Methylamine  on  Chromic 

Chloride,    117 
Joly   (Prof.    J.,    F.R.S.),    the    Petrological    Examination    of 

Paving   Sets,    422  ;    Radium   and   the   Geological   Age   of 

the  Earth,   526;   Radium  and  the  Sun's  Heat,   572 
Jouzier  (E.),   Economie  rurale,  388 
Jumelle   (Henri),    a   Resinous   Granadilla,    312 
Jupiter,    the    Red    Spot    on,     Stanley    J.    Williams,     208; 

Retarded    Motion    of    the    Great    Red    Spot    on    Jupiter, 

W.  F.   Denning,  390  ;  Occultation  of  a  Star  by  Jupiter, 

T.     Banachiewicz,     631  ;     Herr     Kostinsky,     631  ;     Mr, 

Denning,    631 

Kaiserling    (Dr.    Carl),    Lehrbuch    der    Mikrophotographie, 

268 
Kamphers,    Die    Konstitution    des,    und    seiner    wichtigsten 

Derivate,    Ossian  Aschan,   293 
Kannapell  (A.),   Eclipse  of  the  Moon  of  April    11-12,   23 
Kant's  Lehre  vom  Glauben,  Ernst  Sanger,  365 
Kapteyn     (Prof.     J.     C),     Recently     Determined     Stellar 

Parallaxes,   354 
Kassner  (Prof.  K.),  Atmospheric  Variations,   140 ;  Sonnen- 

flecken,    140 
Kayser  (Prof.),   Estimation  of  Stellar  Temperatures,  353 
Keeble    (Frederick),    Bionomics    of    Convoluta    roscoffensis, 

237 
Kelvin   (Lord),    Another  Theory   as   to   the   Nature   of   the 

Processes  going  on  in  Radio-active  Materials,  611  ;  Lord 

Kelvin  and  his  First  Teacher  in  Natural  Philosophy,  623 
Kelvin's    Thermoelectric     Theory,     Extension     of,     Oliver 

Heaviside,   F.R.S.,  78 
Kelway    (C.    E.),    System    for   Warning    Ships   at    Sea   of 

Approaching  Danger,   604 
Kenrick  (Mr.),  Identification  of  Basic  Salts,   137 
Kerr     (John     G.),      Elementary     Physics,      Practical     and 

Theoretical,   365 
Kershaw    (J.    B.    C),    on    Aluminium     as     an     Electrical 

Conductor,  634 
Kew    Herbarium,    Enlargement   of,    W.    Botting    Hemsley, 

F.R.S.,   58 
Kieffer  (I'Abbd  J.  J.),  Monographie  des  Cynipides  d 'Europe 

et  d'Algeria,  221 
Kilbey  (Walter),   Hand  Camera  Photography,    198 
Kimberley,   an   Earthquake  Shock  at,   J.   R.   Sutton,  389 
Kime   (Dr.    J.    W,),    Penetrativeness   of   Sunlight    through 

Flesh,  254 


XXVI 


Index 


[Nature, 
December  lo,  1903 


Kinematics  of  Machines,  R.  J.   Durley,  318 

King  (Alphonso),  the  Lyrids,   1903,  270 

Kipping  (Dr.),    Isomerism  among  Quinquevalent   Nitrogen 

Compounds,    167 
Kirchner    (Dr.    Friedr.),    Worterbuch    der    philosophischen 

Grundbegriffe,    125 
.Kites:  Scientific.  Kite  Flying,  W.   H.   Dines,    154  ;  the  Kite 

Competition  of  the  Aeronautical  Society,  200  ;  Dr.  Graham 

Bell's  Tetrahedral  Cell  Kites,  347 
■Kiebs  (Dr.  Georg),  Willkurliche  E;ntwickelungsanderungen 

bei   Pflanzen,   Ein   Beitrag  zur  Physiologie  der  Entwick- 

elung,    265 
Klocker    (Alb.),     Fermentation     Organisms,     a    Laboratory 

Handbook,   387 
Knapp   (M.),    Ephemeris   for   Comet    1903    c,   398 
Knight  (Dr.  A.   P.),  Sawdust  and  Fish  Life,    161 
Knorr    (Herr),     Wandering    of    a    Methyl    Group    in    the 

Conversion    of    Pinacone    into    Pinacoline.    68 
Knott   (Prof.    C.    G.),    Interrelations   of   the    Resistance   and 

Magnetisation    of    Nickel    at    High    Temperatures,     143; 
i     Resistance    Change    Accompanying    Transverse    Magnet- 
isation in  Nickel  Wire,  408 
Koch   (Waldemar),   a  Laboratory   Manual   of   Physiological 

Chemistry,    594 
Koelliker's  (A.),  Handbuch  der  Gewebelehre  des  Menschen, 

Victor   V.    Ebner,    414 
Koenigsberger  (Leo),   Hermann  von  Helmholtz,   193 
Kondo  (H.),   Meteorological  Observations  in   Formosa,    137 
Korn   (M.),   Transmission   of   Photographs   by   Means  of   a 

Telegraph    Wire,    96 ;     Radiations    Emitted     by     Radio- 
active  Lead,    143 
Korschelt    (Prof.    E.),    Lehrbuch    der    vergleichenden    Ent- 

wicklungsgeschichte  der   wirbellosen   Thiere,    523 
Kossel   (Prof.),    the   Non-transmissibility   of    Bovine   Tuber- 
culosis  to   Man,    303 
Kostinsky  (Herr),   Occultation  of  a  Star  by  Jupiter,   631 
Kouznetzow    (A.),    a    Double    Carbide    of    Chromium    and 

Tungsten,   360 
Krafft    (Dr.    F.),    Evaporation    and    Boiling    of    Metals    in 

Quartz-glass  and  in  the  Electric  Furnace  in  the  Vacuum 

of  the   Kathode-light,    162 
Krebs   (Prof.),    Subaqueous  Volcanic   Regions,    588 
Kreutz  (H.),   Comet   1903   Z),  42 
Kries  (J.  von),  Abhandlungen  zur  Physiologie  der  Gesichts- 

empfindungen,    291 
Kroeber  (Dr.   Alfred  L.),   American  Symbolism,   20 
Kunz  (Dr.  George  F.),  Kunzite, -a  New  Gem,  460 
Kuriloff  (M.),   Composition  of  Zinc   Peroxide,   639 
Kiister  (Dr.   Ernst),   Pathologische  Pflanzenanatomie,   244 

La  Vaulx  (M.   De),  Balloon  Ascent  on  September  26,  529 

Labb6  (H.),  Alkaline  Reaction  of  the  Blood,  384 

Laboratories:    Opening    of    the    Johnston    Laboratories    for 

Medical    Research    in    the    University   College,    Liverpool, 

43  ;    Metallurgical    Laboratory    Notes;    Henry    M.    Howe, 

100  ;  Philippine  Islands  Government  Laboratories  Report, 

109;     Laboratory     Guide     for     Beginners     in     Zoology, 

Clarence    Moores    Weed    and    Ralph    Wallace    Grossman, 

319;    Biological   Laboratory   Methods,    P.    H.    Mell,   343; 

the    Work    of    the    Government    Laboratory,     Dr.    T.  E. 

Thorpe,    F.R.S.,    382  ;    American    Botanic    Laboratory    in 

Jamaica,     N.     L.     Britton,     415  ;     a    Laboratory     Manual 

of     Physiological     Chemistry,     Ralph     W.     Webster     and 

Waldemar  Koch,   Prof.   W.'D.   Halliburton,    F.R.S.,   594 

Laborde  (Dr.   Jean  Baptiste  Vincent),   Obituary   Notice  of, 

Dr.  J.  Deniker,  105 
Laby  (T.   H.),   Sepiaration  of  Iron  from  Nickel  and  Cobalt 

by  Lead  Oxide  (Field's  Oxide),  640 
Lacombe  (H.),   Bismuth  Compounds,  616 
Lacroix    (A.),    a    New    Mineral,    Grandidierite,    616 
Lafar  (Dr.),  Technical  Mycology  :  the  Utilisation  of  Micro- 
organisms  in    the   Arts   and    Manufactures,    290 
Lafay    (A.),    Heat    Conductivity    of    Iron    in    the    Magnetic 

Field,    143 
Lagcnostoma    Lomaxi,    the    Seed    of    Lvginodendron,    Prof. 

F.  W.  Oliver  and  Dr.  D.  H.  Scott,  F.R.S.,   113 
Lagrange   (Ch.),    the   Source   of   Radium    Energy,    269 
Lalone    (G.),    Distribution    of    Organic    .Substances    in    the 

Geranium,    192 
Lalou   (S.),    Action   of   Emulsin   on   Salicin   and   Amygdaiin, 
^40 


Lamb    (Captain),     Venom     of     Russell's     Viper     (Daboia 

RusselUi),  87  ;  Action  of  the  Venoms  of  the  Cobra  and  of 

Russell's  Viper  upon  the  Red-blood  Corpuscles  and  upon 

the  Blood  Plasma,  351  ;  the  Specificity  of  Anti-venene  for 

Snake  Poison,  395 
Lamb  (Horace),    Propagation  of  Tremors  over   tlif>   Surface 

of  an  Elastic  Solid,  237 
Lambart  (Rev.   F.   C),   Portraiture  for  Amateurs  without  a 

Studio,   619 
Lamplugh    (Mr.),    on    a    Raised    Beach    at    Sewerby,    612  ; 

Origin  of  Rock  Basins,  613 
Lamplugh   (G.    W.),    on   the    Disturbances   of  Junction-beds 

from    Differential    Shrinkage   and    Similar    Local    Causes, 

bi3 
Lander    ((i.    D.),    Iminoethers    corresponding    with    Ortho- 

substituted    Benzenoid    Amides,    167 
Lang  (W.  R.),  Formation  of  Di-  and  Hexamethylammonio- 

cadmium  Chlorides,  4b  ;  on  the  Action  of  Metliylamine  on 

Chromic  Chloride,   117;  the  Action  of  Liquefied  Ammonia 

on   Chromic  Chloride,    117 
Langley    (Dr.    S..    P.),.  Smithsonian    Report    on    Scientific 

Work,    20 ;    Proposed    Extension    of    National    Zoological 

Park,     21  ;     Work     at     the     Smithsonian     Astrophysical 

Observatory,  22 
Langley 's    (Prof.)      12-foot    Aerodrome    tested,    421 
Langley 's  (Prof.)    Aerodrome,  577 
Lankes'ter    (Prof.    E.    Ray,    F.R.S.),     Foetal    or    New-born 

Giraffes  Wanted,   176 
Lansing,    Kansas,    the   Fossil   Man  of,    Prof.    Karl    Pearson, 

F.R.S.,   7 
Lapicque    (M.     aind     Mme.     L.),     New     Expression    of    the 

Law    of    Electrical    Stimulation,     192 
Lapparent    (A.    de),    Traces    of    the    Lutitian    Sea    in    the 

Soudan,    95  ;    New    Fossils    found    by    Captain    Gaden    in 

the   Soudan,    143 
Lapworth   (Dr.),   Action   of   Halogens  on   Compounds   con- 
taining  the  Carbonyl   Group,   238 
Larmor  (Prof.),  on  the  Treatment  of  Irreversible  Processes 

in     Thermodynamics,      610;      on      the      Introduction      of 

Vectorial    Methods    into    Physics,    610;    Experiments    on 

the    Effects   of   Low   Temperature   on    the    Properties   and 

Spectrum   of   Radium,   611 
Larymore   (Captain),    a    Basil,    Ocimum   viride,    which    is   a 

Protection    against   Mosquitoes,    41 
Latter    (Oswald    H.),    the    Nervous    System    of    Anodonta 

cygnea,    623 
Launay  (L.  de),   Les  Richesses  Min6rales  de  I'Afrique,   313 
Laurent    (Emile),    Glycogen    in    Fungi    Cultivated    in    Weak 

Sugar  Solutions,   492 
Laurent      (Prof.),       Les      Produits      Coloniaux      d'Origine 

Minerale,   494 
Laurie    (Charlotte    L.),    Flowering    Plants,    their    Structure 

and  Habitat,  621 
Laussedat    (Col.    A.),    Recherches    sur   les    Instruments,    les 

Methodes  et  le  Dessin  Topographiques,   545 
Lava    Plug    like    that    of    Mont     Pel^e,    an    Ancient,     Sir 

Richard   Strachey,    F.R.S.,    573 
Laveran    (A.),     Differences    between    Nagana,     Surra     and 

Caderas,    216;    Action   of    Human    Serum    upon   Trypano- 

somes  of  Nagana,   Caderas  and   Surra,   263 
Lavori  marittimi  ed  Impianti  portuali,   Flavio  Bastiani,  571 
Laws  (S.   C),   Thompson   Effect  in   Alloys  of   Bismuth   and 

Tin,     142 
Le    Conte    (Joseph    N.),    an    Elementary    Treatise    on    the 

Mechanics  of   Machinery,    with   Special   Reference   to   the 

Mechanics  of  the  Steam  Engine,   124 
Le  Goff  (J.),  on  the  Organic  Respiratory  Gases  in  Diabetes, 

312  .       . 

Le    Rossignol    (R.),    Velocity    and    Mechanism    of    the    Re- 
action   between    Potassium    Ferrycyanide    and    Potassium 

Iodide   in   Neutral   Aqueous   Solution,   46 
Lebaudy's   Balloon,   Notable  Performance  of,  (15 
Lebeau   (P.),    on   the   Decomposition   of   Lithium   Carbonate 

bv    Heat,    1 19 ;    Silicides  of  Chromium,    143 
Lebour    (Prof.    G.    A.),    Marl-slate    and    Yellow    Sands    of 

Northumberland   and    Durham,    352 
Lecl^re  (A.),    Simplification   of  the  Analysis  of  Silicates  by 

the  Use  of  Formic  Acid,   263 
Lecomte-Denis  (Maurice),  La  Prospection  des  Mines  et  leur 

Mise  en   Valeur,   267 
Leduc  (Anatole),  on  the  Combined  Hydrogen  contained  in 


Nature, 
December  lo,  1903, 


Index 


XXVll 


Reduced    Copper,    119;    Determination    of     the     Electro- 
chemical  Equivalent   of   Silver,    240 
Lee    (Sidney),    Scientific    Investigation    and     Experimental 

Philosophy,   552 
Leeds  Astronomical   Society,   the,  89 

Lees  (Dr.  C.  H.),  Physics  at  the  British  Association,  609 
Lees     (F.     H.),     Electrolytic     Reduction     of     Pheno-     and 

Naphtho-morpholones,  94 
Legislation,    the   Effect   of    Education   and,   on   Trade,    Dr. 

E.    Molhvo    Perkin,    602 
Leidi6  (.M.),   .\nalysis  of  Osmiridium  Alloys,    168 
l.emoult  (P.),  Dibromoacetylene.  137,  263;  an  Organic  Base 

Containing   Phosphorus,   240 
Lepidoptera  :    Wet    and    Dry    Season    Forms   of    Rhodesian 

Butterflies,   Guv  A.   K.   Marshall,    185 
Lcpine  (R.),  the 'Production  of  Sugar  in  the  Blood  during 

the  Passage  of  the  Latter  through  the  Lungs,  544 
Leprosv  :   Our  Present   Knowledge  of,   George  Pernet,   41  ; 

Leprosv    Connected     with     the     Consumption     of     Fish, 

Jonathan  Hutchinson,  F.R.S.,  135  ;  the  Cause  of  Leprosy, 

Dr.    Jonathan    Hutchinson,    211 
Lesage  (Pierre),   Respiratory  Hygrometer,  48 
Leslev  (J.    Peter),    Death  of,   277 
Leteu'r   (F.),    Action    of    Hydrogen    Sulphide    upon    Methyl- 

ethvl-ketone,    192 
Letts'  (Prof.     E.    A.),    on    the    Reduction    of    Nitrates    by 

Sewage,   bii 
Levasseur   (fimile),    Wages,   372 
Levi-Cevita    (T.),    Singular    Solutions    in    the    Problem    of 

Three    Bodies    or    Particles    which    Attract    Each    Other, 

.According  to  the  Newtonian  Law,  231 
Lewis  (A.  L.),  on  Some  Stone  Circles  in  Derbyshire,   118; 

on  Some  Notes  on  Orientation,    118 
Lewkowitsch    (Dr.    J.),    Hydrolysis    of    Fats    in    vitro    by 

Means  of  Steapsin,    189 
I.owton-Brain    (L.),    Anatomy    of    the    Leaves    of    British 

Grasses,  262 
Lick  Observatory,   the  Crossley  Reflector  of  the,    162 
Life,    Coleridge's    Theory    of.    Sir    Samuel    Wilks,    Bart., 

F.R.S.,    102 
Light  :   the  Influence  of  Light  and  Darkness  upon  Growth 

and     Development,     D.    T.     Macdougal,      10;      Practical 

E.vercises    in    Light,     being    a    Laboratory    Course    for 

Schools    of    Science    and    Colleges,    R.    S.    Clay,    Edwin 

Hidser,   217 
Lighting  :   Two   Incandescent   Electric  Lamps  Designed  to 

(iive     Good     Illumination     Vertically     Downwards,      E. 

Bohm,  350;  the  Luminous  Efficiency  of  Oil  Lamps  and 

Flames  Generally,   Charles  Henry,  628 
Lighthouse  on   Heligoland,   New,   206 
Lightning   Flash,   a  .Multiple,    Dr.   William  J.   S.   Lockyer, 

270 
Lightning,  Rocket,  599,  627;  Prof.  J.  D.  Everett,  F.R.S., 

594 ;  W.   H.   Everett,  599 
Lightning,   Summer,  Sir  Arch.  Geikie,   F.R.S.,  367 
Limits  of   Unaided  Vision,   Heber  D.   Curtis,   256 
Lincei,   Reale  Accademia  dei.   Prizes  for  1903,  488 
Lindet  (.M.),  Le  F'roment  et  sa  Mouture,   i 
Ling   {A.    R.),    on    the   .Action   of    Diastase   on    the    Starch 

(Granules  of  Raw  and  Malted  Barley,  611  ;  on  the  Action 

of  .Malt  Diastase  on  Potato  Starch  Paste,  611 
Linnean  Society,  94,   118,   191,   262 

Linnean  Society,  New  South  Wales,  72,  264,  384,  520,  640 
Lipschitz  (Prof^  Rudolf),   Death  of,  603 
Literature,    Uniformity    in    Scientific,    Prof.    G.    H.    Bryan, 

F.R.S..   598 
Liverpool    .Astronomical    Society,    519 
Liverpool,     Opening     of     the     Johnston     Laboratories     for 

Medical  Research  in  the  University  College,  43 
Liverpool  School  of  Tropical  Medicine  and  Medical  Parasit- 
ology,  Report  of  the  Malaria  Expedition  to  the  Gambia, 

'902,  of  the,  J.  E.  Dutton,  428 
Livingstone   (B.    E.),    the   Role   of    Diffusion    and    Osmotic 

Pressure  in  Plants,   174 
Li/ard,   an  '\nt   Robbed   by  a,  J.   W.   Stack,   600 
Lloyd    (J.    S  ),    Heat     Treatment    of    Steel    Rails    High    in 

.\ianganese,    462 
l.oat  (W.  S.),  Survey  of  the  Fishes  of  the  Nile,   no 
1  ockyer  (Sir  Norman,  K.C.B.,  LL.D.,   F.R.S.),   Inaugural 

Address  at  the  Southport  Meeting  of  the  British  Associa- 
tion, 439 


Lockyer  (Dr.  William  J.  S.),  the  Solar  and  Meteorological 
Cycle  of  Thirty-five  Years,  8 ;  Obituary  Notice  of  Dr. 
A.  A.  Common,  F.R.S.,  132  ;  on  a  Probable  Relation- 
ship between  the  Solar  Prominences  and  Corona ;  Paper 
Read  at  Royal  Astronomical  Society,  257 ;  a  Multiple 
Lightning  Flash,   270 

Lodge  (Sir  Oliver,  F.R.S.),  .Action  of  Live  Things  in 
Mechanics,  31;  Psychophysical  Interaction,  33,  53,  126, 
150;  Note  on  the  Probable  Occasional  Instability  of  All 
Matter,  128;  Human  Personality  and  its  Survival  of 
Bodily  Death,  Frederick  W.  H.  Myers,  145  ;  Glow-worm 
and  Thunderstorm,  also  Milk,  527 ;  Expansion  Curves, 
599 ;  on  the  Introduction  of  Vectorial  Methods  into 
Physics,  610 ;  on  the  Nature  of  the  limanations  from 
Radio-active   Substances,   611 

Lodge-Muirhead  System  •  of  Wireless  Telegraphy,  the, 
Maurice  Solomon,   247    . 

Loewy  (M.),  Structure  and  History  of  the  Lunar  Crust, 
215;  Report  of  the  Paris  Observatory  for  1902,  532 

Logarithmen  und  Antilogarithmen,  Siebenstellige,  O. 
Dietrichkeit,    388 

Logarithmic  and  other  Tables,  Five-figure,  Alex.  M'Aulay, 
388 

Logarithms,  Tables  of  Four-figure,  Prof.  John  Perry, 
F.R.S.,    199,   270;   M.   White  Stevens,    270 

Logic  :  Death  of  Dr.  Alexander  Bain,  516 

Loir  (A.),   the  Destruction  of  Termites,    120 

Lomas  (J.),  on  the  Land  Gaining  on  the  Sea  at  Southport, 
612  ;  Geology  of  the  Country  Around  Southport,  612  ;  on 
the  Distinction  between  Intrusive  and  Contemporaneous 
Igneous  Rocks,  613 

London,  a  Charlottenburg  Institute  for,  203 

London  County  Council  Shrinkage  of  the  Thames  and  Lea, 
Maurice   Fitzmaurice,    104 

London  Education  Bill,   the,  36 

London,  the  University  of,   179,  201 

Lones  (T.   E.),  the  Birds  Mentioned  by  Aristotle,  328 

Lorenz  (Prof.  Dr.  Hans),  Lehrbuch  der  technischen  Physik, 

364 
Loudon  (Dr.),  Action  of  the  Becquerel  Rays  on  the  Nervous 

System  and  on  the  Eye,    180 
Lounsbery   (Mr.),   Entomology  at  the  Cape,    140 
Lovett  (E.),  on  the  Origin  of  the  Brooch,  637 
Lowell  (Mr.),   Projection  on  Mars,  353 
Lowenthal  (Dr.  v.),  Health  of  the  Great  .Armies  of  Europe, 

60s 
Lowry    (Dr.),    an    Anhydride     of     Camphoryloxime,      167 ; 

Mutarotation  of  Glucose,   167  ;  the  Solubility  of  Dynamic 

Isomerides,    167 ;    Experiments    on    the    Effects    of    Low 

Temperature  on  the  Properties  and  Spectrum  of  Radium, 

611 
Lowry    (T.     M.),     Spontaneous     Decomposition    of    Nitro- 

camphor,    94 ;    Influence    of    Impurities    in    Conditioning 

Isomeric  Change,  94  ;  the  Phenomena  of  Luminosity  and 

their  Possible  Correlation  with  Radio-activity,  430 
Lumm3r  (Prof.),  Interference  of  Light-waves,   15 
Lydekker  (Mr.),   Use  of  the  Bilobed  Canine  Tooth   of  the 

Giraffe,  255 
Lydon  (Noel  S.),  a  Junior  Geometry,  434 
Lyons  (Commander    T.  A.),  a  Treatise  on  Electromagnetic 

Phenomena    and    on    the    Compass    and    its    Deviations 

Aboard  Ships,  524 
Lvrids,   the,    1903,    Alphonso   King,    270 ;   John    R.    Henry, 
■526 

.M'Aldowie   (Dr.   Alex.    M.),    the   Human    Plantar   Reflexes, 

143 
M'.Aulav     (.Alex.),      F""ive-figure     Logarithmic     and     other 

Table's,   388 
McClelland   (J.    A.),    lonisation   in   Atmospheric   .Air,    262 
McClung  (R.  K.),  Effect  of  Temperature  on  the  lonisation 

of  Gases  Acted  on  by  Rontgen  Rays,    142 
McClure  (Rev.    Edmun'd),   the   Propagation  of   Phthisis,   56 
MacDonald  (H.  M.,  F.R.S.),  Investigation  01  the  Bending 

of   Electric   Waves   round   a  Spherical   Obstacle,   232 
MacDougal  (D.  T.),   the  Influence  of  Light  and  Darkness 

upon   (irowth   and    Development,    10 
McDougall    (W.),    Psychophysical    Interaction,    32  ;    Reports 

of  the  Cambridge  Anthropological    Expedition   to  Torres 

Straits,    409 


XXVlll 


Index 


[Nature, 
December  lo,  1903 


MacDowall  (Alex.  B.),  Our  Rainfall  in  Relation  to 
Bruckner's  Cycle,  56;  Sun-spots  and  Phenology,  389; 
Our  Winters   in   Relation   to   Bruckner's   Cycle,   600 

Macfadyen  (Dr.  Allen),  Experiments  on  tne  Effect  of 
Freezing  and  other  Low  Temperatures  upon  the  Via- 
bility of  the  Bacillus  of  Typhoid  Fever,  with  Con- 
siderations Regarding  Ice  as  a  Vehicle  of  Infectious 
Disease,  Prof.  William  T.  Sedgwick  and  Charles 
F;dward  A.  Winslow,  127;  the  Study  of  Bacterial  Toxins, 
152  ;  the  .Application  of  Low  Temperature  to  the  Study 
of   Biological   Problems,    608 

McHenry  (A.),  Metamorphosed  Rocks  of  Ox  Mountain 
Range,    263 

Machinery  :  The  Speed  of  Overhead  and  other  Cranes  as 
a  Factor  in  the  Economic  Handling  of  Material  in 
Working,  Archd.   P.   Head,   186 

Machines,    Kinematics  of,    R.   J.    Durley,   318 

M'Intosh   (Prof.   W.    C),    British    Fisheries   Investigations, 

15 

Mackenzie  (Mr.),  Investigation  of  Palace  of  Knossos  in 
Crete,  229 

Mackinder  (H.  J.),  Geographical  Education,  633 

Macleod  (Dr.  J.  J.  R.).  Hydrolysis  of  Fats  in  vitro  by 
Means  of  Steapsin,    189 

Macnair  (Peter),    the  Building  of  the   Grampians,   422 

McQuistan  (D.  B.),  Radiation  of  Helium  and  Mercury 
in  a  Magnetic  Field,   212 

MacRitchie  (D.),  on  the  Survival  of  Skin-covered  Canoes 
in  N.W.   Europe,  636 

Magnesium  Spectrum,  a  New  Series  in  the,  William 
Sutherland,   200 

Magnetism  :  Work  and  Position  of  the  National  Antarctic 
Expedition,  12  ;  Magnetic  Action  of  Convection  Currents, 
MM.  Cr^mieu  and  Pender,  87 ;  Interrelations  of  the 
Resistance  and  Magnetisation  of  Nickel  at  High 
Temperatures,  Prof.  C.  G.  Knott,  143 ;  Magnetism  of 
Liquids  and  Crystals,  Georges  Meslin,  143  ;  Heat  Con- 
ductivity of  Iron  in  the  Magnetic  Field,  A.  Lafay,  143  ; 
Magnetic  Work  at  Madagascar,  P.  Colin,  143  ; 
Elementary  Manual  for  the  Deviations  of  the  Compass 
in  IronShips,  E.  W.  Creak,  C.B.,  F.R.S.,  148,  199; 
a  Treatise  on  Electromagnetic  Phenomena  and  on  the 
Compass  and  its  Deviations  Aboard  Ship,  Comnaander 
T.  A.  Lyons,  524 ;  Action  of  the  Magnetic  Field  on  the 
Infusoria,  C.  Ch^neveau  and  G.  Bohn,  216;  Radiation 
of  Helium  and  Mercury  in  a  Magnetic  Field,  Prof. 
Andrew  Gray,  F.R.S.,  and  Walter  Stewart,  Robert  A. 
Houston  and  D.  B.  McQuiston,  212  ;  the  Measurement 
of  Coefficients  of  Self-induction  by  Means  of  the  Tele- 
phone, R.  Dongier,  288 ;  Magnetic  Observations  in  the 
Bay  of  Teplitz,  Captain  Umberto  Cagni,  397;  Resistance 
Change  Accompanying  Transverse  Magnetisation  in 
Nickel  Wire,  Prof.  C.  G.  Knott  and  P.  Ross,  408; 
Molecular  Condition  of  Demagnetised  Iron,  James 
Russell,  408 ;  Terrestrial  Magnetic  Variations,  Dr. 
Nippolt,    588 

Magrini  (E.),  Infortuni  sul  lavoro,  Mezzi  Tecnici  per 
Prevenirli,  219 

Mailhe   (Alph.),    Cyclohexane,    336 

Maillard  (Louis),  Physical  Constitution  of  the  Atmosphere, 
216 

Malaria :  a  Basil  Ocimum  viride,  which  is  a  Protection 
against  Mosquitoes,  Captain  Larymore,  41  ;  Sir  George 
Birdwood,  41  ;  Experiments  on  the  Basil  Plant  in 
Relation  to  its  Effect  on  Mosquitoes,  Dr.  W.  T.  Prout, 
302  ;  Mosquitoes  and  Malaria,  the  Extirpation  of  Culex 
at  Ismailia,  Major  Ronald  Ross,  F.R.S.,  246;  Mosquitoes 
and  Malaria,  Dr.  Schoo,  421;  Report  of  the  Malaria 
Expedition  to  the  Gambia,  1902,  of  the  Liverpool  School 
of  Tropical  Medicine  and  Medical  Parasitology,  J,  E. 
Dutton,  428 ;  Mosquitoes  and  Malaria,  Resolutions  at 
the  International  Congress  of  Hygiene,  459 ;  Our 
Present   Knowledge   of    Malaria,    Prof.    Grassi,    517;    on 

.  the  Discovery  of  a  Species  of  Trypanosoma  in  the 
Cerebro-Spinal  Fluid  of  Cases  of  Sleeping  Sickness,  Dr. 
Aldo  Castellani,  116;  Sleeping  Sickness,  Dr.  Aldo  Castel- 
lani,  Lieut.-Colonel  Bruce,  F.R.S.,  and  Dr.  Nabarro, 
517 

Malay   Peninsula,    the   Ethnology  of  the,    298 

Mammoth   Discovered  in   lakousk,    L.    Elb^e,    109 

Mammoth   at  St.  .Petersburg,    the  New,   297 


Man,    the    Mind    of,    Gustav   Spiller,    174 

Man,  Inheritance  of  Psychical  and  Physical  Characters  in. 

Prof.   Karl   Pearson,   F.R.S.,   607 
Manchester,    the    Dalton   Celebrations   at,    38,   64,   81 
Manchester   Literary   and   Philosophical   Society,   47,    639 
Manchot  (Wilhelm),   Das  Stereoskop,   Seine  Anwendung  in 

den    technischen    Wissenschaften,    iiber    Entstehung    und 

Konstruktion    Stereoskopischer    Bilder,    217;    Silicide    of 

Ruthenium,  33b 
Manley   (Mr.),    Properties   of   Strong   Nitric   Acid,    238 
Mann   (C.    Riborg),    Manual   of  Advanced   Optics,    217 
Manno    (Richard),     Theorie    der    Bewegungsiibertragung, 

294. 

Maori  Art,  A.  Hamilton,  Prof.  A.  C.  Haddon,  F.R.S.,  35 

Map  that  will  Solve  Problems  in  the  Use  of  the  Globes,  on 
a.   Prof.  J,   D.   Everett,   F.R.S.,   294 

Marcet   (Mrs.),    Rediviva,    521 

March  (F.),  Action  of  Epichlorhydrin  upon  the  Sodium 
Derivatives    of    Acetone-Dicarboxylic     Esters,     263 

Marconi  (Mr.),  Freedom  of  the  City  of  Rome  conferred  on, 
39  ;  Wireless  Telegraphy  in   Mid-Atlantic,  420 

Marie  (C),  Electrclytic  Reduction  of  Unsaturated  Acids, 
144 ;  the  Action  of  Hypophosphorous  Acid  on  Diethyl- 
ketone,   and  on  Acetophenone,   288 

Marine  Biology  :  the  Tanganyika  Problem,  an  Account 
of  the  Researches  undertaken  Concerning  the  Existence 
of  Marine  Animals  in  Central  Africa,  J.  E.  S.  Moore, 
56 ;  the  Ingolfiellidae,  fam.  n.  ;  a  New  Type  of  Amphi- 
poda.  Dr.  H.  Hansen,  118;  Interesting  Case  of  "  Com- 
mensalism,"  Dr.  R.  Horst,  207;  Marine  Biological 
Association,  331  ;  Bionomics  of  Convoluta  roscoffensis, 
Dr.  F.  W.  Gamble  and  Frederick  Keeble,  237;  Dis- 
tribution of  some  Amphipoda,  Dr.  Fowler,  239 ;  Re- 
generation in  Starfishes,  Miss  S.  P.  Monks,  328 ;  the 
Huxley  Investigations  in  the  North  Sea,  331  ;  a  New 
Ascidian  (Oligotrema  psammites),  Dr.  G.  C.  Bourne, 
422  ;  the  Japanese  "  Palolo  "  Worm  {Ceratocephaje 
osawai),    A.    Isuka,    518 

Marine  Engineering  :  the  Comparative  Merits  of  Drilling 
and  Punching  in  Steel  for  Shipbuilding,  A.  F.  Yarrow, 
187 

Markham  (Sir  Clements,  K.C.B.,  F.R.S.),  Geographical 
Research  Address  at  Royal  Geographical  Society,  91  ; 
Narrative   of   the   British   Antarctic    Expedition,    159 

Marquart    (Dr.),    Dr.    Schenck's    Red-Phosphorus,    588 

Marquis  (R.),  Products  of  Oxidation  of  Nitro-pyromucic 
Acid,  592 

Marr  (J.  E.),  Agricultural  Geology,  29  ;  Origin  of  Rock 
Basins,    613 

Marriott  (W.),  the  Frost  of  April,  142  ;  Earliest  Tele- 
graphic Daily  Meteorological  Reports  and  Weather 
Maps,    159 

Mars  :  Evidence  for  Life  on,  A.  R.  Hinks,  16 ;  a  Reported 
Projection  on,  iii  ;  Projection  on  Mars,  Messrs.  Lowell 
and  Slipher,  353 ;  the  South  Polar  Cap  of.  Prof. 
Barnard,  138 ;  the  Canals  on,  E.  W.  Maunder  and 
J.  E.  Evans,-  190;  E.  M.  Antoniadi,  461;  Observations 
of,    MM.    Flammarion  and   Benoit,   606 

Marshall  (Alfred),  the  New  Cambridge  Curriculum  in 
Economics,   524 

Marshall  (Francis  H.  A.),  the  CEstrous  Cycle  and  the 
Formation  of  the  Corpus  Luteum  in  the  Sheep,  429 

Marshall  (Guv  A.  K.),  Wet  and  Dry  Season  Forms  of 
Rhodesian  Butterflies,  185 ;  Dry  Form  of  Precis  actia 
bred  by,  from  an  Egg  laid  by  a  Female  of  the  Wet 
Form,   213 

Marshall   (P.),    Dust   Storms   in   New   Zealand,    223 

Marsupialia;  the  Corpus  Luteum  of  Dasyurus  viverrinus, 
Dr.    F.   P.    Sandes,   384 

Martin  (Dr.  Louis),  Pastilles  of  Anti-diphtheritic  Serum 
for  Local  Treatment,   135 

Martinique,  Le  Cataclysme  de  la.  Etude  des  Ph^nom^nes 
volcaniques,  Tremblements  de  Terre,  Eruptions  vol- 
caniques,    Francois    Miron,    6 

Martinique,  Mont  Pelee  and  the  Tragedy  of,  Angelo 
Heilprin,  Dr.  John  S.  Flett,  73  ;  see  also  Volcanoes 

Maslen   (A.   J.),   a   Class   Book  of   Botany,    596 

Mass  of  Mercury,   Prof.   T.  J.  J.   See,   491 

Massee    (George),    Distribution    of   Calostoma,    296 

Materiaux  Artificiels,   les,    Marie-Auguste   Morel,   547 

Mathematics  :   Statics  by  Algebraic  and  Graphic  Methods, 


Maiurt,  1 

December  lo,  1903J 


Index 


XXIX 


Lewis  J.  Johnson,  5  ;  Graphical  Statics  Problems  with 
Diagrams,  W.  M.  Baker,  436;  De  I'Exp^rience  en 
(i^ometrie,  C.  de  Freycinet,  5 ;  Reform  in  School 
(ieometry,  Prof.  ("■.  II.  Brvan,  F.R.S.,  7;  Prof.  John 
Perry,  F.R.,S.,  7;  R.  \V.  'H.  T.  Hudson,  177;  Prof. 
Frank  R.  Barrcll,  2()() ;  a  School  Geometry,  H.  S.  Hall 
and  F.  H.  Stevens,  147,  414;  Experimental  and 
Theoretical  Course  of  Geometry,  A.  T.  Warren,  147 ; 
Ivlementary  Geometry,  Frank  R.  Barrell,  147 ;  Solid 
(ieometry,  Dr.  Franz  Hocevar,  147  ;  Practical  Plane  and 
Solid  Geometry  for  Elementary  Students,  Joseph 
Harrison,  293  ;  a  Junior  Geometry,  Noel  S.  Lydon, 
434;  Technical  Arithmetic  and  Geometry,  C.  T.  Millis, 
434;  Arithmetic,  H.  (i.  Willis,  31  ;  the  Modern  Arithmetic 
for  Advanced  Grades,  Archibald  Murray,  434;  the  Junior 
Arithmetic,  being  an  Adaptation  of  the  Tutorial  Arith- 
metic, Suitable  for  Junior  Classes,  R.  H.  Chope,  434 ; 
ArilhmPtic  for  Schools  and  Colleges,  John  Alison  and 
jdlm  I1.  ("l.irk,  547;  Obituary  Notice  of  Prof.  J.  Willard 
(iiljl)s,  11;  Death  of  E.  Duporcq,  13;  Dimensional 
.Analysis  of  Physical  Quantities  and  Correlation  of  Units, 
.\.  F.  Ravenshear,  22  ;  Dimensions  of  Physical  Quantities, 
K.  J.  .Sowter,  23  ;  Discovery  of  Seven  New  F'actors  of 
Fermat's  Numbers,  Lieut. -Colonel  A.  Cunningham,  72  ; 
-Mathematical  Society,  72,  214;  Death  of  Prof.  C.  A. 
Hjerknes,  84;  Obituary  Notice  of.  Prof.  G.  H.  Bryan, 
F.R.S.,  133  ;  Transactions  of  the  American  Mathematical 
Society,  94 ;  Bulletin  of  the  American  Mathematical 
Society,  94 ;  Thf^'orie  ^16mentaire  des  Series,  Maurice 
Godefroy,  97 ;  a  Treatise  on  Differential  Equations, 
Prof.  A.  R.  Forsyth,  F.R.S.,  121  ;  Mathematical  Reform 
at  Cambridge,  178 ;  Hermann  von  Helmholtz,  Leo 
Koenigsberger,  Harold  Hilton,  193  ;  Tables  of  Four- 
figure  Logarithms,  Prof.  John  Perry,  F.R.S.,  199,  270; 
M.  White  Stevens,'  270;  F"ive-figure  Logarithmic  and 
other  Tables,  Alex.  M'Aulay,  388;  Siebenstellige 
Logarithmen  und  Antilogarithmen,  O.  Dietrichkeit,  388 ; 
.\utomorphic  Functions  in  Relation  to  the  General 
iheory  of  Algebraic  Curves,  \\.  W.  Richmond,  214; 
Singular  Solutions  in  the  Problem  of  Three  Bodies  or 
Particles  which  Attract  Each  Other  according  to  the 
Newtonian  Law,  T.  Levi-Civita,  231  ;  Some  Present 
Aims  and  Prospects  of  Mathematical  Research,  E.  T. 
Whittaker  at  University  College  Mathematical  Society, 
259 ;  to  Obtain  the  Cubic  Curve  having  Three  Given 
Conies  as  Polar  Conies,  Dr.  J.  P.  Johnston,  263  ;  Death 
of  Prof.  Luigi  Cremona,  180 ;  Obituary  Notice  of,  393  ; 
the  Principles  of  Mathematics,  Bertrand  Russell,  410; 
Expansion  Curves,  Prof.  J.  Perry,  F.R.S.,  548;  Prof. 
.Alfred  Lodge,  599 ;  Necessity  of  a  Knowledge  of 
Mechanics  for  the  Investigator,  Dr.  Otto  Thilo,  587 ; 
Death  of  Prof.  Rudolf  Lipschitz,  603  ;  Vectors  and  Rotors, 
with  Applications,  O.  Henrici,  Prof.  George  M.  Minchin, 
F.R.S.,  617 
Matter,  Note  on  the  Probable  Occasional  Instability  of 
_All,_Si^ Oliver  J.  Lodge,  F.R.S.,  128 
Matthews  (A.  H.  H.),  Lessons  on  Country  Life,  574 
Maumen^   (A.),    the    Etherisation   System    of    Horticulture, 

629 
Maunder*(E.  W.),  the  "  Canals  "  on  Mars,   190 
Maw  (W.    H.),   Some   Unsolved   Problems   in    Engineering, 
■'  James     Forrest  "     Lecture     at      Institution     of     Civil 
Engineers,   163 
Maxwell  (Sir  Herbert),  Animal  Intelligence,   136 
-Meachem  (F".  G.),   Underground  Temperatures,  517 
Measures,  Weights  and,   Comit^  international  des  Poids  et 

Mesures,  525 
Mechanics :  Elementary  Applied  Mechanics,  Profs.  T. 
Alexander  and  A.  W.  Thomson,  29  ;  Action  of  Live  Things 
in  Mechanics,  Sir  Oliver  Lodge,  F.R.S.,  31  ;  an  Elemen- 
tary Treatise  on  the  Mechanics  of  Machinery,  with  Special 
Reference  to  the  Mechanics  of  the  Steam  Engine,  Joseph 
N.  Le  Conte,  124;  Mechanical  Refrigeration,  Hal 
Williams,  174 ;  Theorie  der  Bewegungsubertragung, 
Richard  Manno,  294  ;  Elastic  Radial  Deformations  in  the 
Rims  and  Arms  of  Flywheels,  A.  Boyd,  640 
Medicine  :  Award  of  the  Moscow  Municipality  Prize  to  Dr. 
Metchnikoff,  38  ;  Award  of  the  Paris  Municipality  Prize 
to  Dr.  Grassi,  38  ;  Opening  of  the  Johnston  Laboratories 
for   Medical    Research   in   the   University   College,    Liver- 


pool, 43  ;  Preventive  Medicine,  the  Prevention  of  Disease, 
49  ;  Experiments  on  Animals,  Stephen  Paget,  74 ;  Electric 
Installation  for  Electro-medical  Work  at  Middlesex 
Hospital,  85;  Obituary  Notice  of  Dr.  Jean  Baptists 
Vincent  Laborde,  Dr.  J.  Deniker,  105 ;  British  Medical 
Association  Swansea  Meeting,  346;  Infective  and  In- 
fectious Diseases,  Dr.  F.  T.  Roberts,  346 ;  Alcohol  as 
a  Therapeutic  Agent,  Dr.  F.  T.  Roberts,  346 ;  Report 
of  the  Malaria  Expedition  to  the  Gambia,  1902,  of  the 
Liverpool  School  of  Tropical  Medicine  and  Medical 
Parasitology,  J.  E.  Dutton,  428 ;  Opening  of  the  Medical 
Schools,  555  ;  a  Post-graduate  School  of  Medicine,  Prof. 
E.  H.  Starling,  F.R.S.,  555  ;  University  Education,  Sir 
Victor  Horsley,  555 ;  Reverence  and  Hopefulness  in 
Medicine,  Sir  Dyce  Duckworth,  555 

Medway  (H.  E.),  Use  of  a  Rotating  Kathode  in  the  Electro- 
lytic Determination  of  the  Metals,  46 

Meek  (A.),  Beluga  {Delphinapterus  leucas)  Captured  at  the 
Mouth  of  the  Tyne,  158 

Meldola  (Prof.  Raphael,  F.R.S.),  the  Relations  between 
Scientific  Research  and  Chemical  Industry,  Lecture  at 
the  University  Extension  Meeting  at  Oxford,  398 

Mell  (P.  H.),  Biological  Laboratory  Methods,  343 

Mendel's  Principles  of  Heredity  in  Mice,  W.  Bateson, 
F.R.S.,  33;  Prof.  W.  F.  R.  Weldon,  F.R.S.,  34 

Mengarini  (Signora  Margherita  Traube),  Conjugation  in 
Anweba  vndulans,   87 

Menschen,'  A.  Koelliker's  Handbuch  der  Gewebelehre  des, 
Victor  V.  Ebner,  414 

Mental  Science,  the  Study  of,  Prof.  J.  Brough,  197 

Mercury  Bubbles,  Dr.  Henry  H.   Dixon,   199 

Mercury,  Mass  of.  Prof.  T.  J.  J.  See,  491 

Meridian  Circles,  the  Rigidity  of  Piers  for,  Prof.  G,  W. 
Hough,  532 

Mcrriman  (Mansfield),  Treatise  on  Hydraulics,  465 

Meslin  (Geoiges),  Magnetism  of  Liquids  and  Crystals,  143; 
Spontaneous  Dichroism  of  Mixed  Liquids,  240 ;  Influence 
of  Temperature  on  the  Dichroism  of  Mixed  Liquids,  312 

Mesnil  (F.),  Differences  between  Nagana,  Surra  and 
Caderas,  216 

Metallography  of  Nickel  Steel,  L^on  Guillet,  87 

Metallurgy  :  Proposed  Memorial  to  the  Late  Sir  Henry 
Bessemer,  13  ;  the  Cementation  of  Iron.  Georges  Charpy, 
24;  Alloys  of  Iron  and  Tungsten,  R.  A.  Hadfield,  462; 
the  Influence  of  Silicon  on  Iron,  Thomas  Baker,  463  ; 
New  Blast  Furnace  Top,  Axel  Sahlin,  44;  Influence  of 
Sulphur  and  Manganese  on  Steel,  Prof.  J.  O.  Arnold  and 
G.  B.  Waterhouse,  44;  the  Manganese  Steels,  L6on 
Guillet,  544;  Heat  Treatment  of  Steel  Rails  High  in 
Manganese,  J.  S.  Lloyd,  462  ;  the  Cementation  of  Steel, 
L^on  Guillet,  143  ;  the  Dilatation  of  Steel  at  High 
Temperatures,  G.  Charpy  and  L.  Grenet,  231;  the 
Restoration  of  Dangerously  Crystalline  Steel  by  Heat 
Treatment,  J.  E.  Stead  and  Arthur  W.  Richards,  462  ; 
Soi-bitic  Steel  Rails,  J.  E.  Stead  and  Arthur  W.  Richards, 
462  ;  Experiments  on  the  Diffusion  of  Sulphides  through 
Steel,  Prof.  E.  D.  Campbell,  462  ;  the  Overheating  and 
Burning  of  Steel,  Prof.  A.  Stansfield,  462  ;  Heat  Treat- 
ment of  Steel,  Dr.  William  Campbell,  463  ;  Metal- 
lurgical Laboratory  Notes,  Henry  M.  Howe,  100;  Cases 
of  Fatal  Illness  in 'Connection  with  the  Mond  Process  for 
the  Extraction  of  Nickel,  206;  the  Estimation  of 
Vanadium  in  Metallurgical  Products,  Em.  Campagne,  616 

Metals  and  Gases  at  High  Temperatures,  the  Spectra  of, 
Prof.  J.  Trowbridge,  234 

Mf.tcalfe  (Sir  Charles),  Irrigation  in  South  Africa,  405 

Metchnikoff  (Dr.),  Award  of  the  Moscow  Municipality  Prize 
to,  38 

Meteorology  :  the  Solar  and  Meteorological  Cycle  of  Thirty- 
five  Years,  Dr.  William  J.  S.  Lockyer,  8;  Death  and 
Obituary  Notice  of  Mr.  Osier,  13  ;  Bulletin  of  Philippine 
Weather  Bureau,  14;  Typhoon  of  November  7  and  12, 
14  ;  Meteorological  Office  Pilot  Chart  for  May,  14 ;  for 
June,  136;  for  July,  206;  International  Meteorological 
Committee,  34  ;  Report  of  the  Meteorological  Council,  40 ; 
Twilights  Observed  at  Bordeaux  during  the  Winter  of 
1902-1903,  M.  Esclangon,  47;  Period  of  the  Sun-spots 
and  the  Mean  Annual  Temperature  Variations  of  the 
Earth,  Charles  Nordmann,  47  ;  Connection  between  Sun- 
spots  and  Atmospheric  Temperature,  Charles  Nordmann, 
162  ;  Sun-spots  and  Phenology,  Alex.  B.  MacDowall,  389  ; 


XXX 


Index 


r  Nature, 

\_December  lo,  1903 


"  Red  Rain  "  and  the  Dust-storm  of  February  22,  Dr. 
T.  E.  Thorpe,  C.B.,  F.R.S.,  53,  222;  Analysis  of  Red 
Rain,  R.  S.  Earp,  109;  "Red  Rain,"  F.  Chapman  and 
H.  J.  Grayson,  423  ;  Fall  of  Dust  between  February  21 
and  23,  65  ;  Dust  Storms  in  New.  Zealand,  P.  Marshall, 
223  ;  Our  Rainfall  in  Relation  to  Bruckner's  Cycle,  Alex. 
B.  MacDowall,  56  ;  a  Regulating  or  Recording  Thermo- 
meter, H.  S.  Allen,  .69  ;.  Weather  Forecasts  for  Agri- 
culturists, 85 ;  International  Scientific  Balloon  Ascents 
on  March  5,  85  ;  on  April  2,  109  ;  on  May  7,  206  ;  on  June 
4  278;  First  Use  of  the  Word  "  Barometer,"  86;  Value 
of  Averages  in  Meteorology  and  on  the  Variability  of 
Temperatures  in  France,  Alfred  Angot,  96  ;  Rainfall  and 
River  Flow  in  the  Thames  Basin,  Dr.  Hugh  Robert  Mill, 
104;  Terrific  Tornado  at  Gainsville,  Georgia,  108; 
Extraordinary  Rains  in  Parts  of  the  United  States,  108 ; 
Violent  Thunderstorms  in  London  on  May  30,  108  ;  the 
Thunderstorm  of  May  31,  C.  H.  Hawkins,  Dr.  W.  N. 
Shaw,  F.R.S.,  247;  Dr.  William  J.  S.  Lockyer,  270; 
Thunderstorms  of  the  Past  Week,  278;  Photographs  of 
Snow  Crystals,  W.  A.  Bentley,  129  ;  Report  of  the  Fernley 
Observatory  for  1902,  Comparisons  between  Instruments 
and  Methods,  Mr.  Baxendell,  135  ;  Meteorological  Observ- 
ations in  Formosa,  H.  Kondo,  137 ;  the  Royal  Observ- 
atory, Greenwich,  138;  Theory  of  Cyclones  and  Anti- 
Cyclones,  Prof.  F.  H.  Bigeiow,  139 ;  Atmospheric 
Variations,  Prof.  F.  H.  Bigeiow,  Prof.  T.  H.  Davis, 
Prof.  K.  Kassner,  139;  the  Question  of  Prominence, 
Facula,  and  Spot  Circulation,  Prof.  Bigeiow,  139 ; 
Sonnenflecken,  Prof.  •  K.  Kassner,  140 ;  Royal  Meteor- 
ological Society,  142,  261  ;  Relation  of  the  Rainfall  to 
the  Depth  of  Water  in  a  W'ell,  C.  P.  Hooker,  142;  the 
Frost  of  April,  W.  Marriott,  142  ;  Destructive  Flood  at 
Heppner,  Oregon,  159 ;  Earliest  Telegraphic  Daily 
Meteorological  Reports  and  Weather  Maps,  W.  Marriott, 
159  ;  Heavy  Fall  of  Rain,  Week  Ending  June  13,  159  ; 
Rainfall  for  the  Week  Ending  June  20,  180 ;  British 
Rainfall,  1902,  366 ;  Meteorological  Observations  at  the 
Dynamite  Factory  of  Modderfontein,  William  Cullen,  165  ; 
Kinematography  of  Barometric  Movements,  P.  Garrigou- 
Lagrange,  168 ;  Meteorological  Observations  at  the 
Abbassia  Observatory  during  1900,  181  ;  the  Diurnal 
Period  of  the  Aurora  Borealis,  Charles  Nordmann,  191  ; 
the  Prediction  of  Barometric  Variations,  Gabriel  Guilbert, 
192  ;  the  Climate  of  the  District  of  the  Panama  Canal, 
231  ;  Experiments  upon  the  Rate  of  Evaporation,  J.  R. 
Sutton,  232  ;  Air-currents  at  the  Summit  of  the  Santis, 
Prof.  J.  Hann,  254;  Meteorological  Aspects  of  the.  Storm 
of  February  26-27,  J^^.  W.  N.*  Shaw,  F.R.S.,  261  ; 
lonisation  in  Atmospheric  Air,  J.  A. ,  McClelland,  262; 
the  Dines-Baxendell  Anemograph-  and  Anemometer, 
J.  Baxendell,  262  ;  Tides  at  Port  Darwin,  R.  W.  Chap- 
man, 295  ;  the  Moon's  Phases  and  Thunderstorms,  Prof. 
W.  H.  Pickering,  .  232  ;  Ottavio  Zanotti.  Bianco,  296; 
Observations  at  the  Batavia  Observatory  during  1901, 
303;  Gales  on  the  Coasts  of  the  British  Islands,  1871- 
1900,  303  ;  a  Simple  Form  of  Tide  Predictor,  R.  W. 
Chapman,  322  ;  Hurricane  at  Martinique,  350 ;  Damage 
to  Trees  by  Lightning,  in  1901,  in  Austria,  351  ;  Summer 
Lightning,  Sir  Arch.  Geikie,  F.R.S.,  367;  Rocket 
Lightning,  599,  627;  Prof.  J.  D.  Everett,  F.R.S.,  599; 
W.  H.  Everett,  599  ;  a  Mirage  at  Putney,  H.  E.  Wimperis, 
368 ;  Hurricane  over  Jamaica,  372  ;  Floods  and  Deforest- 
ation, 373;  Bishop's  Circle  and  the  Eruptions  at 
Martinique,  F.  A.  Forel,  384;  Bishop's  Ring  and  the 
Eruption  of  Mont  Pel^e,  F.  A.  Forel,  396 ;  the  New 
Bishop's  Ring,  Dr.  A.  Lawrence  Rotch,  623  ;  Peculiar 
Clouds,  Alfred  O.  Walker,  416;  the  Cloud  World,  its 
Features  and  Significance,  Samuel  Barber,  436 ;  Daily 
Weather  Report,  September  4,  460 ;  Storm  of  Unusual 
Violence  over  the  British  Islands  on  September  10,  489  ; 
the  Steamship  Route  between  the  Bristol  Channel  and 
Jamaica,  489  ;  Wet  Season  in  England  Seldom  Followed 
by  Wet  Season  in  Australia,  H.  C.  Russell,  517;  Height 
of  the  Atmosphere  Determined  from  the  Time  of  Dis- 
appearance of  Blue  Colour  of  the  Sky  after  Sunset,  Dr. 
T.  J.  J.  See,  526;  Glow-worm  and  Thunderstorm,  also 
Milk,  Sir  Oliver  Lodge,  F.R.S.,  527;  Excessive  Down- 
pour of  Rain  in  New  York  on  October  8-9,  578 ;  Our 
Winters  in  Relation  to  Bruckner's  Cycle,  Alex.  B. 
MacDowall,   600 ;   Photogrammetric   Measurement  of  the 


Height  of  Clouds  at  Simla,  W.  L.  Dallas,  604  ;  Climate 
of  the  Argentine  Republic,  W.  G.  Davis,  604 

Meteors  :  Radiant  Points  of  July  and  August  Meteors,  Mr. 
Denning,  184 ;  the  Lyrids,  1903,  Alphonso  King,  270 ; 
John  R.  Henry,  526 

Meteorites  :  the  Bath  Furnace  Meteorite,  H.  A.  Ward,  46  ; 
Recent  Papers  on  Meteorites,   532 

Meyer  (Dr.  IL),  Determination  of  Radicles  in  Carbon  Com- 
pounds, 319 

Meyer  (Prof.  Hans),  Researches  on  Tetanus,  287 

Meyermann  (Dr.),  Comet   1903  c,  255 

Mice,  Mendel's  Principles  of  Heredity  in,  W.  Bateson, 
F.R.S.,  33  ;  Prof.  W.  F.  R.  Weldon,  F.R.S.,  34 

Microbioscope  at  the  Alhambra,  396 

Micro-organisms  in  the  Arts  and  Manufactures,  Dr.  Lafar, 
Prof.  G.  Sims  Woodhead,  290 

Microscopy  :  on  the  Genera  and  Species  of  the  Myriopod 
Order  Symphyla,  H.  J.  Hansen,  no;  on  the  Radiolarian 
Planktonetta  atlantica,  Dr.  G.  H.  Fowler,  no;  New 
Monochromatic  Light  Apparatus,  C.  L.  Curties,  142  ;  New 
Form  of  Museum  Microscope,  W.  Watson,  142  ;  Royal 
Microscopical  Society,  142,  239;  Micrcstcpic  Structure  of 
the  Mountain  Limestones  of  Derbyshire,  J.  Barnes,  304  ; 
Optical  Theories  of  the  Microscope,  J.  W.  Gordon,  553  ; 
Death  and  Obituary  Notice  of  Dr.  C.  T.  Hudson,  F.R.S., 
627 

Miers  (Prof.  H.  A.,  F.R.S.),  Results  of  the  Observation 
of  the  Growth  of  Crystals  by  a  New  Method,  214; 
Mineralogy  :  an  Introduction  to  the  Scientific  Study  ol 
Minerals,  433 

Military  Topography,  Colonel  A.  Laussedat,  545 

Milk,  Glow-worm  and  Thunderstom,  also.  Sir  Oliver  Lodge, 
F.R.S.,  527 

Mill  (Dr.  Hugh  Robert),  Rainfall  and  River  Flow  in  the 
Thames  Basin,  104 ;  on  the  Rate*  of  Fall  of  Rain  at 
Scathwaite,  635 

Miller  (Mr.),   Identification  of  Basic  Salts,   137 

Millikau  (R.  A.),  New  Instruments  of  Precision  from  the 
Ryerson  Laboratory,  375 

Minis  (C.  T.),  Technical  Arithmetic  and  Geometry,  434 

Millosevich  (Prof.),  Comet  1903  c,  255 

Milne  (Prof.  John,  F.R.S.),  Seismometry  and  Geite, 
127 

Milne  (J.  R.),  Application  of  the  well-known  Heliometric 
Device  of  the  Divided  Lens,  408 

Milner  (Miss  E.  M.),  Robin's  Nest  in  a  Small  Leather  Hand- 
bag, 85 

Mimicry  :  Protective  Resemblance  of  Butterflies  to  Dead 
Leaves  and  Fragments  of  Dead  Leaves,  Prof.  E.  B. 
Poulton,  F.R.S.,  185;  Mimicry  between  Butterflies, 
Roland  Trimen,  F.R.S.,  615;  New  Case  of  Protective 
Mimicry  in  a  Caterpillar,  R.  Shelford,  187 

Minakata  (Kumagusu),  Distribution  of  Calostoma,  296 

Minchin  (Prof.  George  M.,  F.R.S.),  the  Glorification  of 
Energy,  31  ;  Vectors  and  Rotors,  with  Applications, 
O.   Henrici,  617 

Mind  of  Man,  the,  Gustav  Spiller,  174 

Miner  (J.  B.),  Motor,  Visual  and  Applied  Rhythms,  423 

Mineral  Waters,  Radio-active  Gas  from  Bath,  H.  S.  Allen, 
343 

Mineralogy  :  the  Probable  Source  of  Some  of  the  Pebbles 
of  the  Triassic  Pebble-beds  of  South  Devon  and  of  the 
Midland  Counties,  O.  A.  Shrubsole,  23  ;  Occurrence  of 
Keisley-Limestone  Pebbles  in "  the  Red  Sandstone-Rocks 
of  Peel  (Isle  of  Man),  E.  L.  Gill,  23  ;  Meteoric  Iron  from 
N'Goureyma,  E.  Cohen,  46;  Discoveries  of  Gold  along 
Lake  Victoria,  Commander  Whitehouse,  R.N.,  136;  Re- 
markable Mass  of  Wollastonite  at  Santa  F6,  Mexico, 
H.  F.  Collins,  214;  Mineralogical  Society,  214;  an  Irish 
Specimen  of  Dopplerite,  Richard  J.  Moss,  215,  461  ;  the 
Petrological  Examination  of  Paving  Sets,  Prof.  Joly, 
422  ;  an  Introduction  to  the  Scientific  Study  of  Minerals, 
Henry  A.  Miers,  F.R.S.,  433  ;  Kunzite,  a  New  Gem,  Dr. 
George  F.  Kunz,  460 ;  the  Petrology  of  Fiji,  Walter  G. 
Woolnough,  520 ;  a  New  Mineral,  Grandidierite,  A. 
Lacroix,    616 

Minerals  :  Mise  en  Valeur  des  Gites  Min^raux,  F.  Colomer, 
198 ;  Les  Richesses  Min^rales  de  I'Afrique,  L.  de  Launay, 
313;  Les  Produits  Coloniaux  d'Origine  Min^rale,  Prof. 
Laurent,  494 ;  Gisements  Min^raux,  Stratigraphie  et 
Composition,   Francois  Miron,  597 


Nature,  ~\ 

■V.eaember  lo,  1903  J 


Index 


XXXI 


ines,   la  Prospection  des  Mines  et  leur   Mise  en  Valeur, 
Maurice    Lecomte-Denis,    267 

nguin    (J.),    Influence    of    the    Solvent    on    the    Rotatory 
Power  of  Certain   Molecules,    215 

Mining:  Use  of  Electricity  in  Mines,  Selby  Bigge,  14; 
N'itro-Glycerine  Eixplosives  ;  their  Influence  on  Industrial 
Development,  William  CuUen,  165  ;  the  Cyanide  Process, 
W.  A.  Caldecott,  165;  Mise  en  Valeur  des  Gites 
Mineraux,  V.  Colomer,  198;  la  Prospection  des  Mines 
et  leur  Mise  en  \'aleur,  Maurice  Lecomte-Denis,  2(17  ; 
(ieneral  Increase  in  Production  in  Mines  and  Qiianio 
for  iqo2,  352;  Underground  Temperatures,  1-'.  ti. 
Meachem,  517;  Rand  Mines  (Native  Mortality),  Return 
of  the  Statistics  of  Mortality,  Sickness  and  Desertion 
among  the  Natives  Employed  in  the  Rand  Mines  during 
the  Period  October,  i902-March,  1903,  527 ;  Report  of 
the  Miners'  Phthisis  Commission,  i<)02-i903,  with 
Minutes  of  Proceedings  and  Minutes  of  Evidence,  527  ; 
the  Ravenswood  (lold  Field,  Queensland,  Walter  \\. 
Cameron,  579;  Mining  Accidents  in  1902,  Prof.  C.  Le 
Neve    Foster,    F.R.S.,    629 

Mira,  Observations  of  the  Minima  of.  Prof.  A.  A. 
Nijland,    354 

Mirage   at    Putney,    a,    H.    E.    Wimperis,    36S 

Miron  (Francois),  Etude  des  Ph^'nom^ncs  volcaniques  : 
Tremblements  de  Terre — Eruptions  volcaniques— Le 
Cataclysme  de  la  Martinique,  1902,  6 ;  Cisements 
mineraux,    Stratigraphie    et    Composition,    597 

Mirror  of  the  Crossley  Reflector,  the.  Dr.  (i.  Johnstone 
St         •,    1S3 

Mishongnovi  Ceremonies  of  the  Snalce  and  .Antelope 
Fraternities,  the,  George  X.  Dorsey  and  IL  R.  V'oth, 
III 

Mitchell  (Dr.  P.  Chalmers)  elected  Secretary  of  the 
Zoological  Society,    12 

.Mite  Whose  Eggs  Survive  the  Boiling  Point,  a,  J. 
.\dams,    437 

Modern  State,  the  University  and  the,  25,  241,  337 

.Moissan  (Prof.  Henri),  Hofmann  (iold  ^Iedal  .Awarded 
to,  64  ;  Preparation  and  Properties  of  Ca-siu'n 
.Ammonium  and  Rubidium  .Ammonium,  95  ;  .Action  of 
•Acetylene  upon  Ca;sium-.Ammonium  and  Rubidium- 
Ammonium,  119;  Properties  of  the  Alkali  Hydrides,  157; 
Preparation  of  Carbides  and  .Acetylene  Acetylides  by  the 
.  -Action  of  .Acetylene  Gas  upon  the  Hydrides  of  the 
.Alkalis  and  the  ..Alkaline  Earths,  215;  Silicide  of 
Ruthenium,  336 ;  a  Double  Carbide  of  Chromium  and 
Tungsten,  360 ;  Apparatus  for  the  Preparation  of  Pure 
Ciases,  384  ;  Action  of  a  Trace  of  Water  on  the  Decom- 
position of  the  .Alkaline  Hydrides  of  .Acetylene,  520 ; 
on  the  Temperature  of  Inflammation  and  on  the  -Slow 
Combustion  of  Sulphur  in  Oxygen,  616;  Estimation 
of  .Argon   in  Atmospheric  Air,   639 

Molisch  (Prof.),   Phosphorescent   Bacteria,   41 

.Mond  Process  for  the  Extraction  of  Nickel,  Cases  of 
Fatal    Illness    in   Connection    with    the,    206 

Monks  (Miss  S.    P.),   Regeneration   in   Starfishes,   328 

Mono-Rail  High  Speed  Electric  Railway  between 
Liverpool   and   Manchester,    158 

Monstres  Humains,  Essai  sur  la  Psycho-physiologie  des, 
N.   Vaschide  and  CI.  Vurpas,   Dr.   C.   S.   Myers,   570 

.Mont  Pel^e  and  the  Tragedy  of  Martinique,  Angelo  Heil- 
prin,  Dr.  John  S.  Flett,  73  ;  an  Ancient  Lava  Plug  like 
that  of  Mont  Pel6e,  Sir  Richard  Strachey,  F.R.S.,  573  ; 
see  also  X'olcanoes 

Montangerand  (M.),  the  Partial  Eclipse  of  the  Moon  on 
.April    II.    16 

.Monti  (Mr.),  Concentration  of  Solutions,  &:c.,  by  Freezing, 
211  .  .  .   - 

.Monzoni  and  Fassa,  the  Geological  Structure  of.  Dr. 
Maria  M.   Ogilvie-Gordon,  413 

Moody  (Dr.),   the   Rusting  of  Iron,    167 

.Moon:  the  Eclipse  of  the  Moon,  .April  ii-u,  ;,(i()  ;  M. 
Montangerand,  16;  A.  Kannapell,  23  ;  1'.  i'uiseux,  2^; 
at  .Marseilles,  M.  Stephan;  23;  at  Bordeiiu.x,  G.  Kav(  t, 
23;  Cause  of  Moon's  Obscurity  on  April  11,  Rev.  S.  J. 
Johnson,  46  ;■  Visibility  of  the  Eclipsed  Lunar  Disi 
during  the  Second  Half  of  the  Eclipse  of  April  11-12, 
M.  Amann,  96;  Structure  and  History  of  the  Lunar 
Crust,  MM.  Loewy  and  P.  Puiseux.  215;  Moon's  Phases 


and   Thunderstorms,    the,    I^rof.    W.    H.    Pickering,    232  ; 

Ottavio   Zanotti    Biaiim,    2i)(i 

Moore    (Dr.     Benjamin),     lMi\ >iivalische    Chemie    der    Zelle 

I        und  der  Gewebe,   Dr.   Rudolf  Hober,  4  ;  on  the  Synthesis 

of  Fats  .Accompanying  .Absorption  from  the  Intestine,  311 

:   Moore   (J.    E.    S.),    the    Tanganyika    Problem,    an   Account 

j       of  the  Researches  undertaken  Concerning  the  Existence 

of    -Marine   Animals   in   Central   Africa,    5b ;   Cytology   of 

Apogamy  and   Apospory,   71  ;   the   Reduction   Phenomena 

of  Animals  and   Plants,   335 

Moore    (Prof.),    Chemical    Theory    of    the   Transmission    of 

Certain    Infective    Diseases,    351  ^ 

-Morbology  :  Patholo^-^y  of  Beri-Beri,  Dr.  Hamilton 
Wright,  41  ;  Our  Present  Knowledge  *  of  Leprosy, 
tieorge  Pernet,  ^i  ;  Leprosy  Connected  with  the  Con- 
sumption of  Fish,  Jonathan  Hutchinson,  F.R.S.,  135; 
the  Cause  of  LeiJrosy,  Dr.  Jonathan  Hutchinson,  211; 
Formation  of  Mclanir  Piij^^ment  in  the  Tumours  of  the 
Horse,  C.  Gessard,  j,s  ;  the  Prevention  of  Disease,  49; 
the  Propagation  of  PhtliiM>,  Rev.  Edmund  McClure,  56; 
the  Non-transmissibility  of  Bovine  Tuberculosis  to  Man, 
Prof.  Kossel,  303  ;  Prof.  Orth,  303  ;  New  Conceptions 
Regarding  Tuberculosis,  Prof,  von  Behring,  528 ; 
Occurrence  of  Cancer  in  \'arious  Countries,  86  ;  Radium 
Rays  in  the  Treatment  of  Cancer,  Prof.  Gussenbauer, 
-  254 ;  Radium  and  Cancer,  Dr.  Alexander  Graham  Bell, 
320;  Dr.  '/..  T.  Sowers.  320;  Cape  Horse-sickness,  Dr. 
Wail-;iiis  Pit,  hfortl,  110;  on  the  Discovery  of  a  Species 
of  Trypanosojiia  in  the  Cerebro-Spinal  Fluid  of  Cases 
of  Sleeping-sickness,  Dr.  .Aldo  Castellani,  116;  Sleeping- 
sickness,  Dr.  -Aldo  Castellani,  Lieut. -Colonel  Bruce, 
F.R..S.,  and  Dr.  Natiarro,  517.;  Experiments  on  the 
Eff^ect  of  Freezing  ami  other.  Low  Temperatures  upon 
the  Viability  of  the  Bacillus  of  Typhoid  Fever,  with 
Considerations  Regarding  Ice  as  a  Vehicle  of  Infectious 
Disease,  Prof.  William  T.  ..Sedgwick  and  Charles  Edward 
A.  Winslow,  Dr.  Allen  Macfayden,  127 ;  Death  of 
.Alfred  Haviland,  135  ;  the  Geography  of  Disease,  Frank 
(i.  Clemow,  171  ;  Trypanosomatous  i:|)idemic  among 
Domesticated  Animals  in  Mauritius,  Dr.  l-^dington,  181  ; 
Trypanosoma  Disease  in  Upper  (.amhia,  I^rs.  Dutton 
and  Todd,  254;  Trypanosomiasis  of  Horses  ("Surra") 
in  the  Philippine  Islands,  -Mes>r>.  .\Iusgrave  and 
Williamson,  396;  Differences  between  Nagana,  Surra, 
and  Caderas,  -A.  Laveran  and  F.  Mesnil,  216;  .Action  of 
Human  Serum  upon  'Trypanosomes  of  Nagana,  Caderas, 
and  Surra,  .A.  Laveran,  263  ;  Cases  of  F'atal  Illness 
in  C^onnection  with  the  Mond  Process  for  the 
Extraction  of  Nickel,  206 ;  Power  of  the  Typhus 
Bacillus  of  Spreading  .Along  the  Surfaces  of  Solids 
in  Contact  wiiii  the  Nutrient  Liquid,  Dr.  Constantino 
(jorini,  231  ;  the  I-^xtirpation  of  ("ulex  at  Ismailia, 
Major  Ronald  Rcss,  l-'.R.S,,  24O  ;  Mosquitoes  and 
Malaria,  Dr.  Schuo,  ^21;  Rejx  rt  rf  the  Malaria 
Expedition  to  the  (iaiuh'a,  i()o2,  of  the  Liverpool  School 
nf  •j-ropiral  Me<!i,i,ie  and  .Medical  Parasitology,  J.  E. 
Diittiin,  42S  ;  Our  I're-ent  Knowledge  ()t  .Malaria,  Prof. 
tjrassi,  517;  the  Liglit  Treatment  of  Lupus,  Prof. 
Finsen,  254;  Infection  of  the  -Mouth  and  Subcutaneous 
Tissues  by  a  Parasitic  Nematode  Worm,  Mr.  Whittles, 
278 ;  Researches  on  Tetanus,,  Prof.  Hans.  Meyer  and 
Dr.  F.  Ransom,  287 ;  Alleged  Oyster-borne  Illness 
following  the  Mayoral  Banquets  at  Winchester  and  at 
Southampton,  Dr.  Timbrell  Bulstrode,  303  ;  the  Spread 
of  and  ImiTiunity  from  Asiatic  Cholera,  Prof.  Hunter 
Stewart,  309 ;  on  the  Organic  Respiratory  Gases  in 
Diabetes,  J.  Le  Goff,  312;  Infective  and  Infectious 
Diseases,  Dr.  F.  T.  Roberts,  34(1;  Chemical  Theory  of 
the  Transmission  of  Certain  Infective  Diseases,  Prof. 
.Moore,  351  ;  Mosquitoes  the  Cause  of  Yellow  Fever, 
394;  Yellow  Fever  and  Mosquitoes,  L.  O.  Howard, 
578 ;  the  Mode  of  Transmission  of  Yellow  Fever,  Dr. 
Carroll,  395 ;  Diseases  in  the  Bahamas,  489 ;  Rand 
-Mines  (Native  Mortality),  Return  of  the  Statistics  of 
Mortality,  Sickness  and  Desertion  among  the  Natives 
I'.mployed  in  the  Rand  Mines  during  the  Period, 
October,  i<)02-.\l:irch,  i<)03,  527;  Report  of  the  Miners' 
Phthisis  Commission,  1902-1903,  with  Minutes  of  Pro- 
ceeding and  Minutes  of  Evidence,  527 ;  the  igoi-2 
Epidemic    of    Small-pax    and    the    Protective    Power    of 


Index 


r  rfaiuri, 

\_December  lo,  1903 


Infant  Vaccination,   Mrs.   Garrett  Anderson,   529  ;   Insect 
Vermin   and    Plague    Bacilli,    Prof.    Simpson,    603 
Morcom  (A.),   Some  New   Features  of  Superheaters,   209 
Morel    (E.    I).),    a    Problem    in    .Applied    Geography,    633 
Morel   (Marie-Auguste),    Les   Materiaux  Artificials,    547 
Morgan    (H.    de    R.),    Bactericidal    Action    of    Ultra-Violet 
Radiations  Produced  by  the  Continuous-Current  Arc,  261 
Morley   (Margaret   Warner),    the   Insect   Folk,    595 
Morphology  :  Transition  of  Opposite  Leaves  into  Alternate 
Arrangement,    Percy   Groom,    191  ;   Willkiirliche   Entwick- 
elungsjinderungen      bei       Pflanzen,       Ein      Beitrag      zur 
Physiologic  der  Entwickelung,   Dr.  Georg  Klebs,  Francis 
'  Darwin,   F.R.S.,  265 
Morris  (Dr.    D.    K.),   the   Power  Transmission    Installation 

from  St.  Maurice  to  Lausanne,  278 
Morrow  (J.),    Instrument  for  Measuring  the   Lateral   Con- 
traction   of    Tie-bars,    and    on     the     Determination     of 
Poisson's  Ratio,   117 
Morse   (H.    W.),    Formation   of  "  Liesegang  s   Rings,"   by 

Precipitation  of  Silver  Chromate  in  Gelatin,   578 
Mortality    Caused    by   Wild    Beasts   and    Snakes    in    India, 

553 

Mosquitoes :  a  Basil,  Ocinium  viride,  which  is  a  Pro- 
tection against  Mosquitoes,  Captain  Larymore,  41  ;  Sir 
(ieorge  Birdwood,  41  ;  Experiments  on  the  Basil  Plant 
in  Relation  to  its  Effect  on  Mosquitoes,  Dr.  W.  T. 
Prout,  302  ;  Mosquitoes  and  Malaria  :  the  Extirpation  of 
Culex  at  Ismailia,  Major  Ronald  Ross,  F.R.S.,  246; 
Mosquitoes  and  Malaria,  Dr.  Schoo,  421;  Report  of  the 
Malaria   Expedition   to   the   Gambia,    1902,    of   the   Liver- 

.  pool  School  of  Tropical  Medicine  and  Medical 
Parasitology,  J.  E.  Dutton,  428;  Mosquitoes  and 
Malaria,  Resolutions  at  the  International  Congress  of 
Hygiene,  459  ;  Our  Present  Knowledge  of  Malaria,  Prof. 
Grassi,  517;  Mosquitoes  the  Cause  of  Yellow  Fever,  394; 
the  Mode  of  Transmission  of  Yellow  Fever,  Dr.  Carroll, 
395  ;  Yellow  Fever  and  Mosquitoes,  L.  O.  Howard,  578 

Moss  (Richard  J.),  an  Irish  Specimen  of  Dopplerite,  215, 
461 

Moss    (W.),    Photomicrography    with    a    Brownie    Comera, 

234 

Mouneyrat  (A.),  Action  of  Iodine  Bromide  on  Albumenoid 
Materials  and  on  the  Organic  Nitrogen   Bases,    192 

Mountain-building,  Experiment  in,  Rt.  Hon.  Lord  Ave- 
bury,    F.R.S.,    191 

Mountain   Sickness,    Cure  for,    M.    Passtoukhof,    396 

Mountaineering  :  Death  and  Obituary  Notice  of  Prosper 
Henry,  326  ;  Ascent  of  Mount  Orata,  in  Bolivia,  W.  G. 
Tight,  459 

Moureu  (Ch.),  on  Acetones  containing  Acetylene  Lmkages, 
a   New   Synthesis  of  the   Pyrazols,    120 

Mudge  (G.    P.),   a  Class   Book  of   Botany,   596 

Muff  (Mr.),  on  a  Raised  Beach  in  County  Cork,  612 

Muirhead  (George),  Effect  of  Temperature  on  the  Taking 
of  Salmon  by  Rod  and  Fly  on  the  River  Spey  at 
Gordon  Castle,    214 

Muirhead  (Prof.  J.  H.),  Psychophysical  Interaction,  126, 
198  " 

Muirhead  (R.  F.),  Generalisation  of  Lord  Kelvin's  State- 
ment of  the  Formula  for  Direct  Refraction,   253 

Multiple  Lightning  Flash,  a,  Dr.  William  J.  S.  Lockyer, 
270 

Munro  (D.  S.),  the  Cleanliness  of  Electric  Lighting,   181 

Murch^  (Vincent  T.),  the  Globe  Geography  Readers,  Inter- 
mediate,   Our    Island    Home,    76 

Murphy  (Leonard),  "  Bathyrpeter,"  a  Simple  Apparatus 
for  Gauging  the  Depths  of  Liquids  in  Wells  and  Tanks, 
231 

Murray  (Archibald),  the  Modern  Arithmetic  for  Advanced 
Grades,  434 

Murray    Island,    Psychometric    Observations    in,    409 

Museums:  Congress  of  the  Museums  Association,  310; 
the  Brussels  and  Tervueren  Museums,  575  ;  Catalogue 
of  Books,  Manuscripts,  Maps,  and  Drawings  in  the 
British  Museum  (Natural   History),   596 

Musgrave  (Mr.),  Trypanosomasis  of  Horses  ("  Surra  ")  in 
the  Philippine  Islands,  396 

Music:  Complimentary  Singing  by  Birds,  J.  R., Paul,  14; 
Sympathetic  Song  in  Birds,  Edgar  R.  Waite,  322  ;  Desig- 
nation of  Musical  Notes,  Sir  W.  R.  Gowers,  15  ;  Musical 


Sands,  Cecil  Carus-Wilson,  152  ;  the  Hydraulic  Organ 
of  the  Ancients,  John  W.  Warman,    184 

Musk,  Loss  of  Weight  of,  by  Volatilisation,  F.  R.  Sexton, 
5^8 

Mycology  :  Technical  Mycology  :  the  Utilisation  of  Micro- 
organisms in  the  Arts  and  Manufactures,  Dr.  Lafar, 
Prof.  G.  Sims  Woodhead,  290 ;  Distribution  of  Caiostoma, 
Kumagusu  Minakata,  296 ;  George  Massee,  296 

Myers  (Dr.  Charles  S.),  the  Origin  of  Variation,  224 ; 
Reports  of  the  Cambridge  Anthropological  Expedition  to 
Torres  Straits,  409  ;  the  Teaching  of  Psychology  in  the 
Universities  of  the  United  States,  Lecture  at  the  Psycho- 
logical Society  at  Cambridge,  425  ;  Experimental  Psycho- 
logy and  its  Bearing  on  Culture,  George  Malcolm 
Stratton,  465  ;  P^ssai  sur  la  Psycho-physiologie  des 
Monstres  Humains,  N.  Vaschide  and  CI.  Vurpas,  570  ; 
Cambridge  in  the  Old  World  and  in  the  New,  572  ;  on 
the  Antiquities  of  Kharga  in  the  Great  Oasis,  637  ;  on 
the  Excavation  of  a  Pre-Mycenaean  Town,  637 

Myers  (Frederick  W.  H.),  Human  Personality  and  its 
Survival  of  Bodily  Death,  145 


Nabarro  (Dr.),    Sleeping   Sickness,    517 

Narasu  (Prof.  P.  L.),  Action  of  Tesla  Coil  on  Radiometer, 

295 

Natal  Government  Observatory,  E.  Nevill,  607 

Natanson  (Prof.  Ladislaus),   Inertia  and  Coercion,  66 

National  Diploma  in  Agriculture,  a,  155 

Natives  and  Customs  of  Chota  Nagpore,  F.  B.  Bradley 
Birt,  J.  F.  Hewitt,  369 

Na,tural  History:  Can  Dogs  Reason?  Dr.  Alex.  Hill,  7; 
Death  and  Obituary  Notice  of  Paul  du  Chaillu,  13  ;  Birds' 
Skins  Collected  by  M.  J.  Nicholl  on  St.  Paul  and  Noronha 
Islands,  off  the  Brazilian  Coast,  15  ;  Brain  of  the  Walrus, 
P.  A.  Fish,  15  ;  Lord  Avebury  on  Nature  Study,  39  ; 
Nature  Studies  in  Australia,  W.  Gillies  and  R.  Hall,  100  ; 
an  Introduction  to  Nature  Study,  E.  Stenhouse,  546; 
Morphology  and  Histology  of  the  Scent-glands  of  Deer, 
E.  H.  Zietzschmann,  67  ;  New  South  Wales  Linnean 
Society,  72,  264,  384,  520,  640;  Linnean  Society,  94,  191, 
263  ;  How  to  Attract  the  Birds,  Neltje  Blanchan,  76 ; 
Exhibition  at  Carlsruhe  of  Mounted  Heads  of  the  Larger 
Mammals  from  the  German  Colonies,  86  ;  Natural  History 
Notes,  92  ;  Strange  Resemblance  between  Withered  Leaf 
of  Quercus  incana  and  Slugs,  Dr.  G.  Henderson,  94 ; 
Fresh-water  Rhizopods,  Prof.  G.  S.  West,  95  ;  on  Winter 
Whitening  in  Mammals  and  Birds  Inhabiting  Snowy 
Countries,  and  on  the  Occurrence  of  White  Markings  in 
Vertebrates  Generally,  Captain  G.  E.  H.  Barrett-Hamil- 
ton, 119;  Hampshire  Days,  W.  H.  Hudson,  125;  a 
Camera  for  Naturalists,  140  ;  Country  Rambles,  a  Field 
Naturalist's  and  Country  Lover's  Note  Book  for  a  Year, 
W.  Percival  Westell,  149;  Trapper  "Jim,"  Edwin 
Sandys,  245  ;  a  Country  Reader,  H.  B.  M.  Buchanan,  246  ; 
the  Wild  Horse  {Equus  przewalskii,  Poliakoff),  Prof. 
J.  C.  Ewart,  F.R.S.,  271  ;  Amateur  Collecting,  E.  V. 
Windsor,  328  ;  Among  the  Night  People,  Clara  Dilling- 
ham Pierson,  366;  a  Naturalist's  Calendar,  kept  at 
Swaffham  Bulbeck,  Cambridgeshire,  Leonard  Blomefield 
(formerly  Jenyns),  389  ;  Lessons  on  Country  Life, 
H.  B.  M.  Buchanan  and  R.  R.  C.  Gregory,  496;  A.  H.  H. 
Matthews,  574  ;  the  Reviewer,  574  ;  Catalogue  of  Books, 
Manuscripts,  Maps  and  Drawings  in  the  British  Museum 
(Natural  History),  596;  an  Ant  Robbed  by  a  Lizard, 
J.  W.  Stack,  600 

Natural  Philosophy,  Lord  Kelvin  and  his  First  Teacher  in, 
623 

Nature  and  Art,  Spirals  in,  Theodore  Andrea  Cook,  221,  296 

Naval  Architects,   Institution  of,   208 

Naval  Architecture  :  Death  of  M.  de  Bussy,  12 

Naval  Observatory,  United  States,  425 

Naval  Promotion,  Science  and,  223 

Navigation  :  Meteorological  Oflice  Pilot  Chart  for  May,  14; 
for  June,  136;  for  July,  206;  Measurement  of  the  Velocity 
of  Ships  at  Sea,  E.  Guyou,  95;  Elementary  Manual  for 
the  Deviations  of  the  Compass  in  Iron  Ships,  E.  W.  Creak, 
C.B.,  F.R.S.,  148,  199 ;  a  Treatise  on  Electromagnetic 
Phenomena  and  on  the  Compass  and  its  Deviation  Aboard 
Ship,  Commander  T.  A.  Lyons,  524 ;  Fast  Coaling  Ships 


I 


Nature,         '] 
December  lo,  1903  j 


Index 


xxxiu 


for  Our  Navy,  E.  H.  Tennyson  D'Eyncourt,  208;  Means 
for  Converting  a  Moderate  Speed  Steamer  into  one  of 
Very  High  Speed  for  Warlike  Purposes,  James  Hamilton, 
208;  on  Cross  Channel  Steamers,  Prof.  J.  H.  Biles,  208; 
Some  New  Features  of  Superheaters,  Prof.  VV.  H.  Watkin- 
son,  209  ;  A.  F.  Yarrow,  209  ;  A.  Morcom,  209  ;  Modern 
Steam  Turbines  and  their  Application  to  the  Propulsion 
of  Vessels,  Hon.  C.  A.  Parsons,  209  ;  the  Improvement  of 
Rivers  :  a  Treatise  on  the  Methods  Employed  for  Im- 
proving Streams  for  Open  Navigation  by  Means  of  Locks 
^ind  Dams,  B.  F.  Thomas  and  D.  A.  Watt,  361  ;  the 
Steamship  Route  between  the  Bristol  Channel  and 
Jamaica,  4S9  ;  Report  as  to  the  Navigable  Inland  Water- 
ways in  France,  Belgium,  the  Netherlands,  Germany  and 
Austria-Hungary,  Hugh  O'Beirne  and  Mr.  Robinson,  518; 
I.avori   marittimi   ed   Impianti   portuali,    Flavio    Bastiani, 

Navy,  Science  and  the,  169 

Needham  (J.  G.),  Venation  of  the  Wings  of  Dragon-flies,  67 

Negris  (Ph.),  on  the  Sea-level  Since  Historic  and  Prehis- 
toric Times,  312 

Neptune,  Diameter  of,  C.  W.  Wirtz,  580 

Neptune,  the  Satellite  of.  Prof.  Perrine,  353 

Nernst  (W.),  Apparatus  for  Determining  the  Vapour  Densi- 
ties of  COj,  &c.,  210 

Nernst  (Prof.),  the  Micro-balance  of,  422  ;  Theory  of  Ozone 
Formation,  587  ;  Iridium  Apparatus,  587 

Nernst  Lamps,  J.  Stottner,  117 

Neuberg  (Carl),  Method  of  Resolving  Racemic  Aldehydes 
and  Ketones  by  Means  of  an  Opticallv  Active  Hydrazine, 
b8 

Neuronenlehre  und  ihre  Anhanger,  Die,  Dr.  Franz  Nissl,  435 

Nevill  (E.),  Natal  Government  Observatory,  607 

Neville  (Mr.),  Standard  Points  on  the  Temperature  Scale, 
no 

New  Gallery,    Photography  at  the,   527 

New  Me.xico,  Experiments  for  Irrigation  from  Wells  in,  405 

New  South  Wales  Linnean  Society,  72,  264,  384,  520,  640 

New  South  Wales  Royal  Society,  264,  360,  639 

New  York  Zoological  Society,  Seventh  Annual  Report  of 
the,  370 

New  Zealand,  Dust  Storms  in,  P.  Marshall,  223 

Nicholl  (M.  J.),  Birds'  Skins  Collected  by,  on  St.  Paul  and 
Noronha  Islands,  off  the  Brazilian  Coast,   15 

Nicholls  (E.  F.),  Radiation  Pressure  and  Cometary  Theory, 
4«)i  ;  Experiments  for  Determining  the  Pressure  Due  to 
Radiation,  530 

Nicloux  (Maurice),  Intiavenous  Injection  of  Glycerol,  263 

Nicolardot  (Paul),  Estimation  of  Vanadium  in  Alloys,  216 

Night  People,  Among  the,  Clara  Dillingham  Pierson,  36b 

Nijland  (Prof.  \.  A.),  Observations  of  the  Minima  of  Mira, 
354 

Njppolt  (Dr.),  Terrestrial  Magnetic  Variations,  588 

Nippur,  Recent  E.xcavations  at,   177 

Nissl  (Dr.  Franz),  Die  Neuronenlehre  und  ihre  Anhanger, 
435 

Nitrogen  and  its  Compounds,  Dr.  Leopold  Spiegel,  266 

Nocard  (Prof.  Edmond),  Death  of,  327 

Nordenskjold  (Baron  E.),  Local  Adaptation  to  Abnormal 
Conditions,  the  Fresh-water  Limpet  {Ancylus  moricandi), 
351 

Nordenskjold *s  Expedition,  the  Relief  of,   13,  394 

Ncrdmann  (Charles),  Period  of  the  Sun-spots  and  the  Mean 
Annual  Temperature  Variations  of  the  Earth,  47  ;  Con- 
nection between  Sun-spots  and  Atmospheric  Temperature, 
162  ;  Sun-spots  and  Terrestrial  Temperature,  184 ;  the 
Diurnal  Period  of  the  Aurora  Borealis,   191 

Normallv  Unequal  Growth  as  a  Possible  Cause  of  Death, 
Frank  E.   Beddard,   F.R.S.,  497 

Norman  (Canon  A.  M.,  F.R.S.),  Copepoda  Calanoida, 
chiefly  .Abyssal,  from  the  Fasroe  Charmel  and  other  Parts 
of  the  North  .Atlantic,   119 

Nova  Geninorum  :  Prof.  E.  C.  Pickering,  16;  Prof.  Hale, 
68  ;  Prof.  Frost,  68  ;  Variability  of.  Prof.  E.  C.  Pickering, 
89;  Obsoivations  of  Prof.  Barnard,  207;  Spectroscopic 
Observations  of,  Prof.  Perrine,  279  ;  the  Spectrum  of  Nova 
Geminorum,  Dr.  H.  D.  Curtis,  425 

Nova,  Reported  Discovery  of  a,  Prof.  Wolf,  580;  Prof. 
Pickering.  580;  Prof.  Hale,  580;  Prof.  Barnard,  580: 
J)r.  P.irkhurst,  :;8o 


Novae,  Recent  Spectrographic  Observations  of,  Prof.  Perrine 

631 
Nuclei,  Condensation,  Carl  Barus,  C.  1 .  R.  Wilson,  F.R.S., 

548 
Nubl  (Fr.),  a  New  Circumzenithal  Apparatus,  376 

O'Beirne  (Hugh),  Report  as  to  the  Navigable  Inland  Water- 
ways -n  Fran.:e,  Belgium,  the  Netherlands,  Germany  and 
Austria-Hungary,  518 

Observatories  :  Stonyhurst  College  Observatory  Report  for 
1903.  43  ;  Keport  of  the  Oxford  University  Observatory, 
Prof.  H.  H.  Turner,  in;  the  Royal  Observatory,  Green- 
wich, 138 ;  the  Crossley  Reflector  of  the  Lick  Observ- 
atoiy,  162  ;  the  Mirror  of  the  Crossley  Reflector,  Dr.  G. 
Johnstone  Stoney  183  ;  the  German  Royal  Naval  Observ- 
atory, 280  ;  Observations  at  Batavia  Observatory  during 
1901,  303  ;  the  New  Observatory  for  Buluwayo,  305  ;  the 
Godlee  Observatory,  330 ;  the  Alleghany  Observatory, 
Prof.  F.  L.  O.  Wadsworth,  398  ;  Fiarthquake  Observatory 
in  Strassburg,  416  ;  United  States  Naval  Observatory,  425  ; 
Report  of  the  Cape  Observatory,  Sir  David  Gill,  519 ; 
Report  of  the  Paris  Observatory  for  1902,  M.  LcEwy,  532  ; 
the  Royal  University  Observatory,  Vienna,  580 ;  Natal 
Government  Observatory,    E.    Nevill,   607 

Occultation  of  a  Star  by  Jupiter,  T.  Banachiewicz,  631  ; 
Herr  Kostinsky,  631  ;  Mr.  Denning,  631 

Odell  (W.),  on  some  Experiments  to  Determine  the  Power 
Wasted  by  the  Windage  of  Flywheel  and  Dynamic 
Armatures,  635 

Ogilvie-Gordon  (Dr.  Maria),  the  Geological  Structure  of 
Monzoni  and  Fassa,  413 

Oldham  (R.  D.),  Periodicities  of  the  Tidal  Forces  and 
Earthquakes,   in 

Oliver  (Prof.  F.  W.),  Were  the  Fern-Cycads  Seed-bearing 
Plants?   113;  Lyginodendron  and  its  Seed  Lagenostoma, 

185 

Oliver  (Dr.  George),  the  Measurement  of  Tissue  Fluid  in 
Man,  189 

Omori  (Dr.  F.),  Velocity  with  which  Earthquake  Waves 
are  Propagated,  235 

Ophthalmic  Optics,  Elementary,  Freeland  Fergus,  Edwin 
Edser,  217 

Opposition  of  Eros  in  1905,  the.  Prof.  Pickering,  580 

Optics:  Spherical  Aberration  of  the  Eye,  W.  L.,  8;  Edwin 
Edser,  8  ;  W.  Betz,  8  ;  Diagram  for  Single-piece  Lenses, 
T.  H.  Blakesley,  117;  Influence  Exerted  on  the  Rotary 
Power  of  Cyclic  Molecules  by  the  Introduction  of  Double 
Linkages  into  the  Nuclei  Containing  the  Asymmetric 
Carbon  Atom,  A.  Haller,  119;  Theory  of  Refraction  in 
Gases,  George  W.  Walker,  167 ;  Phenomena  of  Vision, 
C.  Welborne  Piper,  177,  Edwin  Edser,  177;  Action  of  the 
Becquerel  Rays  on  the  Nervous  System  and  on  the  Eye, 
Dr.  Loudon,  i8o  ;  Theories  of  Colour  Vision,  C.  A.  Chant, 
181;  the  Theory  of  Colour  Vision,  Dr.  W.  Peddie,  2I4; 
Experiments  on  Shadows  in  an  Astigmatic  Beam  of  Light, 
Prof.  S.  P.  Thompson,  190  ;  Wave-length  of  the  n  Rays 
Determined  by  Diffraction,  G.  Sagnac,  191  ;  Manual  of 
Advanced  Optics,  C.  Riborg  Mann,  Edwin  Edser,  217; 
Practical  Exercises  in  Light  :  being  a  Laboratory  Course 
for  Schools  of  Science  and  Colleges,  R.  S.  Clay,  Edwin 
Edser,  217;  Elementary  Ophthalmic  Optics,  Freeland 
Fergus,  Edwin  Edser,  217;  Geometrical  Optics:  an 
Elementary  Treatise  upon  the  Theory,  and  its  Practical 
Application  to  the  more  Exact  Measurements  of  Optical 
Properties,  Thomas  H.  Blakesley,  Edwin  Edser,  217;  Das 
Stereoskop,  Seine  Anwendung  in  den  technischen  Wissen- 
schaften,  Uber  Entstehung  und  Konstruktion  Stereo- 
skopischer  Bilder,  Wilhelm  Manchot,  Edwin  Edser,  217; 
New  Light  Obtained  after  Filtering  the  Rays  from  a 
Focus  Tube  through  Aluminium  or  Black  Paper,  R.  Blond- 
lot,  232  ;  Efi^ect  of  Light  on  Green  Leaves,  Dr.  Waller, 
238;  Generalisation  of  Lord  Kelvin's  Statement  of  the 
Formula  for  Direct  Refraction,  R.  F.  Muirhead,  253  ; 
Abhandlungen  zur  Physiologie  der  Gesichtsempfindungen. 
J.  von  Kries,  Dr.  W.  H.  R.  Rivers,  291  ;  Penetrativeness 
of  Sunlight  through  Flesh,  Dr.  J.  W.  Kime,  254  ;  Theory 
of  Symmetrical  Optical  Objectives,  S.  D.  Chalmers,  311  ; 
the  Electrical  Dichroism  of  Liquids  Containing  Crystal- 
line Particles  in  Suspension,  J.  Chaudier,  336;  the  Pheno- 


Index 


[Nature, 
December-  lo,  1903 


mena  of  Luminosity  and  their  Possible  Correlation  with 
Radio-activity,      Henry     E.      Armstrong,      F.R.S.,      and 

.  T.  Martin  Lowry,  430 ;  Experiments  for  Determining  the 
Pressure  Due  to  Radiation,  E.  F.  Nichols  and  G.  F.  Hull, 
530;  Optical  Theories  of  the  Microscope,  J.  'W.  Gordon, 
553  ;  Optical  Isomerism,   Prof.  Wallach,   587 

Oregon,  Crater  Lake  in,  Joseph  Silas  Diller  and  Horace 
Bushnell  Patton,  Prof.  T.  G.  Bonney,  F.R.S.,  574 

Oregon,  the  Forests  of,  Henry  Gannett,  406 

O'Reilly  (Prof.  J.  P.),  Antipodal  Relations  of  the  Eruptions 
and  Earthquakes  since  January,    1901,   263 

Organ,  the  Hydraulic,  of  the  Ancients,  John  W.  Warman, 
184 

Organic  Chemistry,  Text-book  of.  Prof.  A.  F.  Holleman, 
149 

Organisms,  F"ermentation,  a  Laboratory  Handbook,  Alb. 
Klocker,  387 

Origin  of  Variation,  the,  Charles  S.  Myers,  224 

Ornithology  :  Complimentary  Singing  by  Birds,  J.  R.  Paul, 
14 ;  Sympathetic  Song  in  Birds,  Edgar  R.  Waite,  322  ; 
Migration  of  Crow  Family  from  East  Coast,  October, 
1902,  J.  H.  Gurney,  15  ;  on  the  Position  of  the  Legs  of 
Birds  in  Flight,  Captain  Barrett-Hamilton,  41  ;  Open-air 
Studies  in  Bird  Life  :  Sketches  of  British  Birds  in  their 
Haunts,  C.  Dixon,  52  ;  How  to  Attract  the  Birds,  Neltje 
Blanchan,  76;  Robin's  Nest  in  a  Small  Leather  Hand- 
bag, Miss  E.  M.  Milner,  85  ;  St.  Kilda  and  its  Birds, 
J.  Wiglesworth,  268;  the  Pertinacity  and  Strength  of 
Japanese  Sparrows,  Rev.  G.  W.  Rawlings,  302  ;  the  Birds 
Mentioned  by  Aristotle,  T.  E.  Lones,  328 ;  Can  Carrier- 
pigeons  Cross  the  Atlantic?  H.  B.  Guppy,  497;  the  Birds 
of  Lapland,  W.  Goebel,  553 

Orth  (Prof.),  the  Non-transmissibility  of  Bovine  Tuber- 
culosis to  Man,  303 

Oscillatory  Electric  Spark,  Photograph  of,  C.  J.  Watson,  56 

Osier  (Mr.),  Death  and  Obituary  Notice  of,   13 

Osmotic  Action  of  Certain  Salts  on  Marine  Algze,  Prof. 
Duggar,  15 

Osmotic  Pressure  in  Plants,  the  Role  of  Diffusion  and,  B.  E. 
Livingstone,   174 

Ostwald  (Wilhelm),  Die  Schule  der  Chemie.  Erste  Ein- 
fuhrung  in  die  Chemie  fur  ledermann,  521 

Owen  (W.  C),  Telephone  Lines,  76 

Oxford  :  Report  of  the  Oxford  University  Observatory,  Prof. 
H.  H.  Turner,  iii  ;  University  Extension  Meeting  at, 
the  Relations  between  Scientific  Research  and  Chemical 
Industry,  Prof.  Raphael  Meldola,  F.R.S.,  398 

Oyster-borne  Illness  following  the  Mayoral  Banquets  at 
Wincheser,  and  at  Southampton,  Alleged,  Dr.  Timbrell 
Bulstrode,  303 

Ozard  (E.),  La  Pratique  des  Fermentations  Industrielles,  53 


Paget    (Stephen).    Experiments    on    Animals,    74 

Palasobotany  :  Were  the  Fern-cycads  Seed-Bearing  Plants  ? 
Prof.  F.  V\'.  Oliver  and  Dr.  D.  H.  Scott,  F.R.S.,  113; 
Fossil  Algas  in  Ancient  Strata,  B.  Renault,  144 ; 
Lyginodendron  and  its  Seed  Lagenostoma,  Dr.  D.  H. 
Scott,  F.R.S.,  and  Prof.  F.  W.  Oliver,  185;  Fossil  Plants 
from  the  Ardwick  Series,   E.  A.  Neville  Arber,  639 

Palaeolithics  :  Persistence  of  the  Paljeolithic  Age  in  South 
Africa,    Prof.    S.    Schonland,    165 

Palaeontology  :  the  Fossil  Man  of  Lansing,  Kansas,  Prof. 
Karl  Pearson,  F.R.S.,  7  ;  Discovery  of  a  Pigmv  Elephant 
in  the  Pleistocene  of  Cyprus,  Dorothv  M.  A. 'Bate,  71; 
Mammoth  Discovered  in  lakousk,  L.  Elb6e,  109;  theNew 
Mammoth  at  St.  Petersburg,  297 ;  New  Fossils  found 
by  Captain  Gaden  in  the  Soudan,  A.  de  Lapparent,  \At  ■ 
Tremataspis,  Prof.  W.  Patten,  182 ;  Fossil  Vertebrata 
from  the  Fayfim.  Egypt,  185  :  Method  for  Investigation 
of  Fossils  by  Serial  Sections,  Prof.  W.  J.  Sollas,  F.R.S., 
237  ;  the  Brain  of  Anchilophus  desmaresti,  R.  Weinberg' 
254  ;  Giant  Land  Tortoise  from  the  Eocene  of  the  Fayurn 
District,  Dr.  Andrews  and  Mr.  Beadnell,  255  ;  Skull  of 
Egyptian  Eocene  Mammal,  Arsinotherium  zi'tieli,  in  the 
Natural  History  Museum,  Dr.  C.  W.  Andrews,  349  ;  Zones 
in  the  Chalk,  Dr.  A.  W.  Rowe,  428 ;  Fossils  from  the 
Cretaceous  Rocks  of  Vancouver,  Dr.  J.  F.  Whiteaves. 
490 ;  the  Brussels  and  Tervueren  Museums,  571; ;  Palaon- 
tological  Observations  in  Alaska,  Albert  Gaudry,  616 

Palmer  (Harold  K.),  the  Study  of  Very  Faint  Spectra    208 


Parallax  of  the  Binary  System  5   Equulei,   W.   J.    Hussey, 

69  ;  Prof.  A.  A.   Rambaut,  69 
Parallaxes,  Recently  Determined  Stellar,   Prof.  A.   Donner, 

354;  Prof.  J.  C.  Kapteyn  and  Dr.  W.  de  Sitter,  354 
Paris:    Paris   Academy   of    Sciences,    23,    47,    95,    119,    143, 

167,  189,  191,  215,  239,  263,  288,  311,  336,  3bo,  384,  408, 

432,  464,  492,   520,   544,   568,   592,   616,   639;   the   Fire  on 

the  Paris  Metropolitan  Railway,  373  ;  Report  of  the  Paris 

Observatory  for  1902,   M.  Loewy,  532 
Parkhurst  (Dr.),  Reported  Discovery  of  a  Nova,  5S0 
Parkinson  (John),  on  Primary  and  Secondary  Devitrification 

in  Glassy  Igneous  Rocks     239, 
Parks  (Dr.    G.    J.),    Experiments   on   the  Thickness  of   the 

Liquid  Film  Formed  by  Condensation  on  the  Surface  of 

the   Solid,   552 
Parsons  (Hon.    C.   A.),  Modern   Steam  TurWnes   and  their 

Application  to  the  Propulsion  of  Vessels,  209 
Parsons  Steam  Turbine,   the,   331 
Parsons  (Louis  A.),  the  Spectrum  of  Hydrogen,  554 
Partsch  (Prof.  Joseph),  Central  Europe,   196 
Passtoukhof  (M.),   Cure  for  Mountain   Sickness,   396 
Pathology  :   Pathology  of   Beri-beri,    Dr.   Hamilton  Wright, 

41  ;    Pathologische    Pflanzenanatomie,    Dr.    Ernst    Kiister, 
•244 ;    Death   of    Prof.    Edmond    Nocard,    327 ;    Vegetable 

Pathology,    Annales  de    I'lnstitut    Central    Amp^lologique 

Roval  Hongrois,   Dr.   IstvAnffi,  317 
Patoii  (Dr.  Noel),  October  Salmon  in  the  Sea,  408 
Patten  (H.   E.),  Experiments  on   the  Interaction  of   Metals 

and    Hydrochloric   Acid    in   Various    Perfectly   Anhydrous 

Solvents,  16 
Patten  (Simon  N.),  Heredity  and  Social  Progress,   174 
Patten   (Prof.   W.),   Tremataspis,    182 
Patterson   (Hume),   Bacillus  of  Salmon   Disease,   86 
Patton  (Horace  Bushnell),  the  Geology  and  Petrography  of 

Crater  Lake,    National    Park,   574 
Paul  (J.  R.),  Complimentary  Singing  by  Birds,  14 
Paving  Sets,   the  Petrological   Examination  of.   Prof.  Joly, 

422 
Peach  (Dr.),  Geology  of  the  Canonbie  Coalfield,  214 
Pearson  (A.  N.),   Report  on  Field  Experiments  in  Victoria, 

1887-1900,  467 
Pearson  (Prof.   Karl,   F.R.S.),  the  Fossil  Man  of  Lansing, 

Kansas,   7  ;   Inheritance  of  Psychical  and   Physical  Char- 
acters in  Man,  607 
Pearson  (R.),   On   Natural  Gas  in  Sussex,   635 
Peculiar  Clouds,  Alfred  O.  Walker,  416 
Peddie  (Dr.  W.),  Psychophysical  Interaction,  78  ;  the  Theory 

of  Colour  Vision,    214 
Peirce  (George  James),  a  Text-book  of  Plant  Physiology,  403 
Pelabon  (H.),   Fusibilities  of  Mixtures  of  Sulphide  of  Anti- 

monv  and    Sulphide  of   Silver,    192 
Pel^e, '  Mont,     and     the     Tragedy    of     Martinique,     Angelo 

Heilprin,  Dr.  John  S.  Flett,  73  ;  see  also  Volcanoes 
Pellat  (M.),    Determination  of  the  Electrochemical   Equiva- 
lent of  Silver,    240 
Pender  (M.),    Magnetic  Action  of  Convection   Currents,   87 
Penetrative  Solar  Radiations,   R.   Blondlot,   233 
Peribeni    (Dr.),     Italian     Excavations    at    Palace    of    i^gia 

Triada,  near  DibAki,  229 
Perkin  (A.  G.),  Butein,  94 
Perkin  (Dr.  F.  Molhvo),  Quantitative  Chemical  Analysis  by 

Electrolysis,  Prof.  Classen,  412  ;  the  Effect  of  Education 

and  Legislation  on  Trade,  602 
Pernet  (George),  Our  Present  Knowledge  of  Leprosy,  41 
Pernier  (Dr.),  Italian  Excavations  at  Palace  of  Agia  Triada, 

near  DibAki,  229 
Perr^dfes  (Mr.),  a  Leguminous  Lliane,   Derris  uliginosa,   15 
Perrin   (Jean),    Electrical    Osmosis,    167 ;    Conditions    which 

Determine  the  Sense  and  Magnitude  of  Electrification  by 

Contact,   191  ;  Traits  de  Chimie  Physique,  Les  Principes, 

507 ;    Conditions    which    Determine     the     Sign     and     the 

Magnitude   of    Electrification    by    Contact,    592  ;    Contact 

Electrification  and  the  Theory  of  Colloid  Solutions,  616 
Perrine      (Prof.),      Spectroscopic     Observations     of      Nova 

Geminorum,  '279 ;    the    Satellite    of    Neptune,    353;    the 

Spectrum    of   Comet   1903c,    376 ;    Recent    Spectrograph ic 

Observations  of  Novae,  631 
Perrot  (F.  Lewis),  the  Thermal  Conductivity  of  Crystallised 

Bismuth,    119 
Perry  (Prof.  John,  F.R.S.),  Reform  in  School  Geometry,  7  ; 

Tables  of  Four-figure  Logarithms,    199,   270 ;   Expansion 


JS  at  lire. 
December  lo,  1903, 


Index 


Curves,  548 ;  On  the  Treatment  of  Irreversible  Processes 
in  Thermodynamics,   610 ;   Flow  of  Steam  from   Nozzles, 
624 
*etavel  (J.  E.),  Preliminary  Note  on  some  Electric  F"urnace 
Reactions  under   High   Gaseous    Pressures,   612 
jPetrie  (Prof.    Flinders),   "  The   Beginning  of  the   Egyptian 
I     Kingdom,"  and   "The  Temple  of  Abydos, "  637 
[Petrilli   (Dr.   Nestore),   Considerazioni  agrarie  sul   Piano  di 

Capitanata,    100 
[Petrography  of  Crater   Lake,    National    Park,    the  Geology 
and,    Joseph    Silas    Dilier,    and    Horace   Bushnell    Patton, 
Prof.  T.  G.  Bonney,   F.R.S.,  574 
Petroleum,  the  Origin  of  Natural  (ias  and,  Eugene  Coste,  20 
Petrology  of  Fiji,  the,  Walter  G.  Woolnough,  520 
Pettersson  (Prof.),  on  the  Effect  of  Ice  Melting  on  Oceanic 

Circulation,  632 
Pettigrew  (W.  F.),  Coal  as  Fuel  at  Barrow-in-Furness,  463 
Pflanzen.    Willkiirliche    Entwickelungsiinderungen    bei,    Ein 
Beurag   zur    Physiologic    der    Entwickelung,    Dr.    Georg 
Klebs,  Francis  Darwin,  F.R.S.,  265 
Pflanzenanatomie,   Pathologische,    Dr.   Ernst  Kuster,   244 
Phaseolunatin,   Wyndham  R,   Dunstan,   F.R.S.,  and  T.   A 

Henry,  287 
Phenology.   Sunspots  and,   Alex.   B.   MacDowall,   389 
Phenomena    of    Vision,    C.    Welborne    Piper,    177 ;    Edwin 

Edser,  177 
Philip  (Dr.  J.  C),  Freezing  Point  Curves  for  some  Binary 
Mixtures    of    Organic    Substances,    chiefly    Phenols    and 
Amines,   117  ^ 

Philippine    Islands    Government    Laboratories,    Report,    109 
Philosophy  :    Die  empiristische   Geschichtsauffassung  David 
Humes,  mit  Beriicksichtigung  moderner  methodologischer 
und    erkenntnistheoretischer    Probleme,    Dr.    Julius    Gold- 
stein, 31;  Manchester  Literary  and  Philosophical  Society, 
47,   030  ;    Dictionary  of   Philosophy   and   Psychology,   76  \ 
Worterbuch     der     philosophischen      Grundbegriffe,'      Dr. 
Friedr.   Kirchner,    125  ;  Cambridge  Philosophical   Society, 
142,  230  ;  Kant's  Lehre  vom  Glauben,  Ernst  Sanger,  365  • 
Scientific    Investigation    and     Experimental     Philosophy,' 
Sidney  Lee,  552 
Phonetics,   Experimental,   Prof.  E.  W.  Scripture,   -{o? 
Phosphorescence  Induced  by  Radium  Bromide,  a  New  Case 

of,  William  Ackroyd,  269 
Phosphorescent  Bacteria,  Prof.  Molisch,  41 
Photography  :  Photograph  of  Oscillatory  Electric  Spark, 
C.  J.  Watson,  56;  the  Advancement  of' Photography,  Sir- 
William  Abney,  K.C.B.,  F.R.S.,  at  the  Royal  Photo- 
graphic Society,  89 ;  Transmission  of  Photographs  by 
Means  of  a  Telegraph  Wire,  M.  Korn,  96;  "Tabloid'' 
Preparations  for  Photography,  114;  Burroughs,  Welcome 
and  Co.'s  "Tabloid"  Preparations  for  Photographers, 
181  ;  on  the  Photo-electric  Discharge  from  Metallic  Sur- 
faces in  Different  Gases,  W.  Mansergh  Varlev,  n6  ; 
Photographs  of  Snow  Crystals,  W.  A.  Bentley,  12^  ;  the 
Harvard  Photographs  of'  the  Entire  Sky,  Prof.  e'.  C. 
Pickering.  138;  a  Camera  for  Naturalists,  140;  Photo- 
graphic Observations  of  Comet  1902  III.,  Prof.  Sykora, 
183  ;  Photographs  of  Comet  1902  h.  Prof.  R.  H.  Curtiss^ 
305  ;  Photographs  of  the  Paths  of  Aerial  Gliders,  Prof.' 
G.  H.  Bryan,  F.R.S.,  and  W.  E.  Williams,  184:  Hand 
Camera  Photography,  Walter  Kilb^y,  198;  "Photo- 
graphy," 198;  the  Thunderstorm  of  May  31,  C.  H. 
Hawkins.  Dr.  W.  N.  Shaw,  F.R.S.,  247.  Dr.  William 
J.  S.  Lockyer,  270;  the  Tenth  "Eros"  Circular,  Prof. 
H.  H.  Turner,  276;  Photographic  Efficiency  of  a  Short 
Focus  Reflector,  Prof.  Schaeberle,  330  ;  a  Fixing  Liquid 
Isotonic  with  Sea-water,  M.  C.  Dekhuvzen,  408,  464  ; 
Photography  at  the  New  Gallery,  527  ;  Recherches  sur  les 
Instruments,  les  Methodes  et  le  Dessin  Topograph iques. 
Col.  A.  Laussedat,  545  ;  Carbon  Photography  made  Easv 
Thomas  Illingworth,  6iq  ;  Portraiture  for  Amateurs  with- 
out a  Studio,  Rev.  F.  C.  Lambert,  619;  the  Elementary 
Chemistry  of  Photographic  Chemicals,  C.  Sordes  Ellis, 
619;  Photography  by  Rule,  J.  Sterry,  619;  Photomicrol 
graphy  with  a  Brownie  Camera,  W.  Moss,  234 ;  Lehrbuch 
der  Mikrophotographie,  Dr.  Carl  Kaiserling,  268 
Photometer    Observations,    the    Harvard     Meridian,     Prof. 

E.  C.  Pickering,  17 
Photometry,  W.  J.   Dibden,  30 

Phrenology,    the   Revival  of,    the   Mental    Functions   of   the 
Brain,  Dr.  Bernard  Hollander,   268 


Phthisis,  the  Propagation  of,  Rev.  Edmund  McClure,  5b 
Physics  :  Physikalische  Chemie  der  Zelle  und  der  Gewebe, 
Dr.  Rudolf  Hober,  Dr.  Benjamin  Moore,  4  ;  Experiments, 
with  Vacuum  Tubes,  Sir  D.  L.  Salomons,  Bart.,  6; 
Obituary  Notice  of  Prof.  J.  Willard  Gibbs,  11  ;  Inter- 
ference of  Light-waves,  Profs.  Lummer  and  Gehrcke,  15 ; 
Experiments  with  Ionised  Air,  Dr.  Carl  Barus,  21  ;  Con- 
densation Nuclei,  Carl  Barus,  C.  T.  R.  Wilson,  F.R.S., 
548;  Physical  Society,  22,  71,  117,  190,  238;  Proposed 
Meetings  of  the  Physical  Society  at  the  Royal  College  of 
Science,  109 ;  Radio-active  Processes,  Paper  Read  at 
Physical  Society,  Prof.  E.  Rutherford,  163 ;  the  Use  of 
Mercury  Baths  in  Preventing  Oscillations,  Maurice  Hamy, 
23  ;  Action  of  Live  Things  in  Mechanics,  Sir  Oliver  Lodge, 
F.R.S.,  31  ;  the  Glorification  of  Energy,  Prof.  George 
M.  Minchin,  F.R.S.,  31;  Physical  Properties  of  Tri- 
methylcarbinol,  M.  de  Forcrand,  47 ;  Memorial  to  Sir 
George  Stokes,  64 ;  Inertia  and  Coercion,  Prof.  Ladislaus 
Natanson,  66 ;  Death  of  F61ix  Worms  de  Romilly,  84 ; 
Catalogue  of  Instruments  and  Models  taken  from  the 
Schaffer  Museum,  Prof.  Bohn,  87-88  ;  Modulus  of  Traction 
and  the  Coefiicient  of  Expansion  of  Vulcanised  India- 
rubber,  MM.  Bouasse  and  Carriere,  95  ;  the  Combination 
of  Hydrogen  and  Chlorine  under  the  Influence  of  Light, 
P.  V.  Bevan,  116;  Nernst  Lamps,  J.  Stottner,  117; 
Diagram  for  Single-piece  Lenses,  T.  H.  Blakesley,  117, 
Instrument  for  Measuring  the  Lateral  Contraction  of  Tie- 
bars,  and  on  the  Determination  of  Poisson's  Ratio,  J. 
Morrow,  117;  Note  on  the  Probable  Occasional  Instability 
of  all  Matter,  Sir  Oliver  J.  Lodge,  F.R.S.,  128  ;  Properties 
of  Colloidal  Solutions,  H.  Garrett,  137 ;  Potential 
Differences  between  the  Terminals  of  a  Vacuum  Tube, 
W.  A.  D.  Rudge,  142  ;  Electrical  Osmosis,  Jean  Perrin, 
167  ;  Theory  of  Refraction  in  Gases,  George  W.  Walker, 
167;  Dissociation  Curves,  A.  Bouzat,  168;  Vorlesungen 
iiber  hydrodynamische  Fernkrafte  nach  C.  A.  Bjerknes' 
Theorie,  V.  Bjerknes,  Prof.'G.  H.  Bryan,  F.R.S.,  172; 
the  R61e  of  Diffusion  and  Osmotic  Pressure  in  Plants, 
B.  E.  Livingston,  174 ;  Effect  Produced  by  the  Momentary 
Relief  of  Great  Pressure,  J.  Y.  Buchanan,  F.R.S.,  184, 
334  ;  Method  of  Determining  the  Viscosity  of  Pitch-like 
Solids,  Prof.  F.  T.  Trouton  and  E.  S.  Andrews,  190 ; 
Hermann  von  Helmholtz,  Leo  Koenigsberger,  Harold 
Hilton,  193  ;  a  Treatise  on  the  Theory  of  Solution,  in- 
cluding the  Phenomena  of  Electrolysis,  W.  C.  D. 
Whetham,  197  ;  Mercury  Bubbles,  Dr.  Henry  H.  Dixon, 
199;  Critical  State  of  Gases,  J.  Traube  and  G.  Teichner, 
210;  Apparatus  for  Determining  the  Vapour  Densities 
of  CO,,  &c.,  W'.  Nernst,  210;  Colloid  Zirconium,  E. 
Wedekind,  211;  Colloids  of  Paper,  &c.,  O.  Burns,  211; 
Concentration  of  Solutions,  &c.,  by  Freezing,  Mr.  Monti, 
211  ;  Production  of  Very  High  Temperatures  by  Burning 
Aluminium  in  Oxygen'  and  other  Gases,  Mr.  Zengelis, 
211;  Physical  Constitution  of  the  Atmosphere,  Louis 
Maillard,  216;  "Bathymeter,"  a  Simple  Apparatus  for 
Gauging  the  Depths  of  Liquids  in  Wells  and  Tanks, 
Leonard  Murphy,  231;  the  "Flow  of  Marble,"  Lucie 
Fournier,  231  ;  New  Light  Obtained  after  Filtering  the 
Rays  from  a  Focus  Tube  through  Aluminium  or  Black 
Paper,  R.  Blondlot,  232  ;  Propagation  of  Tremors  over 
the  Surface  of  an  Elastic  Solid,  Horace  Lamb,  237 ; 
Spontaneous  Dichroism  of  Mixed  Liquids,  Georges 
Meslin,  240 ;  Physical  Chemistry  for  Physicians  and 
Biologists,  Ernst  Cohen,  245  ;  the  Elasmometer,  A.  E.  H.. 
Tutton,  F.R.S.,  261  ;  New  Method  of  Producing  Tension 
in  Liquids,  J.  T.  Jackson,  262  ;  Experiments  on  the  Resist- 
ance of  the  Air,  G.  Eiffel,  263  ;  the  Source  of  Radium 
Energy,  Ch.  Lagrange,  269 ;  Experiments  in  Radio- 
Activity  and  the  Production  of  Helium  from  Radium, 
Sir  William  Ramsay,  K.C.B.,  F.R.S.,  and  Frederick 
Soddy,  at  the  Royal  Society,  354  ;  the  Amount  of  Emana- 
tion and  Helium  from  Radium,  Prof.  E.  Rutherford, 
F.R.S.,  366;  the  Principle  of  Radium,  496;  see  also 
Radiography ;  a  Modern  Physicist,  Scientific  Papers  of 
Lord  Rayleigh,  289 ;  Influence  of  Temperature  on  the 
Dichroism  of  Mixed  Liquids,  Georges  Meslin,  312;  the 
Physical  Papers  of  Henry  Augustus  Rowland,  316  ;  Report 
of  the  Research  Work,  during  the  Half-year  ending 
June  30,  at  the  National  Physical  Laboratory,  350; 
Separation  of  Solids  in  the  Surface-layers  of  Solutions  and 
Suspensions,  W.  Ramsden,  359  ;  Pressure  Curves  of  Uni- 


XXXV 1 


Index 


[Nature, 
Decemler  lo,  1903 


variant  Systems,  containing  One  Gaseous  Phase,  A. 
Bouzat,  360 ;  Elementary  Physics,  Practical  and  Theoreti- 
cal, John  G.  Kerr  and  John  N.  Brown,  365  ;  Lehrbuch 
der  technischen  Physik,  Prof.  Dr.  Hans  Lorenz,  364 ; 
New  Instruments  of  Precision  from  the  Ryerson  Labora- 
tory, R.  A.  Millikau,  375 ;  Apparatus  for  Determining 
Latent  Heats  of  Evaporation  in  Electrical  Units,  A. 
Cameron  Smith,  383  ;  Elements  of  Physics,  Experimental 
and  Descriptive,  Amos  T.  Fisher,  389 ;  Molecular  Con- 
dition of  Demagnetised  Iron,  James  Russell,  408 ; 
Radiation  in  the  Solar  System,  its  Effect  on  Temperature 
and  its  Pressure  on  Small  Bodies,  J.  H.  Poynting,  F.R.S., 
430 ;  Experiments  for  Determining  the  Pressure  Due  to 
Radiation,  E.  F.  Nichols  and  G.  F.  Hull,  530;  Loss  of 
Weight  of  Musk  by  Volatilisation,  F.  R.  Sexton,  548 ; 
E:xpansion  Curves,  Prof.  J.  Perry,  F.R.S.,  548,  Prof. 
Alfred  Lodge,  599  ;  Elastic  Constants  of  a  Substance  not 
Affected  by  Surrounding  Medium,  Prof.  M.  Cantone,  552  ; 
Experiments  on  the  Thickness  of  the  Liquid  Film  formed 
by  Condensation  on  the  Surface  of  the  Solid,  Dr.  G.  J. 
Parks,  552  ;  Periodic  System  of  the  Elements,  Sir  William 
Ramsay,  587;  Traits  de  Chimie  phvsique  Les  Principes, 
Jean  Perrin,  597;  the  Arithmetic  of  Elementary  Physics 
and  Chemistry,  H.  H.  Timpany,  597  ;  the  Sub-mechanics 
of  the  Universe,  Osborne  Reynolds,  F.R.S.,  Prof.  G.  H. 
Bryan,  F.R.S.,  600;  Flow  of  Steam  from  Nozzles,  Prof. 
John  Perry,  F.R.S.,  624 
Physiology  :  Ergebnisse  der  Physiologie,  Dr.  H.  M. 
Vernon,  3  ;  the  Principles  of  Anim.al  Nutrition  with 
Special  Reference  to  the  Nutrition  of  Farm  Animals, 
Henry  Prentiss  Armsby,  30  ;  Comparative  Physiology  of 
the  Two  Kidneys,  J.  Albarran,  96 ;  Conjugation  in  Amoeha 
undulans,  Signora  Margherita  Traube  Mengarini,  87 ; 
Obituary  Notice  of  Dr.  Jean  Baptiste  Vincent  Laborde, 
Dr.  J.  Deniker,  105  ;  on  the  Presence  of  Cadaverine  in 
the  Products  of  the  Hydrolysis  of  Mussels,  MM.  A.  :^tard 
and  Vila,  120  ;  Physiological  Reports  from  the  Laboratory 
of  the  Royal  College  of  Phvsicians,  Edinburgh,  123  ;  the 
Human  Plantar  Reflexes,  Dr.  Alex.  M.  M'Aldowie,  143; 
the  Degradation  of  Carbohydrates  in  the  Anim'al 
Organism,  A  B.ach  and  F.  Battelli,  144;  Action  of  the 
Becquerel  Rays  on  the  Nervous  System  and  on  the  Eye 
Dr.  London,  180 ;  the  Nature  of  Intercellular  Tissue,  Prof. 
A.  Schuberg,  182  ;  Method  for  the  Rapid  Determination 
of  the  Specific  Gravity  of  Blood,  Prof.  W.  J.  SoUas, 
F.R.S.,  184;  on  the  Adaptation  of  Pancreas  to  Different 
Foodstuffs,  F.  A.  Bainbridge,  189  ;  Hydrolysis  of  Fats  in 
vitro  by  Means  of  Steapsin,  Dr.  J.  Lewkowitsch  and  Dr. 
J.  J.  R.  Macleod,  189  ;  the  Measurement  of  Tissue  Fluid 
in  Man,  Dr.  George  Oliver,  189 ;  Hermann  von  Helm- 
holtz,  Leo  Koenigsberger,  Sir  J.  Burdon-Sanderson,  Bart., 
F.R.S.,  193;  Conditions  of  Oxidation  of  Salicylic 
Aldehyde,  by  Organs  and  Extracts  of  Organs,  J.  E. 
Abelous  and  J.  Aloy,  216;  Method  of  Determining  the 
Temperature-limits  of  Nerve  Activity  in  Warm-blooded 
and  Cold-blooded  Animals,  Dr.  N.  H.  Alcock,  238;  In- 
fluence of  Altitude  on  the  Duration  of  the  Reduction  of 
the  Oxyhemoglobin  in  Man,  A.  H^nocque,  240;  Action 
of  Carbon  Dioxide  on  the  Eggs  of  Echinoderms,  C. 
Vjguier,  240;  Physical  Chemistry  for  Physicians  and 
Biologists,  Ernst  Cohen,  245 ;  Intravenous  Injection  of 
Glycerol,  Maurice  Nicloux,  263  ;  Influence  of  the  Nervous 
System  on  the  Ontogenesis  of  the  Limbs,  P.  Wintrebert, 
288 ;  Abhandlungen  zur  Physiologie  der  Gesichtsempl 
findungen,  J.  von  Kries,  Dr.  W.  H.  R.  Rivers,  291  ;  the 
Synthesis  of  Fats  Accompanying  Absorption  from  the  In- 
testine, Benjamin  Moore,  311;  the  Resuscitation  of  the 
Apparently  Drowned,  326;  Use  of  a  Calorimetric  Bomb 
to  Demonstrate  the  Presence  of  Arsenic  in  the  Organism 
Gabriel  Bertrand,  336;  the  Corpus  Luteum  of  Dasyuru's 
vivernnus.  Dr.  F.  P.  Sandes,  384  ;  Alkaline  Reaction  of 
the  Blood,  H.  Labb^,  384;  Two  Fundamental  Properties 
of  Protoplasm,  Dr.  D.  Eraser  Harris,  408  ;  the  CEstrous 
Cycle  and  the  Formation  of  the  Corpus  luteum  in  the 
Sheep,  Francis  H.  A.  Marshall,  429  ;  Die  Neuronenlehre 
und  ihre  Anhanger,  Dr.  Franz  Nissl,  435  ;  the  Production 
of  Sugar  in  the  Blood  during  the  Passage  of  the  latter 
through  the  lungs,  R.  Lupine  and  M.  Boulud,  544; 
Ergebnisse  der  Physiologie,  547 ;  Essai  sur  la  Psycho- 
physiologie  des  Monstres  Humains,  N.  Vaschide  and  CI. 
Vurpas,   Dr.   C.   S.   Myers,   570;   Impressions  and  Sensa- 


tions, and  their  Connection  with  the  Surface  of  the 
Brain,  Prof.  Ziehen,  586 ;  a  Laboratory  Manual  of 
Physiological  Chemistry,  Ralph  W.  Webster  and  Walde- 
mar  Koch,  Prof.  W.  D.  Halliburton,  F.R.S.,  594;  Radio- 
activity and  the  Constitution  of  Matter  and  its  bearing  on 
Biological  Processes,  Dr.  W.  H.  AUchin,  603  ;  Death  of 
Prof.  Alexander  RoUet,  603  ;  the  Detection  and  Estimation 
of  Urea  in  the  Tissues  of  Vertebrate  Animals,  Nestor 
Gr^hant,  616 ;  the  Sense  of  Smell  in  the  Old,  M. 
Vaschide,  639;  Plant  Physiology,  the  Influence  of  Light 
and  Darkness  upon  Growth  and  Development,  D.  T. 
MacDougal,  10;  Temperature  of  the  Subterranean 
Organs  of  Plants,  Dr.  Henry  H.  Dixon,  23  ;  Influence  of 
the  Nature  of  the  External  Medium  on  Plant  Acidity, 
E.  Charabot  and  A.  Hubert,  24 ;  the  Origin  of  Seed- 
bearing  Plants,  Dr.  D.  H.  Scott,  F.R.S.,  at  the  Royal 
Institution,  377  ;  a  Text-book  of  Plant  Physiology,  George 
James  Peirce,  493 
Pickard  (R.   H.),  Cholesterol,    117 

Pickering  (Prof.  E.  C),  Nova  Geminorum,  16  ;  Variability 
of,  89  ;  the  Harvard  Meridian  Photometer  Observations, 
17 ;  a  Remarkable  Algol  Variable,  42  ;  Cooperation  in 
Astronomy,  61  ;  the  Harvard  Photographs  of  the  Entire 
Sky,  138;  Intensity  of  Spectral  Lines,  491;  Reported 
Discovery  of  a  Nova,  580 ;  the  Opposition  of  Eros  in 
1905,  580 
Pickering  (Prof.  W.  H.),  the  Moon's  Phases  and  Thunder- 
storms, 232 
Pierce   (G.    W.),    Formation, of   "  Liesegang's    Rings,"    by 

Precipitation  of  Silver  Chromate  in  Gelatin,  578 
Pierson  (Clara  Dillingham),  Among  the  Night  People,  366 
Pilot  Chart,   Meteorological  Office,  for  May,   14  ;  for  June, 

136  ;  for  July,  206 
Piper  (C.  Welborne),  Phenomena  of  Vision,   177 
Pitchford  (Dr.  Watkins),  Cape  Horse-Sickness,   no 
Pjetursson    (Helgi),    on    a    Shelly    Boulder-clay    in    the    so- 
called  Palagonite  Formation  of  Iceland,  118 
Plague  Bacilli,  Insect  Vermin  and.  Prof.   Simpson,  603 
Planets :    Evidence   for    Life   on    Mars,    A.    R.    Hinks,    16 ; 
a  Reported  Projection  on  Mars,  in  ;  Projection  on  Mars, 
Messrs.  Lowell  and  Slipher,  353  ;  the  South  Pole  Cap  of 
Mars,   Prof.   Barnard,    138;   the  Canals  on  Mars,    E.   W. 
Maunder  and  J.   E.   Evans,    190;   E.  M.   Antoniadi,   461; 
Observations  of  Mars,  MM.*  Flammarion  and  Benoit,  606  ; 
the   Satellites  of   Saturn,    W.    J.    Hussey,    184 ;    Reported 
Change  on  Saturn,   Prof.   Barnard,  207  ;  White  Spot  on, 
W.    F.    Denning,    229 ;  Another   White    Spot   on,    W.    F. 
Denning,    247 ;    the   White    Spots    on    Saturn,    J.    Comas 
Sold,   425 ;   Bright   Spots  on,    W.    F.    Denning,  279 ;    the 
Spots  on,   W.   F.   Denning,   390 ;   the  Rotation  Period   of 
Saturn,    W.    F.   Denning,    519;    Leo    Brenner,    554;    Red 
Spot    on    Jupiter,    Stanley    J.    Williams,    208;    Retarded 
Motion  of  the  Great  Red  .Spot  on,  W.    F.   Denning,  390  ; 
Occultation  of  a  Star  by  Jupiter,   T.    Banachiewicz,   631  ; 
Herr  Kostinsky,  631  ;  Mr.  Denning,  631  ;  the  Satellite  of 
Neptune,  Prof.  Perrine,  353  ;  Diameter  of,  C.  W.  Wirtz, 
580;  Mass  of  Mercury,  Prof.  T.  J.  J.  See,  491  ;  Rotational 
Velocity  of  Venus,   V.   M.   Slipher,  631 
Plant    Physiology  :    the    Influence   of    Light    and    Darkness 
upon  Growth  and   Development,    D.  T.    MacDougal,    10 ; 
Temperature  of  the  Subterranean  Organs  of  Plants,    Dr. 
Henry    H.    Dixon,    23  ;    Influence    of    the    Nature  of    the 
External   Medium  on  Plant  Acidity,   E.  Charabot  and  A. 
Hubert,  24  ;  the  Origin  of  Seed-bearing  Plants,  Dr.  D.  H. 
Scott,  F.R.S.,  at  the  Royal  Institution,  377;  a  Text-book 
of  Plant  Physiology,  George  James  Peirce,  493 
Plant-Surgery,  the  Basis  of.  Dr.  Ernst  Kiister,  244 
Plants,    the    K6le    of    Diffusion    and    Osmotic    Pressure    in, 

B.   E.  Livingston,   174 
Plimmer   (R.    H.   Aders),    the  Chemical   Changes   and    Pro- 
ducts resulting  from  Fermentations,  99 
Plummer,   (Fred   G.),   Forestry  in  the  Cascade  Range,   406 
Plunket  (Hon.  Emmeline  M.),  Ancient  Calendars  and  Con- 
stellations, 593 
Pochin  (E.  A.  N.),  Wireless  Telegraphy,  187 
Pocock  (R.   I.),   Geographical   Distribution  of  the  Mygalo- 
morphae,  47 ;  Mapping  of  the  World  into  Zoological  Re- 
gions, 47  ;  the  Coloration  of  the  Quaggas,  356 
Poids  et  Mesure,  Comity  international  des,  525 
Pope  (Prof.  W.  J.,   F.R.S.),   Longstaff  Medal  Awarded  to, 
94 ;    Recent    Advances    in    Stereochemistry,    280 ;    on    the 


Nature,         "] 
December  lo,  1903J 


Index 


Cause   of    the    Lustre    produced    on    Mercerising    Cotton 
under  Tension,   611 
Port   Darwin,  Tides  at,   R.   W.   Chapman,  295 
Portraiture  for    Amateurs    without    a    Studio,    Rev.    F.    C. 

Lambart,  619 
Posternak    (S.),    the    Phospho-organic    Reserve    Material    of 
Plants,    312  ;    the    Phospho-organic    Reserve    Material    of 
Green    Plants,    360 ;    the    Constitution    of    the    Phospho- 
organic   Acid    in    the   Reserve    Material    of    Green    Plants 
and  on  the  First  Reduction  Product  of  Carbonic  Acid  in 
the  Act  of  Chlorophyll   Assimilation,    432 
Pottevin  (Henri),   Reversibility  of  Lipolytic  Actions,  95 
Poulton  (Prof.  E.  B.),  on  Polygottia  C-album  in  the  Attitude 
of    Prolonged    Repose,    1 18 ;    Protective    Resemblance    of 
Butterflies    to    Dead    Leaves    and    Fragments    of    Dead 
Leaves,   185 
Poultry  Raising  in  Ohio,  Scientific,  358 
Poussin  (Charles  de  la  Valine),   Death  of,  84 
Powell-Cotton  (Major),   News  of,  458 

Power  (Dr.),  a  Leguminous  Lliane,    Derris  iiliginosa,    i^ 
Poynting  (J.    H.,    F.R.S.),    Radiation  in  the  Solar  System, 
its    Effect    on    Temperature    and    its    Pressure    on    Small 
Bodies,  430 
Pozzi-Escot  (Emm.),  Diastatic  Hydrolysis  of  Salol,  95  ;  Pro- 
duction of  Sulphuretted  Hydrogen  by  Yeast  Extract,  568 
Pradeau   (Gustave),    a    Key    to   the   Time   Allusions   in    the 

Divine  Comedy  of  Dante  Alighieri,  414 
Pratt  (Miss),  on  the  Assimilation  and  Distribution  of  Nutri- 
ment in   Alcyonium   digitatum.   614 
Preece  (C.  T.),   Psychophysical   Interaction,   78 
Preller  (Dr.    Charles   S.    Du    Riche),   Age  of   the   Principal 

Lake-basins  between  the  Jura  and  the  Alps,    117 
Preuner  (Mr.),   the  Molecular  Composition  of  Sulphur,  606 
Prevention   of  Accidents   in    Factories,    E.    Magrini,    G.    H. 

Baillie,  219 
I^revention  of  Disease,   the,  49 
Price  (W.   A.),   the  Coloured   Map  Problem,   71 
Principles,  a  Revision  of,  Bertrand  Russell,  410 
Printing :    Electrical   Type-setting   Machine,    M.    Tavernier, 

351 
Prior  (W.  R.),  an  Image  of  the  Sun  Found  at  Trundholm,  629 
Projection  on  Mars,   a  Reported,    iii  ;  Messrs.   Lowell  and 

Slipher,  353 
Propagation  of  Phthisis,  the.   Rev.   Edmund  McClure,  56 
I'rotective  Mimicry;  see  Mimicry 
Proteinic  Molecule,  the  Magnitude  of  the.  Dr.  F.  N.  Schulz, 

F.   Escombe,    123 
Protoplasm,  two  Fundamental  Properties  of.  Dr.  D.  Fraser 

Harris,  408 
Protozoa,  Introduction  and,  a  Treatise  on  Zoology,  6i8 
Prout    (Dr.    W.    T.),    Experiments    on    the    Basil'  Plant    in 

Relation  to  its  Effect  on  Mosquitoes,  302 
Psychical  and  Physical  Characters  in  Man,   Inheritance  of, 

Prof.  Karl  Pearson,  F.R.S.,  607 
Psychology:  Can  Dogs  Reason?  Dr.  Alex.  Hill,  7; 
Dictionary  of  Philosophy  and  Psychology,  76 ;  Geist  und 
Korper,  Seele  und  Leib,  Ludwig  Busse,  98;  Animal  In- 
telligence, Sir  Herbert  Maxwell,  136 ;  Human  Personality 
and  its  Survival  of  Bodily  Death,  Frederick  W.  H.  Myers, 
Sir  Oliver  Lodge,  F.R.S.,  id^  ;  the  Mind  of  Man,  Gustav 
Spiller,  174;  the  Study  of  Mental  Science,  Prof.  J. 
Brough,  197 ;  the  Revival  of  Phrenology,  the  Mental 
Functions  of  the  Brain,  Dr.  Bernard  Hollander,  268  ;  Ex- 
perimental Researches  on  Dreams,  N.  Vaschide,  288 ; 
Harvard  Psychological  Studies,  342  ;  Ijain,  or  the  Evolu- 
tion of  a  Mind,  Lady  Florence  Dixie,  343  ;  Motor,  Visual, 
and  Applied  Rhythms,  J.  B.  Miner,  423  ;  the  Teaching  of 
Psychology  in  the  Universities  of  the  United  States,  Dr. 
C.  S.  Myers  at  Psychological  Society  at  Cambridge,  425  ; 
Essai  sur  la  Psycho-physiologie  des  Monstres  Humains, 
N.  Vaschide  and  CI.  Vurpas,  Dr.  C.  S.  Myers,  570  ;  Ex- 
perimental Psychology  and  its  Bearing  on  Culture, 
George  Malcolm  Stratton,  Dr.  C.  S.  Myers,  465 
!'sychometric  Observations  in  Murray  Island,  409 
Psychophysical  Interaction,  W.  McDougall,  32  ;  Prof.  A.  M. 
Worthington,  F.R.S.,  3^  ;  Sir  Oliver  Lodge,  F.R.S.,  3^, 
,^3,  126,  150;  Dr.  E.'W.  Hobson,  F.R.S.,  77;  J.  W. 
Sharpe.  77  ;  Dr.  W.  Peddie,  78  ;  C.  T.  Preece,  78  ;  Oliver 
Heaviside,  F.R.S.,  102  ;  G.  W.  Hemming,  102  ;  Prof. 
J.  H.  Muirhead,  126,  198;  Edward  P.  Culverwell,  150;  \. 
Bowman,    151 


Puisseux  (P.),  Eclipse  of  the  Moon  of  April  n,  23;  Struc- 
ture and  History  of  the  Lunar  Crust,  215 

Purdie  (Prof.,  F.R.S.),  the  Methylation  of  Cane-sugar  and 
Maltose,  612 

Purin-  un4  Zuckergruppe,  Synthesen  in  der,  Emil  Fischer, 
466 

Purple  Flowers,  Captain  F.  W.  Hutton,  F.R.S.,  223 

Purvis  (J.  E.),  Influence  of  Great  Dilution  on  the  Absorp- 
tion Spectra  of  Highly  Concentrated  Solutions  of  the 
Nitrates  and  Chlorides  of  Didymium  and  Erbium,  239 

Putney,  a  Mirage  at,    H.   E.   Wimperis,  368 


Quaggas,  the  Coloration  of  the,  R.  I.  Pocock,  356 
Qualitative  Chemical  Analysis,  John   B.   Garvin,  366 
Queensland,  Ethnographical  Studies  in,  Superstition,  Magic 

and  Medicine,  Walter  E.   Roth,   235 
Qu6nisset  (M.),    Photograph   of    Borrelly's   Comet    1903    c, 

336 
Quennessen   (M.),    Analysis  of  Osmiridium  Alloys,    168 
Querton   (Dr.    Louis),    Contribution   ^J'Etude  du  Mode   de 

Production  de  I'Electricit^  dans  les  Etres  vivants,  5 


Radial  Velocities,   Four  Stars  with  Valuable,  H.  M.  Reese, 
Radial  Velocities,   Newly  Determined  Stellar,   Prof.   Vogel, 

Radiation  Pressure  and  Cometary  Theory,  E.  F.  NichoUs 
and   G.    F.    Hull,    461 

Radiography  :  Energy  Emitted  by  Radio-active  Bodies, 
Hon.  R.  J.  Strutt,  6;  Radiation  of  Polonium  and  on  its 
Secondary  Radiation,  Henri  Becquerel,  23  ;  the  Boys' 
Radiomicrometer,  C.  C.  Hutchins,  46  ;  Canadian  View  of 
Radio-activity,  F"rederick  Soddy,  66 ;  Radium  and  its 
Position  in  Nature,  William  Ackroyd,  66 ;  Conductivity 
and  Residual  lonisation  of  Solid  Paraffin  under  the  In- 
fluence of  the  Radium  Radiation,  Henri  Becquerel,  95 : 
the  Emanation  of  Radium  and  its  Coefficient  of  Diffusion 
in  Air,  P.  Curie  and  J.  Daune,  143  ;  Condensation  of  the 
Radio-active  Emanations  of  Radium  and  Thorium  by 
Liquid  Air,  Prof.  E.  Rutherford,  F.R.S.,  and  F.  Soddy, 
184  ;  Radium  Fluorescence,  F.  Harrison  Glew,  200  ;  Effect 
of  Extreme  Cold  on  the  Emanations  of  Radium,  Sir 
W'illiam  Crookes,  F.R.S.,  and  Prof.  James  Dewar, 
F.R.S,,  213;  a  Property  of  the  a-Rays  of  Radium,  Henri 
Becquerel,  215;  Radium  and  Solar  Energy,  Dr.  W.  E. 
Wilson,  F.R.S.,  222  ;  Gases  Occluded  by  Radium  Bro- 
mide, Sir  William  Ramsay,  K.C.B.,  F.R.S. ,  and 
Frederick  Soddy,  246 ;  a  New  Case  of  Phosphorescence 
Induced  by  Radium  Bromide,  William  Ackroyd,  269;  the 
Oxidising'  Action  of  the  Ravs  from  Radium  Bromide, 
W.  B.  Hardy,  F.R.S.,  and  Miss  E.  G.  Willcock,  431  : 
Radium  Rays  in  the  Treatment  of  Cancer,  Prof. 
Gussenbauer,  254 ;  Radium  and  Cancer,  Dr.  Alexander 
Graham  Bell,  320  :  Dr.  Z.  T.  Sowers,  320  ;  the  Source  of 
Radium  Energy,  Ch.  Lagrange,  269  :  Experiments  with 
a  Mixture  of  Radium  and  Barium  Chlorides  in  a  dry 
and  in  a  moist  state,  F.  W.  Branson,  302  ;  a  Method 
of  Applying  the  Rays  from  Radium  and  Thorium  to  the 
Treatment  of  Consumption,  Frederick  Soddy,  306 ;  Ex- 
periments in  Radio-activity  and  the  Production  of  Helium 
from  Radium,  Sir  William  Ramsay,  K.C.B.,  F.R.S., 
and  Frederick  Soddy.  at  the  Royal  Society,  354 ;  the 
Amount  of  Emanation  and  Helium  from  Radium,  Prof. 
E.  Rutherford,  F.R.S.,  366;  on  the  Intensely  Penetrating 
Rays  of  Radium,  Hon.'  R.  J.  Strutt,  at  Royal  Society, 
3;:;";  the  Heat  Radiating  Power  of  Radium,  M.  Curie  and 
Prof.  Dewar,  372  ;  the  Principle  of  Radium,  496 ;  Radium 
and  the  Geological  Age  of  the  Earth,  Prof.  J.  Joly,  F.R.S., 
526  ;  Radium  and  the  Cosmical  Time  Scale,  W.  B.  Hardy, 
548;  Radium  and  the  Sun's  Heat,  Hon.  R.  J.  Strutt, 
";72  ;  Prof.  J.  Joly,  F.R.S.,  572  :  Experiments  on  the 
Effects  of  Low  Temperature  on  the  Properties  and 
Spectrum  of  Radium,  Prof.  Dewar  and  Sir  W.  Crookes, 
611  :  Prof.  Schuster,  611  ;  Prof.  Larmor,  611  ;  Mr.  Whet- 
ham,  611;  Dr.  Lowry,  611;  Radium  and  other  Radio- 
active Substances,  with  a  Consideration  of  Phosphorescent 
and  Fluorescent  Substances,  the  Properties  and  Applica- 
tion of  Selenium,  and  the  Treatment  of  Disease  by  the 
Ultra-violet    Light,    William   J.    Hammer,    621;    Heating 


XXXVlll 


Index 


r  Nature, 

\_December  lo,  1903 


Effect  of  the  Radium  Emanation,,  Prof.  E.  Rutherford, 
F.R.S.,  622  ;  Prof.  H.  T.  Barnes,  622  ;  Radio-active  Gas 
in  Mines,  W.  A.  D.  Rudge,  85  ;  Radio-active  Gas  from 
Tap-water,  Prof.  Thomson,  F.R.S.,  at  the  Cambridge 
Philosophical  Society,  90  ;  Existence  of  Radiations  Capable 
of  Passing  through  Wood  and  certain  Metals  in  the 
Rays  from  an  Incandescent  Mantle,  R.  Blondlot,  95 ; 
New  Form  of  Stereoscope  for  X-Ray  Work,  T.  Guilloz, 
109  ;  on  New  Sources  of  Radiations  capable  of  traversing 
Metals,  Wood,  and  other  Substances,  and  on  the  New 
Actions  produced  by  these  Radiations,  R.  Blondlot,  iiq; 
Effect  of  Temperature  on  the  lonisation  of  Gases  acted  on 
by  Rontgen  Rays,  R.  K.  McClung,  142  ;  Radiations 
Emitted  by  Radio-active  Lead,  MM.  Korn  and  Strauss, 
143  ;  Radio-active  Processes,  Paper  read  at  Physical 
Society,  Prof.  V..  Rutherford,  F.R.S.,  163;  the  Nature 
of  Radio-active  Bodies,  Fillipo  Re,  168  ;  Action  of  the 
Becquerel  Rays  on  the  Nervous  System  and  on  the  Eye, 
Dr.  Eoudon,  180  ;  Solar  Radiations  Capable  of  Travers- 
ing Metals,  Woods,  &c.,  R.  Blondlot,  191  ;  Penetrative 
Solar  Radiations,  R.  Blondlot,  23^  ;  Penetrativeness  of 
Sunlight  through  Flesh,  Dr.  J.  W.  Kime,  254;  Radiation 
of  Helium  and  Mercury  in  a  Magnetic  Field,  Prof. 
Andrew  Gray,  F.R.S.,  .and  Walter  Stewart,  Robert  A. 
Houston,  and  D.  B.  McQuistan,  212;  Prof.  J.  J. 
Thomson's  View  that  the  Energy  of  Becquerel  Radiation 
given  out  by  Radio-active  Substances  is  Produced  by  a 
Change  in  the  Configuration  of  the  Atom,  Dr.  J.  Stark, 
230  ;  New  Light  Obtained  after  Filtering  the  Rays  from 
a  Focus  Tube  through  Aluminium  or  Black  Paper,  R. 
Blondlot,  232  ;  the  Light  Treatment  of  Lupus,  Prof. 
Finsen,  254 ;  Action  of  Tesla  Coil  on  Radiometer,  Prof. 
P.  L.  Narasu,  295;  the  "Spinthariscope,"  Sir  William 
Crookes,  303  ;  New  Action  Produced  bv  the  Rays  n, 
R.  Blondlot,  311;  the  n-Rays,  M.  Blondlot,  578;  G. 
Sagnac,  578 ;  New  Form  of  Radiation  Found  with 
Rontgen  Rays,  M.  Blondlot,  396 ;  Radio-Active  Gas  from 
Bath  Mineral  Waters,  H.  S.  Allen,  343  ;  the  Phenomena 
of  Luminosity,  and  their  Possible  Correlation  with  Radio- 
Activity,  Henry  E.  Armstrong,  F.R.S.,  and  T.  Martin 
Lowry,  430 ;  Radio-activity  and  the  Age  of  the  Sun,  Prof. 
G.  H.  Darwin,  F.R.S.,  496;  Radio-activity  and  the  Con- 
stitution of  Matter  and  its  bearing  on  Biological  Pro- 
cesses, Dr.  W.  H.  Allchin,  603  ;  on  the  Nature  of  the 
Emanations  from  Radio-active  Substances,  Prof.  Ruther- 
ford, 610;  Sir  Oliver  Lodge,  611;  Another  Theory  as  to 
the  Nature  of  the  Processes  going  on  in  Radio-active 
Materials,  Lord  Kelvin,  611;  Prof.  Armstrong,  611;  Mr. 
Soddy,  611 

Ragovsky  (E.),  External  Thermal  Conductivity  of  Silver 
Wires  Plunged  in  Water,   167 

Rails,  Heat  Treatment  of  Steel,  High  in  Manganese,  J.  S. 
Lloyd,  462 

Rails,"  Sorbitic  Steel,  J.  E.  Stead  and  Arthlir  W^ 
Richards,  462 

Railways  :  Proposed  Service  of  Motor  Carriages  on  Some 
Sections  of  the  Great  Western  Railway,  40 ;  Bust  of 
George  Stephenson  at  Rome,  64  ;  Mono-rail  High  Speed 
Electric  Railway  between  Liverpool  and  Manchester,  158; 
the  Designs  of  Permanent  Way  and  Locomotives  for' High 
Speeds,  J.  C.  Inglis,  186;  the  Fire  on  the  Paris  Metro- 
politan Railway,  373;  Electric  Railway  at  Zossen,  516; 
Electric  Railway  Trials  between  Zossen  and  Marien'feld 
529 ;  Trials  of  the  High  Speed  Electric  Cars  on  the 
Berlin-Zossen  Military  Line,  577 ;  High-speed  Trials  of 
Siemens  Car  at  Berlin,  627 

"  Rain,  Red,"  and  the  Dust  Storm  of  Februarv  22  Dr 
T.  E.  Thorpe,  C.B.,  F.R.S.,  53,  222 

Rainfall,    British,    1902,   366 

Rainfall  in  Relation  to  Bruckner's  Cvcle,  Our,  Alex.  B. 
MacDowall,  56 

Rainfall  and  River  Flow  in  the  Thames  Basin  Dr.  Hutrh 
Robert  Mill,    104  >  fe 

Rainfall  for  the  Week  ending  June  20,  180 ;  see  also 
Meteorology 

Raisin  (Dr.  Catherine  A.),  the  Formation  of  Chert,  352 

Rambaut  (Prof.  A.  A.),  Parallax  of  the  Binary  System  S 
Equulei,   69 

Ramsay  (Sir  William,  K.C.B.,  F.R.S.),  Hofmann  Gold 
Medal  Awarded  to,  64  ;  Gases  Occluded  by  Radium  Bro- 
mide,   246;    Experiments   in    Radio-activitv   and   the   Pro- 


duction of   Helium   from   Radium,    at   the  Royal  Society, 

354 ;    Technical    Education    and    Industry,    576 ;    Periodic 

System  of  the  Elements,  587 
Ramsden  (W.),    Separation  of  Solids  in   the  Surface-layers 

of  Solutions  and  "  Suspensions,"  359 
Rand  Miners,  Ill-health  of  the,  527 
Ransom  (Dr.    F.),   Researches  on   Tetanus,   287 
Ranson  (Georges),    Electrolysis  of   Alkaline   Sulphides,    95 ; 

Electrolysis  of  the  Sulphides  of  the  Alkaline  Earths,  96 ; 

the  ^Electrolysis  of  Barium  Sulphide,  with  a  Diaphragm, 

119 
Ravenshear    (A.     F.),     Dimensional    Analysis    of    Physical 

Quantities  and  Correlation  of  Units,  22 
Raw  (Dr.  Nathan),  the  Prevention  of  Consumption  in  Large 

Cities,  285 
Rawlings   (Rev.    G.    W.),    the   Pertinacity   and   Strength   of 

Japanese  Sparrows,  302  . 
Ray    (Prafulla    Chandra),    a    History    of    Hindu    Chemistry 

from  the  Earliest  Times  to  the  Middle  of  the  Sixteenth 

Century,    A.D.,    with   Sanskrit    Texts,    Variants,    Trans- 
lation  and   Illustrations,    51 
Rayet  (G.),  Eclipse  of  the  Moon  on  April  11  at  Bordeaux,  23 
Rayleigh  (Lord,   F.R.S.),  Scientific   Papers  of,   289 
Re  (Fillipo),   the  Nature  of  Radio-active  Bodies,    168 
Reale  Accademia  dei  Lincei,  Prizes  for  1903,  488 
Reason?  Can  Dogs,  Dr.  Alex.  Hill,  7 
Recoura    (A.),     a    Combination    of    Ferric    Sulphate    with 

Sulphuric   Acid,    288;   on    Ferrisulphuric  Acid   and   Ethyl 

Ferrisulphate,  312 
"  Red    Rain  "   and    the    Dust   Storm    of   February   22,    Dr. 

T.  E.  Thorpe,  C.B.,  F.R.S.,  53,  222 
Red  Spot  on  Jupiter,  the,  Stanley  J.  Williams,  208 
Red  Spot  on  Jupiter,  Retarded  Motion  of  the  Great,  W.  F. 

Denning,   390 
Reed  (Prof.  W.    M.),   a  Provisional   Catalogue  of   Variable 

Stars,  491 
Reese  (H.  M.),  Four  Stars  with  Variable  Radial  Velocities, 

Reflector  of  the  Lick  Observatory,  the  Crossley,    162 
Reflector,   the    Mirror   of    the    Crossley,    Dr.    G.    Johnstone 

Stoney,   183 
Reflector,   Photographic  Efficiency  of  a  Short  Focus,  Prof. 

Schaeberle,  330 
Reform  in  School  Geometry,  Prof.  G.  H.  Bryan,  F.R.S.,  7; 

Prof.  John  Perry,  F.R.S.,  7 ;  R.  W.  H.  T.  Hudson,   177; 

Prof.  Frank  R.  Barrell,  296 
Refrigeration,    Mechanical,    Hal  Williams,    174 
Regulating  or  Recording  Thermometer,  a,  H.  S.  Allen,  69 
Reid    (Clement),    Raised    Beaches,    612  ;    Origin    of    Rock 

Basins,  613 
Reinach   (Salomon),    Drawings  on   the   Walls  of  the   Cave 

of  Altamira,  216 
Renard    (Ch.),    the    Purification    of    Hydrogen    on    the    In- 
dustrial Scale  by  Cold,    143 
Renault  (B.),  Fossil  Algae  in  Ancient  Strata,   144 
Rennia  (Dr.),    Eggs  of  the   Shanny,   614 
Resin-tapping,  499 

Respiratory  Hygrometer,  Pierre  Lesage,  48 
Resuscitation  of  the  Apparently  Drowned,  the,  326 

Reviews  and  Our  Bookshelf. 
Le  Froment  et  sa  Mouture,    Prof.    Girard  and  M.    Lindet, 

William  Jago,    i 
Ergebnisse  der  Physiologie,  Dr.  H.  M.  Vernon,  3 
Physikalische  Chemie  der  Zelle  und  der  Gewebe,  Dr.  Rudolf 

Hober,  Dr.  Benjamin  Moore,  4 
Contribution  h.  I'Etude  du  Mode  de  Production  de  1 'Electricity 

dans  les  Etres  vivants.  Dr.  Louis  Querton,  5 
Statics  by  Algebraic  and  Graphic  Methods,  Lewis  J.  John- 
son, 5 
De  I'Exp^rience  en  Gtemetrie,  C.  de  Freycinet,  5 
Etude     des     Ph6nomfenes     volcaniques :     Tremblements     de 

Terre — Eruptions     Volcaniques — Le     Cataclysme     de     la 

Martinique,   1902,  Francois  Miron,  6 
Experiments  with  Vacuum  Tubes,  Sir  D.  L.  Salomons,  6 
The    Influence  of   Light   and    Darkness   upon    Growth   and 

Development,  D.  T.  MacDougal,   10 
Agricultural  Geology,  J.  E.  Marr,  29 
Elementary    Applied    Mechanics,    Profs.    T.    Alexander    and 

A.  W.  Thomson,  29 
The  Principles  of  Animal  Nutrition,  with  Special  Reference 


Nature,  T 

December  lo,  1903  J' 


Index 


XXXIX 


to    the    Nutrition     of     Farm    Animals,     Henry     Prentiss 
Armsby,  30 
Chemical   Technology,    Vol.    iv..    Electric    Lighting,    A.    G. 

Cooke,  and  Photometry,  W.  J.  Dibdin,  30 
Die  empiristische  Geschichtsauffassung    David  Humes,  mit 
Beriicksichtigung       moderner       methodologischer        und 
erkenntnistheoretischer  Probleme,  Dr.  Julius  Goldstein,  31 
Arithmetic,  H.  G.  Willis,  31 

Maori  Art,  A.  Hamilton,  Prof.  A.  C.  Haddon,  F.R.S.,  35 
Th-^  Prevention  of  Disease,  40 
Aratomie  artistique  des  Animaux,  Ed.  Cuyer,  50 
A  History  of  Hindu  Chemistry  from  the  Earliest  Times  to 
the  Middle  of  the  Sixteenth  Century  a.d.,   with  Sanskrit 

Texts,   Variants,   Translation,   and   Illustrations,    Prafulla 
Chandra  Kay,  51  . 

The   Soil  :    an    Introduction   to  the   Scientific   Study   of   the 

Growth  of  Crops,  A,  D.  Hall,  52 
Electrical  Problems  'or  Engineering  Students,  W.  L.  Hooper 

and  R.  T.  Wells,  52 
Open-rair  Studies  in  Bird  Life ;  Sketches  of  British  Birds  in 

their  Haunts,  C.  Dixon,  52 
The  Bermuda  Islands,  A.  E.  Verrill,  53 
La  Pratique  des  Fermentations  industrielles,  E.  Ozard,  53 
The  Tanganyika   Problem  :    an   Account  of  the   Researches 

Undertaken  Concerning  the  Existence  of  Marine  Animals 

in  Central  Africa,  J.  E.  S.  Moore,  56 
Mont  Pel(5e  and  the  Tragedy  of  Martinique,   Angelo  Heil- 

prin,  Dr.  John  S.  Flett,  73 
Experiments  on  Animals,  Stephen  Paget,  74 
Tests   and    Reagents,    Chemical   and    Microscopical,    known 

by  their  .Authors'  Names,  C.  Simmonds,  75 
Dictionary  of  Philosophy  and  Psychology,  76 
Hew  to  Attract  the  Birds,  Neltje  Blanch'an,  76 
Telephone  Lines,  W.  C.  Owen,  76 
The   Globe   Geography    Readers,    Intermediate,    Our    Island 

Home,  Vincent  T.  Murch^,  76 
On  the  Polar  Star  in  the  Arctic  Sea,   His  Roval   Highness 

Luigi  Amedeo  of  Savoy,  Duke  of  the  Abruzzi'.  79 
The    Restoration   of   the   Ancient    Irrigation    Works   of   the 

Tigris  :  or  the  Re-creation  of  Chaldea,   and  Egypt   Fifty 

Years  Hence,  Sir  William  Willcocks,  81 
Th^orie  ^l^mentaire  des  Series,   Maurice  Godefroy,  97 
Geist  und  Korper,  Seele  und  Leib,  Ludwig  Busse',  98 
Encyclopaedia  Britannica,  98 
The     Chemical     Changes     and     Products     Resulting     from 

Fermentations,  R.  H.  Aders  Plimmer,  99 
Metallurgical  Laboratory  Notes,  Henrv  M.  Howe,   100 
Nature  Studies  in  Australia,  W.  Gillies  and  R.  Hall,  100 
Considerazioni  agrarie  sul  Piano  di  Capitanata,  Dr.  Nestore 

Petrilli,  100 
The  Stellar  Heavens,  Ellard  Gore,  loi 
Departmental  Notes  on  Insects  that  Affect  Forestry,   E.   P. 

Stebbing,   101 
Analytical  Chemistry,  F.  P.  Treadwell,    101 
London  County  Council,  Shrinkage  of  the  Thames  and  Lea, 

Maurice  Fitzmaurice,  Dr.  Hugh  Robert  Mill,  104 
The   Mishongnovi   Ceremonies  of   the  Snake   and   .Antelope 

Fraternities,  George  A.  Dorsey  and  H.  R.  Voth,  in 
A  Treatise  on  Differential  Equa'tions,   Prof.  A.   R.   Forsyth. 

F.R.S..   121 
Die    Grosse    des    Eiweissmolekuls,    Dr.    F.    N.    Schulz,    F. 

Escombe,  123 
Reports    from    the    Laboratory    of    the    Royal    College    of 

Physicians,  Edinburgh,  123 
An    Elementary  Treatise   on   the   Mechanics   of   Machinery, 

with    Special    Reference   to  the  Mechanics   of   the   Steain 

Engine,  Joseph  N.  Le  Conte,  124 
Elementary  Chemistry,  R.  H.  Bradbury,  125 
Hampshire  Days,  W.H.  Hudson,  125 
Worterbuch  der  philosophischen  GrundbegrifTe,   Dr.   Friedr. 

Kirchner,  125 
Experiments    on    the    Effect    of    Freezing    and    Other    Low 

Temperatures    upon    the    Variability    of    the    Bacillus    of 

Typhoid  Fever,   with  Considerations   Regarding  Ice  as  a 

Vehicle  of  Infectious  Disease,  William  T.   Sedgwick  and 

Charles  Edward  A.  Winslow,  Dr.  .Allan  Macfadyen,   127 
Human    Personality    and    its    Survival    of    Bodijv    Death 

Frederic  W.  H.  Myers,  Sir  Oliver  Lodge,  F.R.S.,  145 
A  School  Geometry,  H.  S.  Hall  and  F.  H.  Stevens,  147 
Experimental   and   Theoretical   Course  of  Geometry,    A.   T. 

Warren,  147 


Elementary  Geometry,  Frank  R.  Barrell,   147 
'  Solid  Geometry,   Dr.   Franz  Hocevar,    147 
!  Elementary  Manual  for  the  Deviations  of  the  Compass  in 
I      Iron  Ships,  E.  W.  Creak,  148 
Encyclopa.'dia  Biblica,  a  Critical  Dictionary  of  the  Literary, 
Political,    and    Religious    History,    the  ArchjEology,    Geo- 
graphy,  and   Natural   History   of  the   Bible,    Rev.   T.    K. 
Chcyne  and  J.  Sutherland  Black,   148 
Country  Rambles  :  a  Field  Naturalist's  and  Country  Lover's 

Note  Book  for  a  Year,  W.  Percival  Westell,  149 
Text-book  of  Organic   Chemistry,    Prof.   A.    F.    Holleman, 

149 
Education   in  accordance  with  Natural   Law.     Suggestions 
for  the  Considerations  of  Parents,  Teachers,   and  Social 
Reformers,  Charles  B.  Ingham,  150 
The  Geography  of  Disease,  F"rank  G.  Clemow,  171 
Vorlesungen  iiber  hydrodynamische  Fernkrafte  nach    C.  A. 
Bjerknes'    Theorie,    V.    Bjerknes,    Prof.    G.    H.    Brvan, 
F.R.S.,   172 
1  he  Farmer's  Business  Handbook,  I.  P.  Roberts,  173 
The    Role    of    Diffusion    and    Osmotic    Pressure    in    Plants, 

B.  E.  Livingston,   174 
Mechanical   Refrigeration,   Hal  Williams,    174 
Die     stammgeschichtliche     Entstehung     des     Bienenstaates 
sowie  Beitrage  zur  Lebensweise  der  solitaren  u.  sozialen 
Bienen  (Hummeln,  Meliponinen,  &c.),  174 
The  Mind  of  Man,  Gustav  Spiller,   174 
Heredity  and  Social  Progress,  Simon  N.  Patten,  175 
The    Educational    Systems    of    Great    Britain    and    Ireland, 

Graham  Balfour,  175 
Alpine  Flora,  D.  J.  Hoffman,  175 
Arnold's  Country-side  Readers,   175 
Arnold's  Seaside  Reader,   175 
Hermann  von  Helmholtz,  Leo  Koenigsberger,  Sir  J.  Burdon- 

Sanderson,  Bart.,  F.R.S.,  and  Harold  Hilton,  193 
Central  Europe,  Prof.  Joseph  Partsch,  196 
A  Treatise  on  the  Theory  of  Solution,  Including  the  Pheno- 
mena of  Electrolysis,  \V.  C.  D.  Whetham,  197 
The  Study  of  Mental  Science,  Prof.  J.  Brough,  197 
Photography,  198 

Hand  Camera  Photography,  Walter  Kilbey,   198 
Mise  en  Valeur  des  Gites  Mineraux,  F.  Colomer,   198 
Manual    of    Advanced    Optics,    C.    Ribourg    Mann,    Edwin 

Edser,   217 
Practical   Exercises   in   Light  :   being  a   Laboratory   Course 
for  Schools  of  Science  and  Colleges,   R.  S.  Clay,   Edwin 
Edser,  217 
Elementary    Ophthalmic    Optics,    Freeland    Fergus,    Edwin 

Edser,  217 
Geometrical    Optics :     an     Elementary    Treatise    upon    the 
Theory  and  its  Practical  Application   to  the  More  Exact 
Measurements      of      Optical      Properties,      Thomas      H. 
Blakesley,  Edwin  Edser,  217 
Das    Stereoskop,     Seine    anwendung     in     den     technischen 
Wissenschaften,     Uber     Entstehung     und     Konstruktion 
Stereoskopischer  Bilder,  Wilhelm  Manchot,  Edwin  Edser, 
217 
Infortuni    sul    lavoro,    Mezzi    Technici    per    Prevenirli,    E. 

Magrini,  G.  H.  Bailie,  219 
Guide  to  Switzerland,  219 

The  Fauna  of  British  India,  including  Ceylon  and  Burma, 
Hymenoptera,   Vol.   ii..   Ants  and  Cuckoo-wasps,   Lieut. - 
Colonel  C.T.  Bingham,  220 
Dendrologische  Winterstudien,  Camilla  Karl  Schneider,  220 
La  Technica  delle  Correnti  Alternate,  G.  Sartori,  221 
.Monographie  des  Cynipides  d 'Europe  et  d'Alg^rie,   I'Abb^ 

J.  J.  Kieffer,  221 
Spirals  in  Nature  and  Art,  Theodore  Cook,  221 
Lois  g^n^rales  de  1 'Action  des  Diastases,  Victor  Henri,-  221 
Sylviculture,  Albert  Fron,  221 
North  Queensland   Ethnography,    Superstition,   Magic,   and 

Medicine,  Walter  E.   Roth,  23:; 
The  Island  of  Formosa,  James  W.  Davidson,  243 
Pathologische  Pflanzenanatomie,  Dr.  Ernst  Kiister,  244 
Comets    and     their    Tails,     and     the    Gegenschein     Light, 

Frederick  G.  Shaw,   245 
Physical    Chemistry    for    Physicians    and    Biologists,    Ernst 

Cohen,  245 
Trapper  "Jim,"  Edwyn  Sandys,  245 
Das  Gesetz  der  Translation  des  Wassers,  T.  Christen,  246 
Colloquies  of  Common  People,  James  Anstie,  246 


xl 


Index 


r  Nature, 

\_December  lo,  1903 


A  Country  Reader,  H.  B.  M.  Buchanan,  246 

Willkurliche   Entwickelsungsanderungen    bei    Pflanzen,    Ein 

Beitrag  zur  Physiologie  der  Entvvickelung,   Georg  Klebs, 

Francis  Darwin,  F.R.S.,  265 
Der    Stickstoff    und    seine    wichtigsten    Verbindungen,    Dr. 

Leopold  Spiegel,  266 
La  Prospection  des  Mines  et  leur  Mise  en  Valeur,  Maurice 

Lecomte-Denis,  267 
The    Revival  of   Phrenology,    the  Mental    Functions  of   the 

Brain,  Bernard  Hollander,  268 
St.  Kilda  and  its  Birds,  J.  Wiglesworth,  268 
The  Principal  Species  of  Wood,  C.  H.  Snow,  268 
Lehrbuch  der  Mikrophotographie,   Dr.  Carl  Kaiserling,  269 
Scientific  Papers  of  Lord  Rayleigh,  289 
Technical  Mycology  :   the   Utilisation  of  Micro-organisms  in 

the   Arts   and    Manufactures,    Dr.    Lafar,    Prof.    G.    Sims 

Woodward,  290 
Abhandlungen   der    Physiologie   der    Gesichtsempfindungen, 

J.  von  Kries,  Dr.  W.  H.  R.  Rivers,  291 
Botanische  Forschungen  des  Alexanderzuges,  Dr.  H.  Bretzl, 

292 
Practical  Plane  and  .Solid  Geometry  for  Elementary  Students, 

Joseph  Harrison,  293 
Die  Aluminium-Industrie,  Dr.  F.  Wintelen,  293 
Die    Konstitution    des    Kamphers    und    seiner    wichtigsten 

Derivate,  Ossian  Aschan,  293 
Theorie  der  Bewegungsiibertragung,  Kichard  Manno,  294 
Fasciculi  Malayenses,  Anthropology,   298 
La  Structure  des  Spectres,  Prof.  Ch.  Fabry,  308 
Les  Richesses  Min^rales  de  I'Afrique,  L.  de  Launay,  313 
The  Physical  Papers  of  Henry  Augustus  Rowland,  316 
Annales   de   I'lnstitut    Central    Amp61ologique    Royal    Hon- 

grois,  317 
Kinematics  of  Machines,  R.  J.  Durley,  318 
Determination  of   Radicles  in  Carbon  Compounds,    Dr.  .H. 

Meyer,  319 
A    Laboratory    Guide   for    Beginners    in    Zoology,    Clarence 

Moores  Weed  and  Ralph  Wallace  Grossman,  319 
A  Manual  of  Drawing,  C.  E.  Coolidge,  319 
Zcologische  Wandtafeln,  319 
Problems   in  Astrophysics,   Agnes   M.    Gierke,    Prof.    R.   A. 

Gregory,  338 
Furchung    und    Keimblattbildung    bei    Tarsius    Spectrum 

A.  A.  W.  Hubrecht,  341 
Harvard   Psychological   Studies,   342 
A  Gloucestershire  Wild  Garden,  342 
Geographen-Kalender,  343 

Biological   Laboratory  Methods,    P.   H.   Mell,  343 
Jjain  ;  or  the  Evolution  of  a  Mind,  Lady  Florence  Dixie   343 
Isola  ;  or  the  Disinherited,  Lady  Florence  Dixie,  343 
First  Report  of  the  Departmental  Committee  Appointed  to 

Inquire  into  the  Ventilation  of  Factories  and  Workshops. 

34b 
The   Improvement   of   Rivers:    a   Treatise   on    the   Methods 

Employed    for    Improving    Streams    for    Open    Navigation 

and  for  Navigation  by  Means  of  Locks  and  Dams,  B.  F. 

Thomas  and  D.  A.  Watt,  361 
Bass,  Pike,  Perch  and  Others,  James  A.  Henshall,  363 
Big  Game  Fishes  of  the  United  States,  Chas.  F.  Holder   363 
Lehrbuch  der  technischen  Physik,   Prof.   Dr.   Hans  Lorenz 

364 
An  Introduction  to  Botany,  W.  C.  Stevens,  365 
Kant's  Lehre  vom  Glauben,   Ernst  Sanger,'  365 
Elementary  Physics,  Practical  and  Thet>reti'cal,  John  G.  Ketr 

and  John  N.  Brown,  365 
Among  the  Night  People,  Clara  Dillingham  Pierson,  366 
Qualitative  Chemical  Analysis,  John  B.  Garvin    366 
British  Rainfall,  1902,  366 
Chota   Nagpore  :   a  Little   Known   Province  of  the   Empire, 

F.  B.  Bradley  Birt,  J.  F.  Hewitt,  369 
Seventh  Annual  Report  of  the  New  York  Zoological  Society, 

Die  Zymasegarung  Untersuchungen  uber  den  Inhalt  der 
Hefezellen  und  die  biologische  Seite  des  Garungsproblems, 
Eduard  Buchner,  Hans  Buchner,  and  Martin  Hahn,  Dr. 
Arthur  Croft  Hill,  385 

The  Flora  of  the  Presidency  of  Bombay,  Vol.  i.,  Ranuncu- 
lacese  to  Rubiace«,  Theodore  Cooke,  Prof.  Percy  Groom, 
386 

l-ermentation  Organisms,  a  Laboratory  Handbook,  Alb. 
Klocker,  387 


Five  Figure  Logarithmic  and  Other  Tables,  Alex.  M'Aulay, 

388 
Siebenstellige      Logarithmen      und      Antiloganthmen,      O. 

Dietrichkeit,  388 
Economie  rurale,  E.  Jouzier,  388 
A    Naturalist's    Calendar,     Kept    at     Swaffham     Bulbeck, 

Cambridgeshire,    Leonard    Blomefield    (formerly    Jenyns), 

389 
Elements  of  Physics,   Experimental   and   Descriptive,   Amos 

T.  Fisher,  389 
The  Annals  of  the  British  School  at  Athens,  391 
Reports   of   the   Cambridge   Anthropological    Expedition    to 

Torres    Straits,    W.    H.    R.    Rivers,    C.    S.    Myers,    W. 

McDougall,  and  Dr.  A.  C.  Haddon,  409 
The  Principles  of  Mathematics,  Bertrand  Russell,  410 
Quantitative     Chemical     Analysis     by     Electrolysis,     Prof. 

Classen,  Dr.  F.  Mollwo  Perkin,  412 
The   Geological    Structure   of    Monzoni    and    Fassa,    Maria 

M.  Ogilvie-Gordon,  413 
A.    Koelliker's   Handbuch    der   Gewebelehre   des   Menschen, 

Victor  V.  Ebner,  414 
Building  Superintendence,  T.   M.  Clark,  414 
A  Key  to  the  Time  Allusions  in  the  Divine  Comedy  of  Dante 

Alighieri,  Gustave  Pradeau,  414 
A  School  Geometry,  H.  S.  Hall  and  F.  H.  Stevens,  415 
Conseil    permanent    international    pour    I'Exploration    de    la 

Mer,    Bulletin   des   R^sultats  acquis  pendant  les  Courses 

p^riodiques,   417 
Report  of  the  Malaria  Expedition  to  the  Gambia,   1902,  of 

the   Liverpool   School   of  Tropical   Medicine   and   Medical 

Parasitology,  J.  E.  Dutton,  428 
Mineralogy  :    an    Introduction    to    the    Scientific    Study    of 

Minerals,  Henry  A.  Miers,  F.R.S.,  433 
A  Junior  Geometry,  Noel  S.  Lydon,  434 
Technical  Arithmetic  and  Geometry,  C.  T.  Millis,  434 
The    Modern    Arithmetic    for    Advanced    Grades,    Archibald 

Murray,   434 
The  Junior  Arithmetic,  being  an  Adaptation  of  the  Tutorial 

Arithmetic,  Suitable  for  Junior  Classes,  R.  H.  Chope,  434 
Die   Neuronenlehre   und   ihre   Anhanger,    Dr.    Franz   Nissl, 

435 
The   Cloud   World,    its    Features    and    Significance,    Samuel 

Barber,   436 
Graphical  Statics  Problems,  with  Diagrams,  W.  M.  Baker, 

43^> 
Experimental     Psychology     and     its     Bearing    on     Culture, 

George  Malcolm  Stratton,   Dr.  C.  S.  Myers,  465 
Treatise  on  Hydraulics,   Mansfield  Merriman,  465 
Synthesen   in  der   Purin-  und  Zuckergruppe,    Emil   Fischer, 

'466 
Report  on  F"ield  Experiments  in  Victoria,   1887-1900,  A.  N. 

Pearson,  467 
A  Text-book  of  Plant  Physiology,  George  James  Peirce,  493 
Les  Produits  Coloniaux  d'Origine  Min^rale,  Prof.  Laurent, 

494 
Practical  Chemistry,  Walter  Harris,  495 
Untersuchungen  iiber  Amylose  und  Amyloseartige   Korper, 

O.  Butschli,  495 
Lessons  on  Country  Life,  H.  B.  M.  Buchanan  and  R.  R.  C. 

Gregory,  496 
A  New  Method  of  Turpentine  Orcharding,  Dr.  C.  H.  Hertz, 

49Q 
Die   Schule  der  Chemie  :    Erste   Einfiihrung   in  die   Chemi^ 

fiir  Jedermann,  Wilhelm  Ostwald,  521 
Lehrbuch    der    vergleichenden    Entwicklungsgeschichte    dei 

wirbellosen  Thiere,    Profs.    E.   Korschelt  and   K.   Heider, 

523 
The    New    Cambridge    Curriculum    in    Economics,    Alfred 

Marshall,  524 
A  Treatise  on  Electromagnetic  Phenomena  and  on  the  Com- 
pass and  its  Deviations  Aboard  Ship,   Commander  T.  A. 

Lyons,  524 
Comit^  international  des  Poids  et  Mesures,   Proces-Verbaux 

des  Sciences,   525 
Flora  of  the  Island  of  Jersey,  L.  V.  Lester  Garland,  525 
Rand    Mines    (Native    Mortality),    Return    of   the    Statistics 

of  Mortality,   Sickness  and  Desertion  among  the  Natives 

Employed  in  the  Rand  Mines  during  the  Period  October, 

1902-March,  1903,  527 
Report    of    the    Miners'    Phthisis    Commission,    1902-1903, 

with  Minutes  of  Proceedings  and  Minutes  of  Evidence,  527 


Nature,  1 

December  lo,  1903  J 


Index 


xli 


Rpcherches  sur  les   Instruments,   les  Methodes  et  le   Dessin 

lopographiques,  Colonel  A.  Laussedat,  545 
An  Introduction  to  Nature  Study,  E.  Stenhouse,  546 
Ergebnisse  der  Physiologie,  547 
Thermodynamik,  Prof.  Dr.  W.  Voigt,  547 
.Arithmetic  for  Schools  and  Colleges,  John  Alison  and  John 

B.  Clark,  547 
Les  Materiaux  artificiels,  Marie-Auguste  Morel,  547 
The  Structure  of  the  Nucleus,  Carl  Barus,  C.  T.  R.  Wilson, 

F.R.S.,  548 
Topography  and  Geology  of  the   Eastern   Desert  of   Egypt 

(Central  Portion),  T.  Barron  and  W.  F.   Hume,  569 
l-ssai    sur    la    Psycho-physiologie    des    Monstres    Humains, 

N.  Vaschide  and  CI.  Vurpas,  Dr.  C.  S.  Myers,  570 
Electrolytic  Preparations,   Dr.   Karl  Elbs,   571 
.\   Concise   Handbook  of  Garden   Flowers,    H.    M.    Batson, 

57' 
Lavori  marittimi  ed  Impianti  portuali,  Flavio  Bastiani,  571 
II  Moto  degli  loni  nelle  Scariche  elettriche,  Augusto  Righi, 

57  J 
The   Geology   and    Petrography   of   Crater    Lake,    National 

Park,   Joseph   Silas   Diller  and   Horace   Bushnell   Patton, 

Prof.  T.  G.  Bonney,  F.R.S.,  574 
Ancient  Calendars  and  Constellations,    Hon.    Emmeline   M. 

Plunket,  593 
A   Laboratory    Manual    of   Physiological    Chemistry,    Ralph 

W.    Webster   and   W'aldemar   Koch,    Prof.    W.    D.    Halli- 
burton, F.R.S.,  594 
The  Insect  Folk,   Margaret  Warner  Morley,   595 
Ways  of  the  Six-footed,  Anna  Botsford  Comstock,  595 
Catalogue  of  Books,    Manuscripts,   Maps  and   Drawings  in 

the  British  Museum  (Natural  History),   596 
.\  Class  Book  of  Botany,  G.  P.  Mudge  and  .\.  J.  Maslen,  596 
Traite  de  Chimie  physique,  Les  Principes,  Jean  Perrin,  597 
rhe    Arithrhetic    of    Elementary    Physics    and    Chemistry, 

H.  M.  Timpany,  597 
Gisements      min6raux,       Stratigraphie      et       Composition, 

Francois  Miron,  597 
The    Sub-mechanics    of    the    Universe,    Osborne    Reynolds, 

F.R.S.,  Prof.  G.  H.  Bryan,  F.R.S.,  600 
Vectors  and  Rotors,  with  Applications,  O.  Henrici,  F.R.S., 

and  G.  C.  Turner,  Prof.  George  M.  Minchin,  F.R.S.,  617 
A  Treatise  on  Zoology,  618 

Carbon  Photography  made  Easy,  Thos.   Illingworth,  619 
Portraiture    for   Amateurs    without    a    Studio,    Rev.    F.    C. 

Lambart,  619 
The    Elementary    Chemistry    of    Photographic    Chemicals, 

C.   Sordes  Ellis,  619 
Photography  by  Rule,  J.  Sterry,  619 
L'Evolution  compar^e  des  Sables,  Jules  Girard,  620 
Radium   and   other   Radio-active   Substances,    with    a   Con- 
sideration of  Phosphorescent  and  Fluorescent  Substances. 

The    Properties    and    Applications    of    Selenium    and    the 

Treatment  of  Disease  by  the  Ultra-violet  Light,  W'iiliam 

J.  Hammer,  621 
The  PLxperiment  Station  Record,  621 
Jahrbuch  der  Chemie,  621 
Flowering   Plants  :   their  Structure  and   Habitat,   Charlotte 

L.  Laurie,  621 


Reynolds  (Dr.  Arthur  R.),   Sanitary  Examination  of  Water 

Supplies,  420 
Reynolds  (Principal  J.  H.),  on  the  New  Manchester  Muni- 
cipal Technical  Institute,  634 
Reynolds    (Osborne,    F.R.S.),    the    Sub-mechanics    of    the 

L'niverse,  600 
Rhythms,  Motor    Visual  and  Applied,  J.  B.  Miner,  423 
Richards    (.Arthur    W.),    the    Restoration    of    Dangerously 

Crystalline  Steel  by  Heat  Treatment,  462  ;  Sorbitic  Steel 

Rails,  462 
Richards    (Dr.    Joseph    W.),    Presidential    Address    at    the 

.\merican  Electrochemical  Society,  299 
Richards   (T.    W.),    Standard    Points   on    the   Toniperatuie 

Scale,   no 
Richardson  (Linsdall),  the  Rhjetic  and  Lower  Lias  at  Sed- 

bury  Cliff,  262 
Richardson   (O.    W.),    the    Positive   lonisation    Produced   by 

Hot  Platinum  in  Air  at  Low  Pressures,   190 
Richmond  (H.  W.),  .Xutomorphic  Functions  in  Relation  to 

the  General  Theory  of  .Algebraic  Curves,  214 


Ricome  (H.),  on  Roots  Trained  by  Experiment  to  Grow 
Lipwards,  312 

Ridgeway  (Prof.  W.),  Suggestive  Theory  of  the  Origin  of 
Jewellery,   636 

Righi  (Prof.  A.),  lonisation  of  Air  by  an  Electrified  Point, 
109;   11  Moto  degli  loni  nelle  Scariche  elettriche,  571 

Rigidity  of  Piers  for  Meridian  Circles,  the,  Prof.  G.  W. 
Hough,  532 

Ritchey  (Mr.),  Methods  of  Developing  Photographs  of 
Nebulae,  4b 

Rivers  (Dr.  W.  H.  R.),  Abhandlungen  zur  Physiologie  der 
Gesichtsempfindungen,  J.  von  Kries,  291  ;  Reports  of 
the  Cambridge  Anthropological  Expedition  to  Torres 
Straits,  409  ;  Researches  on  the  Psychology  and  Sociology 
of  the  Todas,  636  ;  on  the  Ritual  of  the  Toda  Dairy,  636 

Rivers,  the  Improvement  of,  a  Treatise  on  the  .Methods 
Employed  for  Improving  Streams  for  Open  Navigation 
and  for  Navigation  by  Means  of  Locks  and  Dams,  B.  F. 
Thomas  and  D.  h.  Watt,  361 

Roberts  (Dr.  F.  T.),  Infective  and  Infectious  Diseases,  346; 
Alcohol   as  a  Therapeutic  .Agent,   346 ; 

Roberts  (J.   P.),   the  Farmer's  Business  Handbook,    173 

Robinson  (Mr.),  Report  as  to  the  Navigable  Inland  Water- 
ways in  France,  Belgium,  the  Netherlands,  Germany,  and 
.Austria-Hungary,  518 

Robson  (Prof.  Mayo),  Evolution  of  Abdominal  Surgery,  346 

Rocket  Lightning,  599,  627;  Prof.  J.  D.  Everett,  F.R.'S.', 
599;  W.   H.   Everett,   599 

Rollet  (Prof."  Alexander),  Death  of,  603 

Rome,  Freedom  of  the  City  of.  Conferred  on  Mr.  Marconi, 

39 
Romilly  (F^lix  Worms  de).  Death  of,  38,  84 
Rontgen  Rays,    New    Form   of   Radiation    Found   with,    M. 

Blondlot,  396  ;  sec  Radiography 
Rose    (Dr.    F.),    Higher     Technical     Education     in     Great 

Britain  and  Germany,  274 
Ross   (P.),    Resistance    Change    .Accompanying    Transverse 

Magnetisation  in  Nickel  Wire,  408 
Ross  (Major  Ronald,   F'.R.S.),   the  Extirpation  of  Culex  at 

Ismailia,  246 
Rossler  (F-).  Synthetic  Cyanide  FVocesses,   210 
Rotation  Period  of  Saturn,  the,  W.  F.  Denning,  519 
Rotation   of   Saturn,   the,    Leo    Brenner,    554 
Rotational  Velocity  of  Venus,   V.    M.    Slipher,   631 
Rotch  (Dr.  A.  Lawrence),  the  New  Bishop's  Ring,  623 
Roth     (Walter    E.),     Superstition,     Magic,    and    Medicine, 

Ethnographical  Studies  in  North  Queensland,  235 
Roux  (E.),  New  Bases  Derived  from  the  Pentoses,  48 
Rowe  (Dr.  A.  W.),  Zones  in  the  Chalk,  428 
Rowland  (Henry  Augustus),   the  Physical   Papers  of,   316 
Royal   .Astronomical    Society,    46,    190 ;    on    a    Probable  Re- 
lationship  between    the    Solar    Prominences    and    Corona, 
Dr.  William  J.  S.   Lockyer,  257 
Royal  College  of  Physicians,   Edinburgh,   Reports  from  the 

Laboratory  of  the,  123 
Royal   Dublin  .Society,   215,   262 

Royal   Geographical   Society's   Medal   Awards,    65  ;   Address 
at,     Geographical     Research,     Sir     Clements     Markham, 
K.C.B.,    F.R.S.,  91  ;   Report  on  the  Geological  Observa- 
tion   made    during    the    Recent    Polar    P'xpedition    of    the 
Frani,  105 
Royal  Institute  of  Public  Health,  Prof.  R.  T.  Hewlett,  285 
Roval    Institution  :     Recent    Advances    in    Stereochemistrv, 
Prof.  William  J.  Pope,  F.R.S.,  280;  the  Origin  of  Seed- 
bearing  Plants,  Dr.  D.  H.  Scott,  F.R.S.,  377 
Royal   Irish  Academy,  23,    119,   215,   262 
Royal  Meteorological   Society,    142,  261 
Royal  Microscopical  .Society,   142,  239 
Royal  Observatory,  Greenwich,  the,    138 
Royal   Photographic  Society,    Lecture  at  the,   the  Advance- 
ment    of     Photography,     Sir     William    Abnev,    K.C.B., 
F.R.S.,  89 
Royal    Scottish    Geographical    Society's    Gold    Medal    pre- 
sented to  Captain  Sverdrup,   13 
Royal  Society  Candidates,  12  ;  Royal  Society  Conversazione, 
59,    184;   Royal   Society,  71,  94,   116,    141,    167,    189,   212, 
237,  261,  287,  311,  334,  350,  430;  Were  the  Fern-cvcads 
Seed-bearing  Plants?  Prof.   F.  W.  Oliver  and  Dr.   D.   H. 
Scott.    F.R.S.,    113:    Experiments    in    Radio-activity    and 
the    Production    of    Helium    from    Radium,    Sir   VVilliam 
Ramsay,   K.C.B.,  F.R.S.,  and  Frederick  Soddy,  354;  on 


Mil 


Index 


r  Nature, 

[.December  lo,  1903 


the  Intensely  Penetrating  Rays  of  Radium,    Hon.    R.  J. 
Strutt,  355  ;  the  Sub-mechanics  of  the  Universe,  Osborne 
Reynolds,    F.R.S.,    Prof.  G.    H.    Bryan,    F.R.S.,   600 
Royal    Society,    Edinburgh,    143,    214,    383,    408;    the   Wild 
Horse  {Eqttus  przewalskii,  Poliakoff),  Prof.  J.  C.  Ewart, 
F.R.S.,  271 
Royal  Society  of  Sciences,  Gottingen,  168,  464,  520 
Royal  Society,  New  South  Wales,  264,  360,  639 
Royal   University   Observatory,   Vienna,  the,   580 
Royal  Visit  to  Glasgow,  the,  63 

Rudge    (W.    A.     D.),     Radio-active     Gas     in     Mines,     85 ; 
Potential  Difference  between  the  Terminals  of  a  Vacuum 
Tube,   142 
Russell  (Bertrand),   the  Principles  of  Mathematics,  410 
Russell   (Claude),    Journey  through    Eastern    Mongolia,    516 
Russell  (H.  C),  Wet  Season  in  England  Seldom  Followed 

by  Wet  Season  in  Australia,  517;  Current  Papers,  529 
Russell    (James),     Molecular    Conditions    of    Demagnetised 

Iron,  408 
Rutherford  (Prof.  E.,  F.R.S.),  Radio-active  Processes, 
Paper  read  at  the  Physical  Society,  163  ;  Condensation  of 
the  radio-active  Emanations  of  Radium  and  Thorium  by 
Liquid  Air,  184  ;  the  Amount  of  Emanation  and  Helium 
from  Radium,  366 ;  on  the  Nature  of  the  Emanations 
from  radio-active  Substances,  610;  Heating  Effect  of  the 
Radium  Emanation,  622 
Ryan  (Prof.   Hugh),   Derivatives  of  Arabinose,   262 


Saake  (W.),  Atmospheric  Electricity  at  High  Altitudes,  578 
Sabatier    (Paul),    Catalytic    Decomposition    of    Alcohols    by 
Finely     Divided     Metals,     &c.,     23;     Cyclohexane,    336; 
Addition    of    Hydrogen    to    Aldehydes    and    Ketones    by 
Catalysis,    360 
Sables,   L 'Evolution  compar^e  des,  Jules  Girard,  620 
Sachs  (Dr.),  the  Death  of,  from  Plague,   134 
Sagnac  (G.),   the  Wave-length  of  the  N-Rays   Determined 

by  Diffraction,  191  ;  the  «-Rays,  578 
Sahlin  (Axel),  New   Blast  Furnace  Top,   44 
St.   Kilda  and   its  Birds,   J.   Wiglesworth,    268 
St.   Louis   Exhibition,   the  American  Tariff  and   the,    Prof. 

C.   V.    Boys,  F.R.S.,   320 
Saint  Petersburg,  the  New  Mammoth  at,  297 
Salisbury  (the  Marquis  of).  Death  and  Obituary  Notice  of, 

392 
Salmon    (E.    S.),    Infection-powers   of   Ascospores,    66 ;    In- 
fection-power of  Ascospores  in  the  Erysipheae,  182 
Salmon,   Effect  of  Temperature  on  the  Taking  of,  by  Rod 
and   Fly,    on  the   River  Spey  at   Gordon   Castle,    George 
Muirhead,   214 
Salomons    (Sir   D.    L.,    Bart.),    Experiments    with    Vacuum 

Tubes,  6 
Sandes    (Dr.     F.     P.),    the    Corpus    Luteum    of    Dasyurus 

viverrimts,  384 
Sandmever  (Dr.  T.),  a  New  Synthesis  of  Indigo,  93 
Sands,  Musical,  Cecil  Carus-Wilson,  152 
Sandys  (Edwin),  Trapper  "Jim,"  245 
Sanger  (Ernst),  Kant's  Lebre  vom  Glauben,  365 
Sanitarv    Examination   of   Water   Supplies,    Dr.    Arthur    R. 

Reynolds,  Prof.  R.  T.  Hewlett,  420 
Sanitation  :    Congress   of   the   Sanitary    Institute,    E.  White 
Wallis,    309 ;    Duty    of    Providing    for    the    Medical    and 
Sanitary  Requirem'ents  of  the  Men  collected  for  carrying 
out     Engineering    Works,     Mr.     Fitzmaurice,     309;    the 
Spread    of    and    Immunity    from    Asiatic    Cholera,    Prof. 
Hunter   Stewart,  309  ;   the  High   Prevailing   Rate  of   In- 
fantile Mortality  in  Populous  Centres,  Prof.  Glaister,  459 
Sartori   (G.),    La  Tecnica  delle   Correnti   Alternate,    221 
Saturn,   the  Satellites  of,  W.  J.    Hussey,    184;   White  Spot 
on  .Saturn,  W.  F.  Denning,  229  ;  Another  White  Spot  on, 
W.    F.    Denning,    247  ;    the    White    Spots  on,    J.    Comas 
SolA,   425  ;    Bright  Spots  on,   W.    F.    Denning,   279 ;   the 
Spots    on,    W.    F.   Denning,    390 ;    Reported    Change   on 
Saturn,    Prof.    Barnard,    207 ;    the    Rotation    Period    of, 
W.  F.  Denning,-  519  ;  the  Rotation  of,   Leo  Brenner,  554 
Sazerac  (R.),  an  Oxidising  Bacterium,  264 
Scariche  elettrich^  II  Moto  degli  loni  nelle,  Augusto  Righi, 

571 
Schaeberle  (Prof.),  Photographic  Efficiency  of  a  Short  Focus 

Reflector.  330 
Schei  ;D:  .  P.);  Arctic  Geology,  418 


Schenck's  (Dr.),   Red-phosphorus,  Dr.  Marquart,  588 

Schlechter  (Herr),  Gutta-percha  Suitable  for  Cable  Purposes 
in  New  Guinea,  516 

Schloesing  (Th.,  sen.).  Mechanical  Analysis  of  Soils,  384 

Schnabel  (11.),  Distinction  in  the  Development  of  the 
Radula  between  Cephalopods  and   Gastropods,   461 

Schneider  (Camilla  Karl),  Dendrologische  Winterstudien, 
220 

Schonland  (Prof.  S.),  Persistence  of  the  Palaeolithic  Age  in 
.South  Africa,   165 

Schoo  (Dr.),  Mosquitoes  and  Malaria,  421 

School  Geometry  Reform,  Prof.  G.  H.  Bryan,  F.R.S.,  7; 
Prof.  John  Perry,  F.R.S.,  7  ;  R.  W.  H.  T.  Hudson,  177; 
Prof.  Frank  R.  Barrell,  296 

School  Geometry,  a,  H.  S.  Hall  and  F".  H.  Stevens,  147,  414 

School    Subject,    Nature   Study    as  a,    E.    Stenhouse,    546 

Schrenck  (Prof,  von),  Californian  Red  Wood,  Sequoia  sem- 
pervireus,  no 

Schuberg  (Prof.  A.),  on  the  Nature  of  Intercellular  Tissue, 
J82 

Schulten  (A.  de).  Method  of  Crystallising  Slightly  Soluble 
Bodies,   192 

Schulz  (Dr.  F.  N.),  Die  Grosse  des  Eiweissmolekuls,   123 

.Schuster  (Prof.),  Experiments  on  the  Effects  of  Low  Tem- 
perature on  the  Properties  and  Spectrum  of  Radium,   611 

Schwab  (F.  J.),  Electrolytic  Refining  of  Copper,  630 

Schwarzscheld  (Dr),  Astronomical  Mechanics,   586 

Science  :  Smithsonian  Report  on  Scientific  Work,  Dr.  S.  P. 
Langley,  20 

Science  :  Memorial  to  Sir  George  Stokes,  64  ;  a  New  Index 
of  Applied  Science,  114;  Science  and  the  Navy,  169; 
.Science  and  Naval  Promotion,  223  ;  Scientific  Papers  of 
Lord  Rayleigh,  289  ;  the  Relations  between  Scientific 
Research  and  Chemical  Industry,  Prof.  Raphael  Meldola, 
F.R.S.,  at  the  University  Extension  Meeting  at  Oxford, 
3'98  ;  Forthcoming'  Books  of  Science,  588  ;  Human  Science 
and  Education,  Prof.  P.  Gardner,  507 ;  the  Vienna 
Academy  of  Sciences,  407  ;  Uniformity  in  Scientific  Litera- 
ture, Prof.  G.  H.  Bryan,  F.R.S.,  598 

Scientific  Investigation  and  Experimental  Philosophy, 
Sidney  Lee,  552 

;3  Scorpii,  the  Spectroscopic  Binary,  V.  M.  Slipher,  376 

Scotland,  a  Technical  School  for  the  Highlands  of,  497 

Scott  (Dr.  D.  H.,  F.R.S.),  Were  the  Fern-cycads  Seed- 
bearing  Plants,  113;  Lyginodendron  and  its  Seed 
Lagenostoma,  185  ;  the  Origin  of  Seed-bearing  Plants, 
Discourse  at  Royal  Institution,  377 

Scott  (Captain),  the  Antarctic  Expeditions,  307 

Scripture  (Prof.  E.  W.),  Experimental  Phonetics,  397 

Sea,  International  Study  of  the,  417 

Search-Ephemeris  for  Faye's  Comet,  E.  Stromgren,  207, 
461 

Search-Ephemeris  for  Comet  1896  V.  (Giacobini),  M.  Ebell, 
256,  491,  606 

Secchi  Commemoration,   the,  376 

Sedgwick  (Prof.  William  T.),  Experiments  on  the  Effect 
of  Freezing  and  other  Low  Temperatures  upon  the 
Viability  of  the  Bacillus  of  Typhoid  Fever,  with  Con- 
siderations Regarding  Ice  as  a  Vehicle  of  Infectious 
Disease,    127 

See  (Dr.  T.  J.  J.),  Mass  of  Mercurv,  ^qi  :  Height  of  the 
Atmosphere  Determined  from  the  Time  of  Disappearance 
of  Blue  Colour  of  the  Sky  after  Sunset,   526 

Seed-bearing  Plants?  Were  the  Fern-cvcads,  Prof.  F.  W. 
Oliver  and  Dr.  D.  H.  Scott,  F.R.S.,   113 

Seed-bearing  Plants,  the  Origin  of,  Dr.  D.  H.  Scott, 
F.R.S.,  at  the  Royal  Institution,  377 

Seismology  :  I^tude  des  Ph^nomfenes  volcaniques,  Tremble- 
ments  de  Terre — Eruptions  volcanioues — Le  Cataclysme 
de  la  Martinique,  1902,  Francjois  Miron,  6;  Earthquake 
in  Derbyshire,  12  ;  in  Turkish  Armenia,  81;  ;  Earthquake 
Shock  in  Italy,  85,  327;  at  Van,  108;  at  Constantinople, 
108:  Periodicity  of  the  Tidal  Forces  and  Earthquakes, 
R.  D.  Oldham,  in;  Earthquake  Shocks  in  North  Wales 
and  Anglesey,  180 ;  Earthquake  at  Erlau,  20<  ;  Seismo- 
logical  Notes,  23<;  ;  Velocity  with  which  Earthquake 
Waves  are  Propagated,  Dr.  F.  Omori,  21'^  ;  Violent 
Earthquake  which  Originated  near  Manila,  Rev.  Marcial 
SolA,  21K  :  a  Modified  Form  of  his  Vasca  Sismica,  Dr. 
Giulio  Grablovitz,  23c-  Earthquake  on  June  29,  1896,  in 
Cyprus,   Dr.  G.  Agamennone,   235  ;   Earthquake  at  Cape 


Nature,         ~\ 
Deitmper  lo,  1903J 


Index 


xlui 


Town,  253  ;  Antipodal  Relations  of  the  Eruptions  and 
Earthquakes  since  January,  1901,  Prof.  J,  P.  O'Reilly, 
263  ;  Earthquake  at  St.  Vincent,  277  ;  Earthquake  Shocks 
in  Spain,  327  ;  in  Lisbon,  350,  488  ;  Earthquake  Shocks 
at  Malta,  at  Syracuse,  at  Naples,  and  at  Canea,  3:;o ; 
Seismological  Congress  in  Strassburg,  371  ;  Earthquake 
at  Mendoza,  South  America,  372  ;  Sudden  Change  in  the 
Magnetic  Declination  at  Rome,  Attributed  to  the  Effect 
of  Earthquakes  in  Spain,  Father  Francesco  Eschinardi, 
374;  Earthquake  Shock  at  Kimberley,  J.  R.  Sutton,  i^^\ 
Earthquake  Observatory  in  Strassburg,  416  ;  Earthquake 
in  Bucharest,  488;  at  Santiago  de  Cuba,  516;  at  Blidah, 
at  Algiers,  and  in  the  Canaries,  1^29 
^oismometrv  and  G^ite,  Dr.  C.  Chree,  F.R.S.,  ^5,  176; 
Prof.  John  Milne,  F.R.S.,  127 

-ligmann    (C.    G.),    Reports    of    the    Cambridge    Anthro- 
pological Expedition  to  Torres  Straits,  409 
^enderens  (J.   B.),   Catalytic  Decomposition  of  Alcohols  by 
Finely  Divided  Metals,' &c.,  23:  Addition  of  Hydrogen  to 
Aldehydes  and  Ketones  by  Catalysis,  360 

Series,  Theorie  El^mentaire  des,   Maurice  Godefroy,  97 

Serotherapy  :  the  Death  of  Dr.  Sachs  from  Plague,  134 ; 
Pastilles  of  Anti-diphtheritic  Serum  for  Local  Treatment, 
Dr.  Louis  Martin,  135  ;  Use  of  Chloroform  in  the  Pre- 
paration of  Vaccine,  Alan  B.  Green,  141;  Anti-Rabic 
Inoculations  at  Pasteur  Institute,  Paris,  during  1902, 
206 ;  New  Serum  Department  of  the  Jenner  Institute, 
227 ;  Action  of  Human  Serum  upon  Trypanosomes  of 
Nagana,  Caderas,  and  Surra,  A.  Laveran,  263  ;  Action 
of  the  Venoms  of  the  Cobra  and  of  Russell's  Viper  upon 
the  Red  Blood  Corpuscles,  and  upon  the  Blood  Plasma, 
Captain  Lamb,  351  ;  the  Specificity  of  Anti-Venene  for 
Snake   Poisons,   Captain   Lamb,   395 

Sewage,  Bacterial  Treatment  of,  by  Different  Methods, 
Cecil  Duncan,  278 

Sewage  Disposal  by  Bacterial  Treatment,  Dangers  of  the 
New   Method   for,    206 

Seward  (A.  C,  F.R.S.),  Opening  .Address  in  Section  K  at 
the  Southport  Meeting  of  the  British  Association,  556 ; 
on  the  Fossil  Floras  of  South  Africa,  613 

Sexton  (F.  R.),  Loss  of  Weight  of  Musk  by  Volatilisation, 

548 

Sharp  (D.,  F.R.S.),  Coleopterous  Insect  Embedded  in  the 
Wall  of  the   Human   Intestine,' 239 

Sharpe  (J.  W.),  Psychophysical  Interaction,  77 

Shaw  (Frederick  G.),  Comets  and  their  Tails,  and  ■  -the 
Gegenschein  Light,  24^ 

Shaw  (Dr.  W.  N.,  F.R.S.),  the  Thunderstorm  of  May  31, 
247 ;  Meteorological  Aspects  of  the  Storm  of  February 
26-27,  261  ;  Opening  Address  in  Section  A  (sub-section  of 
Astronomy  and  Meteorology),  at  the  Southport  Meeting 
of  the  British  Association,  468 

Shedden  (F.),  Electrolytic  Reduction  of  Pheno-  and  Naphtho- 
Morpholones,  94 

Sheel  (Karl),  Determinations  of  the  Coefficient  of  Thermal 
Expansion  of  Fused  Quartz,  422 

Shelford  (R.),  New  Case  of  Protective  Mimicry  in  a  Cater- 
pillar,   187 

Ship,  a  Treatise  on  the  Electromagnetic  Phenomena  and 
the  Compass  and  its  Deviations  Aboard,  Commander 
T.  A.  Lvons,  524 

Shipbuilding,  the  Comparative  Merits  of  Drilling  and 
Punching  in  Steel  for,  A.  F.  Yarrow,   187 

Ships  Elementary  Manual  for  the  Deviations  of  the  Com- 
pass in  Iron,   E.   W.   Creak,   C.B.,   F.R.S.,    148,    199 

Shrubsole  (O.  -A.),  the  Probable  Source  of  some  of  the 
Pebbles  of  the  Triassic  Pebble-beds  of  South  Devon  and 
of  the  Midland  Counties,  23 

Silicon  Lines,  Wave-lengths  of.  Prof.  Hartmann,  306 

Silk  not   Isotropic,    F.    Beaulard,    143 

Simmonds  (C),  Tests  and  Reagents,  Chemical  and  Micro- 
scopical, Known  by  their  .Author's  Names,  75 

Simpson  (Prof.),    Insect  Vermin  and   Plague   Bacilli,   603 

Sitter  (Dr.  W.  de).  Recently  Determined  Stellar  Parallaxes, ' 

354 
Six-footed.  Ways  of  the,  Anna  Botsford  Comstock,  595         i 
Slator  (A.),  Chemical   Dynamics  of  the   Reactions  between^ 

Chlorine   and    Benzene   under   the    Influence   of    Different' 

Catalytic  Agents  and  of  Light,  94;  Behaviour  of  Chlorine; 

towards  Benzene,  under  Catalytic  Agents,   25s 
Slipher   (V.    M.),    Projection   on    Mars,    353  ;    the   Spectro- 


scopic   Binary    j8    Scorpii,    376;    Rotational    Velocity    of 

Venus,  631 

Small-pox,    the    1901-2    Epidemic    of,    and    the    Protective 

Power  of  Infant  Vaccination,  .Mrs.  Garrett  .Anderson,  529 

Smedley  (.Miss  Ida),  on  Some  Derivatives  of  Fluorene,  6ii 

Smith    (A.    Cameron),    .Apparatus    for    Determining    Latent 

Heats  of  Evaporation   in   Electrical   Units,   383 
Smith  (Dr.  E.    F.),    Bacterial   Diseases  Attacking  Japanese 

Plum  Trees  and  Sweet  Corn,    15 
Smith    (Harlan    I.),    the   Shell-heaps   of   the   Lower    Eraser 

River,   British  Columbia,  232 

Smith  (Dr.   Longfield),  Analysis  of  .Ash  from  Soufri^re,   87 

Smith  (Dr.   R.  Greig),  a  Slime  Bacterium  from  the  Peach, 

.Almond,  and  Cedar,  264 ;  Bacterial  Origin  of  the  Gums  of 

the  Arabin  Group,  520 

Smithsonian  .Astrophysical  Observatory,  Work  at  the.    Dr. 

S.  P.  Langley,  22 
Smithsonian  Report  on  Scientific  Work,  Dr.  S.  P.  Langley 
20  ' 

Snake  Poison  :  Action  of  the  Venoms  of  the  Cobra  and  of 
Russell's  Viper  upon  the  Red-blood  Corpuscles  and  upon 
the  Blood  Plasma,  Captain  Lamb,  351  ;  the  Specificity  of 
Anti-Venene   for.    Captain    Lamb,    395 
Snakes:     Venom     of     Russell's    Viper    (Daboia    Russellii), 
Captam     Lamb    and     .Mr.    Hanna,     87;   a    Little-known 
Peculiarity  of  the  Hamadryad  Snake,  Frank  E.  Beddard, 
F.R.S.,  623 
Snow    (Prof.),    Proposed    Reconstruction    of    the    Ccelostat 
Reflecting    Telescope    of    the    A^erkes    Observatory,    as    a 
Memorial  to,    13 
Snow  (C.  H.),  the  Principal  Species  of  Wood,  268 
Snow  Crystals,  Photographs  of,  W.  .A.  Bentlev,  129 
Social  Progress,   Heredity  and,  Simon  N.    Patten     174 
Soddy    (Frederick),    Canadian    View   of    Radio-activitv,    66; 
Condensation  of  the  Radio-active  Emanations  of  Radium 
and    Thorium    by    Liquid    Air,    184;    Gases    Occluded    by 
Radium   Bromide,   246  ;  a  Method  of  Applying  the   Rays 
from  Radium  and  Thorium  to  the  Treatment  of  Consump- 
tion, 306 ;  Experiments  in  Radio-activity  and  the  Produc- 
tion of  Helium  from  Radium,  at  the  Royal  Society    3^4- 
Another  Theory  as  to  the  Nature  of  the  Processes  going 
on  in  Radio-active  Materials,  611 
Soil,    the,    an    Introduction    to   the    Scientific   Study    of    the 

Growth  of  Crops,  A.   D.   Hall,  52 
Sold  (J.  Comas),  the  White  Spots  on  Saturn,  425 
Sold  (Rev.   Marcial),  Violent  Earthquake  which' Originated 

near  Manila,  235 
Solar  Energy,  Radium  and.  Dr.  W.  E.  Wilson,  F.R.S.    222 
Solar  and    Meteorological  Cycle   of  Thirty-five   A'ears  '  the 
Dr.   William  J.   S.    Lockyer,  8  "  '  ' 

-Solar  Parallax,  New  Value  for  the,  B.  Weinberg,  42 
Solar  Prominences  and  Corona,  on  a  Probable  Relationship 
between  the.   Dr.  William  J.  S.  Lockyer  at  Roval  Astro^ 
nomical  .Society,  257 
Solar  Radiations',  Penetrative,  R.  Blondlot,  233 
Solar  Spectrum,  Origin  of  th*e  H    and  K    Lines  of  the    Prof 

J.  Trowbridge,  89 
Sollas  (Prof.   W.  J.,   F.R.S. ),   Method  for  the  Rapid  Deter- 
mination of  the  Specific  Gravity  of  Blood,    1S4  ;    Method 
for  Investigation  of  Fossils  bv  Serial  Sections,   2^7 
Solomon  (Maurice),    the   Lodge-Muirhead   System   of   Wire- 
less Teleqrraphy,  247  ;  the   Berlin  Conference  on   Wireless 
Telegraphy,  437 
Song  in  Birds,  Sympathetic,   Edgar  R.  Waite,  322 
South  .African  Association,   the,   59 
South-Eastern  Union  of  Scientific  Societies,  211 
South   Polar  Cap  of  Mars,   the.   Prof.   Barnard,   138 
Southport  .Meeting  of  the  British  Association,  344,  368    390 
Southport,   Forthcoming  Meeting  of  the  British  .Association 

at,   F.  A.  Cheetham,  224;  see  British  Association 
.Sowers  (Dr.  Z.  T.),   Radium  and  Cancer.  320 
Sowter  (R.  J.),   Dimensions  of  Physical  Quantities    2^ 
Spark,   Photograph  of  Oscillatory   Electric,   C.   J.'vVatson 

o  ^^ 

Spectrum  Analysis  :  the  Occurrence  of  Spark  Lines  in  Arc 
Spectra,  J.  Hartmann  and  G.  Eberhard.  17;  Gaseous 
Composition  of  the  H  and  K  Lines  of  the  Spectrum.  John 
Trowbridge,  46;  Spectrum  of  Pilocarpine  Nitrate,  W.  N. 
Hartley,  46  ;  Direct  Vision  Spectroscope,  T.  H.  Blakesley 
71  :  Origin  of  the  H  and  K  Lines  of  the  Solar  Spectrum.' 
Prof.  J.  Trowbridge,  89;  the  Relationships  between  Arc 


xliv 


Index 


r         Nature, 
\_Decetiiber  lo,  1903 


and  Spark  Spectra,  Prof.  J.  Hartmann,  163  ;  the  Wave- 
length of  the  n  Rays  Determined  by  Diffraction,  G. 
Sagnac,  191  ;  a  New  Series  in  the  Magnesium  Spectrum, 
William  Sutherland,  200 ;  the  Study  of  very  Faint  Spectra, 
Harold  K.  Palmer,  208  ;  Luminosity  of  the  Ions,  W.  yon 
Bolton,  211;  the  Spectra  of  Metals  and  Gases  at  High 
Temperatures,  Prof.  J.  Trowbridge,  234  ;  Spectra  of  Neon, 
Krypton  and  Xenon,  E.  C.  C.  Baly,  237;  Influence  of 
Great  Dilution  on  the  Absorption  Spectra  of  Highly  Con- 
centrated Solutions  of  the  Nitrates  and  Chlorides  of 
Didymium  and  Erbium,  J.  E.  Purvis,  239;  Gases 
Occluded  bv  Radium  Bromide,  Sir  William  Ramsay, 
K.C.B.,  F.R.S.,  and  Frederick  Soddy,  246;  Bactericidal 
Action  of  Ultra-violet  Radiations  Produced  by  the  Con- 
tinuous-current Arc,  J.  E.  Barnard  and  H.  de  R.  Morgan, 
261  ;  Spectroscopic  Observations  of  Nova  Geminorum, 
Prof.  Perrine,  279  ;  the  Spectrum  of  Nova  Geminorum,  Dr. 
H.  D.  Curtis,  425  ;  La  Structure  des  Spectres,  Prof.  Ch. 
Fabry,  308  ;  the  Spectrum  of  o  Ceti,  Joel  Stebbins,  330  ; 
the  Spectroscope  in  Astronomy,  Agnes  M.  Gierke,  Prof. 
R.  A.  Gregory,  338  ;  the  Spectrum  of  Comet  1903  c,  Dr. 
Curtis,  376  ;  ProL  Perrine,  376  ;  M.  Deslandres,  424  ;  the 
Spectroscopic  Binary  ;3  Scorpii,  V.  M.  Slipher,  37b ; 
Effects  of  Absorption  on  the  Resolving  Power  of  Spectro- 
scopes, Prof.  Wadsworth,  376  ;  a  Coronae  a  Spectroscopic 
Binary,  Prof.  Hartmann,  398 ;  Application  of  the  well- 
known  Ileliometric  Device  of  the  Divided  Lens,  J.  R. 
,Milne,  408;  Absorption  Spectra,  Prof.  W.  N.  Hartley, 
5D-Sc.,  F.R.S.,  F.R.S.E.,  472  ;  Intensity  of  Spectral  Lines, 
rRrof.  Pickering,  491  ;  Simplicity  of  the  Spectra  of  the 
Kathode  Light  in  Gaseous  Comp>ounds  of  Nitrogen  and 
♦Carbon,  H.  Deslandres,  520  ;  the  Broadening  of  Spectral 
.■Lines,  G.  W.  Walker,  554  ;  the  Spyectrum  of  Hydrogen, 
Louis  A.  Parsons,  554 ;  Recent  Spectrographic  Observ- 
ations of  Novae,  Prof.  Perrine,  631 

Spherical  Aberration  of  the  Eye,  W.  L.,  8  ;  Edvi^in  Edser,  8  ; 
W.  Betz,  8 

Spiegel  (Dr.  Leopold),  Der  StickstofT  und  seine  wichtigsten 
Verbindungen,  266 

Spiller  (Gustav),  the  Mind  of  Man,   174 

Spirals  in  Nature  and  Art,  Theodore  Andrea  Cook,  221,  296 

JSpot  on  Jupiter,  Red,  Stanley  J.  Williams,  208 

Spot  on  Jupiter,  Retarded  Motion  of  the  Great  Red,  W.  F. 
Denning,  390 

Spots  on  Saturn,  the,  W.  F.  Denning,  229,  247,  279,  390; 
J.  Comas  Sola,  425 

Stack  (J.  W.),  an  Ant  Robbed  by  a  Lizard,  600 

Standardisation  of  Electrical  Pressures  and  Frequencies, 
the,  631 

Stansfield  (Prof.  A.),  the  Overheating  and  Burning  of  Steel, 
462 

.Stark  (Dr.  J.),  Prof.  J.  J.  Thomson's  View  that  the  Energy 
of  E^ecquerel  Radiation  Given  out  by  Radio-active  Sub- 
stances is  Produced  by  a  Change  in  the  Configuration  of 
Ihse  Atom,  230 

.Starling  (Prof.  E.  H.,  F.R.S.),  a  Post-graduate  School  of 
Medicine,   555 

'Stars  :  Nova  Geminorum,  Prof.  E.  C.  Pickering,  16  ;  Prof. 
Hale,  68 ;  Prof.  Frost,  68 ;  Variability  of  Nova 
Geminorum,  Prof.  E.  C.  Pickering,  89  ;  Observations  of, 
Prof.  Barnard,  207  ;  Spectroscopic  Observations  of.  Prof. 
Perrine,  279  ;  the  Spectrum  of.  Dr.  H.  D.  Curtis,  425  ; 
Four  Stars  with  Variable  Radial  Velocities,  H.  M.  Reese, 
17 ;  Newly  Determined  Stellar  Radial  Velocities,  Prof. 
Vogel,  519;  a  Remarkable  Algol  Variable,  Prof.  E.  C. 
Pickering,  42  ;  Parallax  of  the  Binary  System  S  Equulei, 

.  W.  J.  Hussey,  69;  Prof.  A.  A.  Rambaut,  69;  the  Stellar 
Heavens,  Ellard  Gore,  loi  ;  the  Spectrum  of  o  Ceti,  Joel 
Stebbins,  330  ;  Estimation  of  Stellar  Temperatures,  Prof. 
Kayser,  353  ;  Recently  Determined  Stellar  Parallaxes, 
Prof.  A.  Donner,  354;  Prof.  J.  C.  Kapteyn  and  Dr.  W. 
de  Sitter,  354  ;  the  Size  of  Stellar  Systems,  354  ;  Observ- 
ations of  the  Minima  of  Mira,  Prof.  A.  A.  Nijland,  354; 
the  Spectroscopic  Binary  |8  Scorpii,  V.  M.  Slipher,  376; 
a  Catalogue  of  1520  Bright  Stars,  462  ;  a  Provisional 
Catalogue  of  Variable  Stars,  Prof.  W.  M.  Reed  and  Miss 
A.  J.  Cannon,  491  ;  Corrections  to  Existing  Star  Cata- 
logues, G.  Boccardi,  491  ;  Errata  in  Various  Star  Cata- 
logues, G.  Boccardi,  555  ;  Reported  Discovery  of  a  Nova, 
Prof.  Wolf,  580;  Prof.  Pickering,  580;  Prof.  Hale,  580; 
Prof,   Barnard,  580 ;  Dr.  Parkhurst,  580  ;  the  Opposition 


of  Eros  in  1905,  Prof.  Pickering,  580;  Occultation  of  a 
Star  by  Jupiter,  T.  Banachiewicz,  631  ;  Herr  Kostinsky, 
631  ;   Mr.   Denning,  631 

State,  the  University  in  the  Modern,  25,  241,  337 

Statics  by  Algebraic  and  Graphic  Methods,  Lewis  J.  John- 
son, 5 

Statics,  Graphical,  Problems  with  Diagrams,  W.  M.  Baker, 
436 

.Statistics  :  Ages  of  German  University  Professors  in  1901, 
Dr.  F.  Eulenburg,  231  ;  Health  of  the  Great  Armies  of 
Europe,  Dr.  V.  Lowenthal,  605 

Stead  (J.  E.),  the  Restoration  of  Dangerously  Crystalline 
Steel  by  Heat  Treatment,  462  ;  Sorbitic  Steel  Rails,  462 

Steam  :  Fast  Coaling  Ships  for  Our  Navy,  E.  H.  Tennyson 
D'Eyncouit,  208  ;  Means  for  Converting  a  Moderate  Speed 
Steamer  into  One  of  Very  High  Speed  for  Warlike  Pur- 
poses, James  Hamilton,  208  ;  on  Cross  Channel  Steamers, 
Prof.  J.  H.  Biles,  208;  Modern  Steam  Turbines  and  their 
Application  to  the  Propulsion  of  Vessels,  Hon.  C.  A. 
Parsons,  209  ;  Some  New  Features  of  Superheaters,  Prof. 
W.  H.  Watkinson,  209  ;  A.  F.  Yarrow,  209  ;  A.  Morcom, 
209;  the  Parsons  Steam  Turbine,  331;  the  Steamship 
Route  between  the  Bristol  Channel  and  Jamaica,  489 ; 
Flow  of  Steam  from  Nozzles,  Prof.  John  Perry,  F.R.S., 
624 

Stebbing  (E.  P.),  Departmental  Notes  on  Insects  that  Affect 
Forestry,  loi 

Stebbins  (Joel),  the  Spectrum  of  0  Ceti,  330 

Steel  Institute,  Iron  and,  462 

Stellar  Heavens,  the,  Ellard  Gore,  loi 

Stellar  Parallaxes,  Recently  Determined,  Prof.  A.  Donner, 
354  ;  Prof..  J.  C.  Kapteyn  and  Dr.  W.  de  Sitter,  354 

Stellar  Radial  Velocities,   Newly  Determined,   Prof.   Vogel, 

519 
Stellar  Systems,  the  Size  of,  354 

Stellar  Temperatures,  Estimation  of.  Prof.  Kayser,  353 
Stenhouse  (E.),  an  Introduction  to  Nature  Study,  i;46 
Stephan  (M.),  Eclipse  of  the  Moon  on  April  11  at  Marseilles, 

23  ;  Comet  1903  c  Discovered  by  M.  Borrelly  on  June  21, 

239 
Stephenson  (George),  Bust  of,  at  Rome,  64 
Stereochemistry,    Recent    Advances    in.    Prof.    William    J. 

Pope,  F.R.S.,  at  the  Royal  Institution,  280 
Stereoskop,     Das,     Seine    anvvendung    in    den    technischen 

Wissenschaften,     Uber     Entstehung     und     Konstruktion 

Stereokopischer  Bilder,  Wilhelm  Manchot,  Edwin  Edser, 

217 
Sterry  (J.),  Photography  by  Rule,  619 
Stevens  (F.  H.),  a  School  Geometry,   147,  414 
Stevens  (M.  White),  Tables  of  Four-figure  Logarithms,  270 
Stevens  (W.  C),  an  Introduction  to  Botany,  364 
Stewart  (Prof.   Hunter),  the  Spread  of  and  Immunity  from 

Asiatic  Cholera,  309 
Stewart  (Walter),    Radiation  of  Helium  and  Mercury  in  a 

Magnetic   Field,    212 
Stickstoff,    Der,    und  seine   wichtigsten   Verbindungen,    Dr. 

Leopold  Spiegel,  266 
Stokes  (Sir  George),  Memorial  to,  64 
Stone   Age  :    Persistence   of   the    Palaeolithic   Age    in   South 

Africa,  Prof.  S.  Schonland,   165 
Stone  (W.),    Reptiles  and   Amphibians  from  Arkansas  and 

Texas,   their  I3earing  on   Previous  Views  as  to  the  Zoo- 
geographical  Zones,  605 
Stonehenge,  Sunrise  at,   180 

Stoney  (Dr.  G.  Johnstone),  the  Mirror  of  the  Crossley  Re- 
flector, 183 
Stonyhurst  College  Observatory  Report  for  1902,  43 
Stottner  (J.),  Nernst  Lamps,   117 

Stoves,  Products  of  Combustion  in  Gas  and  Oil,  382 
Strachey  (Sir  Richard,  F.R.S.),  an  Ancient  Lava  Plug  like 

that  of  Mont  Pel^e,  573 
Strahan  (A.),  Geology  of  the  South  Wales  Coal-field,  329 
Strassburg,    Seismological    Congress    in,    371  ;    Earthquake 

Observatory  in,  416 
Stratton   (George   Malcolm),    Experimental   Psychology   and 

its  Bearing  on  Culture,  465 
Strauss  (M.),  Radiations  Emitted  by  Radio-active  Lead,  143 
Streams  Examinations,  Report  of.  Dr.  Arthur  R.  Reynojds, 

Prof.  R.  T.  Hewlett,  420 
Stromgren  (Prof.  E.),  Search  Ephemeris  for  Faye's  Comet, 

207,  461 


Nature, 
December  lo.  1903 


Index 


xlv 


iinholm  (M.),  the  Solubility  of  Iodine,  606 
iicture  des  Spectres,  La,  Prof.  Ch.  Fabry,  308 

Strutt  (Hon.  K.  J.),  Energy  Emitted  by  Radio-active  Bodies, 
b;  on  the  Intensely  Penetrating  Rays  of  Radium,  at  the 
Royal  Society,  355  ;  Radium  and  the  Sun's  Heat,  572 

Submarine  Cables  :  Gutta-percha  Suitable  for  Cable  Pur- 
poses in  New  Guinea,   Herr  Schlechter,  516 

Summer  Lightning,  Sir  Arch.  Geikie,  F.R.S.,  367 

Sumpner  (Dr.),  on  the  Introduction  of  Vectorial  Methods 
into  Physics,  610 

Sun  :  Instructions  to  Observers  of  the  Sun,  43  ;  Radio- 
activity and  the  Age  of  the.  Prof.  G.  H.  Darwin,  F.R.S., 
4qb ;  Radium  and  the  Sun's  Heat,  Hon.  R.  J.  Strutt, 
572  ;  Prof.  J.  Joly,  F.R.S.,  572  ;  Connection  between  Sun- 
spots  and  Atmospheric  Temperature,  Charles  Nordmann, 
it)2  ;  Sun-spots  and  Terrestrial  Temperature,  C.  Nord- 
mann, 184 ;  Sun-spots  and  Phenology,  Alex.  B. 
MacDowall,  389 

Sunrise  at  Stonehenge,  180 

Simset,  Height  of  the  Atmosphere  Determined  from  the 
rime  of  Disappearance  of  Blue  Colour  of  the  Sky  after. 
Dr.  T.  J.  J.  See,  526 

Superstition,  Magic  and  Medicine,  Ethnographical  Studies 
in  North  Queensland,  Walter  E.  Roth,  235 

Surgery  :  Radium  Rays  in  the  Treatment  of  Cancer,  Prof, 
liussenbauer,  254;  the  Light  Treatment  of  Lupus,  Prof. 
I'insen,  254  ;  Evolution  of  Abdominal  Surgery,  Prof.  Mayo 
Robson,   346 

Sutherland  (William),  a  New  Series  in  the  Magnesium 
Spectrum,  200 

Sutton  (J.  R.),  Experiments  upon  the  Rate  of  Evaporation, 
232  ;  an  Earthquake  Shock  at  Kimberley,  389 

Sverdrup  (Captain),  Presentation  of  the  Royal  Scottish 
Geographical  Society's  Gold  Medal  to,   13 

Swansea,  British  Medical  Association  Meeting  at,  346 

Swinburne  (Mr.),  Chlorine  Smelting  with  Electrolysis,  285  ; 
on  the  Treatment  of  Irreversible  Processes  in  Thermo- 
dynamics, 610 

Swinhoe  (R.  J.  C),  Chipped  Flints  from  Yenangyoung, 
Burma,  328 

Switzerland,  Guide  to,  219 

Svkora  (Prof.),  Photographic  Observations  of  Comet  1902 
'III.,  183 

Sylviculture,  Albert  Fron,  221 

Symbolism,  American,   Dr.  Alfred  L.   Kroeber,  20 

Symington  (Prof.  Johnson,  M.D.,  F.R.S.,  F.R.S.E.), 
Opening  Address  in  Section  H  at  the  Southport  Meeting 
of  the  British  Association,  539 

Sympathetic  Song  in  Birds,  Edgar  R.  Waite,  322 

"Tabloid"  Preparations  for  Photography,   114,    181 
Tanganyika   Problem,    the,    an   Account   of   the    Researches 

Undertaken  Concerning  the  E.xistence  of  Marine  Animals 

in  Central  Africa,  J.  E.  S.  Moore,  56 
Tanret  (C),  Stachyose,  216 
Tarbouriech  (J.),  the  Preparation  of  Secondary  Amides,  288  ; 

Secondary  Amides,  360 
Tarsius    Spectrum,    Furchung    und    Keimblattbildung    bei, 

A.  A.  W.  Hubrecht,  341 
lavernier  (M.),   Electrical  Type-setting  Machine,  351 
J  avlor  (R.  L.),   Method  for  the  Separation  of  Cobalt  from 

Nickel  and  for  the  Volumetric  Determination  of  Cobalt, 

611 
Teall  (Mr.),  on  Dedolomitisation,  613 
Teasdale  (Washington),  Death  of,  516 
Technical  Education  :  Higher  Technical  Education  in  Great 

Britain  and  Germany,  Dr.  F.  Rose,  Prof.  J.  Wertheimer, 

274 ;    Technical    Education    and    Industry,    Sir    William 

Ramsay,  576 
Technical    Mycology  :    the    Utilisation   of    Micro-organisms 

in  the  Arts  and  Manufactures,  Dr.  Lafar,  Prof.  G.  Sims 

Woodhead,  290 
Technical  Press,  Index  of  the,  114 

Technical  School  for  the  Highlands  of  Scotland,  a,  497 
Technischen  Physik,  Lehrbuch  der,  Prof.  Dr.  Hans  Lorenz, 

364 
Tectonics  of  the  Eastern  Alps,   Dr.  Maria  Ogilvie-Gordon, 

Teichner  (G.),  the  Critical  State  of  Gases,  210 
Telegraphy  :  Transmission  of  Photographs  by  Means  of  a 
Telegraph  Wire,  M.  Korn,  96  ;  Message  Round  the  World 


by  Telegraphy,  230 ;  Special  Quality  of  Insulated  Cord 
for  Submarine  Telegraphy,  328  ;  Proposed  Wireless  Tele- 
graphy with  Iceland,  14 ;  the  Power  of  the  Marconi  Wire- 
less Telegraph  Station  at  Poldhu,  Prof.  Fleming,  134 ; 
Relations  between  the  Post  Office  and  the  Marconi  Wire- 
less Telegraph  Co.,  Austen  Chamberlain,  134;  Wireless 
Telegraphy,  E.  A.  N.  Pochin,  187 ;  the  Lodge-Muirhead 
System  of  Wireless  Telegraphy,  Maurice  Solomon,  247  ; 
Telekine,  L.  Torres,  360;  Practical  Advantages  of 
Wireless  Telegraphy  at  Sea,  372  ;  Experiments  in 
Syntonic  Wireless  Telegraphy  at  Spezia,  374 ;  Wire- 
less Telegraph  Experiments  by  the  Navy  Department 
of  the  bnited  States,  395  ;  Wireless  Telegraphy  in 
Mid-Atlantic,  Mr.  Marconi,  420 ;  the  Berlin  Conference 
on  Wireless  Telegraphy,  Maurice  Solomon,  437  ;  System 
for  Warning  Ships  at  Sea  of  Approaching  Danger,  C.  E. 
Kelway,  604 

Telephone  Lines,  W.  C.  Owen,  76 

Telephone,  the  Measurement  of  Coefficients  of  Self-induction 
by  Means  of  the,  R.  Dongier,  288 

Telephonic  Communication  between  London  and  Brussels, 
158 

Telescope,  Zenith,   Results,  C.  L.   Doolittle,  234 

Temperature,  Terrestrial,  Sun-spots  and,  C.  Nordmann,  184 

Temperatures,  Estimation  of  Stellar,  Prof.  Kayser,  353 

Termites,  the  Destruction  of,  A.  Loir,   120 

Terrestrial  Magnetism  in  its  Relation  to  Geography,  Cap- 
tain Ettrick  W\  Creak,  C.B.,  R.N.,  F.R.S.,  500 

Terrestrial  Temperature,  Sun-spots  and,  C.  Nordmann,   184 

Tervueren  Museums,  the  Brussels  and,  575 

Tesla  Coil,  Action  of,  on  Radiometer,  Prof.  P.  L.  Narasu, 
29s 

Tests  and  Reagents,  Chemical  and  Microscopical,  Known  bv 
their  Authors'  Names,  C.  Simmonds,  75 

Tetrahedral  Cell  Kites,  Dr.  Graham  Bell's,  347 

Thames  Basin,  Rainfall  and  River  Flow  in  the,  Dr.  Hugh 
Robert  Mill,  104 

Theobald  (Mr.),   Some  Injurious  Flea-beetles,   357 

Therapeutics :  the  Prevention  of  Consumption  in  Large 
Cities,  Dr.  Nathan  Raw,  285  ;  a  Method  of  Applying  the 
Rays  from  Radium  and  Thorium  to  the  Treatment  of 
Consumption,  PVederick  Soddy,  306  ;  Alcohol  as  a  Thera- 
peutic Agent,  Dr.  F.  T.  Roberts,  346 ;  Cure  for  Mountain 
Sickness,  M.  Passtoukhof,  396;  the  F"ight  Against 
Tuberculosis,  Prof,  von  Behring,  587  ;  Radium  and  other 
Radio-active  Substances,  with  a  Consideration  of  Phos- 
phorescent and  Fluorescent  Substances,  the  Properties 
and  Applications  of  Selenium  and  the  Treatment  of 
Disease  by  the  Ultra-violet  Light,  William  J.  Hammer^ 
621 

Thermodynamik,  Prof.  Dr.  W.  Voigt,  547 

Thermoelectric  Theory,  E.xtension  of  Kelvin's,  Oliver 
Heaviside,  F.R.S.,  78 

Thermometer,  a  Regulating  or  Recording,  H.  S.  Allen,  69 

Theulier  (E.),  Louis  Pillet  Prize  of  the  Chemical  Society 
of  Paris  Awarded  to,  12 

Thilo  (Dr.  Otto),  Necessity  of  a  Knowledge  of  Mechanics 
for  the  Investigator,  587 

Thiselton-Dyer  (Sir  W.  T.,  F.R.S.),  Instances  of  Plant 
Adaptations,    185  ;  Training  of  Forest  Officers,  416 

Thomas  (B.  F.),  the  Improvement  of  Rivers,  a  Treatise  on 
the  Methods  Employed  for  Improving  Streams  for  Open 
Navigation  by  Means  of  Locks  and  Dams,  361 

Thomas   (Pierre),    Formic  Acid    in   Alcoholic   Fermentation, 

^*> 

Thompson  (Isaac  C),  Zoologv  of  the  Southport  District, 
225 

Ihompson  (Prof.  S.  P.),  Experiments  on  Shadows  in  an 
Astigmatic  Beam  of  Light,  190 

Thomson  (Prof.  A.  W.),  Elementary  Applied  Mechanics,  29 

Thomson  (Prof.,  F.R.S.),  Radio-active  Gas  from  Tap- 
Water,  Lecture  at  Cambridge  Philosophical  Society,  90 

Thomson's  (Prof.  J.  J.)  View  that  the  Energy  of  Becquerel 
Radiation  Given  Out  by  Radio-active  Substances  is  Pro- 
duced by  a  Change  in  the  Configuration  of  the  Atom, 
Dr.  J.  Stark,  230 

Thorpe  (Dr.  T.  E.,  C.B.,  F.R.S.),  "  Red  Rain  "  and  the 
Dust  Storm  of  February  22,  53,  222  ;  Estimation  of 
.Arsenic  in  Fuel,  238 ;  Electrolytic  Estimation  of  Minute 
Quantities  of  Arsenic,  238  ;  the'  W'ork  of  the  GpVgromgnt. 
Laboratory,  382 


xlvi 


Index 


r  Nature, 

\_Dece»iber  lo,  1903 


Thunderstorm,     Glow-worm    and,     also    Milk,     Sir    Oliver 

Lodge,  F.R.S.,  527 
Thunderstorm  of  May  31,  the,  C.  H.  Hawkins,  Dr.  W.  N. 

Shaw,  F.R.S.,  247;  William  J.  S.  Lockyer,  270 
Thunderstorms,  the  Moon's  Phases  and.  Prof.  W.  H.  Picker- 
ing, 232  ;  Ottavio  Zanotti  Bianco,   296 
Tidal  Forces  and  Earthquakes,   Periodicities  of  the,   R.   D. 

Oldham,  iii 
Tiddeman  (R.  H.),  Geology  of  the  South  Wales  Coal-field, 

329 
Tide  Predictor,  a  Simple  Form  of,  R.  W.  Chapman,  322 
Tides  at  Port  Darwin,  R.  W.  Chapman,  295 
Tiflfenau   (M.),   the  Abnormal   Fixation   of  Trioxymethylene 

on  Certain  Organo-magnesium  Derivatives,  616 
Tight  (W.  G.),  Ascent  of  Mount  Grata,  in  Bolivia,  459 
Time  Allusions,   a   Key   to  the,    in   the   Divine   Comedy   of 

Dante  Alighieri,   Gustave  Pradeau,   414 
Timothv  (B.),  an  Abnormal  Corolla  of  a  FoxgloVe,  254 
Timpany   (H.    M.),    the  Arithmetic  of    Elementary    Physics 

and  Chemistry,  597 
Todd  (Dr.),  Trypanosoma  Disease  in  Upper  Gambia,  254 
Toll  (Baron),  the.  Relief  Expedition,  327 
Tomes   (R.    F.),    Heterastraea   from    the   Lower    Rhjetic   of 

Gloucestershire,   142 
Topography  :  Recherches  sur  les  Instruments,  les  Methodes 

et  le  Dessin  Topographiques,  Colonel  A.  Laussedat,  545; 

Topography  and  Geology  of  the  Eastern  Desert  of  Egypt 

(Central  Portion),  T.  Barron  and  W.  F.  Hume,  569 
Torres  (L.),  Telekine,  360 
Torres  Straits,    Reports  of  the  Cambridge  Anthropological 

Expedition  to,  W.   H.   R.   Rivers,  A.  G.  Seligman,  C.  S. 

Myers  and  W.  McDougall,  Dr.  A.  C.  Haddon,  409 
Totton  (J.  S.),  on  the  Reduction  of  Nitrates  by  Sewage,  611 
Touchet    (M.),     Measurement    of    the    Intensity    of    Feeble 

Illuminations,  279 
Toxicology  :   Venom  of  Russell's  Viper  (Daboia   Russellii), 

Captain' Lamb  and  Mr.  Hanna,  87  ;  the  Study  of  Bacterial 

Toxins,  Dr.  Allan  Macfadyen,   152 
Trade,  the  Effect  of  Education  and  Legislation  on.   Dr.   F. 

Mollwo  Perkin,  602 
Training   of    Forest    Officers,    Sir    W.    T.    Thiselton-Dyer, 

F.R.S.,  416 
Tramways,  Opening  of  London  County  Council's  Electrical, 

85 

Transactions  of  the  American  Mathematical  Society,  94 

Trapper  "  Jim,"  Edwin  Sandys,  245 

Traube  (J.),  the  Critical  State  of  Gases,  210 

Treacher  (Llewellyn),  Implements,  mainly  Palaeolithic,  from 
.  the  District  between  Reading  and.  Maidenhead,  613 

Treadwell  (E.  P.),  Analytical  Chemistry,  loi 

Tremors  over  the  Surface  of  an  Elastic  Solid,  Propagation 
of,  Horace  Lamb,  237 

Triassic  Cephalopods,    115 

Triassic  Landscape,  a  Buried,  Prof.  Watts,  332 

Trillat  (A.),  Reactions  between  Copper  or  Platinum  and 
the  Vapour  of  Alcohols,  312 

Trimen  (Roland,   F.R.S.),   Mimicry  between  Butterflies,  615 

Trochet  (Andr^),   Metallic   Diaphragms,  47 

Trouton  (Prof.  F.  T.),  Method  of  Determining  the  Viscosity 
of  Pitch-like  Solids,  190 

Trowbridge  (Prof.  John),  Gaseous  Composition  of  the  H 
and  K  Lines  of  the  Spectrum,  46  ;  Origin  of  the  H  and 
K  Lines  of  the  Solar  Spectrum,  89  ;  the  Spectra  of  Metals 
and  Gases  at  High  Temperatures,  234 

Trypanosoma,  on  the  Discovery  of  a  Species  of,  in  the 
Cerebro-spinal  Fluid  of  Cases  of  Sleeping  Sickness,  Dr. 
Aldo  Castellani,    116 

Tuberculosis  :  the  Prevention  of  Consumption  in  Large 
Cities,  Dr.  Nathan  Raw,  285  ;  the  Non-transmissibility 
of  Bovine  Tuberculosis  to  Man,  Prof.  Kossel,  303  ;  Prof. 
Orth,  303  ;  Resolutions  at  the  International  Congress  of 
Hygiene,  459  ;  New  Conceptions  Regarding  Tuberculosis, 

■.    Prof,  von  Behring,  528 

Turbine,  the  Parsons  Steam,  331 

Turbines,  Modern  Steam,  and  their  Application  to  the  Pro- 
pulsion of  Vessels,  Hon.  C.  A.  Parsons.  209 

Turner  (Fred),  the  Vegetation  of  New  England,  N.S.W., 
264 

Turner  (Prof.  H.  H.,  F.R.S.),  Report  of  the  Oxford  Uni- 
versity Observatory,  iii;  the  Tenth  "Eros"  Circular, 
276 


Turner  (Sir  William,  K.C.B.),  the  Cachalot  in  the  Shetland 
Seas,   143 

Turpentine  Orcharding,  a  New  Method  of.  Dr.  C.  H.  Hertz, 
499 

Tutton  (Dr.  A.  E.  H.,  F.R.S.),  Crystallised  Ammonium 
Sulphate  .and  the  Position  of  Ammonium  in  the  Alkali 
Series,  238;  the  Elasmometer,  261 

Type-setting  Machine,  Electrical,  M.  Tavernier,  351 

Typhoid-infected  Blankets,   134 

Typhoid  Fever,  Experiments  on  the  Effect  of  Freezing  and 
other  Low  Temperatures  upon  the  Viability  of  the 
Bacillus  of,  with  Considerations  Regarding  Ice  as  a 
Vehicle  of  Infectious  Disease,  Prof.  William  T.  Sedgwick 
and  Charles  Edward  A.  Winslow,  Dr.  Allan  Macfadven, 
127 

Undistorted     Cylindrical     Wave,      the,      Oliver      Heaviside, 

^   F.R.S.,  54 

Uniformity  in  Scientific  Literature,  Prof.  G.  H.  Bryan, 
F.R.S.,  598 

United  Kingdom,  Progress  of  Geological  Survey  of  the,  O25 

United  States  :  Big  Game  Fishes  of  the,  Chas'.  F.  Holder, 
363  ;  Forestry  in  the,  406  ;  United  States  Naval  Observ- 
atory, 425  ;  the  Teaching  of  Psychology  in  the  Universi- 
ties of  the.  Dr.  C.  S.  Myers,  at  Psychological  Society  at 
Cambridge,  425;  the  Experiment  Station  Record,  621 

Universe,  the  Sub-mechanics  of  the,  Osborne  Revnolds, 
F.R.S.,  Prof.  G.  H.  Bryan,  F.R.S.,  600 

Universities:  University  intelligence,  22,  45,  70,  03,  115, 
140,  166,  188,  211,  236,  260,  286,  310,  333,  358,  382, 
407,  429,  463,  492,  519,  544,  568,  591,  614,  638;  the 
University  in  the  Modern  State,  25,  241,  337;  the  Uni- 
versity of  London,  179,  201  ;  the  Allied  Colonial  Universi- 
ties Conference,  250 ;  University  College  Mathematical 
Society,  some  Present  Aims  and  Prospects  of  Mathe- 
matical Research,  E.  T.  Whittaker,  259 ;  Thirty  Years 
of  University  E^ducation  in  France,  Cloudeslev  Brereton, 
323;  the  Centenary  of  Heidelberg  University,  t-;:  Uni- 
versity Extension  Meeting  at  Oxford,  the  Relations 
between  Scientific  Research  and  Chemical  Industry,  Prof. 
Raphael  Meldola,  F.R.S.,  398;  the  Teaching  of  Psycho- 
logy in  the  Universities  of  the  United  States,  Dr.  C.  S: 
Myers,  at  Psychological  Society  at  Cambridge,  425  ; 
Cambridge  in  the  Old  World  and  in  the  New,  Dr.  C.  S. 
Myers,  572 

Urbain  (G.),  Bismuth  Compounds,  616 

Vaccination,  the  1901-2  Epidemic  of  Small-pox  and  the  Pro^ 

tective  Power  of  Infant,  Mrs.  Garrett  Anderson,  521) 
Vaccine,  Use  of  Chloroform  in  the  Preparation  of,  Alan  B. 

Green,    141 
Vacuum   Tubes,    Experiments    with.    Sir    D.    L.    Salomons 

Bart.,  6 
Vaillant  (P.),  Theory  of  Coloured  Indicators,  96 
Vandevelde  (Herr),  the  Auto-purification  of  Waters,  210 
Variable  Stars  :  a   Remarkable  .'Mgol  Variable,   Prof.   E.  C. 

Pickering,    42  ;    Variability    of    Nova    Geminorum,    Prof. 

E.  C.  Pickering,  89  ;  a  Provisional  Catalogue  of  Variable 

Stars,  Prof.  W.  M.  Reed  and  Miss  A.  J.  Cannon,  491 
Variation,  the  Origin  of,  Charles  S.  Myers,  224 
Varley    (W.     Mansergh),    on    the    Photo-electric    Discharge 

from  Metallic  Surfaces  in  Different  Gases,   116 
V^aschide  (N.),    Experimental    Researches   on    Dreams,    288; 

Essai   sur   la    Psycho-physiologie   des   Monstres   Humains, 

570;  the  Sense  of  Smell  in  the  Old,  639 
Vasilesco-Karpen    (N.),   on   the  Carrying  of   the  Charge   in 

Experiments  on    Electric   Convection,    24 
Vaughan  (Arthur),    the  Lowest  Beds  of  the  Lower  Lias  at 

Sedbury  Cliff,  262 
Vectors   and    Rotors,    with   Applications,    O.    Henrici,    Prof. 

George  M.  Minchin,  F.R.S.,  617 
Vegetable  Pathology  :  Annales  de  I'lnstitut  Central  Ampelo- 

logique  Royal  Hongrois,  Dr.   Istvdnffi,  317 
Veley     (V.     H.),     the     Conditions     of     Decomposition     of 

Ammonium    Nitrite,     117;     Properties    of    Strong    Nitric 

Acid,  238 
Velocities,   Four  Stars  with  Variable   Radial,   H.   M.    Reese, 

17 
Velocities,    Newly   Determined   Stellar  Radial,    Prof.    \'ogp], 

519 


Nature, 
December  \o,  i9o3_ 


Index 


xlvii 


Velocity  of  Venus,  Rotational,  V.  M.  Slipher,  631 
Ventilation  of   Factories   and  Workshops,    First   Report  of 

the   Departmental   Committee  Appointed   to   Inquire   into 

the,  34O 
Venus,  Rotational  Velocity  of,  V.  M.  Slipher,  631 
Vernon  (Dr.  H.  M.),  Ergebnisse  der  Physiologie,  3 
Verrill  (A.  E.),  the  Bermuda  Islands,  53 
Vertebraia,  the  Germinal  Layers  of  the,  A.  A.  W.  Hubrecht, 

341 
Vienna  Academy  of  Sciences,  the,  407 
Vienna,   the  Royal  University  Observatory,  580 
Vigourcux  (Em.),  Silicon  Amide  and  Imide,  240 
Viguier   (C),   Action   of   Carbon    Dio.\ide   on   the   Eggs   of 

Echinoderms,   240 
\'ila  (M.),   on  the  Presence  of  Cadaverine   in  the  Products 

of  the  Hydrolysis  of  Muscle,    120 
^  ''Hers  (A.),  Etherification  of  Sulphuric  Acid,   192 

osity  of  Pitch-like  Solids,   Method  of  Determining  the, 
rof.  F.  T.  Trouton  and  E.  S.  Andrews,  190 
V    -ion.  Limits  of  Unaided,  Heber  D.  Curtis,  256 
\  i>ion.    Phenomena    of,    C.    Welborne    Piper,    175;    Edwin 

Edser,    177 
\  isual  Purple,  J.  von  Kries,  Dr.  W.  H.  R.  Rivers,  291 
\iticulture :    Annales    de    I'lnstitut    Central    Amp^lologique 

Royal  Hongrois,  Dr.  Istvanffi,  317 
Vivisection  :   Experiments  on  Animals,   Stephen  Paget,  74  ; 

Return  of  Experiments  on  Living  Animals  During  1902, 

i8i 
\'ogel  (Prof.),  Newly  Determined  Stellar  Radial  Velocities, 

5'9 
Voigt  (Prof.  Dr.  W .),  Ihermodynamik,  547 
Volatilisation,  Loss  of  Weight  of  Musk  by,   F,   R.  Sexton, 

548 

Volcanoes  :  Etude  des  Ph6nom^nes  volcaniques,  Tremble- 
ments  de  Terre — Eruptions  volcaniques — Le  Cataclysme 
de  la  Martinique,  1902,  Frani^ois  Miron,  6;  Santa  Maria 
X'olcano  in  Guatemala  in  Active  Eruption,  12  ;  Colima 
\'olcano  in  Active  Eruption,  64 ;  Eruption  of  Soufri^re 
on  April  22,  66 ;  Analysis  of  Ash  from  Soufri^re,  Prof, 
d 'Albuquerque  and  Dr.  Longfield  Smith,  87 ;  Soufri^re 
Still  in  .Agitation,  Dr.  E.  O.  Hovey,  158  ;  xMont  Pel^e  and 
the  Tragedy  of  Martinique,  Angelo  Heilprin,  Dr.  John 
S.  F"lett,  73;  Activity  of  Mont  Pel^e,  108;  the  Ascending 
Obelisk  of  Mont  Pel^e,  Prof.  Angelo  Heilprin,  530 ; 
Bishop 'a  Circle  and  the  Eruptions  at  Martinique,  F.  A. 
Forel.  384,  396;  the  New  Bishop's  Ring,  Dr.  A.  Lawrence 
Rotch,  623  ;  an  Ancient  Lava  Plug  like  that  of  Mont 
Pel^e,  Sir  Richard  Strachey,  F.R.S.,  573  ;  Eruption  of 
Mount  Hekla,  108  ;  Flow  of  Lava  from  Mount  Vesuvius, 
July  22,  302  ;  Vesuvius  in  Eruption,  372,  394,  420,  603  ; 
Eruption  of  the  Waimangu  Geyser,  New  Zealand,  420 ; 
Subaqueous  Volcanic  Regions,  Prof.  Krebs,  588 

\'olta  (Prof.  Alessandro),  an  Unpublished  Manuscript  of 
^'olta,  552 

\oth  (H.  R.),  the  Mishongnovi  Cefemonies  of  the  Snake 
and  Antelope  Fraternities,   11 1 

Vurpas  (CI.),  Essai  sur  la  Psycho-physiologie  des  Monstres 
Humains.,   ^70 


Wadsworth  (Prof.   F.  L.  O.),   Effects  of  Absorption  on  the 

Resolving   Power   of   Spectroscopes,    376 ;    the  Allegheny 

Observatory,  398 
Wahl  (.A.),  Preparation  of  Alkyl  Nitrates  and  Nitrites,  216; 

on  the  Iscnitrosomalonic  Ethers  and  their  Conversion  into 

Mesoxalic   Ethers,  312 
Waite  (Edgar  R.),  Sympathetic  Song  in  Birds,  322 
Walker  (Alfred  O.),   Peculiar  Clouds,  416 
Walker  (George  W.),  Theory  of  Refraction  in  Gases,    167  ; 

the  Broadening  of  Spectral  Lines,  554 
Walker  (Dr.  T.  L.),  Geology  of  Kalahandi  State,   136 
Wallach  (Prof.),  Optical  Isomerism,  587 
Waller  (Dr.),  the  "  Blaze  "  Currents  in  Animal  and  \'ege- 

table   Tissues,    238 ;    Two    .Methods   for   the   Quantitative 

Estimation  of  Chloroform  Vapour  in  Air,  238 ;  Effect  of 

Light  on  Green  Leaves,  238 
Wallis  (E.  White),  Congress  of  the  Sanitary  Institute,  309 
Ward  (H.  .A.),  the  Bath  Furnace  Meteorite,'  46 
Warman  (John  W.),  the  Hvdraulic  Organ  of  the  Ancients, 

1S4 


Warren  (A.   T.),    Experimental   and  Theoretical   Course  of 

Geometry,   147 
Washington,  Forestry  in  the  State  of,  Henry  Gannett,  406 
Wassers,  Das  Gesetz  der  Translation  des,  T.  Christen,  246 
Water  :   Radio-active  Gas  from  Tap-water,  Prof.  Thomson, 
F.R.S.,  at  the  Cambridge  Philosophical  Society,  90;  the 
Danger  of   Faulty  Connections  in   Filters,   382  ;   Sanitary 
Examination  of  Water  Supplies,  Dr.  Arthur  R.  Reynolds, 
Prof.   R.  T;  Hewlett,  420 
\\'aterhouse  (G.    B.),   Influence  of  Sulphur  and  Manganese 

on  .Steel,  44 
Waterworks,    Tree   Plantations  on   the   Gathering   Grounds 

of,  66 
Watkinson  (Prof.   W.    H.),   Some  New   Features  of  Super- 
heaters, 209 
Watson  (C.  J.),  Photograph  of  Oscillatory  Electric  Spark,  56 
Watson    (Dr.),    Construction    and   Attachment   of    Galvano- 
meter Mirrors,  72 
Watson  (W.),  New  Form  of  Museum  Microscope,   142 
Watt  (D.    A.),    the   Improvement  of   Rivers,    a  Treatise  on 
the  Methods  Employed  for  Improving  Streams  for  Open 
Navigation  bv  Means  of  Locks  and  Dams,  361 
Watts    (Prof.    W.    W.,    M.A.,    M.Sc),    a    Buried    Triassic 
Landscape,    332  ;    Opening   .Address   in    Section   C   at   the 
Southport  Meeting  of  the  British  Association,  481 
Wave-lengths  of  Silicon  Lines,   Prof.   Hartmann,  306 
Ways  of  the  Six-footed,  Anna  Botsford  Comstock,  595 
Webster    (F.    .M.),    the    "  Diffusion  "    of    Insects    in    North 

.America,  136 
Webster  (Ralph  W.),  a  Laboratory  Manual  of  Physiological 

Chemistry,  594 
Wedekind  (E.),  Colloid  Zirconium,  211 
Wedekind  (Dr.),  Analogy  between  Asymmetric  Carbon  and 

Nitrogen  in  Regard  to  Optical  Rotation,  630 
Weed  (Clarence  Moores),  a  Laboratory  Guide  for  B^inners 

in  Zoology,  319 
Weed  (W.  H.),  Copper  Deposits  of  New  Jersey,   109 
Weigelt  (G.),   the  .Auto-purification  of  Waters,   210 
Weights  and  Measures  :  Comit^  international  des  Poids  et 

Mesures,  525 
Weinberg  (B.),  New  Value  for  the  Solar  Parallax,  42 
Weinberg  (R.),  the  Brain  of  Anchilophus  desmaresti,  254 
Weldon  (Prof.   W.    F.    R.,    F.R.S.),    Mendel's   Principles  of 

Heredity  in  Mice,  34 
Wells  (R.  C),  Standard  Points  on  the  Temperature  Scale, 

no 
Wells  (R.  T.),  Electrical  Problems  for  Engineering  Students, 

52 
Wertheimer    (Prof.    J.),     Higher    Technical    Education    in 

Great  Britain  and  Germany,  Dr.   F.   Rose,  274 
Wesch^  (Mr.),  Labial  and  Maxillary  Palpi  in  Diptera,  95 
West   (Prof.    G.    S.),    Fresh-water    Rhizopods,    95  ;    Scottish 

F"resh-water  Plankton,  262 
West  (W.),   Scottish   F'resh-water  Plankton,   262 
Westell      (W.      Perciyal),      Country      Rambles,      a      F"ield 

Naturalist's  and  Country  Lover's  Note  Book  for  a  Year, 

149 
Weston  Galvanic  Cell,   Behaviour  of  the,  66 
Whetham  (W.  C.  D.),  a  Treatise  on  the  Theory  of  Solution, 

Including  the  Phenomena  of  Electrolysis,  197  ;  the  Theory 

of  Electrolysis,  288 
Whetham     (Mr.),     E.xperiments    on     the     Effects    of     Low 

Temperature  on  the  Properties  and  Spectrum  of  Radium, 

611 
White  (Dr.   H.  C),  the  Chemical  and  Physical  Character- 
istics of  ^he  So-called  Mad-stone,  611 
White  (Sir  William  H.,  K.C.B.,  F.R.S.),  Elected  President 

of  Institute  of  Civil  Engineers,   12 
White    Spot    on    Saturn,    W.    F.    Denning,    229 ;    Another, 

W.   F.   Denning,   247 
White  Spots  on  Saturn,  the,  J.  Comas  Sold,  425 
Whiteaves  (Dr.  J.   F.),   Fossils  from  the  Cretaceous  Rocks 

of  Vancouver,  490 
Whitehouse  (Commander,  R.N.),  Discoveries  of  Gold  Along 

Lake  Victoria,    136 
Whittaker   (E.   T.),    Some   Present   Aims  and   Prospects  of 

Mathematical    Research,    Address    at    University    College 

Mathematical  Society,  259 
Whittles  (Mr.),    Infection  of  the  Mouth   and   Subcutaneous 

Tissues  by  a  Parasitic  Nematode  Worm,   278 
Wiglesvvorth  (J.),  St.  Kilda  and  its  Birds,  268 


xlviii 


Index 


r         Nniure, 
\_Dece»t6er  lo,  1903 


Wilde  (Dr.   Henry,   F.R.S.),   the   Resolution  of  Elementary 

Substances  into  their  Ultimates,  639  ;  Molecular  Activity 

of  Radium,  639 
Wilks  (Sir  Samuel,    Bart.,    F.R.S.),   Coleridge's  Theory  of 

Life,   102 
Willcocks  (Miss  E.   G.),   the  O.Kidising  Action  of  the  Rays 

from  Radium  Bromide,  431 
Willcocks    (Sir    William),    the    Restoration    of    the    Ancient 

Irrigation    Works    of    the    Tigris   or    the    Re-creation    of 

Chaldea  and  Egypt  Fifty  Years  Hence,  81 
Williams  (Hal),  Mechanical  Refrigeration,   174 
Williams  (Stanley  J.),  the  Red  Spot  on  Jupiter,  208 
Williams    (W.    E.),    Photographs    of    the    Paths    of    Aerial 

Gliders,  184 
Williamson    (Mr.),    Trypanosomiasis   of    Horses   ("  Surra  ") 

in  the  Philippine  Islands,  396 
Willis  (H.  G.),  Arithmetic,  31 
Wilson  (C.   T.    R.,    F.R.S.),   Atmospheric   Electricity,    102  ; 

Condensation  Nuclei,  Carl  Barus,  548  ;  on  Aluminium  as 

an  Electrical  Conductor,  634 
Wilson    (Harold    A.),    Discharge   of    Electricity    from    Hot 

Platinum,  261 
W'ilson  (Dr.  W.  E.,  F.R.S.),  Radium  and  Solar  Energy,  222 
Wimperis  (H.  E.),  a  Mirage  at  Putney,  368 
Windsor  (E.  V.),  Amateur  Collecting,  328 
Winnecke's   Periodical    Comet,    1903-4,    Ephemeris   for,    C. 

Hillebrand,  580 
Winslow  (Charles  Edward  A.),   Experiments  on  the  Effect 

of    Freezing    and    other    Low    Temperatures    upon    the 

Viability  of  the  Bacillus  of  Typhoid  Fever,  with  Consider- 
ations Regarding  Ice  as  a  Vehicle  of  Infectious  Disease, 

Wintelen  (Dr.  F.),  Die  Aluminium-Industrie,  293 

Winters   in    Relation    to    Briickner's    Cycle,    our,    Alex.    B. 

MacDowall,  600 
Wintrebert   (P.),    Influence  of  the   Nervous  System   on   the 

Ontogenesis  of  the  Limbs,  288 
Wireless  Telegraphy  :    Proposed  Wireless  Telegraphy   with 
Iceland,    14 ;    the   Power   of   the   Marconi   Wireless   Tele- 
graph Station  at  Poldhu,   Prof.   Fleming,    134  ;   Relations 
between  the  Post  Office  and  the  Marconi  Wireless  Tele- 
graph   Co.,    Austen    Chamberlain,     134;    Wireless    Tele- 
graphy,   E.    A.    N.    Pochin,     187 ;    the    Lodge-Muirhead 
System  of,   Maurice  Solomon,   247  ;  Telekine,   L.   Torres, 
360  ;  Practical  Advantages  of  Wireless  Telegraphy  at  Sea, 
372  ;    Experiments    in    Syntonic    Wireless    Telegraphy    at 
Spezia,    374 ;    Wireless    Telegraph    Experiments    by    the 
Navy    Department  of   the    United    States,    395  ;    Wireless 
Telegraphy  in  Mid-Atlantic,  Mr.  Marconi,  420 ;  the  Berlin 
Conference   on    Wireless    Telegraphy,    Maurice    Solomon, 
437  ;   System  for  Warning  Ships  at  Sea  of  Approaching 
Danger,  C.  E.  Kelway,  604 
Wirtz  (C.  W.),  Diameter  of  Neptune,  580 
Wolf  (Prof.),  Reported  Discovery  of  a  Nova,  580 
Wood,  the  Principal  Species  of,  "C.  H.  Snow,  268 
Woodhead     (Prof.     G.     Sims),     Technical     Mycology  :     the 
Utilisation   of    Micro-organisms   in    the   Arts   and    Manu- 
factures,  Dr.  Lafar,  290 
Woodhouse  (W.  B.),  on  Protective  Devices  for  High  Tension 

Electrical  Systems,  634 
Woodward    (H.    B.,    F.R.S.),    Disturbances    in    the    Chalk 

near  Royston,  142 
Woodward  (Dr.  Smith),  on  Some  Fragments  of  Bone  from 

Brazil,  613 
Woolnough    (W.    G.),    General    Geology   of    Fiji,    384;    the 

Petrology  of  Fiji,  520 
Worthington  (Prof.   A.    M.,    F.R.S.),    Psychophysical   Inter- 
action, 33 
Wright  (Dr.  A.  E.),  Phenomenon  of  Agglutination,  86 
Wright  (Dr.   Hamilton),  Pathology  of  Beri-beri,  41 


Wright  (Wilbur),  Latest  Experiments  in  Aerial  Gliding,  552 
Wright  (Mr.),  on  a  Raised  Beach  in  County  Cork,  612 
Wright  (Dr.  Wm.),  on  the  Skulls  from  Round  Barrows  in 
East  Yorkshire,  635 

Yarrow  (A.  F.),  the  Comparative  Merits  of  Drilling  and 
Punching  in  Steel  for  Shipbuilding,  187;  Some  New 
Features  of  Superheaters,  209  . 

Yates  (J.),  Cholesterol,    117 


Zengelis  (Mr.),  Production  of  Very  High  Temperatures  by 
Burning  Aluminium  in  Oxygen  and  other  Gases,  211 

Zenith  Telescope  Results,  C.   L.   Doolittle,  234 

Ziehen  (Prof.),  Impressions  and  Sensations  and  their  Con- 
nection with  the  Surface  of  the  Brain,  586 

Zietzschmann  (E.  H.),  Morphology  and  Histology  of  tho 
Scent-glands  of  Deer,  67 

Zones  in  the  Chalk,  Dr.  A.  W.  Rowe,  428    . 

Zoology  :  Dr.  P.  Chalmers  Mitchell  Elected  Secretary  of 
the  Zoological  Society,  12;  Death  of  C.  Bartlett,  12; 
Obituary  Notice  of,  40 ;  Meeting  of  the  Challenger 
Society,  14;  Additions  to  the  Zoological  Gardens,  16,  42, 
68,  89,  m,  137,  162,  183,  207,  233,  255,  279,  305,  330, 
350.  353.  376,  397.  424.  461.  491.  519.  531,  554.  580, 
606,  630  ;  the  Manatee  Added  to  the  Zoological  Gardens, 
350 ;  Prof>osed  Extension  of  National  Zoological  Park, 
Dr.  S.  P.  Langley,  21  ;  on  the  Position  of  the  Legs  of 
Birds  in  Flight,  Captain  Barrett-Hamilton,  41  ;  Mapping 
of  the  World  into  Zoological  Regions,  R.  I.  Pocock,  47  ; 
Zoological  Society,  47,  141,  191,  238;  Zoology  for  Artists, 
Ed.  Cuyer,  50  ;  the  Tanganyika  Problem  :  an  Account  of 
the  Researches  Undertaken  Concerning  the  Existence  oi  ^ 
Marine  Animals  in  Central  Africa,  J.  E.  S.  Moore,  56; 
Specimen  of  Male  Gravy's  Zebra  for  the  Zoological 
Gardens,  86  ;  Mammoth  Discovered  in  lakousk,  L.  Elbee, 
109  ;  the  New  Mammoth  at  St.  Petersburg,  297  ;  Remark- 
able Addition  to  the  List  of  British  Mammals  of  Boreal 
Type,  Captain  G.  E.  H.  Barrett-Hamilton,  119;  on  the 
Evolution  of  the  Australian  Marsupialia,  B.  Arthur 
Bensley,  119;  the  Cachalot  in  the  Shetland  Seas,  Sir 
William  Turner,  K.C.B.,  143  ;  Beluga  {Delphinaplcriis 
leucas)  Captured  at  the  Mouth  of  the  Tyne,  A.  ^leek, 
158  ;  Use  of  the  Bilobed  Canine  Tooth  of  the  Giraffe,  Mr. 
Lydekker,  255 ;  Rudimentary  Horns  in  Horses,  Dr. 
G.  W.  Eustace,  262  ;  the  Wild  Horse  {Equus  przewalskii, 
Poliakoff),  Prof.  J.  C.  Ewart,  F.R.S.,  271  ;  Zoologische 
Wandtafeln,  319;  a  Laboratory  Guide  for  Beginners  in 
Zoology,  Clarence  Moores  Weed  and  Ralph  Wallace 
Grossman,  319;  the  Coloration  of  the  Quaggas,  R.  I. 
Pocock,  356 ;  the  Genesis  of  the  Kangaroo,  375  ;  the 
Seventh  Annual  Report  of  the  New  York  Zoological 
Society,  376;  Distinction  in  the  Development.,' of  the 
Radula  between  Cephalopods  and  Gastropods,  H. 
Schnabel,  461  ;  Normally  Unequal  Growth  as  a  Possible 
Cause  of  Death,  Frank  E.  Beddard,  F.R.S.,  497;  the 
Development  of  Polypterus,  J.  S.  Budgett,  516,-  Some 
Overlooked  Zoological  Generic  Names,  Prof.  T.  D.  A. 
Cockerell,  526  ;  the  Okapi,  Herr  Hesse,  605  ;  a  Treatise 
on  Zoology,  Part  i..  Introduction  and  Protozoa,  618  ;  the 
Nervous  .System  of  Anodonta  cygnea,  Oswald  H.  Latter, 
623  ;  the  Zoological  Garden  at  Bale,  629 

Zoo-geography  :  Reptiles  and  Amphibians  from  Arkansas 
and  Texas,  their  Bearing  on  Previous  Views  as  to  the 
Zoo-geographical  Zones,  W.  Stone,  605 

Zybikoff  (M.),  a  Year's  Residence  in  Lhassa,  205 

Zymasegarung  Untersuchungen  iiber  den  Inhalt  der 
Hefezellen  und  die  biologische  Seite  des  Garungsproblems. 
Die,  Eduard  Buchner,  Hans  Buchner  and  Martin  Hahn, 
Dr.  Arthur  Croft  Hill,  385 


R.   ClAT   AND  SONS,   LTD.,    BREAD   ST.    aiLt,    E.G.,   AND   BCNQAI,    SUFFOIK. 


A    WEEKLY    ILLUSTRATED    JOURNAL   OF    SCIENCE. 


"  To  the  solid  ground 
Nature  trusts  the  mind  which  builds  for  aye."- 


-WORDSWORTH. 


THURSDAY,     MAY     7,     1903. 


THE    SCIENCE    OF  FLOUR    MILLING. 
Le  Froment  et  sa  Mouture.     Par  Girard  et  Lindet. 
Pp.      vii  +  355.       (Paris:      Gauthler-Villars,      1903.) 
Price  12  francs. 

AT  the  time  of  the  regretted  death  of  Prof.  Girard 
in  1898,  much  valuable  scientific  work  had  been 
accomplished  by  him,  and  the  results  given  to  the 
world  at  large.  But  as  must  almost  of  necessity  occur 
when  a  busy  man  is  taken  away  from  his  labours, 
there  also  remained  some  fasks  commenced  but  not 
completed.  Among  these  was  a  projected  treatise  on 
flour  milling,  of  which,  however.  Prof.  Girard  left 
but  the  general  plan  and  the  unfinished  manuscript 
of  three  chapters.  These  materials  were  entrusted  to 
M.  Lindet,  who  has  completed  the  work  and  supplied 
the  book  now  before  us.  The  author  refers  to  the  fact 
that  neither  himself  nor  Prof.  Girard  was  a  practical 
miller,  but  that  the  book  is  the  production  of  two  men 
of  science.  An  examination  of  its  pages  shows  it  to 
possess  those  merits  which  might  be  expected  from 
the  previous  training  of  the  writers,  and  also,  it  must 
be  added,  the  defects  which  spring  from  the  same 
cause. 

The  first  chapter  deals  with  the  production  of  wheat 
in  various  French  districts,  and  also  with  the  corn 
markets  of  Paris  and  the  provinces.  In  passing,  it 
may  be  noted  that  in  France,  as  well  as  in  England, 
they  still  suffer  from  the  adoption  of  different  systems 
of  weights  and  measures  in  the  different  local  corn 
markets.  Thus,  Troyes  has  a  unit  of  121  kilos.,  while 
La  Charente  adopts  80  kilos,  as  its  measure,  and  other 
markets  intermediate  quantities.  The  authors  deplore 
the  grave  inconveniences  which  result  from  such  differ- 
ences, and  look  forward  to  a  time  when  the  metric 
quintal  shall  have  been  universally  adopted.  With 
France  as  the  birthplace  of  the  metric  system,  there 
is  perhaps  some  consolation  in  knowing  that  England 
is  not  the  only  country  ruled  in  this  matter  by  old- 
fashioned  conservatism. 

Following  on  this  introduction,  the  writers  next  deal 

NO.   1749,  VOL.  68] 


with  the  chemical  composition  and  the  alimentary 
value  of  the  different  parts  of  the  wheat  grain.  The 
botanical  distinctions  between  such  parts  and  their 
separation  and  estimation  are  first  described,  tables 
being  given  which  show  the  relative  percentages  of 
envelopes,  germ,  and  flour-producing  kernel  or  endo- 
sperm in  leading  types  of  wheat.  The  histology, 
chemical  composition,  and  analysis  of  the  envelope  are 
next  given,  particular  attention  being  devoted  to  the 
constitution  of  cerealin  and  the  important  r6le  it  plays 
in  the  process  of  panification.  In  pursuit  of  this  line 
of  investigation,  the  influence  of  the  various  parts  of 
the  envelope  on  those  milling  products  which  ultim- 
ately find  their  way  into  the  flour  is  examined  very 
minutely.  The  experiments  and  arguments  of  M^ge- 
Mouri^s  are  followed  closely,  and  his  conclusions  to 
the  effect  that  the  inclusion  of  branny  particles  in 
flour  results  in  the  production  of  dark-coloured  and 
inferior  bread  are  fully  endorsed.  The  authors 
further  conclude  that  the  branny  matters  of  wheat  are 
devoid  of  utility  for  purposes  of  human  alimentation, 
being  practically  undigested  by  man,  and  consequently 
inassimilable.  An  experiment  made  by  Prof.  Girard 
on  himself  is  described  at  full  length.  Being  in  per- 
fect health,  and  with  the  digestive  faculties  in  excel- 
lent condition,  he  ate  a  quantity  of  pure  wheat  grain 
envelopes,  and  analysed  these  when  excreted  at  the 
close  of  the  process  of  digestion.  The  necessary  pre- 
cautions were  of  course  taken  to  ensure  exact  and 
trustworthy  data  being  obtained,  and  Prof.  Girard 's  re- 
sults show  that  there  is  practically  no  assimilation  of 
proteid  bodies  from  the  bran  ingested.  There  is,  how- 
ever, a  certain  absorption  of  mineral  substances,  but 
this  only  amounts  to  4  grams  of  mineral  matter  per 
kilogram  of  bread  made  from  "  entire  flour  "  (whole- 
meal). Having  regard  to  the  quantity  and  variety  of 
such  matter  in  a  modern  diet,  the  authors  regard  the 
gain  of  these  4  grams  as  having  no  serious  import- 
ance, and,  in  a  word,  condemn  entirely  and  without 
reserve  the  inclusion  of  the  bran  in  wheaten  flour. 

In  studying  the  action  of  the  germ,  the  authors  are 
impressed  with  the  fact  that  fresh  germ  has  a  charac- 
teristic odour  and  flavour  which  are  in  themselves 
pleasant.     They  further  recognise  that  germ  contains 

B 


NATURE 


[May  7,  1903 


a  large  percentage  of  proteid  and  oily  matter,  in  con- 
sequence of  which  the  nutritive  value  is  high.     But 
the  proteid  matter  contains  an  active  ferment,  and  the 
oil  is  of  a  highly  oxidisable  nature,  readily  becoming 
rancid.       For  these  reasons  they  do  not   hesitate  to 
assert  that  the  germ,  as  well  as  the  bran,  should  be 
rejected  in  the  act  of  making  f^our,   the  farinaceous 
endosperm   being   the   only   component   of   the   wheat 
grain  which  ought  to  be  used  as  human  food.     It  is 
interesting  to  note  that  the  problem  of  the  utilisation 
of  germ  has  been  much  more  successfully  attacked  in 
England   than  on   the  Continent.     The   credit  is  due  i 
to  an  English  miller  of  discovering  the  fact  that  on  ! 
subjecting  germ  to  the  action  of  slightly  superheated  | 
steam  the  diastasic    properties  of  the  proteids  are  de- 
stroyed, while  the  oil  is  so  fixed  as  to  lose  its  natural 
tendency  to  rancidity.       Germ  treated  in  this  manner  j 
and  then  mixed  with  ordinary  white  flour    produces  a 
bread  of  pleasant  flavour  and  of  high  nutritive  value. 

The  endosperm  or  kernel  of  wheat  consists  princi- 
pally of  proteid  matters,  starch,  and  products  of  starch 
hydrolysis.  Of  these  substances  the  proteid  matter  has 
received  the  closest  attention,  the  whole  general 
character  of  each  particular  variety  of  wheat,  and  o. 
its  resultant  flour,  being  governed  by  the  quantity  and 
quality  of  the  proteid  bodies  contained.  It  has  been 
recognised  from  the  time  of  Liebig  to  the  present  that 
the  proteid  matter  of  wheat  is  not  a  single  compound, 
but  a  mixture  of  several  distinct  substances.  Among 
these  are  small  quantities  of  bodies  soluble  in  water 
or  dilute  saHne  solutions  respectively  (albumins  and 
globulins) ;  but  the  greater  portion  is  not  soluble  in 
either  of  these  reagents,  but  forms  with  water  a  tough 
india-rubber-like  body,  to  which  the  name  of  gluten 
has  been  given.  This  substance  is  readily  prepared  by 
carefully  kneading  and  washing  in  a  stream  of  water 
a  piece  of  dough  from  wheaten  flour.  The  starch  and 
soluble  matters  are  thus  eliminated,  and  the  gluten 
remains  behind.  The  body  thus  obtained,  known  as 
wet  gluten,  contains  about  two-thirds  of  its  weight  of 
water,  the  remainder  being  approximately  pure  proteid. 
By  appropriate  means,  gluten  is  capable  of  being 
separated  into  two,  and  possibly  three,  different  sub- 
stances, possessing  distinct  and  characteristic  chemical 
and  physical  properties. 

The  most  exhaustive  examination  of  these  bodies 
has  been  made  by  Osborne  and  Voorhees,  who  in 
1893  communicated  their  results  to  the  American 
Chemical  Journal.  Following  much  the  same  lines 
of  research  as  other  investigators,  they  treated  gluten 
and  flour  itself  respectively  with  dilute  alcohol  (0-90 
specific  gravity).  This  reagent  dissolves  a  consider- 
able quantity  of  proteid  matter  from  both  the  previously 
washed  gluten  and  the  untreated  flour,  the  proteid 
being  the  same  in  both  instances.  (Albumin  and 
globulin  are  insoluble  in  dilute  alcohol.)  To  this  pro- 
teid the  name  of  gliadin  has  been  given.  Of  gluten, 
the  insoluble  portion  has  been  called  glutenin. 
Osborne  and  Voorhees  describe  gliadin  as  being,  when 
obtained  in  the  dry  state  from  a  solution  in  weak 
alcohol  or  water,  an  amorphous  transparent  substance 
closely  resembling  pure  gelatin  in  appearance.  It  is 
slightly  soluble  in  distilled  water,  but  is  instantly  pre- 
NO.    1749,  VOL.  68] 


cipitated  by  a  trace  of  common  salt.  Gliadin  is 
very  soluble  in  dilute  alcohol  (70  to  75  per 
cent.).  As  may  be  assumed  from  its  mode  of  prepara- 
tion, glutenin  is  insoluble  in  such  alcohol,  and  also 
in  water  and  dilute  saline  solutions.  When  freshly 
precipitated  and  hydrated,  glutenin  is  soluble  in  o-i 
per  cent,  potash  solution,  and  also  in  the  slightest 
excess  of  sodium  or  potassium  carbonate  solution. 
Osborne  and  Voorhees  made  analyses  of  spring  and 
winter  American  wheat  flours  respectively,  each  of 
which  is  a  perfect  flour  of  its  kind,  and  found  them  to 
yield  gliadin  and  glutenin  in  the  following  propor- 
tions : — 

Spring  flour.  Winter  flour. 

(Hiadin      45'8         ...         4^'4 

Glutenin 54*2         ...         51 '6 


These  quantities  are  roughly,  it  will  be  noticed,  half 
and    half,    whereas    M.    Fleurent,    whose    results    are 
adopted  by  MM.   Girard  and  Lindet,   states  that  the 
ideal  composition  of  gluten  is  75  parts  of  gliadin  to 
25  parts  of  glutenin.       With  such  a  composition  the 
resultant  bread  will  be  well-risen  and  easy  of  diges- 
tion ;  but  if  the  proportion  of  gliadin   is  higher,   the 
bread  will  rise  well  during  fermentation,  but  will  fall    j 
in    the    oven,    thus    producing    a    heavy    loaf    as    the   j 
result  of  the  liquefaction   of  gliadin   in  the  presence    .' 
of  water,   under  the   influence   of  heat.       But   if   the 
glutenin  be  in  excess,  the  dough  will  be  comparatively 
inelastic,  and  will  not  rise  in  baking.  J 

There  is  evidently  a  great  discrepancy  between  the! 
results  obtained  by  Osborne  and  Voorhees  and  those 
given  in  the  work  before  us.  It  is  to  be  regretted 
that  MM.  Girard  and  Lindet  do  not  point  out  more 
clearly  that  in  determining  the  percentage  of  gliadin 
M.  Fleurent  has  made  a  radical  departure  from  the 
method  of  Osborne  and  Voorhees.  Instead  of  using 
pure  dilute  alcohol  as  a  solvent,  M.  Fleurent  employs 
70  per  cent,  alcohol  containing  3  parts  of  caustic 
potash  per  1000.  If,  as  stated  by  Osborne  and 
Voorhees,  glutenin  is  soluble  in  o-i  per  cent,  potash 
solution,  it  is  evident  that  it  is  readily  soluble  in  a 
solution  of  the  strength  employed  by  M.  Fleurent. 
After  thus  dissolving  in  dilute  alcoholic  potash  solu- 
tion, M.  Fleurent  passes  carbon  dioxide  gas  to  satura- 
tion ;  but  although  potassium  carbonate  is  insoluble  ir> 
absolute  alcohol,  it  is  soluble  in  alcohol  of  70  per  cent., 
and  so  one  has  at  the  close  of  the  experiment,  not  a 
solution  of  gliadin  in  dilute  alcohol,  but  a  solution  of 
gliadin  and  a  portion  of  the  glutenin  in  a  dilute  alcohol- 
and- water  solution  of  potassium  carbonate.  It  is  in 
consequence  of  this  difference  in  their  respective 
methods  that  the  proportions  of  gliadin  and  glutenin 
found  by  these  investigators  differ  so  markedly  from 
each  other.  No  reflection  whatever  is  cast  upon  the 
method  of  M.  Fleurent  as  a  means  of  judging  the 
quality  of  a  sample  of  flour,  but  it  is  unfortunate  that 
the  separation  thus  obtained  is  throughout  spoken  of 
by  MM.  Girard  and  Lindet  as  being  one  of  gluten 
into  gliadin  and  glutenin. 

The  examination  of  the  more  purely  chemical  part 
of  this  book  has  occupied  space  to  the  exclusion  of 
the  other  subject-matter  of  the  book.     In  later  chapters 


May  7,  1903) 


NATURE 


le  contained  an  interesting  historical  rdsumd  of  the  i 
divelopment  of  milling  processes,  which  in  turn  is  j 
loUowed  by  a  detailed  description  of  wheat-storing 
buildings,  silos,  elevators  and  the  like.  The  whole 
process  of  wheat  cleaning,  both  by  dry  and  wet 
methods,  is  described.  In  the  next  place,  there  is  an 
account  of  the  reduction  of  grain  to  flour,  both  by  the 
old  mill-stone  process  and  the  more  modern  one  of 
.gradual  reduction  by  means  of  roller  mills.  The  plan- 
-ittpr  and  other  methods  of  separating  flour  from  bran 
iiid  germ  next  occupy  attention.  Having  thus  traced 
the  whole  operation  from  the  raw  grain  to  the  finished 
tlour,  the  authors  devote  a  concluding  chapter  to  flour 
analysis,  modes  of  preservation,  and  a  description  of 
the  channels  through  which,  as  a  matter  of  commerce, 
it  reaches  the  consumer.  Of  particular  interest  in 
this  connection  is  the  description  of  the  "  Twelve 
Marks  "  Market  of  Paris,  and  its  mode  of  classifying 
and  valuing  flour  according  to  a  carefully  selected 
standard  of  quality. 

That  M.  Girard  did  not  live  to  see  the  completion  of 
his  work  is  a  matter  sincerely  to  be  regretted,  but  Al. 
Lindet  is  to  be  congratulated  on  having  produced, 
from  the  materials  placed  at  his  disposal  and  his  own 
researches,  a  work  of  the  keenest  interest  to  chemists, 
and  one  that  should  prove  of  great  value  to  the  milling 
industry.  William   Jago. 


PHYSIOLOGICAL   RESULTS. 
Ergehnisse    der    Physiologic.     Erster    Jahrgang,     II. 

Abteilung.       Biophysik     und     Psychophysik.       Pp. 

xviii  +  926.       (Wiesbaden  :     Bergmann.)       Price    25 

marks. 
T  N  the  present  day,  when  the  man  of  science  is  be- 
J-  coming  more  and  more  overwhelmed  by  the  ever- 
increasing  flood  of  literature,  any  methods  which  can 
assist  him  in  some  degree  to  surmount  the  flood  may 
cordially  be  welcomed.  Year-books  and  Central- 
blatter  are  useful  in  affording  abstracts  of  current 
literature,  but  such  abstracts,  necessarily  disconnected, 
are  apt  to  engender  disconnection  and  incompleteness 
of  thought  in  their  readers.  Moreover,  mixed  frag- 
ments of  literature  are  exceedingly  difficult  to  assimi- 
late, in  comparison  with  connected  and  critical  surveys 
extending  over  a  definite  range  of  some  stated  subject. 
We  must  therefore  express  our  warm  approval  at  the 
publication  of  the  first  volumes  of  this  new  physio- 
logical annual.  As  the  name  might  imply,  this 
"  Ergebnisse  der  Physiologie  "  is  comparable  in 
character  to  the  well-known  "  Ergebnisse  der  Anatomie 
und  Entwickelungsgeschichte,"  which  has  proved  of 
great  service  to  zoologists,  and  to  the  no  less  valuable 
"  Ergebnisse  der  allgemeinen  Pathologic."  In  the 
words  of  the  editors  (L.  Asher  and  K.  Spiro),  the 
present  "  Ergebnisse  "  will  consist  of  original  and 
critical  essays  upon  various  subjects  or  special  points 
in  physiology,  which  as  the  result  of  fresh  research 
have  acquired  an  especial  interest.  As  the  "  Ergeb- 
nisse "  will  appear  annually,  they  hope  that  in  course 
of  time  as  far  as  possible  every  branch  of  the  science 
will  receive  its  due  attention. 

NO.   1749,  VOL    (58] 


With  this  commendation,  we  may  perhaps  be  per- 
mitted to  offer  some  little  criticism  as  to  the  range  of 
subjects  which  the  editors  propose  to  include  within 
their  jurisdiction.  Dealing  only  with  what  they  term 
"Biophysik"  and  "Psychophysik,"  with  which  the 
volume  under  review  is  alone  concerned  (and  which 
represent  only  half  the  complete  annual),  it  appears 
that  in  addition  to  purely  physiological  matters,  the 
editors  intend  to  include  essays  covering  a  wide  range 
of  general  physiologv.  The  physiology  of  protoplasm 
is,  of  course,  quite  rightly  included,  but  it  is  distinctly 
open  to  question  whether  biological  problems  such  as 
inheritance  and  adaptation  had  not  better  be  omitted. 
The  present  volume  of  "  Ergebnisse,"  for  instance,  in- 
cludes a  very  long  article  on  Regeneration,  although 
this  subject  is  dealt  with  regularly  every  year  in  the 
aforementioned  "  Ergebnisse  der  Anatomie."  Again,, 
the  editors  intend  to  include  articles  on  physiological 
psychology  {e.g.  simple  psychical  processes,  reaction 
time,  sleep,  hypnotism).  All  these  extraneous  subjects 
go  to  swell  the  size  of  the  volumes,  and  render  them 
unwieldy.  Thus  this  first  year's  issue  runs  to  two 
volumes  of  about  900  pages  each,  or  double  the  bulk 
of  the  anatomical  "  Ergebnisse,"  which  in  its  earlier 
numbers  much  more  reasonably  confined  itself  to  a 
single  volume  of  about  700  pages.  There  must  be 
many  a  working  physiologist  who  would  gladly  sub- 
scribe to  a  volume  of  this  character,  but  who  would 
be  deterred  by  the  bulkiness  and  expense  of  the  present 
issue.  Moreover,  it  is  difficult  to  see  how  the  multi- 
plication of  articles  in  the  present  "  Ergebnisse  "  can 
be  kept  up  in  the  future,  unless  special  ooints  be  dealt 
with  in  wholly  unnecessary  detail.  So  great  is  the 
total  amount  of  ground  covered  that  it  almost  seems 
as  if  one  or  two  more  years'  issues  would  include 
the  whole  range  of  physiology.  Subsequent  essayists 
would  accordingly  have  to  rely  almost  entirely  on  new 
work,  or  their  articles  would  practically  resolve  them- 
selves into  year-book  abstracts.  It  is  to  be  hoped,, 
therefore,  that  the  editors  may  see  fit  in  future  years 
to  curtail  the  size  of  their  volumes.  This  should  be 
done,  not  only  by  diminishing  the  number  of  articles,, 
but  by  diminishing  their  length.  Many  of  the  essays 
in  the  present  volume,  as,  for  instance,  those  of  Prof. 
Tigerstedt  on  intracardial  pressure,  of  Prof.  Starling 
on  the  movements  and  innervation  of  the  alimentary 
canal,  and  of  Prof.  Hensen  on  the  physiology  of 
hearing,  are  of  a  moderate  and  most  convenient 
length ;  but  others,  such  as  those  of  C.  v.  Monakow 
on  cortical  localisation  (132  pages),  of  A.  Tschermak 
on  adaptation  of  the  eye  to  light,  and  the  function 
of  the  rods  and  cones  (106  pages),  and  of  F.  B. 
Hofmann  on  vision  as  affected  by  strabismus  (46 
pages),  must  be  regarded  as  unnecessarily  detailed, 
admirable  as  they  may  be  in  themselves.  On  the  other 
hand,  one  or  two  articles  err  on  the  side  of  brevity, 
especially  that  of  H.  Boruttau  on  the  innervation  of 
respiration  (6  pages),  and  to  a  less  extent  that  of 
H.  Meyer  on  nerve  and  muscle  poisons  (15  pages). 

Another  matter  deserving  of  criticism  is  one  which 
in  future  issues  will  doubtless  to  some  extent  be  recti- 
fied. It  concerns  the  lack  of  uniformity  in  the  treat- 
ment of  their  subjects  observed  by  the  various  essayists. 


NA  TURE 


[May  7,  1903 


This  is  especially  noticeable  as  regards  the  biblio- 
graphy. Many  of  the  essayists  hit  a  happy  mean,  but 
H.  Przibram  actually  gives  31  pages  of  references  in 
his  77-page  article  on  regeneration,  whilst  v,  Mona- 
kow  gives  846  distinct  references,  occupying  27  pages. 
Prof.  Biedermann  sins  in  the  opposite  direction,  and 
in  his  otherwise  comprehensive  and  instructive  article 
on  electrophysiology,  sometimes  mentions  authors 
without  giving  any  clue  to  their  papers.  Again, 
several  of  the  articles  are  well  illustrated  (especially 
V.  Monakow's  important  article  on  cortical  localisa- 
tion, which  has  eight  plates),  and  it  would  be  well  if 
this  most  useful  feature  could  be  extended  to  certain 
other  of  the  articles,  though  doubtless  the  question  of 
expense  comes  in  here. 

In  the  limits  of  a  short  notice  like  the  present  one,  it 
is  impossible  even  to  mention  the  titles  of  all  the  essays, 
but  reference  may  be  permitted  to  a  few,  over  and 
above  those  already  cited.  P.  Jensen  gives  a  useful 
description  of  protoplasmic  movement,  and  the  effects 
of  external  conditions  upon  it,  whilst  J.  von  Uexkiill 
writes  a  philosophical  essay  on  the  psychology  of 
the  lower  animals.  O.  Langendorff  enters  very 
thoroughly  into  the  properties  of  cardiac  muscle,  and 
discusses  the  nature  of  heart  contraction,  whether 
nervous  or  myogenic.  L.  Asher  treats  of  certain 
aspects  of  the  vaso-motor  system,  and  R.  du  Bois- 
Reymond  deals  fully  with  the  mechanics  of  respira- 
tion. H.  E.  Hering  writes  at  some  length  on  the 
central  nervous  paralysis  of  skeletal  muscles  (e.g. 
reflex  inhibition,  antagonistic  muscles,  decerebrate 
rigidity),  whilst  P.  Griitzner  treats  of  the  voice  and 
speech,  and  H.  Zwaardemaker  of  smell. 

Finally,  a  word  of  praise  must  be  accorded  to  the 
admirable  manner  in  which  the  volume  is  printed. 
The  large  and  well  interspaced  type  renders  reading 
a  pleasure.  Also  printer's  errors  are  remarkably  in- 
frequent. H.  M.  Vernon, 


PHYSICAL    CHEMISTRY    AND     BIOLOGY. 

Physikalische  Chemie  der  Zelle  und  der  Gewebe.  Von 
Dr.  Rudolf  Hober,  Privatdocent  der  Physiologie  an 
der  Universitat  Zurich.  Pp.  xii  +  344.  (Leipzig  : 
W.  Engelmann.)     Price  9s.  net. 

THE  keynote  to  this  interesting  volume  is  found  in 
the  beautiful  quotation  from  von  Humboldt  with 
which  the  author  introduces  his  preface. 

"  Es  ist  die  Sitte  derer,  die  gerne  andere  auf  den 
Gipfel  der  Berge  fiihren  mochten,  dass  sie  den  Mit- 
reisenden  den  Weg  gebahnter  und  anmutiger  schildern, 
als  man  ihn  finden  wird,  und  dass  sie  die  Aussicht  von 
den  Bergen  riihmen,  auch  wenn  sie  ahnen,  dass  ganze 
Telle  der  Gegend  in  Nebel  verhiillt  bleiben  werden. 
Sie  wissen,  dass  auch  in  dieser  Verhiillung  ein  geheim- 
nissvoUer  Zauber  liegt,  dass  eine  duftige  Feme  den 
Eindruck  des  Sinnlich-Unendlichen  hervorruft,  ein 
Bild,  dass  im  Geist  und  in  den  Gefiihlen  sich  ernst  und 
ahnungsvoU  spiegelt." 

The  author  proves  himself  in  the  subsequent  pages 
of  the  volume  just  such  an  inspiring  guide  as  this,  and 
points  out  the  varied  prospects  from  many  points  of 
view  in  his  different  chapters. 
NO     1749,  VOL.  68] 


The  book  is  interestingly  written  throughout,  and 
although  space  makes  it  impossible  to  mention  all 
recent  work  in  the  applications  of  the  new  advance- 
ments of  physical  chemistry  to  biology,  the  work  is 
thoroughly  up  to  date  in  most  important  directions  of 
this  extensive  field  of  research. 

The  author  states  in  his  preface  that  the  book  is 
intended  as  a  first  review  of  the  subject  for  those  who 
may  subsequently  study  in  larger  text-books,  and  be 
stimulated  thereby  to  aid  in  its  development;  but,  in 
the  opinion  of  the  reviewer,  the  book  will  be  found 
most  interesting  to  those  who  already  possess  a  con- 
siderable acquaintance  with  physical  chemistry,  and 
desire  a  comprehensive  and  suggestive  review  of  its 
relationship  to  biology  and  physiology. 

Parts  of  the  subject,  such,  for  example,  as  the  de- 
velopment of  the  ionic  theory,  and  equilibrium  in  solu- 
tion, are  from  the  size  of  the  book  presented  in  such 
concise  form  as  to  make  anything  but  easy  reading 
for  a  beginner  at  the  subject;  while  others,  such  as 
the  permeability  of  the  cell  membrane,  the  physical 
theory  of  the  action  of  anaesthetics,  absorption,  secre- 
tion and  lymph  formation,  form  attractive  reading,  and 
demand  little  special  previous  knowledge  of  the  subject. 

The  physical  chemist  owes  to  the  biologist  the  earliest 
experimental  work  upon  osmotic  pressure  and  its  rela- 
tionship to  molecular  weight.  It  was  the  study  of 
osmosis  and  osmotic  pressure  by  Pfeffer  and  Traube 
on  account  of  its  relationship  to  cell  life  which  chiefly 
led  to  the  conception  that  substances  in  solution  behave 
in  certain  respects  like  gases,  and  this  formed  the 
starting  point  for  the  physical  chemistry  of  solutions. 

For  this  early  service  biologists  are  now  being  re- 
paid by  the  great  opportunities  which  increased  know- 
ledge of  physical  chemistry  is  giving  in  the  prosecution 
of  the  study  of  the  chemical  and  physical  processes 
taking  place  in  the  cell. 

In  this  development  of  biology  based  on  physical 
chemistry,  the  work  is  not  being  done  solely  by  physical 
chemists,  on  the  one  hand,  or  by  biologists  on  the 
other,  but  important  contributions  have  been  and  are 
being  made  to  the  common  store  by  both  biologists 
and  physical  chemists.  A  perusal  of  the  book  before 
us  demonstrates  most  clearly  this  mutual  relationship 
between  physical  chemistry  and  biology,  for  in  the 
names  of  authors  one  finds  those  both  of  important 
biologists  and  physical  chemists. 

It  is  along  this  line  of  physical  chemistry,  so  far 
as  one  can  foresee,  that  the  most  important  and  rapid 
growth  in  biology  will  take  place  in  the  near  future, 
and  hence  it  is  most  important  for  either  following  or 
taking  a  share  in  these  developments  that  every  bio- 
logist should  also  be  acquainted  with  recent  progress 
in  physical  chemistry.  Certain  portions  of  the  book 
may  specially  be  recommended  to  those  who  desire  in 
a  short  space  to  learn  something  of  the  close  practical 
relationship  of  physical  chemistry  to  biology  and  also 
to  medicine,  such  as  that  on  the  solubility  of  uric 
acid,  urates,  and  the  purin  bodies,  and  on  the  action  of 
indicators,  pp.  88  to  loi ;  the  permeability  of  the  cell- 
membrane,  especially  that  portion  dealing  with  the 
action  of  anaesthetics,  pp.  loi  to  134;  action  of  ions 
upon  cells,  pp.  134  to  146,  and  171  to  184;  methods  of 


MaV 


'  V03  I 


NA  TURE 


i\.-,ico-cli(inu;il   analysis,  pp.   206  to  251;  and  lastly, 
If  most  interesting  account  given  on  pp.  272  to  315 
t   the  physical  chemistry  of  ferment  action,   and  of 
Bredig's  recent  discovery  of  inorganic  ferments. 

The  whole  volume  well  deserves  careful  reading, 
and  it  is  to  be  hoped  that  it  will  find  a  wide  circle 
of  readers  amongst  workers  in  all  divisions  of  the  very 
romprehensive  subject  of  biology. 

Benjamin  Moore. 


OUR    BOOK    SHELF. 

Contribution    a    V Etude  ^du    Mode    de    Production    de 

V Electricity  dans  les  Etres  vivants.     Par  M.  la  Dr. 

Louis  Querton,      Pp.   180.       (Bruxelles :   Lamartin, 

1902.) 
This  contribution  to  the  existing  literature  upon 
the  subject  of  vital  electromotive  phenomena  con- 
tains some  new  researches  which  support  the  view 
advocated  by  the  author  that  the  electrical  changes  in 
living  tissues  are  caused  by  definite  chemical 
processes.  The  view  is  not  a  new  one,  and  its 
advocacy  in  the  present  publication  appears  to  have 
been  called  forth  by  the  attitude  taken  by  Mendelsohn 
in  his  article  upon  the  subject  in  the  "  Dictionnaire  de 
Physiologie,"  edited  bv  Prof.  Richet ;  this  attitude  is 
described  by  Dr.  Querton  in  the  following  quotation 
from  M.  Mendelsohn's  article:— 

"  The  conception  of  the  chemical  origin  of  the  elec- 
trical phenoniena  observed  in  nerve  and  muscle  is 
purely  hypothetical." 

Dr.  Querton  has  done  useful  service  in  bringing 
together  additional  evidence  that  the  electrical  pheno- 
mena are  in  many  cases  the  indications  of  definite 
chemical  processes.  The  author  gives  a  brief  review  of 
the  general  features  of  the  phenomena  in  electrical 
organs,  muscles,  nerves,  the  eye,  glandular  tissue,  the 
skin  and  the  leaves  of  plants ;  he  then  describes  observ- 
ations of  his  own  as  to  the  direct  connection  between 
such  electrical  phenomena  in  plant  leaves  as  are  pro- 
duced by  the  action  of  light  and  (photo-)chemical 
changes'  in  the  chlorophyll ;  he  follows  these  by  a  de- 
scription of  photo-electric  phenomena  occurring  in 
solutions  of  oxalic  acid,  &c. 

As  regards  the  general  review,  this  is  admittedly 
scanty,  particularly  in  the  part  which  deals  with  the 
electric  organs  of  fishes,  and  in  dealing  with  this 
portion  of  the  subject  the  author  does  not  appear  to 
have  recognised  that  recent  observations  point  to  the 
conclusion  that  the  electrical  organs  of  fishes  are  to 
be  classed  among  nervous,  and  not  among  muscular, 
structures.  The  author's  own  researches  show  that 
electromotive  effects  may  be  rapidly  developed,  and 
may  rapidly  subside  in  correspondence  with  the  similar 
development  and  subsidence  of  chemical  changes  of 
comparatively  small  amount,  and  this  result  appears 
to  support  the  view  of  chemical  causation  which  he 
advocates.  It  must,  however,  be  admitted  that  in 
nervous  tissues,  chemical  change  is  so  slight  or  so 
masked  as  to  give  no  indications  of  its  occurrence  un- 
less, indeed,  the  electrical  alterations  are  assumed  to 
be  such  indications,  an  assumption  which,  for  the 
purpose  of  the  argument,  is  logically  unsound.  Even 
in  the  case  of  the  pronounced  electromotive  effects  ob- 
served in  the  electrical  organs  of  fishes  there  is  the 
same  lack  of  evidence,  and  it  would  therefore  seem  that 
provided  the  chemical  change  is  of  a  certain  type,  a 
relatively  insignificant  chemical  alteration  may  be 
associated  with  very  definite  electromotive  effect;  in 
this  connection  the  possibility  of  the  occurrence  of  sur- 
face tension  changes  as  the  result  of  chemical  alter- 

NO.    1749,  VOL.  68] 


ation  might  have  been  treated  by  the  author  with  great 
advantage. 

The  impression  left  on  reading  the  author's  con- 
clusions is  that,  although  these  indicate  that  one  ante- 
cedent of  the  electromotive  phenomena  observed  in 
living  tissues  is  chemical  change,  the  more  interesting 
question  as  to  whether  this  chemical  antecedent  is  a 
remote  or  an  immediate  factor  in  their  causation  re- 
mains untouched. 

Statics  by  Al'gebraic  and  Graphic  Methods.     By  LewU 

J.    Johnson,    C.E.     Pp.    viii+134;    with    six   plates. 

(New  York:   Wiley  and  Sons ;' London  :    Chapman 

and  Hall,  Ltd.,  1903.)     Price  2  dollars. 

From  the  preface  we  infer  that  the  author  has  set  out 

with  the  object  of  providing  engineering  students  with 

a  text-book  of  small  compass    in  which  the  elementary 

parts  of  statics  are  treated  on  a  deductive  basis,  and 

analytical  and  graphical  methods  of  solution  are  treated 

side  by  side. 

It  cannot  be  said  that  the  book  fulfils  either  of  these 
objects  as  adequately  as  it  should.  The  proofs  of  the 
conditions  of  equilibrium  and  of  the  parallelogram  of 
forces  are  so  unsound  that  it  would  be  far  better  to 
replace  them  by  a  few  definite  axiomatic  statements. 
As  an  example,  take  the  statement  in  the  footnote  on 
p.  14  (in  connection  with  the  moment  of  a  force  about 
a  point),  "  P'or  assuming  the  point  to  be  fixed  is 
really  assuming  it  to  be  always  subject  to  a  force  equal, 
opposite  and  parallel  to  the  given  one." 

In  regard  to  the  graphic  solution  of  problems,  it  is 
possible  that  when  a  student  has  been  told  how  to 
draw  a  force  diagram,  he  may  apply  the  method  to 
an  example,  and  actually  measure  the  lines  represent- 
ing the  forces,  the  only  drawback  being  that  in  the 
questions  the  angles  of  the  figures  are  not  specified, 
and  the  figures  are  too  small  to  give  good  scale  dia- 
grams without  this  help.  The  so-called  algebraic  solu- 
tions are  too  suggestive  of  the  well-known  type  of 
examination  answer,  "  By  taking  moments  the  result- 
ant can  be  found."  This  usually  means  that  the 
candidate  cannot  find  it.  The  best  feature  of  the  book 
is  the  set  of  six  typical  problems  which  are  actually 
solved  by  both  methods  on  the  plates  at  the  end. 
De  I'Expdrience  en  Gdometrie.  Par  C.  de  Freycinet. 
Pp.  178.  (Paris  :  Gauthier  Villars,  1903.)  Price  4 
francs. 
The  author  discusses  the  question  whether  geometry 
is  purely  a  rational  science  or  whether  it  also  possesses 
an  experimental  side.  The  question  is  dealt  with  in 
connection  with  (1)  the  concepts  of  geometry,  (2)  geo- 
metrical axioms,  and  (3)  the  propositions  the  estab- 
lishment of  which  forms  the  object  of  deductive  geo- 
metry. In  the  first  chapter,  M.  de  Freycinet  finds  no 
a  priori  reasons  for  the  existence  of  such  concepts  as^ 
space,  straight  line,  curved  line,  plane  or  curved  sur- 
face, volume,  angle,  parallelism,  tangency.  These 
and  other  concepts  are  all  suggested  to  us  by  our  per- 
ception of  the  material  universe.  Passing  on  to  the 
axioms  relating  to  the  straight  line  and  plane,  the 
author  considers  that  it  can  in  no  sense  be  regarded 
as  a  self-evident  truth  that  the  straight  line  is  the 
shortest  line  between  two  points,  that  a  straight  line 
can  be  produced  indefinitely  in  either  direction,  or  that 
two  straight  lines  cannot  have  two  points  in  common. 
These  and  other  similar  facts  can  only  be  regarded  as 
results  of  experience  and  observation.  In  comparing 
the  purely  geometrical  methods  of  the  ancients  with 
the  analytical  methods  of  Descartes  and  Leibnitz,  the 
latter  methods  will  be  found  in  reality  to  be  no  less 
concrete  in  their  foundations  than  the  former.  They 
do  not  discuss  the  geometrical  truths  of  which  they 
make  use,  but  they  accept  them  as  evident,  relying  ork 
pure  geometry  to  establish  them. 


NATURE 


[May  7,  1903 


The  general  conclusion  is  that  geometry  is  largely 
based  on  the  results  of  experience.  M.  de  Freycinet's 
book  should  prove  of  great  interest  to  all  who  devote 
attention  to  the  teaching  of  geometry. 

Etude  des  Phdnomknes  volcaniques  :  Tretnblements 
de  Terre — Eruptions  volcaniques — Le  Cataclysme  de 
la  Martinique,  1902.  Par  Francois  .Miron.  Pp. 
viii  +  320.     (Paris  :  Ch.  B^ranger,  1903.) 

The  ground  which  this  little  work  is  intended  to  cover 
is  so  vast  that  it  is  impossible  for  the  author  to  deal 
with  any  part  of  the  subject  in  an  adequate  manner. 
Seismology  is  dismissed  in  twenty-seven  pages,  which 
serve  only  to  give  a  most  misleading  impression  of  the 
present  state  of  our  knowledge  of  that  science.  The 
ninety-nine  pages  devoted  to  volcanic  eruptions  furnish 
only  a  short  sketch  of  the  subject,  such  as  may  be  found 
in  any  treatise  on  geology,  though  here  and  there 
matters  not  ordinarily  treated  of  in  text-books  may  be 
met  with,  such  as  Fouqu^'s  method  of  collecting  gas 
at  fumaroles.  The  thirty-eight  pages  devoted  to  the 
causes  of  vulcanism  contain  summary  statements 
of  the  views  of  de  Lapparent,  Fouqu^,  Stanislas 
Meunier,  Gautier  and  others,  the  author  giving  greatest 
weight  to  astronomical  causes  as  possibly  determining 
volcanic  outbursts !  To  the  phenomena  following 
volcanic  eruptions  sixteen  pages  are  devoted,  while  an 
account  of  the  principal  volcanoes  of  the  globe  occupies 
forty-two  pages.  The  description  of  the  Martinique 
and  St.  Vincent  eruptions  has,  however,  seventy  pages 
devoted  to  it,  and  the  work  concludes  with  chapters 
in  which  vulcanism  and  the  riches  of  the  globe  are 
discussed,  such  matters  as  mineral  veins,  thermal 
springs,  and  the  occurrence  of  petroleum  being  hastily 
passed  in  review. 

It  is  difficult  to  understand  what  useful  purpose  a 
compilation  of  this  kind  can  serve,  but,  as  the  author 
says  in  his  preface,  general  attention  has  been  attracted 
by  the  catastrophe  of  St.  Pierre,  and  there  seems  to 
be  a  demand  for  some  kind  of  popular  information  on 
the  subject.  The  supply  possibly  meets  the  demand, 
but  both  are  probably  ephemeral. 

Experiments  with  Vacuum  Tubes.  By  Sir  D.  L. 
Salomons,  Bart.  Pp.  vii  +  49.  (London  :  Whit'taker 
and  Co.,  1903.)     Price  25. 

Given  a  well-equipped  physical  laboratory  and  an  ex- 
pert glass  blower  as  assistant,  one  could  pass  many 
a  pleasant  hour  In  repeating  the  experiments  described 
in  this  little  book.  The  phenomena  exhibited  by 
vacuum  tubes  are  perhaps  the  most  fascinating  that 
electrical  science  can  show;  they  possess  a  rare  and 
peculiar  beauty  which,  like  that  of  the  rainbow  or  the 
Aurora,  appeals  to  both  the  aesthetic  and  the  scientific 
senses.  Sir  David  Salomons  describes  how  tubes  may 
be  constructed  to  produce  certain  definite  results  in  the 
arrangement  of  striae  and  so  forth,  and  many  of  the 
designs  give  evidence  of  painstaking  ingenuity.  A 
number  of  experiments  with  tubes  and  magnets  are 
also  described,  some  of  which  serve  to  illustrate  well 
the  mutual  action  of  electric  currents  and  magnetic 
fields.  The  author  does  not  deal  with  those  phenomena 
which.  In  the  hands  of  Sir  W.  Crookes,  J.  J.  Thomson 
and  others,  have  led  in  recent  years  to  results  of  such 
Importance ;  indeed,  the  theoretical  explanations  which 
are  given  as  a  running  commentary  on  the  experiments 
seem  rather  to  show  a  lack  bf  appreciation  of  the 
essential  facts  which  have  added  such  interest  to  the 
behaviour  of  the  electric  discharge  In  high  vacua,  and 
have  raised  the  vacuum  tube  from  the  position  of  a 
scientific  toy  to  that  of  a  powerful  Instrument  of  re- 
search. M.  S. 

NO.    1749,  VOL.  68] 


LETTERS    TO    THE    EDITOR. 

The  Editor  docs  not  hold  himself  responsible  for  opinions 
expressed  by  his  correspondents.  Neither  can  he  undertake 
to  return,  or  to  correspond  with  the  writers  of,  rejected 
manuscripts  intended  for  this  or  any  other  part  of  Nature. 
No  notice  is  taken  of  anonymous  communications.] 

Energy  Emitted  by  Radio-active  Bodies. 

Prof.  J.  J.  Thomson's  interesting  article  in  last  week's 
Nature  raises  the  question  of  how  long  the  emission  of 
energy  by  radium  may  be  expected  to  continue.  I  think 
in  this  connection  that  it  would  be  of  great  importance  to 
determine,  if  possible,  whether  radium,  as  contained  in 
pitchblende,  emits  as  much  energy  as  the  same  amount  of 
the  material  in  the  form  of  an  artificially  concentrated  pro- 
duct. The  mineral  must  be  supposed  to  have  been  in  exist- 
ence, in  its  present  condition,  for  a  period  of  time  com- 
parable with  the  age  of  the  earth — perhaps  50  million  years. 
It  is  certainly  more  likely  to  have  lost  than  gained  activity 
during  that  time.  We  may  therefore  reasonably  assume 
that  it  has  been  liberating  energy  at  not  less  than  its  pre- 
sent rate  for  50  million  years.  A  determination  of  the 
amount  of  energy  thus  emitted  would  carry  us  much  further 
than  the  most  careful  and  protracted  observations  on 
powerful  radium  preparations. 

Such  a  measurement  would,  no  doubt,  be  difficult,  but 
not,  I  think,  altogether  impracticable.  A  very  large  block 
of  pitchblende  might  be  used,  and  a  thermocouple  inserted 
in  the  centre  of  it.  Something  might  be  gained  by  careful 
heat  insulation  of  the  block. 

A  rough  calculation  will  show  the  rise  of  temperature  to 
be  expected. 

Consider  an  infinite  slab  of  pitchblende  bounded  by  two 
plane  faces,  the  axis  of  x  being  perpendicular  to  these 
faces.  Take  an  elementary  slice,  of  thickness  Sx,  at  distance 
X  from  the  face,  and  bounded  by  planes  parallel  to  it. 

JQg 

The  outflow  of  heat  per  square  cm.  from  this  slice  is  -  ^ — Sx, 

dx- 
where  k  is  the  thermal  conductivity,  and  C  the  temperature. 

When  a  steady  state  has  been  reached,  this  must  equal 
the  rate  of  generation  of  heat  in  the  slice  per  square  cm.  = 
qZx  suppose. 


Thus 


-  k~lx  =  qlx, 
ax'' 


b). 


dx^  k 

and  by  integration  Q  —  ~  1  (x'  -J-  ax  - 

2  k 

If  the  faces  of  the  slab  are  maintained  at  0°  C,   and  if 
the  slab  is  i  metre  thick,  we  have 

/0=   o  when  x  =  o, 
yQ=  o  when  x  —  100. 
Thus  a  -  -  100,  <5  =  o. 


and 


{x  -  100) 


We  may  take  for  k  the  value  0005,  which  is  a  rough 
general  average  for  the  conductivity  of  rocks. 

It  was  found  by  Curie  that  i  gram  of  radium  emitted  100 
calories  per  hour.  If  we  suppose  that  the  density  of  the 
radium  is  3,  and  that  pitchblende  contains  one  part  of  it 
in  100,000  by  volume,  then,  if  the  pitchblende  is  as  active 
as  one  would  expect  from  the  proportion  of  radium  con- 
tained, we  should  have 


We  can  now  calculate  the  temperature  to  be  expected  at 
any  point  of  the  slab.     In  the  middle,  where  ^^^so,  we  find 

d  =  i  nearly. 

So  that  the  middle  of  the  slab  would  be  \°  hotter  than  the 
faces. 

In  practice  the  difference  of  temperature  available  would 
be  less,  since  the  block  used  would  not  take  the  form  of 
an  infinite  slab.  But  still,  the  effect  would  probably  be 
measurable.  R.  J.  Strutt. 


^May  7.  1903] 


NATURE 


The  Fossil  Man  of  Lansing,  Kansas. 

A  GOOD  deal  of  discussion  has  recently  been  aroused  in 
America  by  the  discovery  of  the  so-called  "  fossil  man  of 
Lansing."  It  seems  worth  while  considering  the  probable 
stature  of  the  individual  to  whom  the  bones  belonged. 
Prof.  S.  W.  Williston,  of  Chicago,  gives  in  the  Popular 
Science  Monthly  for  March  (p.  470)  the  following  values  for 
I  he  bone  lengths,  without,  however,  stating  how  the 
measurements  were  taken  : — Femur,  43  o  cm.  ;  Tibia,  350 
I  111.  ;  Humerus,  30  2  cm.  ;  Radius,  250  cm.  From  my 
memoir  on  the  "  Reconstruction  of  the  Stature  of  Prehistoric 
Races  "  {Phil.  Trans.,  vol.  cxcii.  A,  pp.  169-244),  by  using 
the  formulae  on  p.  196  Dr.  Alice  Lee  has  obtained  the 
following  results  in  cms.  : — 

Kones  used  in  Reconstruction  Supposed  S     Supposed  9 

(a)  Femur 

(6)  Humerus  

(c)   Tibia     

(if)  Radius 

(e)   Femur  +  Tibia 

{/)  Femur,  Tibia   ... 

(,f)  Humerus  +  Radius     ... 

{/i)  Humerus,  Radius 

(/)    Femur,  Humerus 

(>^)  Femur,Tibia,  Radius,  Humerus     I58'3 


162*1 

•     1565 

1580    . 

.     1546 

1618   . 

•     157-1 

1677   . 

.     164-8 

I6I7  . 

•     1570 

I6I7  . 

•     1570 

i62'4 

•     IS9-8 

1597     • 

155-5 

1596     . 

.     156  0 

154-5 


Now  my  experience  of  reconstruction  shows  me  that 
with  primitive  races  we  do  not  get  from  formulae  based  on 
modern  data  very  consistent  results  when  the  radius  is 
used.'  I  believe  (a),  (/)  and  (t)  are  the  best  formulae  to 
take  in  such  cases.  Effecting  a  perhaps  not  wholly  de- 
fensible smoothing  by  taking  means  we  have  : — 

Stature  of  Lansing  individual 
From  all  (ormulse  .. 


If<J 

If  9 

161-3    . 

•     1573 

161 -2       . 

•     156-5 

From  (a),  (/)  and  (i) 

The  mean  deviation  of  all  the  formulae  from  the  mean 
of  the  set  is  on  the  assumption  that  the  bones  belonged 
to  a  man  1-91,  and  on  the  assumption  that  they  belonged 
to  a  woman  2  02.  Thus  the  formulae  run  from  both  aspects 
slightly  more  smoothly  if  we  assume  the  bones  to  be  those 
of  a  man.  The  skull  may  possibly  offer,  on  closer  study, 
some  balance  of  characters  on  which  to  form  an  appreciation 
as  to  sex.  Prof.  Williston 's  photographs,  having  regard 
to  the  lower  mandible  and  brows,  do  not  seem  wholly  in- 
consistent with  the  male  sex. 

As  to  the  date  of  the  Lansing  bones,  this  can  only  be 
settled  by  the  geologists  on  the  spot.  But  if  the  period  be 
at  all  comparable  with  that  of  Palaeolithic  man  in  Europe, 
of  whom,  I  think,  we  may  put  the  best  available  estimate 
of  stature  to  be  162-7  cm.,  the  American  and  European 
statures,  so  far  as  such  slender  evidence  goes,  are  not  widely 
apart.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  we  take  the  bones  to  be  those 
of  a  woman,  the  stature  of  157-3  cm.  would  correspond  to 
a  male  stature  of  169  o  cm. — a  value  considerably  above  that 
of  Palaeolithic  man  in  Europe,  or,  indeed,  of  Neolithic  man. 

Hence  I  would  suggest  the  following  points  for  consider- 
ation : — 

A.  The  bones  are  those  of  a  man. 

If  they  belong  to  those  of  an  "  early  "  American  man, 

(a)  He  was,  if  a  normal  example,  of  much  the  stature  of 
Palaeolithic  man  in  Europe. 

(b)  He  must  have  been  a  short  man  for  his  race,  if  early 
American  man  was  much  taller  than  the  European  Palaeo- 
lithic man. 

B.  The  bones  are  those  of  a  woman. 

If  they  belong  to  those  of  an  "  early  "  American  woman, 

(a)  The  early  Americans,  if  she  were  a  normal  example 
of  a  woman,  had  a  male  stature  of  169  cm.,  and  were  a  taller 
race  than  early  European  man. 

(b)  She  must  have  been  a  tall  woman  for  her  race,  if 
early  European  and  American  men  were  at  all  similar  in 
stature. 

The  stature  of  the  American  Indian  is  very  considerable  ; 
if,  therefore,  a  great  antiquity  can  be  predicted,  i.e.  if  the 
silt  would  seem  to  show  that  the  bones  have  been  many 
thousand  years  embedded,  the  importance  of  determining 
the  sex  becomes  obvious.  No  dogmatic  statement,  re- 
'  Everything  tends  to  show  a  shortening  of  the  radius  relative  to  the 
length  of  the  other  long  bT.its,  since  early  times. 

NO.  1749.  vol,.  68] 


membering  the  variability  of  human  stature,  can  be  made, 
but  the  find  gives  a  slight  probability  in  favour  of  American 
early  man  and  European  Palaeolithic  man  not  diverging 
widely  in  stature,  if  the  bones  are  male,  but,  on  the  other 
hand,  if  the  bones  are  female,  they  give  a  slight  probability 
in  favour  of  American  early  man  being  much  taller  than. 
European  Palaeolithic  man. 

It  is  easy  to  make  irresponsible  suggestions  at  a  distance, 
but  is  it  not  possible  for  a  systematic  investigation  to  be 
made  by  excavating  the  whole,  or  a  large  part,  of  the 
deposit  upon  the  limestone  bed  at  Concannon's  house,  with 
the  hope  of  discovering  further  human  remains,  or  signs 
of  human  handicraft?  Karl  Pearson. 


Reform  in  School  Geometry. 

The  reviews  in  your  issue  of  April  23  tend  to  confirm  an 
apprehension  I  have  long  felt.  Euclid  is  to  be  abolished, 
and  another  sequence  of  propositions  substituted.  But  it 
is  probable  that  in  many  cases  the  same  old  methods  of 
teaching  will  be  retained,  the  same  old  drudgery  of  learn- 
ing propositions  and  not  learning  to  think,  will  be  gone 
through  by  the  future  generation  as  it  has  been  gone 
through  by  the  past.  The  only  difference  will  be  that  the 
one  redeeming  feature  of  the  old  system,  the  semblance  of 
a  logical  sequence,  will  be  abolished,  and  students  will  be 
commended  instead  of  condemned  for  assuming  construc- 
tions before  they  have  learnt  how  to  perform  them.  They 
will  also  be  encouraged  to  base  their  proofs  on  such 
difficult-to-be-understood  concepts  as  direction. 

Now  it  appears  to-  me  that  instead  of  the  new  geometry 
being  a  recent  innovation,  its  essential  features  are  pretty 
well  laid  down  in  the  "  Treatise  on  Geometry  "  published 
in  1871  by  the  late  Dr.  Watson  (Longmans'  Text-books 
of  Science).  The  disadvantages  of  Euclid's  order  of  treat- 
ment, the  use  of  hypothetical  constructions,  the  importance 
of  loci,  the  classification  of  propositions,  all  these  and  many 
other  points  on  which  stress  is  now  laid  are  discussed  in 
Dr.  Watson's  preface.  Whether  or  not  would-be  reformers 
of  mathematical  teaching  have  studied  Watson,  it  is  in- 
teresting to  find  the  supposed  "  modern  up-to-date  improve- 
ments "  in  the  teaching  of  geometry  so  closely  forestalled 
in  a  book  of  thirty  years  ago,  just  as  the  so-called  "  modern 
free  wheel  "  was  commonly  fitted  to  tricycles  from  1879 
onwards,  until  cyclists  were  glad  when  a  substitute  was 
invented.  G.  H.  Bryan. 


I  WILL  not  deny  that  some  reformers  desire  to  abolish 
Euclid  and  establish  another  sequence  of  propositions  in 
abstract  geometry  for  schoolboys  ;  but  if  Prof.  Bryan  reads 
the  reviews  which  he  cites  more  carefully,  he  will  see  that 
the  reform  current  is  very  strong  in  quite  another  direction, 
and  that  his  long-held  apprehension  is  altogether  baseless. 
I  think  that  I  apprehend  the  idea  underlying  the  efforts  of 
the  majority  of  the  reformers.  It  is  the  very  old  idea  that 
the  average  English  boy  may  be  educated  through  the  doing 
of  things  rather  than  through  abstract  reasoning.  If 
abstract  geometry  is  to  be  retained  as  a  school  subject,  it 
can  only  in  the  future,  as  in  the  past,  do  harm  to  98  per 
cent,  of  the  boys  ;  we  say,  drop  it  altogether  in  schools,  and 
think  of  it  only  in  connection  with  the  universities.  Two 
per  cent,  of  schoolboys  take  to  abstract  reasoning  as  ducks 
take  to  water,  and  they  ought  not  to  be  discouraged  from 
the  study  of  Euclid,  but  they  and  all  the  other  boys  ought 
to  study  geometry  experimentally,  logic  entering  into  the 
study  just  as  it  enters  into  other  parts  of  experimental 
physics.  If  the  best  modern  books  have  a  fault,  it  lies  in 
the  absurd  assumption  that  an  experimental  sequence  ought 
to  have  some  connection  with  the  Euclidean  sequence. 

John  Perry. 


Can  Dogs  Reason? 

My  account  of  an  experiment  which  you  allowed  me  to 
record  in  Nature  of  April  16  has  been  copied  into  a  number 
of  newspapers,  and  has  brought  me  no  few  letters.  Some 
of  my  correspondents  explain  the  negative  results  of  the 
box-meat  experiment  by  supposing  that  the  dog  was  too 
well  trained  to  "  steal  "  the  meat.  They  have  not  noticed 
that  I  was  careful  to  point  out  that  the  box  was  placed 
in  the  yard  in  which  the  dog  is  accustomed  to  be  fed,  that 


NATURE 


[May  7,  1903 


he  was  very  eager  to  get  the  meat  out  of  it,  and  that  when 
later  in  the  day  he  succeeded,  he  showed  no  manner  of 
misgiving  as  to  his  legal  right  to  its  possession. 

Other  of  my  correspondents  misunderstand  the  purpose 
of  the  experiment.  They  see  in  it  a  desire  to  belittle  their 
canine  pets.  This  was  'very  far  from  my  thoughts.  We 
have  innumerable  anecdotes  telling  us  what  dogs  can  do. 
I  wish,  partly  1  admit  with  a  view  to  enabling  us  to  sort 
these  stories,  to  obtain,  as  data,  definite  observations  show- 
ing what  dogs  will  not  do.  Into  most  dog  stories  there 
creeps  the  little  touch  of  human  nature  which  makes  them 
and  ourselves  akin. 

Mine  is  the  point  of  view  of  an  anatomist.  .A  dog  has 
a  brain  very  different  from  that  of  man.  Brain  and  mind  are 
the  two  sides. of, the  same  coin;  or  rather,  brain  is  the  coin, 
mind  its  value.  The  dog's  brain  cannot  make  a  man's 
thoughts.  How  near  can  we  come  to  picturing  to  our- 
selves the  nature  of  a  dog's  thoughts?  Without  commit- 
ting ourselves  to  Flechsig's  theory  of  the  division  of  the 
cortex  of  the  brain  into  "  projection  areas  "  and  "associa- 
tion areas,"  we  may  on  anatomical  grounds  assert  that 
the  cortex  of  a  dog's  brain  contains  fewer  association 
elements  than  does  that  of  a  man.  It  is  an  apparatus  for 
transforming  sensory  impressions  into  actions,  in  a  more 
limited  and  exclusive  degree.  Probably  we  can  best  picture' 
to  ourselves  the  work  that  it  does  by  supposing  that  the 
wordless  thoughts  of  animals  are  direct  combinations  of 
sensory  impressions ;  whereas  man  has  invented  symbols 
for  his  sensory  impressions.  He  works  the  symbols  into 
thought.  Xor  do  his  symbols  stand  for  material  objects 
alone.  They  also  stand  for  inferences  from  observations. 
But  this  is  a  subject  which  perhaps  I  ought  not  to  touch 
without  having  at  my  disposal  more  space  than  I  can  ask 
you  to  give  me  in  your  Journal.  i 

We  must  admit  with  Sir  William  Ramsay  that  dogs  make  : 
use,  in  their  mental  operations,  of  sensory  impressions  and 
not  of  inferences,  although  I  dissent  from  his  qualification 
of  their  impressions  of  smell  as  "  vague."  It  is  my  object 
to  ascertain,  by  means,  if  possible,  of  observations  which 
can  be  made  under  properly  controlled  conditions  upon 
numerous  dogs  of  various  breeds,  the  limits  of  their  power 
of  substituting  inferences  for  sensory  impressions  as 
materials  of  thought. 

Perhaps  I  may  be  allowed  to  use  a  new  nomenclature  in 
defining  the  position  in  which,  as  it  appears  to  me,  we 
stand  with  regard,  to  the  axioms  of  animal  psychology  at 
the  present  time.  An  animal  remembers.  When  it  per- 
forms an  action  a  picture  of  the  action  is  stored) 
in  memory.  If  the  result  of  the  action  be  satis- 
factory, a  picture  of  this  result  is  stored  in  memory. 
When  in  future  the  animal  desires  to  obtain  the  result  it 
repeats  the  action.  This  we  may  call  the  product  of 
"  reasoning  in  the  first  degree."  Action  depends  upon  in- 
ference. We  may  accept  it  as  an  axiom  that  an  animal 
can  draw  an  inference  of  this  kind.  It  is  not  yet  estab-j 
lished,  by  experimental  methods,  that  an  animal  can  com-- 
bine  two  inferences,  or,  as  I  venture  to  term  it,  "  reason 
in  the  second  degree."  My  box-experiment  was  intended^ 
to  throw  light  upon  this  question.  I  shall  be  very  grateful 
for  any  further  suggestions  of  possible  experiments  of  the 
same  kind.  Alex.  Hill. 

Downing  Lodge,  May  2. 


Spherical  Aberration  of  the  Eye. 

With  reference  to  the  experiment  described  by  Mr.  E. 
Edser  (p.  559)  as  appearing  to  have  "  escaped  observation," 
perhaps  I  may  be  allowed  to  state  that  this  phenomenon 
was  (to  the  best  of  my  recollection)  described  by  me  before 
the  School  Natural  History  Society  when  I  was  a  boy  at 
Rugby,  about  1873-1874.  I  could  not  explain  it,  and  no 
one  at  the  meeting  had  any  suggestion  to  make. 

I  think  I  connected  it  in  my  mind  with  irradiation 
phenomena,  though  I  was  baffled  by  the  fact  that  the  whole 
line  is  bent. 

If  the  black  horizontal  lines  drawn  between  different 
advertisements  on  the  outside  of  Nature  be  held  five  or 
six  inches  from  the  eye,  and  the  rounded  end  of  a  pen  be 
brought  down  close  to  the  eye,  the  whole  line  will  be  seen 
to  curve  upward  to  meet  the  pen,  becoming  also  blacker  and 
more  distinct.  \V.  L. 

NO.    1749,  VOL.   681 


The  phenomenon  mentioned  by  W.  L.  must  have 
frequently  been  noticed ;  while  resembling  that  described 
by  me  as  a  proof  of  the  spherical  aberration  of  the  eye,  it 
is  yet  due  to  an  essentially  different  cause.  The  black  line, 
when  placed  at  a  distance  of  five  or  six  inches  from  the  eye, 
is  within  the  shortest  distance  of  distinct  vision  from  the 
latter.  A  point  source  of  light,  situated  on  the  axis  of  the 
eye,  at  a  position  closer  to  the  eye  than  the  "  near  point," 
produces  a  relatively  large  spot  of  light  on  the  retina.  If 
the  pupil  be  now  progressively  covered  from  above,  the 
rays  passing  through  the  middle  and  upper  part  of  the 
pupil  will  be  cut  off,  so  that  those  passing  through  the  lower 
part  of  the  pupil  alone  remain  ;  these  cut  the  retina  in  a 
comparatively  restricted  area  below  the  point  of  intersection 
by  the  axis  of  the  eye,  so  that  the  image  apoarently  rises,  at 
the  same  time  becoming  more  sharply  defined.  Under  the 
conditions  mentioned,  the  same  phenomenon  would  be 
observed  if  the  eye  were  entirely  free  from  spherical  aberra- 
tion. For  this  reason  I  stated  that  the  black  band  should 
be  placed  "  just  beyond  the  shortest  distance  of  distinct 
vision  from  the  eye  ;  .  .  .  care  must  be  taken  to  keep  the 
eye  carefully  focused  on  the  edge  of  the  black  band,  or  an 
exag-gerated  displacement,  due  to  relaxation  of  the  accom- 
modation of  the  eye,  may  result."  It  was  merely  as  a 
proof  pf  the  spherical  aberration  of  th«  eye  that  I  described 
this  experiment  as  having  apparently  escaped  observation. 

April   12.  "  Edwin  Edser. 


In  connection  vvit'h  '  the'  experiment  on  the  spherical 
aberration  of  the  eye,  described  in  your  issue  of  April  16, 
1  may  relate  a  striking  observation  I  made  some  years  ago. 
Regard  with  one  eye  any  light  or  bright  object  on  the 
wall,  turn  the  head  away  until  the  object  is  just  covered 
by  the  line  of  the  nose  ;  then  move  the  eye  to  its  natural 
position,  and  the  object  will  reappear,  supposing  the  nose 
is  not  too  prominent.  Moving  the  eye  several  times  to  and 
fro,   the  phenomenon   will  be  easily  observed. 

Leipzig,  April  29.  W.  Betz. 


THE  SOLAR  AND  METEOROLOGICAL  CYCLE 
OF  THIRTY-FIVE   YEARS. 

THE  fact  that  the  rainfall  of  many  regions  of  the 
earth's  surface  has,  for  the  last  decade  or  more, 
been  gradually  diminishing  has  led  many  Inquiries 
to  be  made  concerning  the  possible  periodicity  of  this 
meteorological  element,  and  during  the  last  few  months 
more  general  attention  has  been  drawn  to  this  Interest- 
ing question.  The  great  Importance  of  this  inquiry, 
not  only  to  agriculturists  but  to  others,  renders  it  desir- 
able that  all  facts  which  may  tend  to  elucidate  the 
subject  should  be  thoroughly  discussed. 

The  object  of  the  present  article  Is  to  bring  together, 
without  entering  Into  too  great  detail,  a  few  statistics 
relating  to  the  rainfall  of  different  stations  In  various 
parts  of  the  earth  to  see  whether  there  be  grounds  for 
assuming  a  continuation  of  the  present  small  supply,  or 
whether  a  greater  abundance  may  be  looked  for  with 
special  reference  to  the  condition  of  the  British  Isles. 

A  few  Introductory  remarks  may  here  not  be  out  of 
place.  Eduard  Bruckner  first  discovered  that  wet 
periods,  great  droughts,  &c.,  occurred  at  Intervals  of 
about  thirty-five  years,  and  he  published  his  Important 
conclusions  In  a  volume  w-hlch  was,  and  still  Is,  a 
valuable  contribution  to  meteorological  science.  To 
take  one  element  only,  namely,  rainfall,  Briickner 
showed  that  during  the  last  century  the  mean  epochs 
of  the  w  et  years  were  1815,  1846-50,  and  1876-80,  while 
those  for  the  dry  years  were  1831-35  and  1861-65. 

Since  the  publication  of  this  volume,  many  workers 
have  studied  rainfall  and  other  records  extending  over 
long  periods  of  time.  Thus,  to  take  one  Instance  among 
many  that  might  be  cited,  Herr  Hofrath  Julius  Hann, 
the  distinguished  late  director  of  the  Vienna  Meteor- 
ological Institute,  made  a  minute  investigation  of  the 


May  7,  1903] 


NATURE 


rainfalls  of  Mailand,  Padua,  and  Klagenfurt,  and 
found  a  well-marked  recurrence  of  the  wet  and  dry 
periods  every  thirty-five  years,  the  mean  epochs  of  the 
former  being^  1808,  1843,  and  1878,  and  of  the  latter 
1S23,  1859,  and  1893. 

In  determining^  the  variation  of  rainfall  over  such 
long  periods  as  that  of  thirty-five  years,  it  is  necessary, 
if  possible,  to  smooth  the  curve  representing  the  varia- 
tion from  year  to  year, 
for  this  curve,  as  a  rule, 
displays  large  fluctua- 
tions from  the  normal  in 
the  course  of  a  very  few 
years,  and  it  is  not  easy 
for  the  eye  to  grasp  the 
longer  periods  of  varia- 
tion ;  these  long  periods 
may  to  some  extent  be 
rendered  more  apparent 
by  coupling  up  together 
the  mean  values  of  the 
rainfall  for  several  years, 
and  forming  another 
mean,  but  somewhat  fic- 
titious value,  for  each 
successive  year.  Thus, 
for  instance,  the  mean 
for  one  year,  say  1870, 
might  be  computed  from 
the  means  of  the  five 
years  1868  to  1872,  or  the 
means  for  1871  from  the 
mean  of  the  years  1869 
to  1873  ;  instead  of  a  five- 
year  mean,  a  ten-year  or 
a  fifteen-year  might  be 
chosen. 

In  the  figure  here 
given,  five-year  means 
have  been  adopted,  and 
the  curves  resulting  from 
these  have  been  further 
smoothed  by  drawing 
freehand  another  curve 
to  eliminate  as  far  as 
possible  the  smaller 
fluctuations  of  short 
period  that  still  exist, 
even  after  still  minor 
changes  have  been  elim- 
inated. The  stations, 
the  rainfall  curves  of 
which  are  here  given, 
have  not  been  specially 
selected,  but  simply 
taken  as  the  data  for 
them  were  easily  avail- 
able, and  they  afforded 
long  records  for  the  study 
of  such  variations  as  are 
here  discussed.  The 
short  curve  for  the 
British  Isles  is  attached 
so  that  not  only  can  a 
comparison  be  made  of 
this  record  of  the  Meteor- 
ological Office  with  that  obtained  by  the  late  Mr. 
.Symons,  but  that  the  actual  variation  over  the  islands 
taken  together  can  be  compared  with  two  widely 
separated  stations  in  them,  as  Greenwich  and  Rothesay. 
The  European  continent  is  here  represented  by  Brus- 
sels, the  epochs  of  the  maxima  and  minima  of  the 
rriinfall  curve  of  which  can  be  compared  with  the  values 
Iven  by  Hann   and  referred  to  in  a  previous  paragraph. 

NO.    1749,  VOL.  68] 


Two  stations  in  India,  Bombay  and  Madras,  one  station 
in  South  Africa,  Cape  Town  Observatory,  and  lastly 
three  stations  in  the  United  States  of  America  repre- 
senting the  rainfall  of  the  Upper  Ohio  Valley,  com- 
plete the  rainfall  information  here  given. 

A  general  collective  glance  at  these  curves  shows  that 
there  is  an  undoubted  long  period  variation  in  all  the 
stations   here   brought   together.        Further,    that   the 


1800 
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19  00 


— Curves  showing  the  relation  between  the  35-year  sunspot  period  and  that  of  the  Briiclcner  rainfall  cycle.  Each 
of  the  rainfall  curves  is  determined  from  the  means  of  five-years,  and  the.se  curves  are  smoothed  by  freehand 
drawing  in  order  t_i  show  the  long  period  variation  of  rainfall.  The  smoothed  curve  through  the  eleven-year 
sunspot  curves  indicates  the  epochs  of  the  long  period  sunspot  variation. 


periods  of  greatest  rainfall  occur  generally  in  the  years 
181  ^,  1845,  ^nd  1878-83,  while  those  at  which  the  rain- 


fall is  decidedly  deficient  are  about  the  years  1825-30, 
i860,  and  1893-5. 

With  the  existence  of  these  very  definite  fluctuations 
it  is  important  to  notice  that  the  last  minimum  or  dry 
period  which  is  most  apparent  in  the  case  of  the  curves 
representing  the  British  rainfall  seems  now  to  be  just 


lO 


NA  rURE 


[May 


past,  or  on  the  point  of  coming  to  a  conclusion,  and  in 
all  cases  tne  general  tendency  of  the  long  period  curve 
is  now  to  rise  again.  This  indication  of  the  increase 
of  the  rainfall  is  represented  in  the  figure  b)'  the  dotted 
continuation  of  the  secular  variation  curves  ior  each 
station,  and  should  the  apparent  law  hold  good,  there 
seems  sufficient  evidence  to  mark  that  this  rise  will 
■continue  to  take  place  until  about  the  year  1913, 
which  year  will  suggest  the  middle  of  the  next  wet 
epoch. 

It  may  be  mentioned,  however,  that  owing  to  the 
great  oscillatory  nature  of  the  rainfall  from  year  to  year, 
this  rise  only  represents  the  mean  rise  when  several 
years  are  coupled  together ;  there  may  be  comparatively 
dry  3-ears  even  when  the  secular  variation  curve  is  at 
a  maximum,  but  on  the  average  they  will  probably 
be  wet. 

What  causes  this  long  period  of  weather  variation  is 
not  yet  definitely  known,  but  it  is  of  the  highest  im- 
portance to  meteorological  science  that  the  matter 
should  be  cleared  up  as  soon  as  possible,  for  not  only 
is  our  rainfall  involved,  but  all  other  meteorological 
elements  show  similar  fluctuations. 

Bruckner  attempted  to  account  for  this  long  period 
weather  cycle  by  attributing  its  origin  to  a  change  in 
the  activity  of  the  sun,  and  he  investigated  the  sun- 
spot  data  then  available  for  evidence  of  a  periodicity 
of  about  thirty-five  years.  He  was  not,  however,  suc- 
cessful in  his  research,  but  he  concluded  that,  although 
this  variation  must  really  exist  in  the  sun,  yet  it  might 
not  necessarily  be  indicated  by  sunspots.  More  recently 
a  minute  examination  of  the  sunspot  observations  made 
since  the  year  1832,  when  a  systematic  method  of  ob- 
servation had  been  initiated,  has  led  to  the  discovery 
•of  such  a  period,  a  detailed  account  of  which  appeared 
in  a  previous  number  of  this  Journal  (Nature,  vol.  Ixlv. 
p.  196). _  It  was  there  shown  that  each  sunspot  period 
{reckoning  from  minimum  to  minimum)  differed  in 
many  respects  from  the  one  immediately  preceding  or 
following  It.  Some  periods,  for  instance,  were  not  onlv 
more  "  spotted  "  than  others,  that  is,  the  summation  o'f 
the  whole  spotted  area  from  one  minimum  to  the  next 
varied  regularly,  but  these  particular  periods  were 
•closely  associated  with  comparatively  rapid  rises  from 
minlmumto  maximum  in  those  periods.  These  changes 
further  seemed  to  be  undergoing  a  regular  variation, 
the  cycle  of  which  was  determined  to  be  about  thirty- 
five  years. 

The  connection  between  Bruckner's  cycle  and  this 
long  period  solar  change  of  thirty-five  years  was  there 
briefly  stated,  and  it  was  , shown  that  at  those  two 
epochs  'of  sunspot  minima,  namely,  1843  and  1878, 
which  follow  the  cycles  of  greatest  spotted  arpa,  the 
Bruckner  rainfall  cycle  was  at  a  maximum. 

The  close  correspondence  of  the  epochs  of  these  two 
cycles  suggested  at  once  a  probable  cause  and  effect,  a 
cause  which  Bruckner  himself  had  suggested  and 
looked  for,  but,  unfortunately  did  not  find. 

In  the  accompanying  figure  the  uppermost  curve 
represents  the  sunspot  curve  from  the  year  1832,  and 
the  minima  just  referred  to  are  indicated  by  the  vertical 
dotted  lines,  which  are  continued  through  all  the  curves. 
The  periods  of  greatest  spotted  area  just  precede  these 
epochs,  and  the  times  of  maxima  are  shown  by  the 
vertical  continuous  lines  drawn  in  a  similar  manner. 
To  show  the  probable  times  of  the  recurrence  of  these 
epochs  during  a  portion  of  the  next  great  period  of 
thirty-five  years  two  vertical  lines  have  been  inserted  at 
the  years  1905,  which  is  the  probable  epoch  of  the  next 
great  maximum,  and  19 13,  the  following  minimum, 
•so  that  their  relation  to  the  probable  variation  of  rain- 
fall, as  indicated  by  the  dotted  portions  of  the  curves, 
can  be  seen  at  a  glance. 

NO     1749.  VOL.  68] 


In  conclusion,  attention  may  be  drawn  to  the  fact 
that  during  the  last  few  years  a  far  more  close  con- 
nection between  solar  and  meteorological  phenomena 
has  been  made  out  than  was  the  case  some  years  ago, 
and  since  this  long  period  rainfall  cycle  synchronises  so 
well  with  the  solar  changes,  the  latter  may  render  valu- 
able assistance  in  determining  the  epochs  of  these  dry 
and  wet  cycles.  William  J.  S.  Lockyer. 


ETIOLATION.' 

•T^HIS  monograph  is  published  by  the  aid  of  the 
J-  Daly  Lydig  fund  bequeathed  by  Charles  P.  Daly, 
and  embodies  the  results  of  the  author's  investigations 
extending  from  1895  to  1902,  and  one  of  the  first  ques- 
tions it  arouses  is,  to  what  extent  is  this  sustained 
experimental  work  stimulated  by  the  certainty  oi  ade- 
quate publication  owing  to  the  generosity  of  patriotic 
endowment,  and  to  what  extent  does  such  work 
react  on  the  pockets  of  friendly  millionaires  and 
induce  the  endowments  for  further  work?  In  any 
case,  Americans  are  fortunate  in  their  circumstances  in 
these  respects. 

The  book,  which  comprises  more  than  309  pages  of 
text  and  176  figures,  all  admirably  done,  is  divided  into 
three  principal  sections.  There  is,  first,  a  summary  of 
the  history  of  the  subject,  beginning  with  Ray  (1686) 
and  Hales  (1727),  and  occupying  34  pages  of  more  or 
less  critical  notes.  It  is,  of  course,  impossible  for  us  to 
verify  the  enormous  number  of  the  references  to  this 
part  of  the  subject,  but  if  the  author  has  made  many 
such  blunders'  as  those  on  pp.  27  and  29,  where  on  two 
separate  occasions  he  cites  volumes  and  pages  as 
from  Proc.  Roy.  Soc.  when  he  should  have  written 
Philosophical  Transactions,  the  value  of  his  biblio- 
graphy rnust  suffer.  If  a  leading  American  plant 
physiologist  does  not  know  the  difference  between  the 
two  publications  referred  to.  It  Is  time  he  did;  if  he 
does,  the  Inference  that  he  has  not  consulted  the  original 
memoirs  is  as  inevitable  as  it  is. dispiriting. 

The  second  chief  division  of  the  work  occupies  the 
bulk  of  the  book,  pp.  35-200,  and  reflects  credit  on  the 
author  and  his  pupils  for  their  industry  and  clearness 
of  description,  as  well  as  for  the  interesting  choice  of 
plants  selected  for  experiment.  These  Include  not  only 
ordinary  flowering  plants,  but  also  more  out  of  the 
way  forms  of  monocotyledons  and  dicotyledons,  as  well 
as  ferns,  Equlsetum,  &c.  The  one  note  of  disappoint- 
ment in  this  portion  of  the  book  will  be  struck, 
by  the  want  of  plan.  Numbers  of  most  interesting 
observations  on  the  behaviour  of  particular  species  in 
the  dark,  and  Illustrations  of  their'  facies,  their 
anatomy  compared  with  that  of  normal  plants,  their 
curves  of  growth  and  so  forth  will  make  the  book 
useful  to  all  investigators ;  but  the  plants  are  arranged 
in  alphabetical  order,  and  when  the  reader  turns  to  a 
particular  species  he  has  no  guide  as  to  how  it  will 
be  treated.  Thus,  taking  at  random  Salvia,  Sanse- 
vierla,  Sarracenia,  Saururus,  and  Sparaxis,  which 
follow  in  the  order  given  on  pp.  171-180.  The  first 
merely  heads  a  .  small  paragraph  stating  that  the 
corolla  is  atrophied  in  darkness.  Under  Sansevleria 
the  etiolation  of  the  shoot  is  described  only  in  so  far 
as  external  changes  are  concerned.  In  Sarracenia 
tlje  effects  of  etiolation  on  the  histology  of  the  epidermis 
lining  the  "  pitchers  "  are  well  illustrated.  In 
Saururus  figures  of  the  anatomy  of  etiolated  and 
normal  stems,  and  measurements  of  height  and  thick- 

1  "The  Influence  of  Li?ht  and  Darkness  upon  Growth  and  Develop- 
ment." By  D  T.  Macdougal,  Ph.D.,  Mem.  New  York  Bot.  Garden. 
Vol.  ii.     Pp.  xiii  +  319.     (1903.) 


May  7,  1903J 


NA  TURE 


1 1 


ness  form  the  theme ;  while  Sparaxis  heads  a  short 
paragraph  recording  failure  of  growth. 

All  this  suggests  a  heterogeneous  collection  of 
student's  notes  as  the  groundwork  of  the  memoir,  and 
interesting  and  useful  as  many  of  these  are,  they  might 
have  been  rendered  more  valuable  by  classification  and 
efficient  editing. 

The  third  portion  of  the  book  is  occupied  with  general 
considerations,  and  embraces  summaries  of  the  fore- 
going, theories  as  to  the  nature  of  etiolation,  and  so 
forth. 

Here,  of  course,  we  look  for  the  author's  own  views, 
but  with  the  exception  of  vague  statements  here  and 
there,  the  concluding  portions  of  the  book  force  us 
reluctantly  to  decide  that,  important  and  interesting 
as  the  memoir  is,  it  is  so  not  so  much  as  a  work  of 
original  thought  and  suggestion,  but  as  an  extensive 
and  more  or  less  critical  survey  of  what  others  have 
done.  In  this  category  it  stands  well,  and  may  be  re- 
commended, but  we  do  not  like  such  sentences  as 
the  following  exercise  for  the  grammarian  and  the 
physicist : — 

''  It  is,  of  course,  entirely  probable  that  the  action 
of  light  may  set  up  chemical  processes  in  the  plant 
is  in  a  manner  entirely  stimulative,  and  independent 
of  any  communication  or  transformation  of  energy  " 
(p.  201). 


?ROF.    ].     WILLARD    GIBBS. 

THE  announcement  of  the  death  of  Prof.  J.  Willard 
Gibbs,  of  Yale  University,  will  be  received  with 
the  deepest  regret  by  the  whole  of  the  scientific  world. 

There  are  few  workers  who  have  done  so  much  as 
Prof.  Willard  Gibbs  to  teach  the  lesson  that  it  is  to 
the  mathematician  that  the  experimentalist  must  look 
for  new  ideas.  The  papers  which  have  made  his  name 
famous  date  from  1873,  when  he  published  in 
the  Transactions  of  the  Connecticut  Academy  his  paper 
on  the  geometrical  representation  of  the  thermo- 
dynamical  properties  of  bodies.  Gibbs.  first  discussed 
the  advantages  of  using  different  thermodynamical 
variables  for  graphic  representation,  and  then  discussed 
the  surface  formed  by  taking  as  coordinates  the 
volume,  entropy  and  energy  of  a  body.  "  Gibbs's 
thermodynamical  model,"  or  "  thermodynamic  sur- 
face "  as  it  is  now  called,  has  become  best  known  to 
English  readers  through  the  account  given  in  Max- 
well's "  Theory  of  Heat."  The  study  of  the  properties 
of  thermodynamical  surfaces  h^s  afforded  a  wide  field 
of  research,  which  is  still  continuing  to  yield  new  re- 
sults in  the  hands  of  the  Dutch  school  of  physico- 
chemists.  A  remarkable  feature  of  the  investigation 
is  the  geometric  representation  of  the  conditions  of 
thermodynamic  stability,  which  does  much  to  remove 
the  difficulties  attaching  to  any  algebraic  form  of 
enunciation.  A  further  paper,  entitled  "  Graphic 
Methods  in  the  Thermodynamics  of  Fluids,"  was  pub- 
lished in  1878. 

Gibbs's  epoch-making ,  papers  par  excellence  are, 
however,  those  dealing  with  the  equilibrium  of  hetero- 
tjeneous  systems,  the  first  of  which,  dealing  with 
chemical  phenomena,  was  published  in  June,  1876, 
while  the  second,  dealing  with  capillarity  and  elec- 
tricity, appeared  in  July,  1878.  The  most  essential 
feature  of  Gibbs's  discoveries  consists  in  the  extension 
of  the  notion  of  the  thermodynamical  potential  to 
mixtures  consisting  of  a  number  of  different  compo- 
nents, and  the  establishminl  of  lln-  propcriirv  thai:  this 
potential  is  a  !inc;ir  fuiiclion  of  (-crtaiii  qLiaiuilicN 
which    Gibbs    has    caih^d    the    potentials  of  the  com- 


ponents, and  that  where  the  same  component  is  present 
in  different  phases  which  remain  in  equilibrium  with 
each  other,  its  potential  is  the  same  in  all  the  phases, 
besides  which  the  pressures  and  temperatures  of  the 
phases  are  equal. 

The  importance  of  these  results  was  not  realised  for 
a  considerable  time.  It  was  difficult  for  the  experi- 
mentalist to  appreciate  a  memoir  in  which  the  treat- 
ment is  highly  mathematical  and  theoretical,  and  in 
which  but  little  attempt  is  made  to  reduce  conclusions 
to  the  language  of  the  chemist;  moreover,  it 
is  not  unnatural  to  find  the  pioneer  dwelling  at  con- 
siderable length  on  comparatively  infertile  regions  of 
the  newly-explored  territory,  while  points  of  vantage 
which  have  subsequently  proved  to  be  the  most  pro- 
ductive fields  of  study  were  dismissed  very  briefly.  It 
was  largely  due  to  Prof,  van  der  Waals  that  two  new 
and  important  fundamental  laws  were  discovered  ill 
the  paper,  namely,  the  phase  rule  and  the  law  of  critical 
states,  and  the  consequences  of  the  first  of  these  laws 
were  the  subject  of  remarkable  developments  in  the 
hands  of  Bakhuis  Roozboom,  Schreinmakers,  Storten- 
beker  and  Wilder  Bancroft.  The  well-cultivated 
tracts  of  knowledge  which  represent  a  most  im- 
portant branch  of  modern  physical  chemistry  bear  but 
little  resemblance  to  the  crude,  often  circuitous  path, 
full  of  stumbling  blocks  and  difficult  obstacles  by  which 
Gibbs  first  opened  up  this  region.  The  study  of  dis- 
sociation phenomena  has  afforded  some  of  the  most 
beautiful  experimental  verifications  of  Gibbs's  theories, 
which  have  done  much  to  convert  theoretical  chemistry 
into  a  branch  of  applied  mathematics. 

It  is  not  the  physicist  and  chemist  alone  who  are  in- 
debted to  Prof.  Gibbs;  he  has  also  made  his  mark 
among  mathematicians  in  connection  with  the  study 
of  quaternions  and  vector  algebra.  Physicists  claim 
that  in  the  Hamiltonian  system  of  quaternions  there 
is  a  loss  of  naturalness  from  the  fact  that  the  square 
of  a  vector  becomes  negative.  Gibbs  met  the  objection 
iby  suggesting  an  algebra  of  vectors  with  a  new  nota- 
;tion,  the  expression  for  the  product  of  two  vectors 
being  formed  in  such  a  way  as  to  give  a  positive  value 
ifor  the  square  of  a  vector.  His  paper  on  '^  Multiple 
I  Algebra  "  was  published  in  the  Proceedings  of  the 
j  American  Association  for  1886. 

I  Gibbs's  attention  has  recently  been  turned  to  re- 
i  modelling  the  mathematical  theories  underlying  the 
[kinetic  theory  of  gases,  and  the  law  of  partition  of 
^energy.  His'  work  on  statistical  mcchanirs  has  been 
■before  us  for  about  a  year,  but  so  difficult  is  the  sub- 
ject that  a  considerable  further  time  mustelapse  be- 
Ifore  it  can  be  widely  understood  and  appreciated.  His 
interpretation  of  the  determinantal  equation  as  the 
;  principle  of  conservation  of  extension  in  phase,  his 
•methods  of  dealing  with  ensembles  of  systems,  and 
this  establishment  of  the  existence  of  irreversible 
phenomena  in  connection  with  such  ensembles  are  all 
distinct  advances,  but  in  connec;tion  with  the  last- 
named  properties  an  idea  necessarily  forces  itself  on 
one  that  there  must  be  some  assumption  underlying, 
the  proof  which  niii^ht  with  advantage  be  discussed 
more  expliciily  than  was  done  in  the  treatise  In  question, 
and  his  loss  at  the  present  time  deprives  us  of  the 
prospect  of  further  enlightenment  on  difficulties  which 
no  amount  of  mere  mathematical  formulae  will  clear 
up. 

As  mentioned  last  week,  he  was  elected  Foreign 
Member  of  the  Royal  Society  in  1897,  and  received  the 
Copley  medal  in  190T.  He  was  also  an  honorary  or 
corresponding  member  of  the  British  Association,  the 
(\inibridge  Philosophical  Society,  and  many  other 
Iranicd  societies  both  in  this  country  and  abroad. 

G.  H.  B. 


NO.    1749.  VOL.  68] 


NATURE 


[May  7,  1903 


^OTES. 
The  annual   conversazione  of  the   Royal   Society   will  be 
held  on  Friday,  May  15. 

The  following  fifteen  candidates  have  been  selected  by 
the  council  of  the  Royal  Society  to  be  recommended  for 
election  into  the  Society  : — Dr.  W.  M.  Bayliss,  Prof.  T.  W. 
Bridge,  Dr.  S.  Monckton  Copeman,  Mr.  Horace  Darwin, 
Mr.  W.  P.  Hiern,  Mr.  H.  R.  A.  Mallock,  Prof.  D.  Orme 
Masson,  Mr.  Arthur  G.  Parkin,  Prof.  E.  Rutherford,  Prof. 
R.  A.  Sampson,  Mr.  J.  E.  Stead,  Mr.  A.  Strahan,  Prof.  J. 
Symington,  Prof.  J.  S.  Townsend,  and  Mr.  A.  N. 
Whitehead. 

At  the  annual  general  meeting  of  the  Institution  of  Civil 
Engineers,  held  on  April  29,  Sir  William  H.  White,  K.C.B., 
F.R.S.,  was  elected  president  for  the  sessional  year  1903- 
1904. 

Dr.  P.  Chalmers  Mitchell  has  been  elected  secretary  of 
the  Zoological  Society  in  the  place  of  Mr.  W.  L.  Sclater, 
who  held  the  ofiice  as  acting  secretary  since  the  retire- 
ment of  his  father.  Dr.  P.  L.  Sclater,  F.R.S.,  last  year. 

Further  particulars  of  the  work  and  position  of  the 
National  Antarctic  Expedition  have  been  brought  by  the 
New  Zealand  mail,  and  are  published  in  Wednesday's 
Times.  The  chief  scientific  work  accomplished  by  the  ex- 
pedition is  summarised  as  follows  : — (i)  The  discovery  of 
extensive  land  at  the  east  extremity  of  the  great  ice  barrier. 
(2)  The  discovery  that  MacMurdo  Bay  is  not  a  "  bay,"  but 
a  strait,  and  that  Mounts  Erebus  and  Terror  form  part 
of  a  comparatively  small  island.  (3)  The  discovery  of  good 
winter  quarters  in  a  high  latitude — viz.  77°  50'  S.,  166°  42' 
E. — with  land  close  by  suitable  for  the  erection  of  the  mag- 
netic observatories,  &c.  The  lowest  temperature  experienced 
was  92°  of  frost  Fahrenheit.  (4)  An  immense  amount  of 
scientific  work  over  twelve  months  in  winter  quarters, 
principally  physical  and  biological.  (5)  Numerous  and  ex- 
tensive sledge  journeys  in  the  spring  and  summer,  covering 
a  good  many  thousand  miles,  of  which  the  principal  is 
Captain  Scott's  journey,  upon  which  a  latitude  of  82°  17' 
south  was  attained,  and  an  immense  tract  of  new  land  dis- 
covered and  charted  as  far  as  83°  30'  south,  with  peaks  and 
ranges  of  mountains  as  high  as  14,000  feet.  (6)  The  great 
continental  inland  ice  reached  westwards  at  a  considerable 
distance  from  the  coast  and  at  an  altitude  of  9000  feet.  (7) 
A  considerable  amount  of  magnetic  work  at  sea,  also  sound- 
ings, deep-sea  dredging,  &c.  Commander  Scott's  narrative 
of  the  expedition  and  statement  of  scientific  observations, 
telegraphed  from  Lyttelton,  and  given  in  our  issue  of  April  2 
(P-  516),  is  thus  confirmed.  It  was  not  clear  at  the  time 
of  the  cable  message  why  the  Discovery  could  not  get  out 
of  the  ice,  though  the  relief  vessel,  the  Morning,  had  done 
so  and  returned  to  New  Zealand.  It  is  now  known,  how- 
ever, that  the  Morning  only  got  within  about  eight  miles  of 
the  Discovery,  and  the  stores  had  to  be  transferred  by 
means  of  sledges.  As  the  Discovery  has  not  returned  to 
Lyttelton,  there  is  little  doubt  that  the  expedition  has  been 
forced  to  spend  a  third  winter  in  the  Antarctic.  Much 
additional  expense  will  thus  be  incurred,  and  it  is  estimated 
that  from  12,000/.  to  20,oooZ.  more  will  be  needed  to  meet  it. 

The  death  is  announced  of  Mr.   C.   Bartlett,   late  super- 
intendent of  the  Zoological  Society. 

A  Universal  Exposition  of  Sciences,  Arts,  and  Industries 
is  to  be  held  at  Li^ge  in  the  year  1905. 

The  death  is  announced  of  M.  de  Bussy,  member  of  the 
Institute  of  France,  and  well  known  as  a  naval  engineer. 
NO.    1749,   VOL.   68] 


An  earthquake  shock,  lasting  five  seconds,  was  felt  in 
villaeres  between  Worksworth  and  Derby  on  Sunday,  May  3, 
at  9.20  p.m. 

According  to  a  Central  News  message  from  San  Fran- 
cisco, dated  May  i,  a  report  from  San  Juan  states  that  the 
Santa  Maria  volcano  in  Guatemala  is  in  a  state  of  active 
eruption. 

The  Louis  Pillet  prize  of  the  Chemical  Society  of  Paris 
has  been  awarded  to  M.  E.  Theulier,  director  of  the  technical 
staff  and  head  of  the  research  laboratory  of  Messrs.  Lautier 
fils,  of  Grasse. 

An  international  exhibition  of  agriculture  and  horti- 
culture, which  the  Cercle  grand-ducal  d 'Agriculture  et 
d 'Horticulture  du  Grand-Duch^  de  Luxemburg  is  organising 
at  Luxemburg  on  the  occasion  of  the  fiftieth  anniversary  of 
its  foundation,  will  be  held  from  August  29  to  September  7. 

It  is  announced  in  Science  that  the  Donohoe  comet-medals 
of  the  Astronomical  Society  of  the  Pacific  have  been 
awarded  to  M.  Michel  Giacobini,  of  Nice,  for  his  discoveries 
of  unexpected  comets  on  December  2,  1902,  and  January  15, 
1903. 

The  proposed  electric  railway  to  the  summit  of  Mont 
Blanc  is  to  be  commenced  shortly.  The  municipal  authori- 
ties of  Saint  Gervais-les-Bains  have  accepted  the  scheme, 
and  have  accorded  the  concession  to  the  French  engineers, 
MM.  Deruad  and  Duportal. 

A  noteworthy  point  in  connection  with  the  illuminations 
of  Paris,  organised  by  the  reception  committee  in  honour 
of  the  King's  visit,  was  the  electric  incandescent  lamps  of 
different  colours  in  the  chief  streets  and  avenues  and  on 
many  large  buildings.  The  effect  was  very  brilliant,  and 
the  large  crowd  of  sightseers  admired  it  exceedingly. 

The  council  of  the  Society  of  Arts  is  prepared  to  award, 
under  the  terms  of  the  Benjamin  Shaw  Trust,  a  prize  of  a 
gold  medal,  or  twenty  pounds,  for  the  best  dust-arresting 
respirator  for  use  in  dusty  processes  and  in  dangerous 
trades.  Inventors  intending  to  compete  should  send  in 
specimens  of  their  inventions  not  later  than  December  31 
to  the  secretary  of  the  Society  of  Arts,  John  Street,  Adelphi, 
London,  W.C. 

Invitation  cards  in  the  name  of  the  president  of  the 
Institution  of  Electrical  Engineers  are  being  issued  to 
members  of  the  Institution  for  a  concert  to  be  given  at  the 
Royal  Albert  Hall  on  the  evening  of  Thursday,  June  11, 
on  the  occasion  of  the  International  Telegraph  Conference. 
The  annual  conversazione  of  the  Institution  will  be  held 
at  the  Natural  History  Museum  on  the  evening  of  Tuesday, 
June  23.  This  date  has  been  selected  as  one  on  which  it 
will  be  possible  for  the  members  of  the  International  Tele- 
graph Conference  to  be  present. 

On  Tuesday  next,  May  12,  Prof.  G.  H.  Darwin  delivers 
the  first  of  two  lectures  at  the  Royal  Institution  on  "  The 
Astronomical  Influence  of  the  Tides,"  and  on  Thursday, 
May  14,  Prof.  S.  H.  Vines  begins  a  course  of  two  lectures 
on  "  Proteid-Digestion  in  Plants."  The  Friday  evening 
discourse  on  May  15  will  be  delivered  by  Dr.  D.  H.  Scott 
on  the  "  Origin  of  Seed  Bearing  Plants." 

The  new  Johnston  Laboratory  at  University  College, 
Liverpool,  is  to  be  opened  by  Mr.  Walter  Long,  M.P.,  Presi- 
dent of  the  Local  Government  Board,  on  Saturday,  May  9. 
Many  distinguished  men  of  science  have  expressed  their 
intention  to  be  present  at  the  ceremony.  On  Monday,  May 
II,  a  conference  on  tropical  sanitation  will  be  held  in  the 
college. 


May  7,  1903 


NATURE 


13 


The  Manchester  Literary  and  Philosophical  Society  will 
hortly  celebrate  the  centenary  of  Dalton's  enunciation  of 
!ie  atomic  theory.  On  May  19  Prof.  F.  W.  Clarke,  of  the 
I  olumbia  University,  Washington,  will  deliver  a  lecture 
n  the  evolution  and  philosophy  of  the  theory.  Arrange- 
nents  are  also  being  made  for  a  conversazione  at  Owens 
'  "ollege,  and  exhibition  of  Dalton  manuscripts,  portraits, 
nd  other  records. 

Reuter  reports  that  if  within  a  short  time  no  ship  from 
tlie  Falkland  Islands  arrives  at  Montevideo  or  Buenos  Ayres 
with  news  of  the  Nordenskjold  Antarctic  expedition,  an 
expedition  to  relieve  Nordenskjold  will  be  equipped  at  Stock- 
holm immediately,  and  should  no  intelligence  of  the  ex- 
plorer have  come  to  hand  in  the  meantime,  will  leave  on 
September  1  for  the  South  Shetland  Islands,  where  it  should 
arrive  about  the  middle  of  November.  The  funds  required 
for  the  relief  expedition  have  already  been  secured. 

A  GREAT  rock  slide  occurred  on  the  morning  of  April  29 
at  Frank,  a  small  mining  town  on  the  Canadian  Pacific 
Railway  in  the  Rocky  Mountains,  and  in  Alberta  Terri- 
tory. A  telegram  from  Sir  Wilfrid  Laurier  states  that  the 
whole  east  end  of  Turtle  Mountain  from  the  mouth  ol 
Frank  Mine  slid  into  the  valley  and  blocked  it  entirely. 
The  railway  was  covered  with  debris  for  a  mile  and  a  half 
east  of  Frank.  The  landslip  gave  rise  to  great  clouds  of 
dust,  which  were  at  first  thought  to  be  due  to  a  volcanic 
eruption,  and  was  reported  as  such,  but  this  conclusion  was 
entirely  unfounded. 

Captain  Sverdrup  gave  an  account  of  his  expedition  to 
hp  Arctic  region  in  1898  to  1902  before  the  Royal  Scottish 
K'ographical  Society  on  Monday  night,  and  was  presented 
with  the  gold  medal  of  the  Society  in  recognition  of  his 
achievements.  Sheriff  Guthrie,  who  presided,  prefaced  the 
address  with  an  appeal  on  behalf  of  the  Scottish  Antarctic 
expedition  under  Mr.  W.  S.  Bruce.  The  leader  hoped  to 
be  engaged  in  his  work  for  two  years,  and  funds  for  the 
first  year  are  still  short  by  2250/.,  while  for  the  whole  ex- 
pedition a  sum  of  lo.oooZ.  is  wanted. 

The  Government  of  India  is  endeavouring  to  bring  into 
being  the  Tata  institution  for  scientific  teaching  and  re- 
search at  Bangalore.  The  Daily  Mail  states  that  the 
Government  has  just  addressed  the  Bombay  Administration, 
offering  to  increase  the  grant  so  as  to  raise  the  total  annual 
income  of  the  institute  to  15,000^.,  conditionally  on  the 
Mysore  durbars  carrying  out  its  proposal  that  they  should 
assist.  Lord  Curzon  hopes  that  Mr.  Tata  will  now  expedite 
his  arrangements  so  as  to  enable  legislation  for  the  con- 
stitution of  the  institute  to  proceed. 

L\  the  article  on  standardisation  which  appeared  in 
Nature  of  April  23  (p.  587),  it  is  stated  that  the  work  of 
the  Engineering  Standards  Committee  was  started  two 
years  ago  at  the  suggestion  of  the  Institution  of  Mechanical 
Engineers.  .Mr.  Leslie  S.  Robertson,  the  secretary  of  the 
committee,  writes  to  point  out  that  the  committee  was 
formed  in  pursuance  of  a  resolution  of  the  council  of  the 
Institution  of  Civil  Engineers.  We  are  glad  to  make  this 
correction,  both  for  the  sake  of  historical  accuracy  and 
because  the  fact  was  well  known  to  the  writer  of  the  article, 
who  inadvertently  named  the  wrong  institution. 

M.  E.  DupoRCQ  (Ing^nieur  des  t^l^graphes),  whose  death 
was  announced  recently  (p.  589),  was  general  secretary  of 
the  Mathematical  Congress  at  Paris  in  1900,  and  worked 
hard  to  make  it  a  success.  He  was  also  a  vice-secretary  of 
the  Mathematical  Society  of  France,  and  editor  of  the 
Xouvelles   Annales,    where   most   of  his   mathematical   con- 


NO.    1749,  VOL.  68] 


tributions  are  to  be  found.  These  were  chiefly  in  the  region 
of  elementary  pure  mathematics,  and  he  was  also  a  deviser 
of  mathematical  problems  of  the  style  of  Prof.  Wolsten- 
holme. 

Prof.  George  E.  Hale  has  informed  Science  that  Miss 
Helen  E.  Snow,  of  Chicago,  has  provided  for  the  reconstruc- 
tion of  the  coelostat  reflecting  telescope  of  the  Yerkes  Observ- 
atory as  a  memorial  to  her  father.  The  telescope  will  be 
provided  with  solar  and  stellar  spectrographs,  spectrohelio- 
graphs  and  other  important  accessories.  The  coelostat  re- 
flector which  the  new  telescope  is  to  replace  was  seriously 
injured  by  fire  last  December,  giving  rise  to  erroneous  but 
widespread  statements  that  the  main  building  of  the  Yerkes 
Observatory,  as  well  as  the  40-inch  refractor,  had  been 
destroyed. 

We  are  requested  to  announce  that  a  representative  com- 
mittee has  been  formed  for  the  purpose  of  raising  a 
memorial  to  the  late  Sir  Henry  Bessemer.  The  remarkable 
industrial  development  of  the  world  in  recent  years  is  largely 
due  to  the  metallurgical  process  which  bears  the  name  of 
Bessemer,  and  it  has  long  been  felt  that  his  life's  work 
should  be  suitably  commemorated  in  the  centre  of  the  British 
Empire.  The  objects  of  the  memorial  are,  first,  the  erec- 
tion (and,  if  necessary,  the  endowment)  of  metallurgical 
teaching  and  research  works  in  connection  with  the  Uni- 
versity of  London,  equipped  for  the  testing  of  ores  and 
metallurgical  products  by  modern  methods,  and  for  the  in- 
vestigation of  new  methods  and  processes ;  and,  second,  the 
foundation  of  international  scholarships  for  post-graduate 
courses  in  practical  work  in  connection  with  proposals  now 
under  the  consideration  of  the  Board  of  Education.  The 
committee  is  thoroughly  representative,  and  among  the  men 
of  science  upon  it  are  Sir  William  Abney,  K.C.B.,  F.R.S., 
Sir  John  Wolfe  Barry,  K.C.B.,  F.R.S.,  Dr.  C.  Le  Neve 
Foster,  F.R.S.,  Prof.  A.  K.  Huntingdon,  Sir  Arthur 
Rucker,  F.R.S.,  and  Sir  H.  Trueman  Wood.  A  meeting  to 
inaugurate  the  fund  will  be  held  at  the  Mansion  House  on 
Monday,  June  29  next,  particulars  of  which  will  be  pub- 
lished later.  All  communications  should  be  addressed  to  the 
secretary,  Mr.  Charles  McDermid,  Bessemer  Memorial 
Fund,  Salisbury  House,  London,  E.C. 

By  the  death  of  Mr.  Osier,  which  occurred  on  April  26 
at  his  residence,  South  Bank,  Edgbaston,  Birmingham,  at 
the  age  of  ninety-five,  meteorological  science  has  lost 
another  of  its  distinguished  pioneers.  His  principal  works 
in  this  science  were  contributed  to  the  Proceedings  of  the 
British  Association,  and  to  the  Proceedings  of  the  Literary 
and  Philosophical  Society  of  Birmingham,  between  the 
years  1836  and  1858.  He  was  perhaps  best  known  by  his 
invention  of  a  self-recording  direction  and  pressure  anemo- 
meter and  rain-gauge  ;  one  of  these  instruments  was  erected 
at  the  Philosophical  Institute  at  Birmingham,  and  a  dis- 
cussion of  the  observations  obtained  by  it  during  the  years 
1839  and  1840  was  published  in  the  Proceedings  of  the 
British  Association.  Another  instrument  was  erected  at  the 
Liverpool  Observatory  in  185 1,  and  a  summary  of  the  records 
for  1852-5  was  published  in  the  latter  year.  From  a  report 
recently  received  from  that  observatory,  we  .find  that  his 
combined  anemometer  and  rain-gauge  is  still  in  use,  and 
continues  to  give  entire  satisfaction.  In  recognition  of  his 
researches  in  this  branch  of  science  he  was  elected  a  fellow 
of  the  Royal  Society  in  1855.  In  his  earlier  years  he  was 
actively  engaged  in  the  development  of  the  glass  industry 
in  Birmingham. 

M.  Paul  du  Chaillu,  the  African  explorer  and  discoverer 
of  the  gorilla,   died  at   St.   Petersburg  on  April  30.     Paul 


14 


NA  TURE 


[May  7,  1903 


Belloni  du  Chaillu  was  born  in  1835,  and  at  an  early  age 
he  went  to  live  in  the  French  colony  of  Senegamb.a,  where 
his  father  was  a  trader.  There  he  acquired  a  knowledge 
of  languages  and  modes  of  life  of  the  tribes,  devoting  much 
attention  to  natural  history.  At  the  age  of  seventeen  he 
went  to  the  United  States,  where  he  naturalised  himself, 
but  in  185s  he  sailed  for  West  Africa  again,  and  spent  four 
years  in 'the  interior  unaccompanied  by  any  white  men, 
traversing  a  distance  of  more  than  8000  miles  on  foot  in 
the  equatorial  region.  The  results  were  embodied  in  the 
most  important  of  his  works,  "  Explorations  and  Adven- 
tures in  Equatorial  Africa  "  (1861).  He  returned  also  with 
many  specimens,  some  of  which  were  acquired  by  the  British 
Museum.  The  work  provoked  much  controversy,  and  his 
gorilla  and  cannibal  stories,  in  particular,  were  widely  dis- 
credited ;  but  the  general  truth  of  his  narrative  was  after- 
wards substantiated,  both  as  regards  the  river  systems  of 
the  Continent,  its  equatorial  population,  and  its  zoological 
characteristics.  In  1862-65  Du  Chaillu  revisited  West 
Africa,  and  afterwards  published  an  account  of  the  expedi- 
tion in  a  volume  under  the  title  of  "  A  Journey  to  Ashango- 
land  "  (1867).  Since  then  he  had  made  journeys  in  Sweden, 
Lapland,  and  Finland,  and  written  numerous  works,  the 
chief  being  "  Stories  of  the  Gorilla  Country,"  "  Wild  Life 
under  the  Equator,"  "  Lost  in  the  Jungle,"  "  The  Country 
of  the  Dwarfs,"  "  The  Land  of  the  Midnight  Sun,"  and 
"  The  Age  of  the  Vikings,"  in  which  he  contended  that  the 
origin  of  the  English  race  was  Scandinavian.  He  was  also 
the  author  of  other  works. 

Referring  to  Mr.  G.  Henschel's  letter  in  last  week's 
Nature  (p.  610)  on  complementary  singing  by  bullfinch  and 
canary,  Mr.  J.  R.  Paul  writes  from  Alcluith,  Dumbarton, 
to  say  that  he  put  a  red-pole  in  a  cage  hung  between  the 
cages  of  two  canaries.  After  a  time  the  bird  dropped  the 
brisk  "  tweet,  tweet  "  of  the  finches,  and  began  to  imitate 
the  canaries'  song.  His  song  is  now  an  almost  perfect  copy 
of  the  canaries'  notes,  and  his  own  particular  note  is  quite 
lost.  Moreover,  Mr.  Paul  adds  that  a  pair,  of  little  green 
parraquets  are  also  learning  the  canaries'  song.  "  Within 
a  very  few  days  of  their  arrival  they  began  to  try  '  notes,' 
and  already  the  imitation  is  laughably  correct,  the 
'  squawky, '  parrot-like  voice  making  the  song  only  the  more 
ludicrous." 

The  first  scientific  meeting  of  the  Challenger  Society  for 
the  Promotion  of  the  Study  of  Oceanic  Zoology  and  Botany 
was  held  on  April  29,  Dr.  R.  N.  Wolfenden  in  the  chair. 
In  a  paper  on  bipolarity,  Dr.  G.  H.  Fowler  cited  recent 
memoirs  to  show  that,  in  spite  of  a  good  deal  of  destructive 
criticism,  a  prima  facie  case  had  been  made  out  for  a 
marked  similarity  (amounting  in  some  instances  to  specific 
identity)  between  the  two  sub-Polar  faunas.  Dr.  Wolfenden 
gave  a  preliminary  account  of  the  Copepoda  collected  by 
Mr.  J.  S.  Gardiner  in  the  Maldive  Archipelago.  More  than 
ninety  species  had  been  already  identified,  of  which  some 
sixteen  were  new.  Mr.  E.  W.  L.  Holt  exhibited  and  made 
remarks  on  a  new  Gnathophausia  from  deep  water.  A 
committee  was  appointed  to  inquire  whether  it  will  be 
possible  for  the  Society  to  undertake  a  card  catalogue  for 
oceanic  work. 

The  monthly  Bulletin  published  by  the  Philippine 
Weather  Bureau  under  the  direction  of  the  Rev.  J.  Algu6, 
S.J.,  contains  much  valuable  information  relating  to  the 
meteorology  and  microseismic  movements  of  the  Archipelago  ; 
the  tables  include  meteorological  data  deduced  from  hourly 
observations  made  at  the  Manila  Observatory,  and  rainfall 
and  temperature  data  at  a  considerable  number  of  stations. 

NO.    1749,   VOL.  68] 


The  last  Bulletin  we  have  received,  for  November,  1902, 
gives  an  account  and  the  track  of  a  typhoon  which  occurred 
between  November  7  and  12.  This  typhoon  was  one  of 
the  most  rapid  that  has  been  experienced,  and  its  speed  did 
not  decrease  until  it  reached  the  Asiatic  continent.  The 
map  shows  that  at  noon  on  November  7  it  was  near  the 
meridian  of  135°  east,  and  that  twenty-four  hours  later  it 
had  already  reached  122°  east  longitude,  and  that  it  entered 
Luzon  during  the  afternoon  of  that  day.  It  speaks  well  for 
the  efficiency  of  the  forecasting  department  of  the  observ- 
atory that  it  was  able  to  give  timely  warning  of  the  ap- 
proach of  the  storm  to  the  provinces  threatened. 

The  Meteorological  Office  pilot  chart  for  May  shows  that 
there  are  immense  quantities  of  icebergs  and  field-ice  about 
the  Newfoundland  banks,  so  much,  indeed,  that  the  steam- 
ship owners  have  been  compelled  to  order  their  commanders 
to  disregard  the  international  steamer  routes,  and  keep 
about  sixty  miles  to  the  southward,  so  as  to  endeavour  to 
keep  clear  of  the  danger.  A  number  of  bergs  have  been 
sighted  southward  of  the  41st  parallel,  beyond  the  southern 
point  of  the  Great  Bank,  and  they  extend  thence  northward 
in  vast  numbers  up  the  edge  of  the  bank  to  about  the 
;5oth  parallel,  and  no  doubt  far  beyond,  while  they  are 
scattered  as  far  eastward  as  the  40th  meridian  and  west- 
ward to  the  55th  meridian.  In  addition  quantities  of  field- 
ice,  drifting  out  of  the  St.  Lawrence  by  Cabot  Strait,  render 
navigation  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Cape  Breton  and  the 
south  of  Newfoundland  dangerous.  It  is  many  years  since 
there  was  so  much  ice  in  the  neighbourhood. 

Negotiations  are  in  progress  with  the  Danish  Govern- 
ment for  establishing  wireless  communication  to  Iceland 
by  the  Marconi  system.  A  provisional  agreement  has  been 
iinade  between  the  Marconi  Co.  and  a  Danish  association 
by  which  the  latter  has  the  option  of  carrying  out  the 
project;  it  has  not  yet  been  decided  whether  the  communica- 
tion shall  be  direct  between  Iceland,  the  Faroe  Islands  and 
Jutland,  or  between  the  islands  and  Scotland. 

The  full  text  of  the  Government  Bill  "  to  facilitate  the 
I  introduction  and  use  of  electrical  power  on  railways,"  which 
jwas  read  for  a  first  time  last  month,  has  now  been  printed. 
'The  chief  effect  of  the  Bill  is  to  give,  the  Board  of  Trade 
'power  to  make  orders  authorising  railway  companies  to 
juse  electricity  as  motive  power,  and  to  generate  such  power 
lor  make  agreements  for.  its  supply.  There  are  several  other 
Iclauses  in  the  Bill  relating  to  provisions  which  would  be 
inecessary  in  the  case  of  a  railway  company  changing. over 
ipartly   or   wholly   to   electrical   working.       The    Bill,    as   it 

facilitates  acquiring  the  necessary  powers  for  electrical 
^working  by  doing  away  with  the  necessity  for  introducing 
;a  private  Bill,  can  only  help  forward  progress  in  this  direc- 
ition.  The  Government  is  certainly  to  be  congratulated  on 
Ihaving,  for  once  in  a  way,  recognised  the  probable  develop- 
!ments  of  science  before  it  is  too  late,  and  we  hope  that  the 

Bill  will  soon  become  law,  and  that  the  railway  companies 

will  avail  themselves  of  its  provisions. 

'     Some  interesting  evidence   was  given  before   the  depart- 

•mental  committee  on  electricity  in  mines  by  Mr.  Selby 
Bigge,  especially  in  relation  to  the  position  of  this  country 
in  comparison  with  America  and  continental  countries.  Mr. 
Bigge  stated  that  he  thought  this  country  was  very  much 

.behindhand,  not  only  in  the  application  of  electricity  to 
mining,  but  in  the  manufacture  of  electrical  machinery 
generally.  This  he  attributed  partly  to  the  restrictive  nature 
of  our  legislation,  and  partly  to  the  lack  of  scientific  train- 
ing on  the  part  of  the  managers  and  others  in  authority. 

,He  instanced  numbers  of  examples  of  electrical  mining  in- 


May  7,  1903] 


NATURE 


15 


>u. nations  on   the   Continent,    laying   special   stress   on    the 

application   of   three-phase   working   and   the   use   of   high 

voltages  which  this  system  permitted  ;  he  even  went  so  far 

,    as  to  say  that,   paradoxical  as  he  might  seem,   the  higher 

voltages   were   probably    safer,    as   the   workmen,    knowing 

that  any   tampering   with   the  mains   meant  certain  death, 

,'  left    them   severely   alone.     For   the   actual    machinery,    500 

>"  to  700  volts  was  a  suitable  pressure,  but  1000  to  3000  volts 

I  might   be  used   with   advantage   for   transmission   for  con- 

I  siderable  distances  into  the  mines.     Other  evidence  of  an 

i>  interesting  nature  was  given  before  the  committee,   which 

*  is  still  sitting. 

Official   statistics    have   on    several    occasions   been    col- 

lt(  ted  as  to  the  number  of  horses  and  other  beasts  of  burden 

in  Italy,  but  statistics  regarding  educational  matters  appear 

to  be  few  and  far  between.     The  only  records  of  the  total 

attendances  in  Italian  schools  or  colleges  under  the  control 

public  or  religious  bodies  refer  to  the  year   1870.     For 

N  ate  boys'  schools  results  were  collected  from   1879,  and 

Lrirls'  schools  from  1887,  but  in  no  case  does  information 

■nd   beyond    1894.     Prof.    Amato   Amati,   writing   in   the 

nbardy  Rendiconti,  now  asks  for  an  official  census  of  the 

^)i  ivate  schools  and  educational  institutions  of  Italy. 

Various  experimenters  have  obtained  interference  between 

light-waves  with  a  difference  of  path  reaching  in  one  case 

as    much    as    790,000    wave-lengths.       Profs.   Lummer  and 

tiehrcke   now   describe   experiments   in    the    Verhandlungen 

(it    the    German    Physical    Society,    in    which    interference 

'  "nomena  were  obtained  after  nine  reflections  at  the  sur- 

s  of  a  uniform  plate,  representing  a  difference  of  path 

2,600,000   wave-lengths,    and   they   draw   the   conclusion 

111, it    among    the    particles    of   vapour    in    the    mercury    arc 

u-t'd  as  the  source  of  light,   the  greater  portion  send  out 

light  capable  of  producing   interference  for  a  longer  time 

than  the  interval  (less  than  io~^  of  a  second)    in  which  2| 

million  waves  are  emitted. 

The  importance  of  a  convenient,  accurate,  and  at  the 
same  time  readily  understood  designation  of  musical  notes 
ill  connection  with  the  study  of  audition  and  partial  deaf- 
11' ss  forms  the  subject  of  ai  paper  by  Sir  W.  R.  Cowers, 
F.R.S.,  in  the  Review  of  Neurology  and  Psychiatry  for 
April.  At  present  there  is  no  uniformity  of  notation,  and 
the  notation  adopted  by  Helmholtz  was  merely  an  old  and 
inconvenient  notation  used  in  organ  construction.  The 
present  writer  proposes  to  use  C  to  denote  the  "  middle  C  " 
(frequency  264),  to  use  C\  C*,  C  to  denote  the  successive 
octaves  above,  and  to  use  C,,  C,,  C,  to  denote  the  successive 

^  octaves   below   middle   C,    each   octave   extending   to   the   B 

f  above. 

w  In  describing  the  brain  of  the  walrus,  Mr.  P.  A.  Fish 
(Proc.  U.S.  Nat.  Mus.,  \o.  1325)  shows  that  the  general 
plan  of  the  fissures  corresponds  to  that  obtaining  in  Carni- 
vora  generally,  and  more  especially  seals. 

The  Natural  History  Branch  of  the  British  Museum  has 
received  from  Lord  Crawford  a  small  but  interesting  series 
of  birds'  skins  collected  by  Mr.  M.  J.  Nicholl  on  St.  Paul 
and  Noronha  Islands,  off  the  Brazilian  coast.  The  only 
specimens  from  the  latter  island  previously  in  the  collection 
were  obtained  by  Dr.  H.  N.  Ridley  in  1886. 

In  vol.  iii.,  part  iii.,  of  the  Annals  of  the  S.  African 
Museum,  Mr.  G.  A.  Boulenger  describes  six  new  forms 
of  perch-like  fishes  from  the  Natal  coast.  Recent  issues 
of  the  Proc.  U.S.  Nat.  Mus.  contain  papers  on  the  band- 
fishes  (Cepolid.Te)  and  loaches  (Cobitidae)  of  Japan,  by 
Messrs.  Jordan  and  Fowler. 

NO.    1749,  VOL.   68] 


In  the  course  of  a  series  of  notes  on  the  ornithology  of 
Norfolk  for  1902,  published  in  the  April  number  of  the 
Zoologist,  Mr.  J.  H.  Gurney  directs  attention  to  the  great 
migration  of  rooks  and  other  members  of  the  crow  family 
which  took  place  on  the  east  coast  during  October  of  last 
year.  The  greater  number  of  the  immigrants  were  rooks, 
and  the  movement  extended  at  least  as  far  as  Lincolnshire. 
Several  rare  birds  are  recorded  as  stragglers.  Mr.  Gurney 
adds  that  there  is  no  good  news  to  record  of  the  great 
bustards  which  were  turned  down  at  Brandon  in  1900.  Of 
the  original  fifteen,  only  a  single  pair  now  remain ;  the 
hen  laid  a  couple  of  eggs,  which  were  incubated  for  six 
weeks  without  a  successful  result. 

We  have  received  from  Prof.  W.  C.  M'Intosh  a  copy  of 
a  pamphlet  on  British  fisheries'  investigations  and  the 
international  scheme.  After  referring  to  past  and  present 
investigations  in  connection  with  British  fisheries,  the 
author  discusses  the  international  scheme  for  the  systematic 
biological  survey  of  the  North  Sea,  to  which  allusion  has 
recently  been  made  in  our  columns,  urging  that  if  the 
British  Government  resolves  to  participate  in  the  scheme, 
attention  should  be  concentrated  on  the  habits  and  develop- 
ment of  fishes  and  their  food-supplies  to  the  exclusion  of 
subjects  connected  with  hydrography.  In  regard  to  the 
supposed  deterioration  of  our  fisheries.  Prof.  M'Intosh  is  an 
optimist,  remarking  that  "  There  is  no  fear  of  the  extinc- 
tion of  any  species,  especially  of  those  important  to  man. 
Furthermore,  fishes  have  abounded  in  the  primaeval  as  in 
the  modern  seas,  although  the  ravages  of  the  gigantic 
reptilian  and  other  fish-destroyers — which  in  some  instances 
were  distributed  over  the  whole  expanse  of  the  ocean- 
could  not  have  been  less  than  even  the  far-reaching  efforts 
of  man.  In  neither  period  has  extinction  ensued  from  the 
prevailing  agencies,  nor  is  it  likely  to  take  place  under 
these  conditions  in  the  future." 

An  account  of  the  structure  and  properties  of  a  legu- 
minous lliane,  Derris  uliginosa,  the  leaves  of  which  have 
been  used  as  a  fish  poison  by  Fijian  islanders,  has  been 
received  from  the  Wellcome  Research  Laboratories.  A  de- 
scription of  the  anatomy  of  the  stem  is  furnished  by  Mr. 
Perr^d^s,  from  which  it  appears  that  irregular  secondary 
vascular  structures  arise  in  the  cortex.  As  a  result  of 
chemical  investigation,  Dr.  Power  discovered  a  considerable 
amount  of  tannin  and  various  resinous  substances.  The 
toxic  action  is  attributed  to  a  constituent  of  that  part  of 
the  resin  which  is  soluble  in  chloroform,  and  not  .to  the 
tannin. 

The  progress  of  the  German  East  African  colony  may 
be  studied  in  the  reports  presented  by  the  officers  in  charge 
of  districts,  which  are  embodied  in  the  Berichte  issued 
from  Dar-es-Salam.  The  native  food  resources  are  matama, 
maize,  manioc,  and  in  some  parts  bananas.  Owing  to  the 
risks  of  failure  of  the  three  first,  the  natives  have  been 
encouraged  to  take  up  the  cultivation  of  rice  and  sweet 
potatoes.  As  a  source  of  revenue  extensive  plantations  of 
coffee  have  been  started  by  German  companies,  and  on  a 
smaller  scale  the  cultivation  of  coco-palms,  agave  and  ceara 
rubber  is  being  extended  with  promising  results. 

Of  the  papers  read  before  the  American  Society  for  Plant 
Morphology  and  Physiology,  two  contributed  by  Dr.  E.  F. 
Smith  refer  to  bacterial  diseases  attacking  Japanese  plum 
trees  and  sweet  corn,  in  both  of  which  cases  the  author 
concludes  that  infection  takes  place  through  the  stomata. 
A  paper  by  Prof.  Duggar  traces  the  inconsistency  of  the 
osmotic  action  of  certain  salts  on  marine  algae  to  their 
toxic  action,   and   potassium   salts  were  found   to  be  more 


i6 


NA  TURE 


[May  7,  1903 


poisonous  than  the  salts  of  calcium  or  magnesium.  Prof. 
Jeffrey  outlines  an  anatomical  clue  to  the  phylogeny  of  the 
monocotyledons  which  would  derive  them  from  dicotyle- 
dons. A  suggestive  paper  by  Prof.  Tourney  discusses  the 
initial  root  system  of  tree  seedlings. 

The  latest  addition  to  the  useful  series  of  short  scientific 
memoirs  published  in  Paris  by  M.  C.  Naud  under  the 
name  Scientia  is  by  Dr.  h.  D^combe,  and  is  entitled 
"  La  Compressibility  des  Gaz  R^els."  This  is  the  twenty- 
first  volume  in  the  series  dealing  with  physical  and  mathe- 
matical subjects. 

The  Cambridge  University  Press  has  published  the  second 
part  of  vol.  ii.  of  the  "  Reports  of  the  Cambridge  Anthro- 
pological Expedition  to  Torres  Straits,"  which  deals  with 
physiology  and  psychology.  The  fasciculus  contains  sec- 
tions by  Mr.  Charles  S.  Myers  on  hearing,  smell,  taste  and 
reaction-times,  and  by  Mr.  W.  McDougall  on  cutaneous 
sensations,  muscular  sense,  and  variations  of  blood-pressure. 

The  decision  of  the  GovernmerK  to  continue  the  present 
temporary  Vaccination  Act  for  one  year  has  met  with  the 
approval  of  conscientious  objectors,  whose  case  Mr.  Alex- 
ander Paul  appears  to  take  up  in  his  little  book,  "  The 
Vaccination  Problem  in  1903,  and  the  Impracticability  of 
Compulsion,"  recently  published  by  Messrs.  P.  S.  King  and 
Son.  The  book  should  be  useful  in  making  clear  the  posi- 
tion of  the  objectors,  so  that  the  dilificulties  they  put  for- 
ward can  be  satisfactorily  met  when  occasion  requires  it. 

The  Orient-Pacific  Line  have  published  their  pleasure 
cruise  arrangements  for  the  forthcoming  Norway  season. 
Three  steamers  will  be  employed,  viz.  the  Orient,  the  Cuzco 
and  the  Opiiir.  The  cruises  begin  on  June  11,  and  vary 
in  length  from  twenty  to  twenty-eight  days.  In  addition 
to  the  attractions  of  Norwegian  scenery  and  the  Midnight 
Sun,  the  programme  includes  a  visit  to  the  glaciers  of 
Spitsbergen  with  a  prospect  of  seeing  the  Polar  pack. 

Mr.  a.  R.  Hinks  writes  in  the  Monthly  Review  for  May 
on  the  evidence  for  life  on  Mars,  and  his  article  is  illus- 
trated by  two  maps  of  the  canals  or  channels  observed  by 
SchiapareUi.  The  article  is  largely  taken  up  with  an 
account  of  Mr.  Percival  Lowell's  observations  of  Mars  at 
Flagstaff,  in  Arizona,  and  the  conclusions  drawn  by  Mr. 
Lowell,  following  a  suggestion  of  SchiapareUi,  as  to  the 
existence  on  Mars  of  a  great  irrigation  system. 

The  report  of  the  council  of  the  Hampstead  Scientific 
Society  for  the  year  1902  shows  that  the  association  con- 
tinues its  commendable  activity.  Among  the  lectures 
organised  by  the  Society  during  the  year  may  be  mentioned 
those  of  Prof.  Boyd  Dawkins,  F.R.S.,  on  the  forest 
primeval  of  the  Coal-measures ;  Mrs.  Dr.  Bryant,  on  bees 
as  builders  of  the  honeycomb  and  otherwise ;  and  Dr. 
Shenton,  on  medical  applications  of  Rontgen  rays.  But 
much  of  the  useful  work  of  the  Society  is  accomplished  in 
sectional  meetings,  which  are  held  in  connection  with  the 
astronomical,  the  natural  history,  and  the  photographic 
sections  two  or  three  times  a  month.  The  example  set  by 
the  Hampstead  Society  might  with  advantage  be  more 
widely  copied. 

Considerable  evidence  is  being  accumulated  at  the  pre- 
sent time  which  is  apparently  strongly  antagonistic  to  the 
view  that  electrically  charged  ions  are  the  factors  which 
are  directly  active  in  all  cases  of  chemical  change.  In  the 
March  number  of  the  Journal  of  Physical  Chemistry,  Mr. 
H.  E.  Patten  gives  an  account  of  experiments  on  the  inter- 
action of  metals  and  hydrochloric  acid  in  various  perfectly 
NO.    1749,  VOL.  68] 


anhydrous  solvents.  The  solvents  employed  were  benzene, 
chloroform,  tin  and  silicon  tetrachlorides,  phosphorus  and 
arsenic  trichlorides,  antimony  pentachloride,  sulphur  mono- 
chloride,  and  thionylchloride.  These  solvents  had  a  smaller 
conductivity  than  air,  and  yet  zinc  was  in  all  cases  directly 
acted  upon  by  the  acid. 

An  interesting  study  of  the  modifications  of  acetaldehyde 
is  the  subject  of  a  paper  by  R.  Hollmann  in  the  Zeitschrift 
fiir  physikalische  Chcmie.  Experimental  data  are  given 
which  show  clearly  the  relationships  existing  between 
acetaldehyde  and  paraldehyde  for  temperatures  ranging 
from  -100°  C.  to  300°  C.  Of  special  interest  are  the 
observations  relating  to  the  composition  of  the  liquid  sub- 
stance in  its  natural  state  of  equilibrium.  At  the  melting 
point  (675°  C.)  the  liquid  consists  of  88  3  per  cent,  of 
molecules  of  paraldehyde,  whilst  at  the  boiling  point 
(41  6°  C.)  the  molecular  proportion  is  53-4,  and  at  the 
critical  temperature  (217°  C.)  only  11  per  cent. 

The  additions  to  the  Zoological  Society's  Gardens  during 
the  past  week  include  a  Two-spotted  Paradoxure  (Nandinia 
binotata)  from  West  Africa,  presented  by  Mr.  H.  R. 
Harger  ;  a  Springbok  {Gazella  euchore)  from  South  Africa, 
two  Feline  Dourocoulis  (Nyctipithecus  vociferans)  from 
Southern  Brazil,  two  Violet-necked  Cassowaries  {Casuarius 
violicoUis)  from  the  Aru  Islands,  four  White-eared  Bulbuls 
{Pycnonotus  leucotis),  an  Indian  Python  {Python  molurus), 
four  Saccobranchs  (Saccobranchus  fossilis)  from  India,  three 
Grey-breasted  Bullfinches  {Pyrrhula  griseiventris)  from 
Japan,  three  Mocassin  Snakes  (Tropidonotus  fasciatus)  from 
North  America,  five .  Red-spotted  Lizards  (Ereinias  rubro- 
punctata)  from  Egypt,  a  Delalande's  Gecko  {Tarentola  dela- 
landii)  from  West  Africa,  deposited ;  a  Diamond  Snake 
{Python  spilotes),  three  Brush  Turkeys  {Talegalla  lathami) 
from  Australia,  purchased ;  on  Axis  Deer  {Cervus  axis), 
eight  American  Timber  Wolves  {Canis  occidentalis),  two 
Crab-eating  Raccoons  {Procyon  cancrivorus),  born  in  the 
Gardens. 


OVR  ASTRONOMICAL   COLUMN. 

A  New  Comet. — A  telegram  received  from  the  Kiel 
Centralstelle  informs  us  that  Mr.  Grigg,  observing  at  iVir, 
Tebbutt's  observatory,  Windsor,  New  South  Wales,  dis- 
covered a  new  comet  on  April  17.  The  position  of  this 
object  at  6h.  44m.  2s.  (M.T.  Windsor)  on  April  27  was  :— 

R.A.=4h.  3m.  24s. 
Dec.  =  16°  23'  25"  south. 

The  daily  movement  in  R.A.  is  -|-i°  26',  and  in  declin- 
ation -1-0°  27' ;  the  announcement  says  nothing  about  the 
comet's  brightness. 

The  above  position  is  a  little  s.f.  of  7  Eridani. 

Nova  Geminorum. — A  telegram  received  from  Prof. 
E.  C.  Pickering  on  April  22,  published  in  No.  3864  of  the 
Astronomische  Nachrichten,  states  that  "  the  light  of  Nova 
Geminorum  is  increasing." 

The  Partial  Eclipse  of  the  Moon  on  April  ii. — The 
most  striking  feature  of  this  eclipse  was  the  blackness  of 
the  eclipsed  surface,  for  it  was  not  possible  to  see  any  of 
the  details  on  that  portion  of  the  surface  which  was  covered 
by  the  shadow.  In  a  paper  published  in  No.  i6  (1903)  of 
the  Comptes  rendus,  M.  Montangerand  describes  the  results 
of  the  attempts  he  made  to  photograph  that  portion  of  the 
lunar  surface  eclipsed  by  the  earth's  shadow. 

Using  the  astrographic-chart  telescope  and  Lumi^re 
plates,  and  giving  an  exposure  of  one  second  to  each  plate, 
he  obtained  eleven  negatives,  two  of  which,  Nos.  vii. 
(Lumifere  "  blue  ")  and  ix.  (Lumi^re  panchromatic),  show 
the  contour  of  the  eclipsed  moon,  but  no  surface  details. 


May  7,  1903 


NATURE 


The  visual  observations  corroborate  the  photographs  in 
showing  that  at  this  eclipse  the  shadow  was  especially 
black,  so  that  no  details  of  the  eclipsed  surface  could  either 
tie  seen  or  photographed.  This  result  differs  greatly  from 
that  recorded  for  the  eclipses  of  December,  1898,  and 
December,  1899,  when  the  eclipsed  surface  was  plainly 
visible  and  of  a  marked  ruddy  colour. 

The  Occurrence  of  Spark  Lines  in  Arc  Spectra. — in  a 
paper  which  recently  appeared  in  the  Sitzungsberichte  dcr 
K.  Akademic  zu  Berlin  (January  22),  Messrs.  J.  Hartmann 
and  G.  Eberhard  give  the  results  of  a  number  of  experi- 
ments they  have  made  in  order  to  determine  under  what 
conditions  various  lines,  usually  associated  with  spark 
spectra,  may  appear  in  the  spectrum  of  the  arc. 

In  the  cases  of  magnesium  and  silicon — which  are  so 
Important  when  considering  stellar  spectra — the  authors 
found  that  when  the  arc  was  produced  under  water,  using 
metallic  poles,  the  magnesium  line  at  A.  4481  and  the  silicon 
lines    at    W   4128    and    4131     were    produced,    although    all 

t  three  are  usually  called  "  spark  "  lines.  In  the  case  of 
zinc,  the  "  spark  "  lines  at  W  4912  and  4925  were  obtained 
under  similar  conditions. 

The  authors  have  also  photographed  the  spectra  of  these 
metals  when  the  arc  was  enclosed  in  an  atmosphere  of 
hydrogen,  and  again,  under  these  conditions,  the  "  spark  " 
lines  appeared.  From  this  similarity  of  the  results  Messrs. 
Hartmann  and  Eberhard  arrive  at  the  conclusion  that,  when 
the  arc  is  struck  under  water,  it  immediately  becomes  sur- 
rounded by  an  atmosphere  of  hydrogen,  produced  by  the 
decomposition  of  the  water,  and  so  the  same  results  under 
the  two  different  primary  conditions  are  obtained  {Astrono- 
mische  Nachrichten,  No.  3858). 

Four  Stars  With  Variable  Radial  Velocities. — 
In  Bulletin  No.  31  of  the  Lick  Observatory,  Mr.  H.  M. 
Reese  announces  the  discovery  of  four  more  stars  having 
variable  velocities  in  the  line  of  sight ;  they  are  as  follows  : — 

V  Andromcdac. — Plates  secured  on  October  8  and  Novem- 
ber 5,  1902,  and  January  14,  1903,  show  velocities  of 
—  17  km.,  —76  km.,  and  -I-49  km.  respectively.  The  spec- 
trum shows  few  lines,  and  the  hydrogen  lines  are  broad, 
but  the  helium  lines  are  fine  and  easily  measurable. 

V*  Orionis. — The  plates  obtained  on  October  6,  1902, 
January  4  and  January  12,  1903,  indicate  velocities  of  +43 
km.,  +0  km.,  and  -f-6  km.  respectively,  the  spectrum  being 
similar  to  v  Andromedae. 

ff  Gcminoriim. — Velocities  of  -^74  km.,  -|-i2  km.,  -I-9  km. 
and  +69  km.  are  indicated  by  negatives  obtained  on  March 
16,  1902,  January  12,  13,  and  February  15,  1903,  respec- 
tively. The  lines,  though  numerous,  are  rather  hazy,  but 
they  give  trustworthy  results. 

I  Argus. — The  variable  velocity  of  this  star  was  discovered 
by  Prof.  Campbell  from  the  comparison  of  a  plate  obtained 
on  February  21,  1898,  with  previous  measures.  A  series  of 
seven  photographs  obtained  between  February  23,  1897,  and 
February  18,  1902,  shows  a  range  of  velocity  from  +41  9 
km.  to  -1-50  3  km. 

The  photographs  mentioned  above  have  been  obtained 
with  the  Mills  spectrograph,  and  measured  by  Messrs. 
Reese  and  Curtis.  Mr.  Reese  also  announces  that  the  star 
<p^  Orionis  is  an  especially  interesting  object  on  account 
of  its  great  radial  velocity,  plates  obtained  on  October  28, 
November  24,  and  December  30,  1902,  indicating  velocities 
■^  of  -i-94  km.,  +102  km.,  and  -I-96  km.  respectively.  The 
1^  range  of  8  km.  may  not  be  taken  as  indicating  a  variable 
velocity  for  this  star,  for  although  the  photographs  show 
fairly  good  lines,  the  second  one — in  which  the  variation 
appears — was  very  much  under-exposed. 

The  Harvard  Meridian  Photometer  Observations. — 
Part  ii.  vol.  xliv,  of  the  Harvard  College  Observatory 
Annals  is  devoted  to  a  description  of  the  reduction  of  the 
observations  made  with  the  meridian  photometer  during  the 
years  1892-98.  The  editor.  Prof.  E.  C.  Pickering,  gives 
a  detailed  description  of  the  meridian  photometer  and  the 
methods  pursued  in  making  the  observations.  This  de- 
scription is  followed  by  tables  giving  the  results  of  the 
observations  of  Harvard  photometer  and  A.G.  catalogue 
stars  made  during  the  period  named  above,  each  table  being 
followed  by  voluminous  notes  as  to  the  peculiarities  of  the 
observed  objects  and  the  observing  conditions. 

NO.    1749.  VOL.    68] 


ENGINEERING   EDUCATION   ABROAD. 

"T^HE  conditions  governing  the  competition  among  the 
■*•  great  manufacturing  countries  for  the  markets  of  the 
world  have,  during  the  last  thirty  years,  undergone  pro- 
found modification.  At  the  beginning  of  the  latter  half  of 
last  century  British  manufacturers  held  an  unique  position 
which  secured  for  them  what  was  practically  the  monopoly 
in  some  departments  of  the  world's  trade.  The  reasons  for 
this  fortunate  position  are  too  well  known  to  require 
elaborate  recapitulation.  It  is  enough  to  remember  that 
while  other  countries  were  on  one  hand  engaged  in  war 
and  on  the  other  in  maturing  a  stable  and  enduring  con- 
stitution, Britain  was  establishing  flourishing  manufactur- 
ing centres,  which,  with  the  assistance  of  her  possession  of 
coal  and  iron,  supplemented  as  it  was  by  the  natural  en- 
dowments of  her  citizens  so  far  as  perseverance  and  in- 
ventiveness were  concerned,  resulted  in  her  becoming  the 
world's  workshop.  In  no  direction  was  this  supremacy 
more  pronounced  than  in  the  several  branches  of  the 
engineering  trades.  But  since  then  great  changes  have 
taken  place.  By  carefully  laid  plans  and  persistent  effort, 
other  countries  have  succeeded  in  overcoming  their  dis- 
advantages, and  as  a  result  of  the  provisions  they  have 
made  for  the  education  of  their  young  men  in  scientific 
technology,  the  British  manufacturer  has  now  to  reckon 
with  formidable  German  and  American  competitors. 

The  changed  conditions  have  been  made  the  subject  of 
study  by  several  authorities  in  this  country,  one  of  the 
most  recent  being  Prof.  W.  E.  Dalby,  who  has  studied 
the  question  of  the  education  provided  for  engineers  in 
America,  Germany  and  Switzerland.  The  opportunity 
which  his  commission  from  Mr.  Yarrow  to  report  on  the 
training  of  engineers  in  other  countries  has  given  Prof. 
Dalby  make  the  recent  papers  read  by  him  before  the  Institu- 
tion of  Naval  Engineers  and  the  Institution  of  Mechanical 
Engineers  of  exceptional  value,  and  it  is  much  to  be  hoped 
that  the  following  facts  from  his  papers,  and  the  lessons 
to  be  drawn  from  them,  may  have  a  good  effect  in  con- 
vincing our  manufacturers  and  educational  authorities  that 
the  higher  education  of  those  engaged  in  industrial  pur- 
suits has  a  direct  and  immediate  effect  on  success  in  the 
struggle  for  cominercial  supremacy. 

The  paper  read  before  the  Institution  of  Naval  Architects 
was  concerned  only  with  the  education  of  engineers  in 
the  United  States  ;  that  before  the  Institution  of  Mechanical 
Engineers  included  a  study  of  the  question  in  Germany  and 
Switzerland  also.  It  will  be  most  convenient  to  take  these 
countries  in  order.  Beginning  with  the  United  States,  the 
nature  of  the  technical  education  in  the  best  colleges  may 
first  be  considered,  and  then  the  relation  between  the  em- 
ployers and  the  technically  trained  men  graduating  from 
these  colleges. 

America. — A  good  idea  of  the  aims  of  the  technical 
colleges  of  America  may  be  gathered  from  the  words  of 
one  of  the  chief  founders  of  the  Massachusetts  Institute  of 
Technology  of  Boston,  who  laid  it  down  that  the  most  truly 
practical  education,  even  in  an  industrial  point  of  view,  is 
one  founded  in  the  thorough  knowledge  of  scientific  prin- 
ciples, which  unites  with  habits  of  close  observation  and 
exact  reasoning  a  larg?  general  cultivation.  The  highest 
grade  of  scientific  culture  is  not  too  high  a  preparation  for 
the  labours  of  the  mechanic  and  manufacturer,  and  there  are 
in  the  history  of  social  progress  ample  proofs  that  the 
abstract  studies  and  researches  of  the  philosopher  are  often 
the  most  beneficent  sources  of  practical  discovery  and  im- 
provement. 

Inspired  by  such  enlightened  views  of  technical  educa- 
tion, it  is  not  surprising  that  there  has  been  a  steady  in- 
crease in  the  number  of  engineering  students  in  the  chief 
American  colleges.  The  first  table  on  p.  18  gives  an  idea  of 
the  growth  of  their  engineering  departments. 

At  Cornell  University  students  of  mechanical  engineering 
and  the  allied  branches  do  their  work  at  Sibley  College ; 
there  is  a  separate  building  for  civil  engineering  and  archi- 
tecture. Sibley  College  is  divided  into  eight  departments, 
viz.  mechanical  engineering,  mechanical  laboratory  instruc- 
tion, electrical  engineering,  mechanic  arts  (workshops),  in- 
dustrial drawing  and  art,  machine  design,  graduate  schools 
of  marine  engineering,  and  the  graduate  school  of  railway 
mechanical  engineering. 


i8 


NATURE 


\  May  7,  1903 


Showing  Numbers  of  Students  in  Engineering  in   Certain 
Colleges. 


Yale. 
Civil,  Mechnical, 

Cornell. 

Mass.   Inst. 

Electrical,  Mining 

Civil,  Mechanical 

Civil.Mechanical, 

and  Electrical 

Electrical  and 

Students  in  the 

Students. 

Mining  Students. 

SheffieldScientific 

School. 

1895-96 

209 

617 

357 

1896-97 

174 

623 

352 

1897-98 

153 

645 

356 

1898-99 

166 

686 

347 

1899-00 

162 

774 

356 

1900-01 

163 

844 

372 

The  staff  consists  of  thirty-six  teachers  and  instructors, 
and  this  number  includes  six  professors  and  four  assistant 
professors,  and  eight  non-resident  lecturers.  The  staff  is 
inadequate  at  the  present  to  deal  with  the  numbers  of 
students  in  the  college. 

A  great  feature  of  this  institution  is  its  workshops.  Here 
instruction  is  given  in  pattern-making,  moulding,  forging, 
fitting  and  turning,  and  the  work  done  in  them  is  real.  All 
students  in  the  college  pass  through  the  same  course  during 
the  first  three  years.  They  may  specialise  in  the  fourth  year 
in  steam,  marine,  railway  or  electrical  engineering  with 
specialists  in  those  subjects. 

Admission  to  the  course  in  the  American  college  is  by 
examination.  To  enter  Cornell  a  student  must  be  sixteen 
years  of  age,  and  to  enter  the  Massachusetts  Institute  seven- 
teen. The  standard  of  examination  is  such  that  a  youth 
from  a  good  high  school  can  pass.  There  is  no  freedom 
left  to  the  student  regarding  his  course  of  studies  when 
once  he  has  chosen  his  department.  Examinations  are 
frequent,  and  promotion  from  one  year  to  another  depends 
upon  the  result  of  them.  The  courses  are  really  a  carefully- 
thought-out  and  elaborately  organised  species  of  educational 
drill.  As  a  general  rule  a  man  must  go  through  with  it  or 
fall  out. 

At  the  Massachusetts  Institute  the  courses  are  so  arranged 
that  a  student  can  do  his  work  in  forty-eight  hours  per  week. 
Half  of  this  time  is  given  to  lectures,  &c.,  at  the  college, 
the  other  half  is  assumed  to  be  spent  in  private  study. 
The  same  method  appears  to  be  in  operation  at  Cornell, 
Harvard  and  Yale.  An  analysis  of  the  courses  shows  what 
is  understood  by  a  technical  education  in  the  States  ;  it  is 
really  four  years  of  continuous  hard  work  at  a  college 
equipped  with  engineering  laboratories  and  workshops,  and 
with  all  the  educational  apparatus  for  giving  a  scientific 
education. 

It  is  interesting  to  note  the  attitude  of  employers  in  the 
United  States  to  the  men  who  study  in  the  way  just  de- 
scribed in  these  American  colleges.  A  point  in  which 
American  practice  is  remarkablv  different  from  ours  is  that 
age  is  no  limit  to  a  man  who  wants  to  get  practical  work  in 
the  shops,  providing  he  is  a  college  graduate.  Employers 
i^ight  not  take  on  an  annrentice  after  tvventv-one  year's  of 
age  if  he  were  not  a  graduate.  College '  graduates  in 
America  never  find  that,  whilst  learning  the  scientific  prin- 
ciples of  their  profession,  thev  have  grown  too  old  to  enter 
the  workshops  to  learn  the  practical  part.  The  general 
opinion  seems  to  be  that  the  educated  man  picks  up  his 
practice  much  quicker  and  more  intelligently  than  the 
younger  man  with  only  an  ordinary  education.  Generally 
speakmg,  the  attitude  of  the  American  employer  towards 
these  graduates  is  one  of  distinct  encouragement,  and  of 
advantage  to  both.  The  employer  gets  the  advantage  of  a 
trained  intellect,  the  employee  gets  the  advantage  of  his 
employer's  shops  and  business  experience.  The  American 
employer  keeps  an  "  open  door  "  for  the  technically  trained 
man,  whilst  with  us  in  England  the  door  is  too  often  closed 
by  rules  regarding  age  and  the  like,  and  the  would-be 
apprentice  not  having  sufficient  means  to  pav  a  premium 
in  addition  to  the  amount  he  has  already  paid  for  his  educa- 
tion. In  cases  where  college  graduates  are  taken  on  in 
England,  they  are,  as  a  rule,  expected  to  go  through  the 
.'.^.^  ^..,,.o„  :„   ^u„  shops  as  a  bcv  entering  straic^ht  fro- 


tame  course 


thf 


school.     The  Americans  are  more  yielding  in  this  respet  t 
and  do  not  insist  upon  the  drudgery  of  the  first  few  years. 

Germany. — The  Berlin  Technical  High  School  at  Char- 
lottenburg  is  a  State  institution,  and  its  object  is  to  give 
a  specialised  training  in  industrial  subjects  founded  on  a 
preliminary  scientific  education.  The  course,  lasting  four 
years,  begins  with  scientific  subjects,  and  gradually  be- 
comes more  technical  until  in  the  fourth  year  all  the  sub- 
jects are  specialised.  German  subjects  are  admitted  to  the 
school  on  the  production  of  a  "  maturity  certificate  "  from 
a  German  gymnasium  or  a  Prussian  real-gymnasium.  The 
education  given  at  the  two  kinds  of  schools  corresponds 
very  roughly  with  that  given  in  the  classical  and  modern 
courses  of  our  public  schools.  The  maturity  certificate  is 
obtained  at  the  end  of  a  nine  years'  course.  Those  ad- 
mitted by  means  of  this  certificate  are  styled  Students. 

Persons  who  cannot  obtain  or  have  not  obtained  this 
certificate  can  be  admitted  on  school  certificates  of  a  lower 
value,  but  for  the  departments  of  architecture,  civil  and 
mechanical  engineering  and  naval  architecture  must  in 
addition  show  that  they  have  worked  for  at  least  one  year 
in  some  works.  Those  entering  in  this  way  are  styled 
Hospitanten.  The  school  has  recently  been  given  the  status 
of  a  university. 

As  an  instructive  indication  of  the  importance  attached 
to  higher  technical  education  in  Germany,  the  tables  which 
have  been  drawn  up  by  Prof.  Dalby  showing  the  numbers 
of  students  and  teachers  at  the  Charlottenburg  institution 
may  be  given  : —  ' 

Students   of   Various   Grades  in  Attendance  for   the    Winter 
Half -Year,   1902-3. 


Hospitanten. 

"a 

1.  Architecture      ..... 

2.  Civil  Engineering      .... 

3.  Mechanical  Engineering : 

Specialising  •  in  Mechanical  \ 
Engineering     .          .          .          j 

Specialising  in  Electrical  ~\ 
Engineering     .         .         .          / 

4.  Naval  Architecture  : 

Specialising  in  Naval  "1 
Architecture    ...         J 

Specialising  in  Marine  \ 
Engineering     .          .          .          j 

5.  Chemistry  and  Metallurgy  : 

Specialising  in  Chemistry    . 
„             ,,   Metallurgy  . 

6.  General  Science         .... 

Persons  admitted  under  special  ^ 
regulations  from  affiliated  V 
Institutions      .         .         .          ) 

Officers  and  Engineers  from  the  ) 
Navy       .         .         .         .          / 

477 
647 

1319 
270 

241 
106 

161 

169 

6 

262 
42 

180 

51 

18 
17 

20 

11    ' 

< 

1499 
321 

259 
123 

181 
180 

80 
301 

Total 

3396       601  \ 

4378 

NO.    1749.  VOL. 


68] 


Teaching  Staff. 

< 

°l 

II 

J 

if" 
.2 

J 

0 

1 

Professors          .... 

18 

14 

20 

6 

n 

■s 

Priv.   Doccnten 

17 

8 

8 

1 

17 

15 

Construction  Engineers     . 

7 

2 

Lecturers.          .... 





2 

Assistants          .... 

I 

1 

n 

3 

15 

4 

Honorary  Assistants. 

S3 

33 

67 

9 

10 

27 

■•  -.    . . 



Total          .... 

89 

56 

"5 

21  1  55 

66 

May  7,  1903] 


NATURE 


19 


Expressed  briefly,  there  are  4378  students  of  all  kinds 
and  402  members  of  the  teaching  staff. 

A  distinguishing  characteristic  of  the  Berlin  Technical 
High  School  is  the  right  maintained  by  the  students  to 
choose  their  own  courses  of  study.  This  freedom  is  common 
to  German  universities,  and  it  follows  that  the  educational 
authorities  can  only  suggest  courses  of  study,  leaving  the 
students  free  to  follow  their  suggestions  completely,  or 
partially,  or  not  at  all.  Nevertheless,  very  complete  and 
elaborate  courses  have  been  arranged,  and  as  a  rule  are 
followed  by  the  students. 

There  is  no  attempt  to  teach  workshop  practice.  Labor- 
atory teaching  is  confined  to  the  engine  laboratory  and  the 
electrical  laboratory,  with  a  little  practice  in  testing 
materials  at  the  neighbouring  Government  testing  establish- 
ment  (Konigliche  mechanische-technische  Versuchanstalt). 

The  most  striking  feature  of  the  course  is  the  relatively 
large  amount  of  time  devoted  to  machine  construction,  in- 
cluding machine  drawing,  graphic  statics,  descriptive  geo- 
metry, and  the  lectures  connected  with  the  various  forms 
•of  machines,  in  which  exercises  in  the  drawing  office  are 
given.  Prof.  Riedler,  who  is  at  the  head  of  this  depart- 
ment, carries  on  a  large  engineering  practice  in  the  build- 
ing, employing  between  twenty  and  thirty  draughtsmen. 
The  majority  of  these  men  take  part  in  teaching  the  sub- 
ject, so  that  mechanical  drawing  and  machine  design  are 
taught  by  practical  draughtsmen  engaged  for  the  greater 
part  of  their  time  in  actual  designing.  No  better  method 
than  this  could  be  devised,  because  to  all  intents  and  pur- 
poses the  students  are  working  under  actual  drawing-office 
conditions. 

A  student  passing  through  this  course  has  a  large  amount 
of  drawing-office  practice  of  an  advanced  character,  but 
very  little  practical  work.  Whether  this  kind  of  training 
is  the  best  is  a  matter  of  opinion,  but  Prof.  Dalby  thinks  a 
course  which  makes  less  claim  on  the  students'  time  for 
college  work  and  allows  more  for  practical  work  would,  on 
the  average,  in  the  long  run  produce  better  engineers. 

S-jjitzerland. — The  Polytechnic  at  Zurich  is  a  State  insti- 
tution designed  to  give  a  specialised  training  in  industrial 
subjects.  The  course  lasts  four  years.  Students  are  ad- 
mitted by  examination  at  eighteen  years  of  age.  A 
"  maturity  certificate  "  from  a  Swiss  school  is  taken  in  lieu 
of  an  examination,  or  a  student  may  be  e.xcused  part  of 
the  entrance  examination  by  presenting  certain  school 
certificates.  During  1901-2,  there  were  181  Swiss  students 
of  civil  engineering,  230  studying  mechanical  engineering, 
and  49  taking  up  architecture,  and  in  addition  249  foreigners 
in  the  same  departments. 

The  lectures  and  exercises  as  announced  in  the  programme 
of  the  several  departments  are  obligatory  on  the  student. 
In  each  department,  however,  the  students  are  allowed  a 
choice  in  the  third  year.  Once  having  chosen,  they  are 
obliged  to  follow  the  plan  selected.  As  at  Berlin,  no 
attempt  is  made  to  teach  workshop  practice,  but  the  bulk 
of  the  time  is  given  to  drawing-office  work. 

General     Remarks. — In     all     the     courses     described,     a 

<ommon  scientific  basis  in  the  first  two  years  develops  into 

i'lely  divergent  and  specialised  branches  in  the  remainder 

the  course.     It   should   be   understood   that   both   in   the 

ites  and  on  the  Continent  many  of  the  specialised  lectures 

given   by   men  in  the  full  practice  of  their  profession, 

1    who   are   not   regular   members  of   the   teaching   staff. 

lie  best  courses  in  this  country  are  arranged  on  practically 

(he   same   basis,    but   the   longest   being   three   years,    there 

i^    no   time   to  develop  the   instruction   into   the   specialised 

Iran'^hes  of  engineering. 

There  is  an  essential  difference  in  the  method  of  training 
in   .America  and   Germany.     In  America   the  course  of   in- 
struction is  very  exactly  laid  down,  and  the  student  is  com- 
ixlled    to    follow    it    step    by    step.       Slight    variations    are 
i>f  rmitted  in  the  form  of  options,  to  use  their  term,  in  the 
'   tor  periods  of  the  course.     The  student  gets  his  degree 
in    the   gradually   accumulating   results   of   terminal   and 
-•clonal  examinations,  ending  finally  with  a  thesis. 
In   Germany   the   students  of   their  great   technical   high 
iiools  enjoy  the  freedom  peculiar  to  the  university  system 
that  country.     No  student  is  compelled  to  take  any  special 
urse.     For  his  convenience  definite  courses  are  arranged 
id  laid  down  in  the  school  calendar,  but  the  sequence  of 
lures   therein   stated   is   not   binding.       The   courses   are 
NO.    1749,  VOL.   68] 


only  recommendations,  and  students  may  follow  them  or 
not  as  they  please.  At  Zurich  the  course  is  partly  pre- 
scribed, partly  selected. 

The  following  table  gives  a  good  idea  of  the  nature  of 
the  engineering  courses  in  the  three  countries,  the  subjects 
studied,  and  the  relative  importance  attached  to  each. 


The    Percentage    Number   of   Hours'    Instruction   given    in 
Various  Mechanical  Engineering  Courses. 


Massa- 
chusetts 
Insti- 
tute. 


Berlin 
Tech- 
nical 
High 
School. 


Zurich 
Poly- 
technic. 


Mathematics     . 

Physics     .... 

Chemistry 

Applied  Mechanics  . 

Mechanism 

Steam-Engine,     including 

Thermodynamics  . 
Mechanical  Drawing'^ 
Electrical  Engineering 
Commercial  Subjects 
Workshops 

French  .... 
German  .... 
English  .... 
Engineering  Laboratories 


Approximate  Hours . 
Distributed  over 


US 

6-8 

17 
22  5 

8-0 

4-1 
310 

3'4  ; 

8-0  I 
Nil    I 


192 
6-0 
30 

19-5 

8-0 
39*3 

JO 

Nil 


3000 
i  Four 
lYears. 


lOJ  loo-o  I  loo-o 
3000  I  4000  4000 
Four  I  Three  |  Three 
Years.  Years.    Years. 


The  fourth  year  of  the  continental  courses  is  not  in- 
cluded, because  it  is  so  cut  up  with  examination  work.  It 
must  not  be  forgotten,  however,  that  an  American  student 
actually  receives  3000  hours'  instruction ;  a  German  or 
Swiss  student  is  only  recommended  to  attend  courses  aggre- 
gating 4000  hours.  Actually  he  may  work  just  as  many 
hours  as  he  chooses.  In  brief,  the  American  courses  are 
more  practical  in  character,  they  include  more  laboratory 
training  than  is  recommended  in  the  German  course,  and 
devote  a  large  proportion  of  the  course  to  the  teaching  of 
handicraft  skill.  In  Charlottenburg  and  Zurich  no  attempt 
is  made  to  teach  handicraft  skill,  and  the  bulk  of  the  train- 
ing is  given  in  the  drawing-office,  though  in  addition  a 
considerable  amount  of  time  may  be  given  to  engine 
testing. 

One  thing  is  certain,  the  American,  German,  and  Swiss 
student  starts  his  course  with  a  far  better  education  on 
which  to  build  than  is  the  case  with  us.  Much  time  is 
wasted  at  colleges  here  on  teaching  things  which  should 
have  been  taught  at  school.  Prof.  Dalby  believes  that  the 
great  defect  of  the  British  system  of  training  engineers 
is  the  want  of  coordination  between  the  colleges  and  the 
employers.  If  the  employers  will  concern  themselves  with 
the  question,  he  feels  sure  their  attitude  will  speedily  change. 

The  general  opinion  seemed  to  be  that  a  course  arranged 
so  that  the  winter  months  are  spent  at  college  and  the 
summer  months  in  the  works  is  a  desirable  one,  and  one 
from  which  good  results  may  be  expected.  Such  an  arrange- 
ment obviously  cannot  be  worked  without  the  cooperation 
of  the  employers.  This  alternating  system  must  not  be' 
regarded  as  experimental.  Our  Admiralty  have  had  some- 
thing very  similar  in  operation  for  forty  years,  and  the 
system  has  produced  a  famous  roll  of  chief  constructors. 
The  Scottish  universities  lend  themselves  to  the  system,  and 
Glasgow  students  in  engineering  consistently  study  in  the 
winter  and  work  in  the  summer. 

1  Includes  Mechanism. 

"  Includes  Freehand,  Machine  Drawing  and  the  lectures  connected  with 
Machine  Design. 

3  Laboratory  courses  are  taken  in  addition,,  but  it  is  difficult  to  estimate 
how  much  is  recommended. 


20 


NA  TURE 


[May  7,  1903 


AMERICA}^  SYMBOLISM. 
T  N  1899  Mrs.  Morris  K.  Jesup  generously  provided  the 
^  means  for  a  study  of  the  Arapaho  Indians,  and  Dr. 
Alfred  L.  Kroeber  was  entrusted  with  the  work  ;  his  general 
description  of  the  Arapaho  and  of  their  decorative  art  and 
symbolism  recently  published  in  the  BulleUn  of  the 
American  Museum  of  Natural  History  (vol.  xviii.  pp.  1-150, 
1902)  proves  how  well  he  acquitted  himself  of  his  task. 
Dr.  Kroeber  now  has  charge  of  the  anthropological  depart- 
ment of  the  University  of  California,  and  we  may  expect 
much  good  work  from  him  in  the  future  in  this  new  field. 

The  Arapaho  are  typical  Plains  Indians,  and  belong  to 
the  linguistic  stock  of  the  western  Algonkins.  The  fullest 
and  most  accurate  account  of  these  people  has  been  given 
by  Mr.  James  Mooney  ("Ghost-Dance  Religion,"  Four- 
teenth Ann.  Kept.  Bureau  EthnoL),  and  the  sketch  of  their 
social  organisation  and  life  given  by  Dr.  Kroeber  is  in- 
structive, and  to  some  extent  supplements  the  previous 
descriptions. 

The  main  value  of  Dr.  Kroeber's  memoir  consists  m  the 
careful  analysis  of  the  meaning  of  a  very  large  number  of 
designs  that  ornament  objects  in  every-day  use,  and  in  the 
wealth  of  the  accompanying  illustrations.  The  conscientious 
labour  which  this  implies  is  deserving  of  the  thanks  of 
fellow-students  of  decorative  art  and  symbolism. 

There  is  a  good  deal  of  latitude  in  the  interpretation  of 
decorative  designs  employed  by  different  individuals  :  usually 
an  Indian  refuses  to  interpret  the  ornamentation  on  an 
article  belonging  to  someone  else,  giving  as  a  reason  that 
he  does  not  know  what  that  particular  artist  intended  to 
represent.  For  example,  the  rhomboid  or  diamond-shaped 
symbol  may  signify  the  navel,  a  person,  an  eye,  a  lake,  a 
star,  life  or  abundance,  a  turtle,  a  buffalo-wallow,  a  hill  or 
the  interior  of  a  tent.  All  except  the  first  of  these  significa- 
tions have  also  been  found  attached  to  very  different 
symbols  ;  thus,  a  person  is  also  denoted  by  a  small  rectangle, 
a  triangle  or  a  square,  by  a  cross,  a  dot  or  a  line,  as  well  as 
by  rudely  realistic  designs.  A  lake  may  be  represented  by  a 
square,  a  trapezoid,  a  triangle,  a  pentagon,  a  circle  or  other 
figures.  The  decorative  symbolism  is  not  intended  as  a 
means  of  communication,  hence  there  is  no  fixed  system  of 
symbolism.  One  person  thinks  about  the  significance  of 
his  designs,  while  another  considers  chiefly  their  appear- 
ance. The  former  may  have  two  or  three  interpretations 
for  one  symbol  or  design  which  are  appropriate  and  co- 
herent ;  the  symbols  of  the  latter  will  have  their  most  con- 
ventional meaning,  without  much  relation  to  a  thought-out 
scheme.  In  either  case,  the  Indian  never  dreams  of  making 
a  picture  that  can  be  recognised  by  everyone  at  first  sight. 
These  peculiarities  can  be  paralleled  in  other  parts  of  North 
America,  and,  indeed,  elsewhere. 

A  pictograph  serves  as  a  means  of  record  or  communica- 
tion, and  is  normally  not  decorative  ;  while  this  art  is  too 
decorative  to  allow  of  its  being  read  in  the  same  way  ;  yet 
there  is  considerable  similarity  in  the  symbols  used  in 
both  systems.  Moreover,  the  significance  of  a  piece  of 
decoration  is  at  times  as  extended  and  coherent  as  that  of 
a  pictograph. 

Dr.  Kroeber  insists  that  the  closeness  of  connection 
between  this  decorative  symbolism  and  the  religious  life  of 
the  Indians  cannot  well  be  overestimated  by  a  white  man. 
All  symbolism,  even  when  decorative  and  unconnected  with 
any  ceremony,  tends  to  be  to  the  Indian  a  matter  of  a 
serious  and  religious  nature.  A.  C.   H. 


THE   ORIGIN   OF  NATURAL   GAS  AND 
PETROLEUM. 

'T'  HE  volcanic  origin  of  natural  gas  and  petroleum  is 
-*■  strongly  advocated  by  Mr.  Eugene  Coste  in  a  paper 
read  before  the  Canadian  Mining  Institute  (March  5).  The 
author  points  to  the  complete  analogy  of  the  products  of 
the  oil  and  gas  fields  with  the  products  of  volcanic  solfataric 
action.  These  products  are  water,  chloride  salts,  sulphur, 
sulphuretted  hydrogen,  carbonic  acid  and  hydrocarbons. 
He  brings  forward  facts  upon  which  he  bases  his  view  that 
all  the  petroleum,  natural  gas,  and  bituminous  fields  or 
deposits  are  essentially  the  products  of  solfataric  volcanic 
emanations,  condensed  and  held  in  their  passage  upward  in 

NO.    1749,  VOL.  68] 


the  porous  tanks  (sands,  limestones,  &c.)  of  all  ages  from 
the  Archgean  to  the  Quaternary.  He  instances  the  occur- 
rence of  carbon  and  hydrocarbons  in  gneisses  and  various 
ancient  plutonic  rocks.  He  likewise  refers  to  the  dolerite 
of  the  Lothians  (described  by  Mr.  H.  M.  Cadell),  in  which 
cavities  of  the  rock  are  filled  with  a  mineral  wax  not  unlike 
the  ozocerite  of  Galicia.  The  oil  shales  through  which  the 
igneous  rocks  have  intruded  were  in  Mr.  Coste's  opinion 
impregnated  by  solfataric  emanations,  for  their  bituminous- 
character  is  local,  and  in  proximity  to  the  igneous  rocks. 
Allusion  is  made  to  the  occurrence  of  asphalts  and  oils  along 
the  faulted  and  broken  margins  of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  and 
Caribbean  Sea,  the  great  asphalt  deposit  of  Trinidad  filling, 
the  crater  of  an  extinct  volcano.  Again,  natural  gas  and 
petroleum  are  associated  with  mud  volcanoes.  The  author 
therefore  concludes  that  carbon  and  hydrocarbons  are  derived 
from  deep-seated  fluid  magmas,  in  which  they  exist  probably 
in  the  form  of  carbides.  The  "  rock  pressure  "  of  natural 
gas  is  regarded  as  a  remnant  of  the  initial  volcanic  energy. 
This  has  been  registered  as  high  as  1525  lb.  to  the  square 
inch,  but  is  usually  between  200  and  1000  lb.,  and  is  a 
constantly  decreasing  pressure  from  the  time  the  gas  »s  first 
used.  The  theory  that  artesian  water  is  the  cause  of  the 
gas  pressure  is  regarded  as  untenable. 

The  author  points  out  how  generally  the  diversified  oil 
phenomena,"  which  include  gypsum,  sulphur,  dolomite  and 
salt  are  met  with  in  American  and  other  oil  and  gas  fields. 
Disturbed  strata  and  planes  of  faulting  gave  access  to. 
volcanic  emanations  which  brought  up  the  various  products  ; 
the  rocks  were  variously  impregnated  according  to  the- 
geological  and  physical  conditions  of  the  strata,  and  the 
products  were  sealed  up  when  impervious  unbroken  strata 
remained  above.  In  Galicia  solid  petroleum  or  ozocerite 
exists  in  veins  cutting  the  strata  in  every  direction,  the 
most  important  being  faults.  Elsewhere  oil  occurs  in  the 
fractured  strata,  and  such  an  elusive  fluid,  pent  up  under 
pressure,  could  not  be  in  its  original  home.  The  local  andi 
seemingly  accidental  occurrence  of  the  oil  and  gas,  and  everu 
of  bituminous  shales,  are  considered  by  the  author  to  favour 
his  theory,  for  he  observes  that  the  sedimentary  strata  could 
not  produce  from  a  limited  fossiliferous  area  the  quantity 
of  products.  Thus,  near  Baku,  in  Russia,  a  small  area 
of  not  more  than  eight  square  miles  has  now  yielded  more 
than  900  million  barrels  of  oil.  H.  B.  \\  • 


D 


SMITHSONIAN    REPORT    ON    SCIENTIFIC 
WORK. 

R.  S.  P.  LANGLEY,  secretary  of  the  Smithsonian  In- 
stitution, has  issued  his  report  on  the  operations  of  the 
Institution  during  the  year  ending  June  30,  1902,  including 
the  work  in  the  United  States  National  Museum,  the 
Bureau  of  American  Ethnology,  the  International  Ex- 
changes, the  National  Zoological  Park,  and  the  Astrophysicat 
Observatory. 

Following  the  precedent  of  several  years,  there  is  given, 
in  the  body  of  the  report,  a  general  account  of  the  affairs 
of  the  Institution  and  its  bureaus,  while  an  appendix  pre- 
sents more  detailed  statements  by  the  persons  in  direct 
charge  of  the  different  branches  of  the  work.  Indepen- 
dently of  this,  the  operations  of  the  National  Museum  are 
fully  treated  in  a  separate  volume  of  the  Smithsonian  Re- 
port, and  the  Report  of  the  Bureau  of  American  Ethnology 
constitutes  a  volume  prepared  under  the  supervision  of  the 
director  of  that  Bureau. 

The  following  extracts  from  the  report  will  show  that  a 
vast  amount  of  scientific  work  is  being  instituted  and  carried 
on  under  the  auspices  of  the  Institution. 

Hodgkins  Fund. — In  connection  with  the  administration 
of  the  Hodgkins  fund,  papers  recording  the  advance  _  of 
specialists  along  various  interesting  lines  of  investigation 
have  been  submitted,  some  of  which  are  now  in  course  of 
publication. 

The  report  of  the  research  on  the  spectrum  conducted  by 
Dr.  Victor  Schumann,  of  Leipzig,  has  received  extensive 
additions  during  the  year,  notably  through  a  detailed  de- 
scription of  the  ingenious  apparatus  used  in  his  work. 
A  second  grant  on  behalf  of  Dr.  Schumann  has  been 
approved  during  the  year,  and  it  is  interesting  to  know  that 


May  7,  1903] 


NATURE 


21 


Harvard  University,  recognising  the  value  of  his  work,  has 
also  awarded  him  a  grant.  The  new  Physical  Institute  of 
the  Royal  Academy  of  Sciences  in  Leipzig  has  likewise  aided 
this  research  by  placing  laboratory  room  at  the  disposal  of 
Dr.  Schumann,  who,  it  is  hoped,  will  be  able  in  the  near 
future  to  secure  still  more  complete  results  from  his  pains- 
taking experiments  in  vacuum  spectroscopy. 

The  memoir  by  Dr.  Carl  Barus,  issued  as  part  of  vol. 
xxix.,  Smithsonian  Contributions  to  Knowledge,  describes 
experiments  with  ionised  air,  begun  by  Dr.  Barus  some 
years  since,  and  recently  prosecuted  under  a  Hodgkins 
grant  from  the  Institution.  The  research  was  tributary 
to  an  investigation  of  the  colours  of  cloudy  condensation. 
Lord  Rayleigh's  famous  theory,  if  applied,  would  stop  at 
the  deep  reds  of  the  first  order,  terminating  in  opaque, 
whereas  in  the  laboratory  experiments  exceptionallv  brilliant 
colours,  extending  almost  into  the  third  order  of  Newton's 
series,  may  be  produced.  It  was  thus  essential  as  a  pre- 
liminary step  to  investigate  appropriate  means  for  the  produc- 
tion of  nuclei,  to  determine  their  number  per  cubic  centimetre, 
their  velocity,  their  association  with  ionisation,  the  effect 
of  the  pressure  of  an  electric  field,  &c.  This  was  the  general 
trend  of  the  experiments  by  Dr.  Barus.  The  endeavour  was 
made  with  the  aid  of  the  condensation  tube  to  show  that 
the  nucleus  has  a  specific  velocity  of  its  own,  and  that  this 
is  retained  even  in  the  absence  of  an  electric  field.  The 
application  of  this  principle  to  plate,  to  tubular,  and  to 
spherical  condensers  leads,  in  every  case  and  in  spite  of  the 
variation  of  method,  to  an  order  of  values  as  to  the  number 
of  particles  in  action,  agreeing  with  the  data  obtained  by 
other  investigators  from  different  experiments  and  theo'- 
retically  different  points  of  view.  A  second  grant  has  been 
approved  on  behalf  of  Dr.  Barus,  and  a  new  memoir  on  the 
structure  of  the  nucleus,  detailing  experiments  subsequent 
to  those  described  in  the  volume  just  published,  is  soon  to 
be  submitted  by  him. 

The  experiments  in  air  resistance  by  Mr.  C.  Canovetti, 
which  were  begun  at  Brescia,  Italy,  have  been  continued^ 
and  by  means  of  an  ingenious  apparatus  he  has  prosecuted 
a  research  which  has  been  reported  upon  in  detail,  with 
illustrations  accompanied  by  tables  giving  the  numerical 
results  attained. 

Dr.  von  Lendenfeld,  of  the  University  of  Prague  who 
has  been  assisted  by  a  grant  from  the  Hodgkins '  fund, 
reports  that  his  studies  are  now  suflficientlv  advanced  to  en- 
able him  to  begin  the  preparation  of  his  manuscript  for 
publication.  Telephotography  has  been  extensively  and 
successfully  used  in  this  research,  and  the  summary  of  work 
already  submitted  is  accompanied  by  interesting  illustra- 
tions. A  monograph  embodying  the  results  of  the  completed 
research,  which  will  be  published  later,  will  present  an 
anatomical  and  physiological  study  of  insects,  the  lower 
vertebrates  (Exocoetus,  Draco,  &c.),  birds,  mammals 
(Petaurus,  Geleopithecus,  &c.),  and  will  treat  of  the  polv- 
genetic  development  of  the  organs  of  flight  in  animals. 
Ihe  physical  properties  of  the  air,  wind  velocities,  resist- 
ance, &c.,  will  be  considered,  and  it  is  hoped  that  the  publica- 
tion will  not  only  prove  of  general  interest,  but  will  become 
a  valuable  work  of  reference  for  students. 

The  research  into  the  nature  of  vowels  by  Prof.  Louis 
Bevier,  of  Rutgers  College,  has  been  reported  on  through 
a  series  of  published  articles,  transmitted  by  the  author  to 
the  Institution,  which  record  in  detail  the  results  thus  far 
obtained.  Ihe  investigation  is  still  in  progress,  the  vowel 
series  from  a  to  "  u  "  being  now  under  analysis  and 
discussion. 

A  grant  has  been  approved  on  behalf  of  Mr.  E.  C. 
Huttaker  for  the  construction  and  practical  application  of 
a  device  intended  to  produce  a  uniform  and  measured  flow  of 
air  through  a  tube  of  any  desired  diameter.  This  apparatus 
IS  primarily  designed  for  use  in  connection  with  investi- 
gations in  the  line  of  biology,  and  it  has  already  been  applied 
to  exact  experiments  in  the  development  of  the  embryo  in 

mn/F'    }^,2-  uJ^^J^^^  ''''■  "'^^"^  °f  *his  invention  facts 
may  be  established  which  will  prove  of  practical  value 

Ihe  meteorological  investigations  in  connection  with  air 
currents  at  varying  altitudes,  heretofore  reported  on  as 
conducted  by  Mr.  A  L.  Rotch  at  Blue  Hill  Meteorologica 
Observatory,  have  been  supplemented  this  year  bv  a  series 


NO.   1749,  VOL.  68] 


of  e.xperiments  on  the  lift  and  drift  of  the  wind  on  plane 
and  curved  surfaces. 

Dr.  Morris  W.  Travers,  of  University  College,  London, 
has  received  a  grant,  and  is  now  engaged  in  an  investi- 
gation which  will  deal  largely  with  the  liquid  properties  of 
hydrogen. 

National    Museum. — This    museum,    established    in    the 

fundamental  Act  creating  the  Smithsonian  Institution,  grew 

up  largely  from  its  private  collections,   but  it  is  important 

to  consider  that  now  it  has  grown   into  something   which 

represents  more  nearly  the  large  purpose  of  Congress  in  its 

foundation  and  that  it  is  becoming  a  "  National  "  Museum. 

j   It   differs   from    most   other   museums    in    that    its   primary 

j  function  was  held  to  be  not  so  much  the  entertainment  or 

I   instruction   of   the   resident   population    as   the   preservation 

and  arrangement  of  the  collections  brought  together  by  the 

Government  of   the   United   States.     These  collections   now 

I  outnumber   by   some   millions  of   specimens   those   which   It 

has  been   possible   to   place  upon  exhibition   in   the  present 

inadequate    quarters.     The    number    of    specimens    received 

during  the  year  was  about  450,000,  making  the  total  number 

of  objects  nearly  five  and  a  half  millions. 

Bureau  of  American  Ethnology. — The  work  of  this  Bureau 
has  related  largely  to  a  study  of  the  origin,  physical  and 
mental  characteristics,  arts  and  industries,  food  supply, 
social  and  political  institutions,  religions,  and  languages 
of  native  American  tribes. 

Field  work  was  conducted  in  Alaska,  Arizona,  California, 
and  in  several  other  States  and  Territories,  as  also  in  British 
Columbia,  Mexico,  Greenland,  and  in  Porto  Rico,  while 
useful  information  and  material  was  obtained  from'  corre- 
spondents and  special  collaborators.  Special  attention  was 
devoted  to  a  study  of  those  aboriginal  industries  which 
appeared  to  bear  practical  relatlohs  to  modern  life,  particu- 
larly to  aboriginal  methods  of  house  building  and  Irrigation, 
and  to  food  sources  in  those  tropical  and  arid  regions  that 
formerly  sustained  a  population  five  to  ten  times  larger  than 
at  the  present  day.  A  noteworthy  investigation  of  abor- 
iginal industries  was  conducted  in  Porto  Rico,  and  a  special 
report  of  the  native  resources  of  that  Island  is  in  preparation. 
A  special  study  was  made  of  a  ceremony  among  the 
Pawnee  Indians  embracing  songs  of  interest  in  the  develop- 
ment of  music  and  poetry,  and  to  early  phases  of  the  drama, 
the  memoir  being  accompanied  by  the  primitive  music  re- 
corded by  the  aid  of  the  graphophone,  and  with  photo- 
graphs of  movements  and  objects  introduced  in  the  ceremony 
International  Exchanges.— During  the  last  fiscal  year 
there  was  handled  125,796  packages,  the  packages  sent 
abroad  numbering  87,149,  and  those  received  from  foreign 
countries  38,647.  The  number  of  parcels  exchanged  with 
Germany  was  20,679,  and  with  Great  Britain  19,912. 
trance  comes  next  with  11,378,  and  then  Mexico,  Italy 
Austria-Hungary,  and  Russia. 

It  has  long  seemed  desirable  to  establish  more  adequate 
exchange  relations  with  Japan  and  China,  but  efforts  in 
that  direction  have  so  far  been  without  success.  In  Great 
Britain  Germany,  and  Austria-Hungary,  it  is  still  necessary 
to  employ  salaried  agents  to  carry  on  the  work,  the  Govern- 
ments of  these  countries  for  various  reasons  not  yet  having 
organised  international  exchange  bureaus. 

Five  years  ago,  in  1897,  the  total  number  of  correspondents 
or  participants  in  the  exchange  service  was  28,008  while  the 
aggregate  has  now  reached  38,200  addresses  of  libraries 
and  individuals  in  154  countries  scattered  all  over  the 
civilised  world,  even  in  some  of  the  remotest  corners  of  India 
Asia,  Australia,  and  Polynesia. 

The  general  benefit  of  the  service  to  the  scientific  world 
can  hardly  be  measured.  Largely  as  a  result  of  these  inter- 
national  exchanges  there  has  accumulated  in  the  Library  of 
U.S.  Congress  a  mass  of  scientific  and  Government  publica- 
tions that  IS  probably  not  surpassed  anywhere,  and  could 
scarcely  have  been  secured  in  any  other  way 

National  Zoological  Park.-Dr.  Langley  has  in  previous 
years  called  the  attention  of  the  Regents  to  the  want  of  a 
grant  for  collecting  and  preserving  some  of  the  great  land 
and  marine  specimens  of  the  Western  territory  now  rapidly 
approaching  extinction,  and  he  again  urges  the  immediate 
need  of  doing  something,  even  on  the  smallest  scale,  before 
It  IS  entirely  too  lale.  It  is  hoped  that  means  will  be  pro- 
vided to  meet  these  wants  by  the  establishment  of  at  least 


22 


NATURE 


[May  7,  1903 


two  small  stations  or  ranches  in  Alaska,  one  in  the  interior, 
where  may  be  secured  specimens  of  the  great  moose,  the 
great  bear,  and  other  disappearing  animals  of  the  land 
fauna  ;  the  other  "  ranch  "  to  be  on  the  coast  for  the  collec- 
tion of  the  walrus,  the  sea  otter,  the  great  sea  lion  of 
Steller,  and  other  important  vanishing  marine  species. 

The  animals  in  the  National  Zoological  Park  at  the  close 
of  the  fiscal  year  included  506  mammals,  232  birds,  and  145 
reptiles.  The  accessions  of  the  year  numbered  314.  More 
than  half  of  these  accessions  were  gifts  to  the  Government, 
several  of  the  most  interesting  animals  having  been  secured 
through  the  cooperation  of  United  States  consuls  and  other 
officials.  A  fine  specimen  of  grizzly  bear,  also  some  ante- 
lope, deer,  elk,  and  cinnamon  bears  were  received  from  the 
Yellowstone  National  Park. 

The  native  game,  formerly  everywhere  plentiful,  has 
grown  so  nearly  inaccessible  that  only  after  years  of  effort 
have  there  at  last  been  procured  a  single  young  male  speci- 
men of  the  great  Kodiak  bear  and  two  big  horn  or  Rocky 
Mountain  sheep. 

The  Astro  physical  Observatory. — The  principal  work  of 
the  Astrophysical  Observatory  during  the  past  year  has 
continued  to  be  the  study  of  the  sun  and  its  radiation. 
While  fully  acknowledging  the  interesting  nature  of  astro- 
physical  investigation  of  the  stars  and  nebulae,  the  study 
of  the  sun  has  a  far  superior  practical  importance,  for  were 
the  former  bodies  to  be  wholly  blotted  out,  they  would  be 
missed  chiefly  as  objects  of  scientific  interest,  while  with  the 
sun  would  be  abolished  life  itself.  The  solar  researches 
have  mainly  been  concerned  with  determining  the  amount 
and  nature  of  the  absorption  of  solar  radiation  in  the  earth's 
atmosphere  and  in  the  solar  envelope.  These  researches  are 
preliminary  to,  and  form  an  essential  part  of,  the  measure- 
ment of  the  total  radiation  of  the  sun.  A  presumption 
exists,  almost  amounting  to  certainty,  that  the  total  radia- 
tion of  the  sun  is  variable  in  some  relation  to  the  appear- 
ance of  sun-spots,  but  nothing  is  yet  known  to  fix  definitely 
the  amount  of  this  supposed  variability  or  to  measure  its 
effect  upon  the  earth,  though  that  effect,  if  so  fixed,  cannot 
but  be  of  interest  to  every  inhabitant  of  the  earth's  surface. 

The  instrumental  means,  which  thus  have  been  the  subject 
of  incessant  study  and  improvement  here  during  the  past 
ten  years,  for  investigating  such  questions,  are  more  efficient 
than  at  any  previous  time.  The  detailed  report  shows  that 
automatic  bolometric  curves  accurately  representative  of  the 
amount  and  distribution  of  the  solar  energy  at  the  observer's 
station  may  now  be  obtained  in  a  few  minutes,  covering 
nearly  the  whole  spectral  region  which  reaches  sea  level, 
and  Vk^here  occurs  much  of  the  great  and  varying  absorption 
by  water  vapour  which  influences  our  terrestrial  temper- 
atures so  greatly. 

Some  twenty  years  ago,  when  Dr.  Langley  invented  his 
^'  bolometer,"  the  instrument  was  able  to  measure  tempera- 
ture to  about  one  one-hundred-thousandth  of  a  degree. 
Since  then,  during  fifteen  years  of  constant  advance,  latterly 
associated  with  a  great  improvement  of  the  adjuncts,  par- 
ticularly of  the  galvanometer,  at  the  hands  of  Mr.  C.  G. 
Abbot,  this  has  been  brought  to  measure  somewhat  less 
than  one-hundred-millionth  of  a  degree,  and  this  almost 
infinitesimal  amount  is  distinguished  with  readiness  and 
precision.  It  is  this  increased  precision  which  is  associated 
with  all  the  improvements  in  the  work  of  the  year  here 
described. 

It  is  the  variability  of  the  absorption  of  our  air  which 
now  offers  the  greatest  difficulty  to  the  work.  Dr.  Langley 
cherishes  the  hope  that  a  solar  observatory  will  one  day  be 
established  high  in  a  clear  and  dry  air,  the  chief  aim  of 
which  shall  be  to  solve  the  questions  of  the  amount  ol 
radiation  of  the  sun,  the  changes  in  this  total  amount,  and 
the  consequences  of  such  changes  on  the  earth. 

The  interest  of  this  solar  study  is  peculiar  among  all  the 
subjects  of  astronomical  research,  for  it  is  not  only  a  scien- 
tific but  a  utilitarian  interest  of  such  high  importance  that 
It  has  among  its  remote  possibilities  the  forecasting  of  the 
coming  seasons  and  harvests,  and  of  conditions  immediately 
practical,  from  those  which  affect  the  price  of  the  labourer's 
dmner  up  to  those  which,  to  use  the  weighty  words  of  Prof. 
Newcomb,  may  bring  to  light  not  merely  interesting 
cosmical  processes,  but  "  cosmical  processes  pregnant  with 
the  destiny  of  our  race." 


NO.    1749,   VOL.   68] 


UNIVERSITY  AND   EDUCATIONAL 
INTELLIGENCE. 

Cambridgk. — The  General  Board  of  Studies  report  that  in 
their  opinion  it  is  expedient  to  reestablish  the  chair  of 
surgery,  which  has  been  suspended  since  Sir  George 
Humphry's  death.  They  propose  a  stipend  of  600?.  a  year, 
with  freedom  to  undertake  private  practice,  and  the  right 
to  be  ex  officio  surgeon  to  the  hospital  and  to  hold  a 
college  fellowship. 

A  special  syndicate  has  been  appointed  to  consider  arrange- 
ments for  the  future  conduct  of  the  engineering  depart- 
ment, in  view  of  the  approaching  departure  of  Prof.  Ewing. 
A  bust  of  the  late  Dr.  John  Hopkinson  has  been  presented 
to  the  Hopkinson  Laboratory,  and  will  be  unveiled  during 
the  present  term. 

The  second  reading  of  the  London  Education  Bill  was 
carried  in  the  House  of  Commons  on  April  29  by  300  votes, 
to  163. 

At  a  meeting  of  the  Court  of  Governors  of  University 
College,  Liverpool,  held  on  May  2,  the  chairman  alluded  to 
the  endowment  of  a  chair  of  electrotechnics,  for  which 
special  purpose  a  donation  of  lo.oooL  had  been  made  by 
Mr.  Jardine,  and  stated  that  they  hoped  to  receive  other 
special  donations  in  order  to  establish  professorships  of 
applied  mechanics  and  applied  mathematics.  A  new  build- 
ing for  electrotechnics  and  biology  is  to  be  erected,  which 
it  is  hoped  will  be  one  of  the  most  perfect  of  the  kind  in 
the  country.  It  was  also  announced  that,  assuming  all 
went  well,  and  that  the  charter  constituting  the  Liverpool 
University  College  a  separate  university  was  granted  in 
June  or  early  in  July,  the  necessary  Act  of  Parliament 
would  probably  be  passed  during  the  present  session. 

The  annual  conference  of  the  presidents,  deans  and  ex- 
ecutive officers  of  many  of  the  institutions  for  the  higher 
education  of  women  in  the  United  States  was  held  this 
year  at  Smith  College  on  April  18.  The  association,  which 
numbers  among  its  members  eleven  colleges  for  women 
and  co-educational  institutions,  as  well  as  associations  and 
individuals,  maintains  a  table  at  the  Zoological  Station  at 
Naples,  awarding  places  at  it  to  from  one  to  five 
persons  each  year.  A  place  at  the  American  Women'* 
Table  at  this  Station  for  1903-4  was  awarded  to 
Dr.  Grace  Emily  Cooley,  associate  professor  of  botany  at 
Wellesley  College,  who  will  thus  become  scholar  of'  the 
association.  An  additional  award  has,  howe%er,  been  made 
this  year,  that  of  the  prize  of  200/.  offered  two  vears  ago 
for  the  best  piece  of  scientific  research  work  done  by  a 
woman.  Twelve  professors  representing  the  biological, 
chemical,  and  physiological  sciences  act  as  board  of  ex- 
aminers for  the  association.  This  year  they  considered 
eleven  scientific  investigations,  and  awarded  the  prize  to 
Dr.  Florence  R.  Sabin,  assistant  in  anatomy  at  the  Johns 
Hopkins  University  Medical  School,  for  the'  results  of  an 
investigation  on  the  origin  of  the  lymphatic  system. 
Honourable  mention  was  given  to  the  paper  on  the  life- 
history  of  Pinus  by  Miss  Margaret  Ferguson.  The  prize 
of  200/.  is  again  offered,  to  be  awarded  in  1905. 


SOCIETIES  AND  ACADEMIES. 
London. 
Physical  Society,  April  24.— Mr.  T.  H.  Blakesley, 
vice-president,  in  the  chair.— Mr.  W.  B.  Croft  exhibited 
several  novel  and  ingenious  pieces  of  physical  apparatus. — 
Dimenlional  analysis  of  physical  quantities  and  the  correla- 
tion of  units,  by  Mr.  A.  F.  Ravenshear.  The  object  of 
this  paper  is  to  knit  together  various  divergent  views  which 
are  current  on  the  subject  of  dimensions.  It  is  shown  that 
while  (i)  dimensional  analysis  and  the  correlation  of  units 
of  different  kinds  can  be  pursued  in  one  direction  until,  with 
completed  correlation,  we  arrive  at  degrees  of  undifferenti- 
ated quantity,  a  different  procedure  may  be  followed  which 
(2)  gives  rise  to  various  systems  of  dimensions  descriptive 
of  the  physical  relationships  of  the  quantities  treated.  The- 
conditions  giving  rise  to  dimensional  relations  are  first  set 
out,   and   it  is  proposed  to  distinguish   the  purelv  quantita- 


May  7,  1903] 


NA  TURE 


23 


live  reading  of  a  dimensional  formula  by  enclosing  the  sign 
of  equality  in  square  brackets  thus  : — 

[force][  =  ][M][L][T-^] 
and  the  reading  of  it  as  a  physical  identity  or  equivalence 
thus : — 

[force]  ^tM][L][T-»]. 
The  dimensional  relation  M  =  L'T~-  derived  from  the  law 
of  gravitation  is  examined  at  length.  This  relation,  com- 
bined with  the  demand  for  the  complete  correlation  of  all 
dynamical  units,  is  shown  to  require  the  adoption  of  the 
convention 

[L][  =  ][T][  =  ][M]. 

This  result  is  interpreted  by  (i)  above.  Systems  of  dimen- 
sions are  next  discussed,  with  the  aid  of  illustrative  tables, 
and  it  is  shown  that  by  employing  different  physical  laws 
as  bases  many  different  systems  may  be  constructed. — Mr. 
R.  J.  Sovtfter  read  a  note  on  dimensions  of  physical  quanti- 
ties. Mr.  Ravenshear  has  shown  that  any  physical  quantity 
is  expressible  in  terms  of  the  dynamical  quantities  L,  M 
and  1',  in  different  ways,  but  that  all  the  various  ways  are 
( onnected  with  one  another  by  an  index  law.  One  in- 
terpretation of  this  is  that  the  dynamical  factors  are  com- 
plete in  themselves.  They  express  change-ratios,  and  have 
no  qualitative  significance.  ;u,  fc,  7,  &:c.  do  not  contain 
dynamical  factors,  but  carry  with  them  the  physical  quali- 
ties or  characteristics  of  the  quantities  associated  with  them. 
Any  physical  quantity,  on  this  hypothesis,  is  expressible  as 
'  =N(L)")(7,  where  N  is  a  mere  number,  (D")  is  a  dynamical 
factor  indicating  a  quantitative  measurement  process,  and 
(/  is  a  quality  factor  of  the  nature  of  Q. 

Geological  Society,  Apiil  8.— Mr.  J  J.  H.  Teal),  F.R.S., 
i(  e-president,  in  the  chair. — On  the  probable  source  of  some 
the  pebbles  of  the  Triassic  Pebble-Beds  of  South  Devon 
id  of  the  midland  counties,  by  Mr.  O.  A.  Shrubsole. 
i  he  author  describes  the  Budleigh-Salterton  Pebble-Beds. 
1  he  supposition  is  natural  that  Devonian  rocks  were  once 
represented  either  in  the  Calvados  district  or  in  some  region 
in  the  same  drainage-area  as  that  which  has  supplied  the 
Ordovician  element.  The  Grfes  de  May  of  Normandy 
appears  capable  of  furnishing  abundant  material,  not  only 
for  the  Ordovician  pebbles  of  the  Budleigh-Salterton  Pebble- 
Bed,  but  also  for  a  great  deal  more.  A  list  of  species 
common  to  the  Gr^s  de  May,  of  May  itself,  and  the  Bud- 
leigh-Salterton deposit  is  given.  The  author  is  struck  with 
the  resemblance  of  the  Midland  Bunter  to  that  of  Devon. 
Strong  family  likenesses  subsist  between  certain  specimens 
in  the  northern  and  southern  Bunter  and  some  of  the  un- 
disturbed rocks  of  Normandy.  A  list  of  fossils  from  the 
Midland  Bunter  contains  three  southern  forms.  Fourteen 
out  of  twenty  of  the  Drift  and  Bunter  fossils  are  found  at 
Budleigh-Salterton  and  in  Normandy. — Note  on  the  occur- 
rence of  Keisley-Limestone  Pebbles  in  the  Red  Sandstone- 
Rocks  of  Peel  (Isle  of  Man),  by  Mr.  E.  L.  Gill.  Pebbles 
of  a  coarsely-crystalline,  greyish-white,  mottled  limestone, 
collected  by  Prof.  W.  Boyd  Dawkins  from  the  conglomer- 
ates at  Whitestrand,  contain  the  following  fossils  : — Illaetms 
Howmanni,  var.  brevicapitattts,  Primitia  Maccoyi,  Orthis 
<r.lli^rawma,  O.  iestudinaria.  O.  biforata,  Rafinesquina 
ilcltoidca,  PlectambonUes  quinquecostata,  Atrypa  expansa, 
llyatclla  Portlockiana,  Dayia  pcntagonalis,  Platyceras 
VL-risiniile,  Stenopora  fibrosa,  and  crinoid-stems.  This 
assemblage  of  fossils  corresponds  strikingly  with  that  of 
the  Keisley  Limestone,  and  it  is  therefore  concluded  that 
the  pebbles  have  been  derived  from  that  rock. 

Dublin. 
Royal  Irish   Academy,  A  ril  27.— Prof.  Atkinson,  presi- 
dent,   in    the    chair. — Observations   on    the    temperature    of 
the  subterranean  organs  of  plants,  by  Dr.  Henry  H.  Dixon. 
i'revious  experimenters  on  the  temperatures  of  plants  have 
•  nfined  their  investigations  to  the  aerial  organs.   Dutrochet 
ione    experimented    with    subterranean    organs,    but    only 
liter  removal  from  the  soil.     He  believed  that  these  organs 
are  at  the  same  temperature  as  their  surroundings.     From 
the    experiments    described    in    this    paper    we    may    infer 
iiat  (i)  subterranean  organs,  e.g.  bulbs,  like  aerial  organs, 
iv  have' during  active  growth  a  higher  temperature  than 
neir  surroundings.     The  amount  of  this  temperature-eleva- 
lion  rtiay  be  as  much  as  006°  C.     (2)  After  the  period  of 

NO.    1749.   VOL.   68] 


active   growth   is   passed,    this    temperature-elevation    is   no 
I  longer   noticeable.     (3)    There    is    no    true    indication    of    a 
j  spontaneous    periodic    diurnal    rise    in    the    temperature    of 
subterranean  organs,    such   as  has  been  recorded  by  other 
writers    for    aerial    organs.     A    periodic    diurnal    rise    may 
i  occur  owing   to   the   periodicity  of  the   temperature  of   the 
j  surroundings,    which     in   its   turn     may   cause   an   increase 
j  in  the  metabolic  activity  of  the  plant,   and  so  give  rise  to 
a  periodic  elevation  of  temperature.     (4)  In  the  less  massive 
subterranean  organs  the  temperature  rise   is  not  sufficient 
to    make    itself   appreciable    above    the    fluctuations    of    the 
surroundings  and  the  errors  of  experiment.     The  paper  also 
contains    an    account    of    the    errors    affecting    the    thermo- 
electric method  of  determining  plant  temperatures,  and  also 
of  some  suggestions  with  a  view  to  minimising  them. 

Paris. 
I  Academy  of  Sciences,  April  27.— M.  Albert  Gaudry  in 
•  the  chair. — ^The  president  announced  the  death  of  M.  de 
Bussy,  member  of  the  section  of  geography  and  naviga- 
tion.— On  the  radiation  of  polonium  and  on  the  secondary 
radiation  which  it  produces,  by  M.  Henri  Becquerel.  The 
radiation  of  polonium  differs  from  that  of  radium  by  the 
absence  of  rays  resembling  the  kathode  rays.  The  chief 
portion  of  the  polonium  rays  possesses  identical  properties 
with  the  a-rays  of  radiuin  and  the  canal  rays  of  Goldstein. 
Up  to  the  present  these  have  been  the  only  polonium  rays 
known,  but  the  author  has  recently  recognised  the  existence 
of  other  rays,  distinguished  by  their  powers  of  penetration. 
These  penetrating  rays  produce  effects  which  are  in  every 
way  comparable  with  the  penetrating  rays  of  radium 
filtered  through  a  considerable  thickness  of  metal.  Hence 
it  would  appear  that  of  the  three  distinct  kinds  of  radiation 
possessed  by  radium,  polonium  possesses  only  two,  the  part 
missing  being  that  of  a  kathodic  nature. — The  eclipse  of  the 
moon  of  April  11  at  the  Observatory  of  Marseilles,  by 
M.  Stophan. — Observation  of  the  partial  eclipse  of  the 
moon  of  April  n  at  the  Observatory  of  Bordeaux,  by 
M.  G.  Rayet.  The  atmospheric  conditions  were  extremely 
favourable  for  observations  ;  one  peculiarity  noticed  in  the 
eclipse  was  that  whereas  in  ordinary  eclipses  the  entire 
disc  of  the  moon  can  be  seen  during  the  greater  part  of  the 
eclipse,  in  this  case  the  eclipsed  part  of  the  moon  had  com- 
pletely disappeared.  This  was  noticed  both  in  the  eye 
observations  and  the  photographs. — The  catalytic  decom- 
position of  alcohols  by  finely  divided  metals,  allyl  and  benzvl 
alcohols,  secondary  and  tertiary  alcohols,  by  ^LM.  Paul 
rabatier  and  J.  B.  Senderens.  It  has  been  shown  in 
previous  papers  that  metallic  copper,  prepared  by  the  re- 
duction at  a  low  temperature,  reacts  with  the  primary 
alcohols,  giving  the  aldehyde  and  free  hydrogen.  This  re- 
action has  now  been  extended  to  allyl,  benzyl,  isopropyl  and 
other  secondary  alcohols.  Allyl  alcohol  gives  a  50  per  cent, 
yield  of  propyl  aldehyde,  and  benzyl  alcohol  gives  hydrogen 
and  the  aldehyde.  Secondary  alcohols  give  hydrogen  and 
j  the  corresponding  ketone  in  good  yields,  provided  that  the 
;  temperature  does  not  rise  too  high.  Tertiary  alcohols  split 
up  into  water  and  ethylene  hydrocarbons.  Reduced  nickel 
gives  rise  to  similar  reactions,  but  there  is  a  tendency  to 
further  decomposition,  and  the  yields  are  npt  so  good. — 
M.  Noether  was  elected  a  correspondant  inM^he  section  of 
geometry  in  the  place  of  the  late  M.  Fuchs.— On  the  observ- 
ation of  the  eclipse  of  the  Moon  of  April  ii,  by  M.  P. 
Puiseux.  The  extreme  blackness  of  the  eclipsed  portion 
of  the  moon,  noticed  by  other  observers,  was  also  in  evidence 
at  Paris.— The  eclipse  of  the  moon  of  April  11-12,  by 
M.  A.  Kannapell.  The  results  of  observations  made  at 
the  Observatory  of  the  Faculty  of  Sciences  at  Paris. — On 
I  the  deadening  of  the  tremors  of  the  ground.  The  applica- 
i  tion  of  a  bath  with  a  thick  layer  of  mercury,  by  M.  Maurice 
Hamy.  A  study  of  the  theory  of  the  use. of  mercury  baths 
in  preventing  oscillations.  An  apparatus  designed  to  carry 
out  the  conditions  indicated  by  these  researches  was  in- 
stalled in  the  neighbourhood  of  a  4  h.p.  gas  engine  with 
very  satisfactory  results.— The  calculation  of  the  time  and 
height  of  high  tide  by  means  of  harmonic  constants,  by 
M.  Rollet  de  I'Isle. — Observations  of  the  sun  made  at  the 
Observatory  of  Lyons  with  the  16  cm.  Brunner  equatorial 
during  the  first  quarter  of  1903,  by  M.  J.  Guillaume.  The 
observations  are  given  in  three  tables  showing  the  number 
of  spots,   their  distribution  in  latitude,  and  the  distribution 


24 


NATURE 


[May  7,  1903 


of  the  facuL-E  in  latitude.— On  certain  remarkable  deform- 
ations, by  M.  Jules  Drach.— On  the  carrying  of  the  charge 
in  experiments  on  electric  convection,  by  M.  N.  Vasilesco- 
Karpen.  A  discussion  of  the  question  of  a  disc,  carrying 
,  a  variable  electric  charge,  and  rotating  about  its  axis,  as  to 
how  far  the  charge  is  carried  round  by  its  support?  A  calcu- 
lation is  given  showing  the  number  of  turns  made  by  the 
charge  with  respect  to  the  disc  in  unit  time.  The  slipping 
is  proportional  to  the  thickness  of  the  disc  and  to  the  in- 
duced electromotive  force.— On  the  cementation  of  iron,  by 
M.  Georges  Charpy.  Cementation  is  not  limited  by  the 
solubility  of  carbon  in  iron.  Under  certain  conditions,  the 
iron  may  be  completely  converted  into  carbide  of  iron,  or 
the  carbon  may  be  indefinitely  converted  into  graphite  by 
the  action  of  a  limited  quantity  of  iron.— On  the  reduction 
of  some  compounds  of  the  halogens  with  metals  by 
hydrogen  ;  the  influence  of  pressure,  by  M.  A.  Jouniaux. 
The  reduction  of  the  chlorides,  bromides,  and  iodides  of 
silver  and  lead  with  hydrogen  was  studied  at  varying 
temperatures,  and  the  experimental  results  compared  with 
an  expression  deduced  from  thermodynamics. — On  the 
electrolytic  reduction  of  potassium  chlorate,  by  M.  D. 
Tommasi. — On  a  reaction  giving  rise  to  symmetrical 
diphenyl-pyrones,  by  M.  R.  Fosse.  The  method  used  con- 
sists in  treating  the  phenol  orthophosphates  with  potassium 
carbonate.  Details  are  given  for  the  reactions  with  the 
phosphates  of  phenyl,  cresyl,  and  naphthyl. — The  influence 
of  the  nature  of  the  external  medium  on  plant  acidity,  by 
MM.  E.  Charabot  and  A.  Hdbert.  Those  salts  which 
favour  the  diminution  of  water  in  the  plant  are  precisely 
those  for  which  the  ratio  between  the  volatile  acids  esterified 
and  the  total  volatile  acidity  is  the  highest. — The  influence 
of  the  radium  radiation  on  animals  in  the  course  of  growth, 
by  M.  Georges  Bohn. — On  some  proteolytic  ferments 
associated  with  rennet  in  vegetables,  by  M.  Maurice 
Javillier. — On  the  production  of  formic  acid  in  alcoholic 
fermentation,  by  M.  Pierre  Thomas.  Yeast  cultivated  in 
a  mineral  liquid  containing  sugar,  a  large  surface  of 
which  is  exposed  to  the  air,  may  give  rise  to  considerable 
quantities  of  formic  acid  if  nitrogen  in  certain  forms  is 
present.  Since  ammonium  salts  and  amides  exist  naturally 
in  certain  musts,  it  is  not  surprising  to  find  formic  acid  in 
the  resulting  wines  after  fermentation. 


DIARY  OF  SOCIETIES. 

THURSDAY,  May  7. 

Royal  Society,  at  4.30. — On  Lagenostoma  Lomaxi,  the  Seed  of 
Lyginodendron :  Dr.  F.  W.  Oliver  and  Dr.  D.  H.  Scott,  F.R.S.— On 
the  Physiological  Action  of  the  Poison  of  the  Hydrophidse :  Dr.  L. 
Rogers. — Prehminary  Note  on  the  Discovery  of  the  Pigmy  Elephant 
in  Cyprus  :  Miss  D.  M.  A.  Bate. 

Royal  Institution,  at  5. — Hydrogen:  Gaseous,  Liquid  and  Solid: 
Prof.  Dewar,  F.R.S. 

RoNTGEN  Society,   at    8.30. — Exhibition  Evening. 

Chemical  Society,  at  8. — (i)  /3-Bromonitrocamphor  and  ;3-Bromo- 
camphoryloxime.  Influence  of  Impurities  in  Conditioning  Dynamic 
Isomerism  ;  (2)  Spontaneous  Decomposition  of  Nitrocamphor :  T.  M. 
Lowry. — The  Active  Constituents  of  i>«/^a/n>«(;'oja  :  E.  G.  Hill. 

LiNNEAN  Society,  at  8.— The  IngolfiellidK,  fam.  nov.,  a  New  Type  of 
Amphipoda :  Dr.  H.  J.  Hansen. — The  Evolution  of  the  Marsupials  of 
Australia  :  A.  Bensley. — Copepoda  Calanoida  from  the  Faroe  Channel, 
and  Other  Parts  of  the  North  Atlantic:  Rev.  Canon  Norman,  F.R.S. 

Institution  of  Electrical  Engineers,  at  8.— Applications  of  Electricity 
in  Engineering  and   Shipbuilding  Works  :  A.   D.   Williamson. — Electric 
Driving  in  Machine  Shops :  A.  B.  Chatwood. 
FRIDA  Y.  May  8. 

Royal  Institution,  at  9.— Rural  England:  H.  Rider  Haggard. 

Royal  Astronomical  Society,  at  5. -A  Possible  Cause  of  the  Moon's 
Obscuration  on  April  11:  Rev.  S.  J.  Johnson. — Probable  papers: — 
Observations  of  Stars  Occulted  by  the  Moon  during  the  Eclipse  of  1903 
April  II  :  RadclifFe  Observatory,  Oxford. — Observations  of  Double  Stars 
made  with  the  28-inch  Refractor:  Royal  Observatory,  Greenwich. 

Malacological  Society,  at  8.— On  the  Necessity  of  Examining  and 
Comparing  the  Animals  before  Determining  some  Species  of  the  Genus 
Oliva :  F.  G.  Brrdgman. — Notes  on  some  British  Eulimidae :  E.  R. 
Sykes. — Note  on  the  Occurrence  of  Planorbis  marginatus,  Drap.,  and 
Limnaea pereger.  Mull.,  in  the  Pleistocene  of  Bognor,  Sussex  :  Alexander 
Reynell. 

Physical  Society,  at  5. — A  Spectroscope  of  Direct  Vision  and  Minimum 

Deviation  :  T.  H.  Blakesley.— Mathematics  of  Bee's  Cells  :  Prof.  Everett. 

—The  Coloured  Map  Problem  :  W.  H.  Price.— Note  on  the  Construction 

and  Attachment  of  Galvanometer  Minors  :  Dr.  W.  Watson. 

MONDAY,  May  ii. 

Society  of  Arts,  at  8.— Mechanical  Road  Carriages:  W.  Worby 
Beaumont. 

Royal  Geographical  Society,  at  8.30. — Cilicia,  Tarsus,  and  the  Great 
Taurus  Pass  :  Prof.  W.  M.  Ramsay. 


NO.    1749,  VOL.  6'^ 


TUESDA  K,  May  12. 

Royal  Institution,  at  5.  — The  Astionomical  Influence  of  the  Tides: 
Prof.  G.  H.  Darwin,  F.R.S. 

Zoological  Society,  at  8.30. — A  Contribution  to  the  Study  of  Double 
Monstrosities  in  Fishes  :  James  F.  Gemmill.— The  Metamorphoses  of 
^geonfasciatns  and  yEgeon  trispinosus  :  Robert  Gurney. — Descriptions 
of  new  Species  of  South  American  Coleoptera  of  the  Family  Chryso- 
melidse  :  Martin  Jacoby. 

WEDNESDAY,  May  13. 

Society  of  Arts,  at  8.— The  Preservation  of  the  Species  of  Big  Game  in 
Africa  :  E.  North  Buxion. 

Geological  Society,  at  8.— On  some  Disturbances  in  the  Chalk  near 
Royston  :  Horace  B.  Woodward,  F.R.S. — On  a  Section  at  Cowley  near 
Cheltenham,  and  its  Bearing  on  the  Interpretation  of  the  Bajocian 
Denudation  :  L.  Richardson. — Description  of  a  Species  of  Heterastraca 
from  the  Lower  Rhaetic  Deposits  of  Gloucestershire :  R.  F.  Tomes. 
THURSO  A  V,  May  14. 

Royal  Society,  at  430 — Probable  Papers: — The  Combination  of 
Hydrogen  and  Chlorine  under  the  Influence  of  Light  :  P.  V.  Bevan. — 
On  the  Photo-Electric  Discharge  between  Metallic  Surfaces  :  Dr.  W. 
Mansergh  Varley. — The  Elasmometer,  a  new  Interferential  Form  of 
Elasticity  Apparatus :  A.  E.  Tutton,  F.R.S.— On  the  Radiation  of 
Helium  and  Mercury  in  a  Magnetic  Field  :  Prof.  A.  Gray,  F.R.S.,  and 
Dr.  W.  Stewart ;  with  R.  A.  Houston  and  D.  B.  McQuiston.— Meteor- 
ological Observations  by  the  Use  of  Kites  off  the  West  Coast  of  Scotland, 
1902  :  Dr.  W.  N.  Shaw,  F.R.S.,  and  W.  H   Dines. 

Royal  Institution,  at  5. — Proteid-Digestion  in  Plants  :  Prof.  Sidney  H. 
Vines,  F.R.S 

Mathematical  Society,  at  5.30. — Generational  Relations  Defining  an 
Abstract  Simple  Group  of  Order  32736 :  W.  H.  Bussey. — Points  in 
the  Theory  of  Continuous  Groups  :  Dr.  H.  F.  Baker. 

Society  of  Arts,  at  4.30. — The  Province  of  Assam  :  Sir  James  Charles 
Lyall,  K.C.S.I. 

Institution  of  Electrical  Engineers,  at  8. — Applications  of  Elec- 
tricity in  Engineering  and  Shipbuilding  Works :  A.   D.   Williamson. — 
Electric  Driving  in  Machine  Shops  :  A.  B.  Chatwood. 
FRIDAY,  May  15 

Royal  Institution,  at  9. — 1  he  Origin  of  Seed-Bearing  Plants:  D.  H 
Scoti,  F.R.S. 

Epidemiological  Society,  at  8.30. — The  Etiology  of  Leprosy  :  Jonathan 
Hutchinson,  F.R.S. 


CONTENTS.  PAGE 

The  Science  of  Flour  Milling.     By  William  Jago  .    .  i 

Physiological  Results.     By  Dr.  H.   M.  Vernon    ...  3 
Physical  Chemistry  and  Biology.     By  Dr.  Berjamin 

Moore 4 

Our  Book  Shelf:— 

Querton  :     "Contribution    a    I'Etude     du     Mode     de 

Production  de  I'Electricite  dans  les  litres  vivants  "    .  5 
Johnson  :  "  Statics  by  Algebraic  and  Graphic  Methods  "    5 

Freycinet :  '*De  I'Experience  en  Geometrie  "     ....  5 
Miron  :      "  Etude       des     Phenomenes      volcaniques : 
Tremblements     de    Terre— Eruptions    volcaniques — 

Le  Cataclysme  de  la  Martinique,   1902 6 

Salomons:    "Experiments     with     Vacuum   Tubes." — 

M.   S 6 

Letters  to    the    Editor  :— 

Energy  Emitted  by  Radio-active  Bodies.— Hon,  R.  J. 

Strutt       6 

The    Fossil    Man    of   Lansing,    Kansas.— Prof.    Karl 

Pearson,  F.R.S 7 

Reform  in  School  Geometry.— Prof.    G.    H.    Bryan, 

F.R.S.;  Prof.  John  Perry,  F.R.S 7 

Can  Dogs  Reason  ?— Dr.  Alex.  Hill 7 

Spherical    Aberration    of    the  Eye. — W.   L. ;   Edwin 

Edser;  W.   Betz  ...     - 8 

The   Solar  and  Meteorological  Cycle  of  Thirty-five 
Years,     {With   Diagrams.)     By    Dr.   William    J.     S. 

Lockyer 8 

Etiolation 10 

Prof.  J.  Willard  Gibbs.     By  G.  H.  B 11 

Notes 12 

Our  Astronomical  Column  :— 

A  New  Comet 16 

Nova  Geminorum 16 

The  Partial  Eclipse  of  the  Moon  on  April  II 16 

The  Occurrence  of  Spark  Lines  in  Arc  Spectra    ...  17 

Four  Stars  with  Variable  Radial  Velocities 17 

The  Harvard  Meridian  Photometer  Observations  ...  l^ 

Engineering  Education  Abroad 17 

American  Symbolism.     By  A.  C.   H 20 

The    Origin   of    Natural   Gas   and    Petroleum.      By 

H.  B.  W 20 

Smithsonian  Report  on  Scientific  W^ork 20 

University  and  Educational  Intelligence 22 

Societies  and  Academies 22 

Diary  of  Societies 24 


NATURE 


25 


THURSDAY,    MAY    14,     1903. 


THE     UNIVERSITY    AND    THE    MODERN 

STATE. 

III. 

I  N  our  last  article  on  the  above  subject,  we  attempted 
I  to  show  the  German  view  of  the  proper  position 
the  University  in  a  modern  civilised  community. 

We  now  proceed  to  give,  so  far  as  a  careful  study  of 

>iatistics  can  help  us,  a  similar  indication  of  the  view 

iild  in  the  United  States;  our  object  being  to  show 

real  basis  of  the  recent  progress  of  those  nations 

iiich  are  now  outstripping  us,  not  only  in  com- 
rcial  enterprises,   but  in   other  ways  where  brain- 

wer  comes  in.  We  are  glad  to  know  that  the 
portance  of  universities  as  well  as  battleships  for 
maintenance  of  the  life  of  a  nation  is  at  last  being 
iccognised. 

Any  consideration  of  what  the  nation  has  done  for 
higher  education  in  the  United  States  must  be  pre- 
faced by  a  reference  to  two  laws  passed  in  1787  and 
1862  respectively.  The  first  Act,  enacted  for  the 
government  of  the  territory  north  of  the  Ohio,  provided 
that  not  more  than  two  complete  townships^  were  to 
be  given  to  each  State  perpetually  for  the  pur- 
poses of  a  "  university  to  be  applied  to  the 
intended  object  by  the  legislature  of  the  State." 
In  1862  an  Act  was  passed  giving  to  each  State  thirty 
thousand  acres  of  land  for  each  senator  and  represen- 
tative to  which  the  State  was  then  entitled,  for  the 
purpose  of  founding  "  at  least  one  college,  where  the 
leading  object  shall  be,  without  excluding  other  scien- 
tific and  practical  studies,  and  including  military 
tactics,  to  teach  such  branches  of  learning  as  are  re- 
lated to  agriculture  and  the  mechanic  arts,  in  such 
manner  as  the  legislatures  of  the  States  shall  respec- 
tively prescribe,  in  order  to  promote  the  liberal  educa- 
tion of  the  industrial  classes  in  the  several  pursuits 
and  professions  of  life.  "^ 

A  reference  to  Table  i.  below,  showing  the  number 
of  acres  of  land  in  each  of  the  States,  the  income 
accruing  from  which  is  available  for  university  educa- 
tion, demonstrates  more  conclusively  than  any  words 
could  do  how  very  fully  advantage  has  been  taken 
throughout  the  United  States  of  the  legislative  enact- 
ments of  1787  and  1862.  The  table  is  due  to  Dr.  Frank 
W.  Blackmar,  and  is  contained  in  "  The  History  of 
Federal  and  State  Aid  to  Higher  Education  in  the 
United  States,"  published  in  Washington  in  1890. 

The  grant  of  1862  proved  insufficient,  and  in  1890 
an  Act  for  the  "  more  complete  endowment  of  the  in- 
^titutions  called  into  being  or  endowed  by  the  Act  of 
1S62  "  was  passed. 

But  these  land  grants  do  not  exhaust  the  means 
adopted  by  the  State  to  encourage  higher  education 
in  the  United  States.  In  the  book  to  which  reference 
has  been  made.  Dr.  Blackmar  summarises  the  principal 
ways  in  which  the  several  States  have  aided  higher 
1  ducation.     They  are  as  follows  : — 

(i)  By  granting  charters  with  privileges. 

(2)  By  freeing  officers  and  students  of  colleges  and 
universities  from  military  duties. 

(3)  By  exempting  the  persons  and  properties  of  the 
oftioers  and  students  from  taxation. 

(^4)  By  granting  land  endowments. 

Ill  surveys  of  the  public  land  of  the  United  States,  a  division  of  territory 
iiiles  square,  containing  thirty-six  sections. 
-      Report    of   the   Commissioner  of  Education   for  the   Year   1806-7.' 
\  lA.  li.  p.  1 145.     (Washington,  1898.) 


NO.    1750,  VOL.  68] 


(5)  By  granting  permanent  money  endowments  by 
statute  law. 

(6)  By   making   special   appropriations    from    funds 
raised  by  taxation. 

(7)  By  granting  the  benefits  of  lotteries. 

(8)  By  special  gifts  of  buildings  and  sites. 
Table  I. — Land  Grants  and  Reservations  for    Universities. 


States  and  Territpries.  . 

Acres. 

Dates  of  Grant. 

Ohio       

69,120 

1792, 

1803 

Indiana....           

46,080 

1816, 

1804 

Illinois 

46,080 

1804, 

18 1 8 

Mis.S')uri 

46,080 

1818, 

1820 

Alabama 

46,080 

1818, 

1819 

Mississippi 

46,080 

1803, 

1819 

Louisiana 

■46.080 

1806, 

1811,  1827 

Michigan          

46,080 

1836 

Arkansas           

46,080 

1836 

Florida 

92,160 

1845 

Iowa      

46,080 

1845 

Wisconsin 

92,160 

1846, 

.1854 

California          

46,080 

1853 

Minnesota         

82,640 

1861, 

J857,  1870 

Oregon 

46,080 

1859, 

.1861 

Kansas 

46,080 

1861 

Nevada 

46,080 

1866 

Nebraska          

46,080 

1864 

Colorado           

46,080 

1875 

Washington      

46,080 

1854, 

1864 

North  Dakota  \ 
South  Dakota  J 

46,080 

1881 

Montana 

46,080 

1881 

Arizona  Territory 

46,080 

1881 

Idaho  Territory 

46,080 

1881 

Wyoming  Territory     ... 

46,080 

1881 

New  Mexico  Territory 

46,080 

.       1854 

Uiah  Territory 

46,08c 

1855 

Total 

1.395.920 

The  result  is,  as  Prof.  Edward  Delavan  .Perry,  of 
Columbia  University,  has  said,i  "  At  the  present  time, 
in  each  of  the  twenty-nine  of  the  States  of  the  Union, 
there  is  maintained  a  single  '  State  university  '  sup- 
ported exclusively  or  prevailingly  from  public  funds, 
and  managed  under  the  more  or  less  direct  control  of 
the  legislature  and  administrative  officers  of  the  State. 
These  States  are  the  following  : — Alabama,  California, 
Colorado,  Georgia,  Illinois,  Indiana,  Iowa,  Kansas, 
Louisiana,  Maine,  Michigan,  Minnesota,  Mississippi, 
Missouri,  Nebraska,  Nevada,  North  Carolina,  North 
Dakota,  Ohio,  Oregon,  South  Carolina,  South  Dakota, 
Tennessee,  Texas,  Virginia,  Washington,  West  Vir- 
ginia, Wisconsin  and  Wyoming. 

"  The  universal  verdict  of  public  opinion  in  the  States 
where  such  institutions  are  maintained  is  that  they,  as 
State  organisations  supported  directly  by  public  tax- 
ation from  which  no  taxable  individual  is  exempt, 
should  be  open  without  distinction  of  sex,  colour,  or 
religion  to  all  who  can  profit  by  the  instruction  therein 
given." 

The  figures  necessary  to  express  how  much  university 
education  in  the  United  States  owes  to  the  American 
Government  are  large,  and  the  total  amount  of  the  aid 
is  enormous.  The  following  table,  drawn  up  with  the 
assistance  of  the  Report  of  the  U.S.  Commissioner  of 
Education  for  the  year  1899- 1900,  will  enable  the 
reader  to  form  some  idea  of  the  splendid  resources 
placed  at  the  command  of  American  universities.  The 
grand  totals  under  each  heading  will  be  found  in 
Tables  v.  and  vi.,  so  arranged  as  to  show  the  proportion 
of  each  total  available  for  the  university  education  of 
women. 

,} .^^ff'"^^-  Nicholas  Murray  Butler's  monographs  on  "Education  in  the 
United  States,"  vol.  i. 


26 


NATURE 


[May  14,  1903 


Table  II. — Statistics  showing  Value,  Endowments,  Appropriations,  Income  and  Benefactions  of  Universities  and  Colleges  in  the 

United  States  in  1899- 1900. 


State  or  Territory. 

Value  of 

Libraries, 

Apparatus, 

Grounds  and 

Value  of 
Endowments- 
Productive 
Funds. 

Tuition  and 
other  Fees. 

Income  from 

Productive 

Funds. 

State,   Muni- 
cipal  and 
U.S.  Govern- 
ment Appro- 

Income from 

other 

Sources. 

Total  Income. 

Benefactions. 

Buildings. 

priations. 

£ 

£ 

L 

£ 

£ 

£ 

£ 

£ 

Maine        

351.200     ! 

377,900 

17,600 

17,500 

14,000 

3,000 

52,100 

13,900 

New  Hampshire      

220,600 

460,000 

8,900 

12,000 

2,000 

0 

22,900 

70,000 

Vermont    

198,700 

165,000 

3,600 

9,100 

8,100 

1,500 

22,300 

28,700 

Massachusetts 

3,084,800 

4,083,000 

292,500 

179,300 

0 

50,000 

521,800 

257,600 

Rhode  Island 

301,700 

259,400 

19,400 

15,700 

0 

300 

35,400 

30,400 

Connecticut      

1,577,800 

1,414,300 

106,900 

69,700 

0 

5,700 

182,300 

156,400 

New  York        

5,846,400 

5,681,500 

289,000 

257,400 

48,300 

1 1 1 ,000 

705,700 

363.300 

New  Jersey      

983.300 

563.300 

39,600 

26,700 

8,000 

0 

74,300 

47,200 

Pennsylvania    

3,075,600 

2,381,800 

217,000 

95,000 

43,500 

34,6oa 

390,100 

170,500 

Delaware 

34,000      I 

16,600 

54.800 

1,000 

8,000 

600 

9,900 

— 

Maryland 

784,000      i 

754.400 

19,700 

19,000 

11,600 

105,100 

13,000 

Columbia 

974.900      j 

279,400 

34,300 

14.700 

20,600 

14,700 

14,300 

14,600 

Virginia    

7S3.000    1 

392,600 

48,2co 

20, 500 

12,800 

9,400 

90,900 

16,400 

West  Virginia 

119,700    ! 

33,900 

4,100 

1,800 

28,700 

3,600 

38,200 

10,200 

North  Carolina        

484,500    1 

179,000 

38,100 

10,101 

5,000 

11,500 

64,700 

17,700 

South  Carolina        

303,400    1 

123,800 

23,700 

6,800 

5,900 

7,800 

44,200 

30,400 

Georgia     

491,600    1 

184,400 

37,900 

11,400 

5,400 

8,600 

63,300 

20,700 

Florida      

104,800    1 

85,100 

4.500 

^,400 
1>,000 

4,500 

0 

14,400 

3,500 

Kentucky 

437,100 

332,400 

33,700 

13,400 

9,800 

73.900 

27,500 

Tennessee 

992,000 

527,000 

70,200 

26,900 

12,700 

33.700 

143,500 

58,800 

Alabama 

325,800 

70,000 

20,300 

2,400 

2,500 

6,000 

31,200 

2,100 

Mississippi        

233,000 

180,300 

23,800 

8.300 

12,900 

8,000 

53,000 

200 

Louisiana 

436,300 

387,900 

18,800 

25,000 

8,600 

1,700 

54,100 

3,000 

Texas        

444,600 

143,900 

46,000 

7,600 

15,600 

21,000 

90,200 

20,100 

Arkansas  

133.300 

33,000 

10,000 

2,400 

13,300 

1,600 

27,300 

3,9co 

Oklahoma 

14,600 

200 

0 

3,800 

0 

4,000 

Indian  Territory     

13.500 

200 

1,200 

0 

0 

1,000 

2,200 

1,800 

Ohio 

2,114.900 

1,901,500 

91,200 

84,700 

64,400 

26,300 

266,600 

133,600 

Indiana     ... 

867,200 

431,100 

30,900 

23,000 

17,500 

5,20D 

76,600 

12,300 

Illinois      

2,256,000 

2,310,';  00 

199,400 

96,800 

61,500 

31,100 

388,800 

386,900 

Michigan 

678,800 

374,600 

50,000 

19,300 

58,700 

10,600 

138,600 

56,800 

Wisconsin 

627,300 

334,000 

22,800 

15.300 

62,800 

4,503 

105,400 

10,400 

Minnesota , 

627,100 

332,700 

35,200 

15,400 

35.100 

8,900 

94,600 

15,200 

Iowa 

632,500 

300,800 

48,400 

18,900 

15,000 

31,600 

113,900 

51,600 

Missouri    

1,359,800 

737.300 

77,200 

33,800 

14,900 

19,600 

145,500 

67,400 

North  Dakota 

47,700 

8,000 

1,000 

600 

9,100 

0 

10,700 

4,800 

South  Dakota 

92,400 

20,000 

4,600 

800 

6,600 

1,100 

13,100 
68,300 

19,200 

Nebraska 

451,300 

67,300 

13.700 

3.800 

46,400 

4,400 

9,400 

Kansas      

624,900 

84,000 

33.900 

5.300 

24,000 

18,500 

81,700 

23,500 

Montana 

43,700 

— 

1,900 

2,000 

4,300 

0 

8,200 

— 

Wyoming 

43.300 

1,400 

100 

0 

1,000 

100 

11,200 

0 

Colorado 

343,300 

124,000 

8,000 

7,400 

14,400 

2,200 

32,000 

46,600 

New  Mexico     

16,500 

— 

100 

0 

2,200 

0 

2,300 

2,700 

Arizona     

30,900 

— 

— 

0 

10,000 

500 

10,500 

— 

Utah 

126,900 

51,400 

2,900 

1,300 

12,300 

2,900 

19,400 

800 

Nevada      

50,400 

— 

— 

11,400 

0 

11,400 

— 

Idaho        

49900 

— 

0 

0 

10,000 

0 

10,000 

0 

Washington      

269,600 

37.700 

11,000 

2,500 

10,000 

500 

24,000 

45.500 

Oregon      

124,900 

89,000 

5,200 

4,400 

6,000 

900 

16,500 

5,600 

California 

1,376,000 

4,250,200 

41,100 

78,500 

55,300 

3.500 

178,400 

11,300 

But,  as  readers  of  Nature  are  well  aware,  the 
universities  and  colleges  of  the  United  States  have 
another  source  of  income  in  addition  to  the  generous 
provision  made  by  the  State.  Every  year  wealthy 
American  citizens  place  large  sums  of  money  at  the 
disposal  of  the  educational  authorities  for  the  purposes 
of  higher  education  and  the  encouragement  of  scientific 
research.  During  the  eleven  years  1890-1901,  the 
amount  of  these  donations  reached  the  grand  total  of 
nearly  23,000,000?.,  as  Table  iii.,  compiled  by  Prof. 
Nicholas  Murray  Butler,  shows  : — 

NO     1750,  VOL.  68] 


Table  in. 


•  Total  amount  of  Benefactions  ^  to  Higher  Education 
in  the  United  States. 


£ 

Reported  in 

£ 

1,515,018 

1896-97      - 

...  1,678,187 

1,336,917 

1897-98      ... 

...  1,640,856 

1,343.027 

1898-99      ••• 

...  4,385,087 

1,890,101 

1899-1900 

...  2,399,092 

1,199,645 

1900-01 

...  3,608,082 

1,810,021 

Reported  in 

1890-91  ... 

1891-92  ... 

1892-93  ... 

1893-94  ... 

1894-95  ... 

1895-96  ... 

1  Compiled  by  Prof.  Nicholas  Murray  Butle>-,  Columbia  University,  and 
published  in  "  Special  Reports  on  Educational  Subjects,"  vol.  xi.  part  ii. 


May  14,  1903] 


NATURE 


27 


From  1871-1890,  the  total  amount  of  benefactions 
for  education  of  the  l^ind  with  which  this  article  is 
concerned,  was,  the  annual  reports  of  the  U.S.  Bureau 
of  Education  show,  16,285,000/.,  so  that  for  the  years 
1871-1901,  the  grand  total  of  forty  millions  sterling 
was  raised  by  private  effort  for  American  university 
education. 

The  question  naturally  presents  itself :  What  has 
been  done  by  private  effort  in  this  country  to  assist 
university  education  during  the  same  period?  Com- 
pared with  American  munificence,  the  amounts  given 
and  bequeathed  here  are  very  small.  Take  in  the  first 
place  the  university  colleges,  which  are  largely  to  be 
regarded  as  a  growth  of  the  years  under  consideration. 
The  financial  statements  contained  in  the  "  Reports 
from  Universitv  Colleges,  1901,"  published  by  the 
Board  of  Education,  reveal  the  fact  that,  including  the 
400,000/.  raised  for  the  University  of  Birmingham,  the 
1m  ncfactions  to  the  fifteen  university  colleges  in  Great 
Britain  amounted  during  1870-1900  to  a  little  more 
than  three  millions.  In  the  absence  of  systematic  re- 
ports during  the  same  period  of  the  financial  resources 
of  the  older  universities  of  the  United  Kingdom,  it  is 
difficult  to  estimate  the  amount  of  benefactions  received 
by  them  during  the  same  thirty  years.  The  parlia- 
mentary returns  which  have  been  published  since  1898, 
showing  the  revenue  of  Scottish  universities,  suggest 
that  their  benefactions  in  the  same  time,   excluding 

Table  IV. — Classification  of  Colleges  and  Universities  for  Men 
and  for  both  Sexes,  according  to  Amount  of  Endowment  Fund. 


£ 

£ 

20,000 

to 

40,000 

40,000 

60,000 

6o,coo 

80.000 

80,000 

100,000 

100.000 

120,000 

120,000 

140,000 

140,000 

160,000 

160,000 

180,000 

180,000 

200,000 

200,000 

250,000 

250,000 

300,000 

300,000 

400,000 

400,000 

600,000 

600,000 

800,000 

800,000 

1,000,000 

1,000,000 

1,500,000 

1,500,000 

2,000,000 

Over 

2,000,000 

Mr.  Carnegie's  splendid  gift,  may  be  put  at  something 
under  half  a  million,  so  that  for  the  whole  of  the  United 
Kingdom  the  total  amount  of  endowment  from  private 
sources  raised  in  these  years  may,  without  any  risk  of 
under-estimation,  be  said  to  be  considerably  less  than 
five  millions. 

To  give  some  idea  of  the  result  of  the  broad-minded 
policy  of  the  legislatures  of  the  several  States  and  of 
the  treatment  which  higher  education  has  received  at 
the  hands  of  American  statesmen  and  men  of  wealth, 
the  following  short  summaries  have  been  drawn  up, 
with  the  assistance  of  the  Report  of  the  Commissioner 
of  Education  of  the  United  States  Bureau  at  Washing- 
ton, published  in  1901,  for  the  year  1899-1900.  The 
first  (Table  iv.)  shows  the  number  of  colleges  having 
endowments  of  certain  specified  amounts.  The  second 
summary  (Table  v.)  shows  the  total  property  of  all 
American  university  colleges,  tabulated  under  the 
headings  of  fellowships  and  scholarships ;  values  of 
libraries,  apparatus,  grounds  and  buildings ;  and  of 
their  productive  funds.  The  next  (Table  vi.)  shows 
the  amounts  of  income  of  these  colleges,  and  the  last 
(Table  vii.)  gives  the  total  number  of  professors,  in- 
structors and  students  in  colleges  of  university  standing. 

It  is  interesting  in  this  connection  to  compare  the 
number  of  students  taking  university  courses  in  this 
country  with  those  in  Germany  and  the  United  States. 
With   this  object  in  view.   Table  viii.    has   been   pre- 

Table  vii. — Professors,  Instructors  and  Students  in 
Universities  and  Colleges  of  United  States. 


Professors  and  Instructors.* 

Men. 

Women. 

For  men  and  for   both    sexes 

(480  institutions) 

For  women  (141  institutions) 

12,664 
697 

1,816 
1,744 

Sl«dents. 

Men. 

Women. 

Total    number  of  students  in 
universities  and  colleges  ... 


61,800 


35,300 


Table  \.— Property  of  Universities  and  Colleges  in  the  United  J^a/<fj  (1899-1900). 

Description  of  institution.          f^Uow^hips. 

Number  of 
scholarships. 

Value  of  lihraries. 

Value  of  scientific 
apparatus. 

Value  of  grounds 
and  buildings. 

Productive  funds. 

For   men  and  for   both 

sexes  ...          ...          ...               476 

For  women       18 

7,619 

447 

£. 
2,138,000 
132,000 

3,027,000 
157,000 

£, 
27,267,000 

3,i29,oco 

29,478,000 
1,088,000 

Tablb  ^l.— Income  of  Universities  and  Colleges 

in  the  United  States  (1899- 1900). 

Description  of  institution. 

Fees. 

From 

productive 

funds. 

State  or 

municipal 

appropriations. 

From  United 

States 
Government. 

197,000 

From  other 
sources. 

Total 
income. 

Benefactions. 

Foir  men  and  for  both  sexes 
For  women           

1,675,000 
468,000 

1,222,000 
57,000 

£. 
691,900 
7,000 

£. 
393.000 
136,000 

4.179,000 
670,000 

I. 
2,168,000 
118,000 

NO.    1750,  VOL.  68] 


1  Excluding  duplicates. 


28 


NATURE 


May  14,  1903 


pared,  but  it  should  be  pointed  out  that  the  number 
of  students  in  our  university  colleges  includes  all  above 
the  age  of  sixteen,  which  is  probably  much  lower  than 
the  age  of  the  students  included  in  the  totals  for  other 
countries.  It  is  well  to  remember,  too,  that  the  number 
of  American  university  students  is  probably  too  high 
for  a  fair  comparison  with  those  of  Germany.  Many 
university  students  in  the  United  States  are  really 
students  in  the  higher  branches  of  technology,  and 
would  in  Germany  study  in  technical  high  schools,  the 
students  of  which  are  not  included  in  Germany's  total 
in  the  table.  To  make  the  comparisons  as  simple  as 
possible  the  number  of  university  students  per  ten 
thousand  of  population  has  been  calculated. 

Table  VIII. — Number  of  University  Students  per   10,000  of 
Population  (1900). 


Country.            j  Population. 

Number  of  Students. 

II  8-1 

m 

United  Kingdom  41,164,000 

i 

Universities 

University\ 

Colleges/ 

Day. 
12,000 

8,500 

Evening 
5,000 

4-98^ 

i    ■ 
German  Empire   56,367,000 
United  States       76,086,000 

44,400                     7-87 
97,100                   1276 

The  statistics  provided  above  make  it  possible  to 
form  a  good  estimate  of  the  comparative  amounts  of 
importance  attached  to  higher  education  in  this  country 
and  in  the  United  States.  Table  vi.  shows  that, 
neglecting  the  income  accruing  from  the  State  land 
grants,  the  legislatures  of  individual  States  and  the 
U.S.  Government  together  supplied  about  goo.oooL 
for  university  education  during  1899-1990,  while  the 
article  in  Nature  for  March  12,  1903,  shows  that  the 
total  State  aid  to  universities  and  colleges  in  the  United 
Kingdom  at  present  amounts  only  to  155, 6oo^  Table 
vi.  also  brings  out  another  important  principle;  it  re- 
veals the  fact  that  during  1899-1900  private  effort  pro- 
vided more  than  two  and  a  quarter  millions  sterling 
for  the  colleges  of  the  United  States,  and  thus  leads 
to  the  conclusion,  which  is  strengthened  by  Table  iii., 
that  interest  on  the  part  of  the  State  in  higher  education 
leads  to  a  corresponding  enthusiasm  among  men  of 
wealth. 

A  comparative  study  of  this  kind  is  of  vital  national 
Interest ;  our  very  existence  as  a  nation  depends 
directly  upon  success  in  that  industrial  warfare 
between  the  great  countries  of  the  world  from  which 
there  can  be  no  peace.  The  last  article  in  this  series 
has  shown  the  great  importance  attached  by  Ger- 
man statesmen  to  the  higher  education  of  the  directors 
of  German  Industries,  and  how  greatly  superior  Is  the 
provision  made  for  this  purpose  in  Germany  to  that  In 
this  country.  A  similar  conclusion  Is  reached  by  study- 
ng  the  subject  from  the  American  point  of  view ;  we 
ire  equally  behind  the  United  States.  Unless  our 
Government,  on  one  hand,  and  our  men  of  wealth  on 
the  other,  take  immediate  steps,  and  make  serious 
efforts  to  remedy  these  deficiencies  in  our  higher  educa- 
tion, British  manufacturers  cannot  hope  to  hold  their 
own  successfully  with  either  German  or  American 
competitors.  The  amount  by  which  we  fall  short  of 
the  United  States,  the  deficiency  which  must  be  made 
good  simply  to  bring  us  level  with  America  in  the  race 

1  Excluding  Evening  Students  of  University  Colleges. 

NO.    T75O.  VOL     68] 


for  industrial  supremacy,  will  be  seen  from  the  follow- 
ing deductions  from  the  above  statistics  : — 

(i)  The  amount  raised  during  1871-1901  by  private 
munificence  for  higher  education  was,  in  the  United 
States,  more  than  eight  times  that  similarly  provided 
in  the  United  Kingdom. 

(2)  In  addition  to  the  large  income  from  State  land 
grants,  the  amount  provided  by  the  State  for  higher 
education  Is,  In  the  United  States,  six  times  as  much 
as  the  Government  grant  for  the  same  purpose  in  the 
United  Kingdom,  where  there  is  nothing  corresponding 
to  the  land  grants. 

(3)  In  the  United  States  there  are  170  colleges  with 
an  endowment  of  more  than  2o,oooi. ;  forty-nine  of 
these  have  endowments  of  more  than  100,000/.,  and 
three  of  more  than  two  millions  sterling.  In  the  United 
Kingdom  there  are  thirteen  universities  and  twenty 
other  university  colleges.  Four  of  the  universities  do 
little  more  than  examine. 

(4)  In  the  United  States  nearly  thirteen  of  every  ten 
thousand  inhabitants  are  studying  during  the  day  at 
colleges  of  university  status ;  the  number  in  the  United 
Kingdom  is  less  than  five. 

(5)  The  value  of  the  endowments  of  institutions  of 
higher  education  in  the  single  State  of  New  York  ex- 
ceeds the  total  amount  of  benefactions  for  similar  pur- 
poses raised  during  thirty  years  in  the  whole  of  the 
United  Kingdom.  The  same  is  nearly  true  in  the 
States  of  Massachusetts  and  of  California. 

(6)  The  number  of  professors  and  instructors  at  the 
universities  and  colleges  Included  in  the  list  of  the  U.S. 
Commissioner  of  Education  is  17,000.  The  number  of 
day  students  in  our  universities  and  university  colleges 
is  only  about  20,500,  so  that  there  are  almost  as  many 
university  teachers  in  the  United  States  as  there  are 
university  students  in  the  United  Kingdom ! 

In  considering  what  should  be  the  strength  of  the 
British  Navy,  the  first  line  of  national  defence  as  it  is 
called.  It  Is  commonly  said  that  we  must  aim  at  making 
It  equal  to  the  combined  fleets  of  any  two  first-class 
powers.  When  rightly  regarded,  the  development  of 
the  brain-power  of  the  nation  is,  in  view  of  the  fact  that 
the  ability  to  keep  up  the  Navy  depends  upon  commer- 
cial success,  of  even  greater  Importance.  Our  pro- 
vision of  higher  education,  far  from  being  equal  to  that 
of  two  of  our  chief  competitors  together,  is  by  no  means 
equal  to  either  of  them  singly. 

A  careful  study  of  the  tables  here  brought  together 
will  do  more  than  anything  else  to  explain  the  success 
which  has  attended  American  manufactures  and  com- 
merce in  recent  years.  America  has  learnt  that  to 
energy  and  enterprise  must  be  added  trained  Intellect 
and  a  familiarity  with  recent  advances  in  science. 
Other  things  being  equal,  that  nation  will  be  most 
successful  In  the  competition  for  the  markets  of  the 
world  which  makes  the  most  generous  provision  for 
the  higher  education  of  its  people. 

We  are  glad  that  even  If  the  Government  is  supine, 
our  captains  of  Industry  are  waking  up,  and  we  may 
conclude  by  a  reference  to  the  Times  report  of  the 
speech  delivered  by  Sir  John  Brunner  at  the  remarkable 
gathering  In  connection  with  the  Liverpool  School  of 
Tropical  Medicine  on  Monday  last.  In  which  he  re- 
peated what  he  had  already  said  to  Sir  Norman  Lockyer 
in  private. 

"If  we  as  a  nation  were  now  to  borrow  ten  millions 
of  money  in  order  to  help  science  by  putting  up  build- 
ings and  endowing  professors  we  should  get  the  money 
back  In  the  course  o-  a  generation  a  hundredfold. 
There  was  no  better  Investment  for  a  business  man 
than  the  encouragement  of  science,  and  he  said  this 
knowing  that  every  penny  he  possessed  had  come  from 
the  application  of  science  to  commerce." 


May  14,  1903  J 


NATURE 


29 


iEOLOGY  FOR  AGRldULTURAL  STUDENTS. 
iiricultural  Geology.  By  J.  E.  Marr.  Pp.  xi  +  318. 
(London  :  Methuen  and  Co.,  1903.)     Price  6s. 

IN  the  teaching  of  any  technical  subject,  like  engin- 
eering or  agriculture,  which  touches  and  depends 
upon  several  of  the  pure  sciences,  there  has  always 
been  dispute  about  the  amount  and  nature  of  the  pure 
science  to  be  exacted  from  the  technical  student,  the 
present  controversy  over  mathematics  for  engineers 
being  a  notable  example.  In  the  past,  as  a  rule,  the 
pure  science  man  has  ruled  the  roast,  secure  in  a 
plausible  logical  position  which  regards  the  technical 
as  "  applications  "  of  the  principles  laid  down  in  the 
pure  science,  as  "riders"  in  fact;  now,  however,  he 
has,  thanks  to  the  spread  of  truer  conceptions  of  edu- 
cation, to  justify  his  teaching  and  discard  those  in- 
tellectual gymnastics  which  leave  the  student  "  as 
he  was,"  and  confine  himself  to  a  development  of  the 
subject  to  the  given  end. 

In  the  book  before  us,  Mr.  Marr  has  put  together 
that  portion  of  geology  with  which  a  serious  agricul- 
tural student  ought  to  be  equipped  as  a  basis  for  his 
study  of  soils ;  more  particularly  the  book  is  intended 
tor  candidates  preparing  for  the  examination  for  the 
National  Diploma  in  Agriculture. 

The  earlier  part  of  the  book  seems  to  us  to  be 
admirably  suited  to  the  agricultural  student ;  he  will 
get  from  it  just  the  introductory  knowledge  of  minerals 
and  rocks,  rock  structures,  and  the  work  of  geo- 
logical agencies  that  he  requires  for  an  intelligent 
appreciation  of  the  structure  of  the  country.  There  is 
nothing  superfluous,  and,  on  the  other  hand,  the  proper 
point  of  view  is  obtained,  the  subject  is  developed  as 
a  whole,  and  not  allowed  to  become  a  series  of  scraps 
ot  useful  knowledge. 

fwo  excellent  chapters  follow  on  the  construction 
iiiid  interpretation  of  geological  maps  and  sections, 
but  we  should  have  liked  to  see  the  later  chapter  on 
"  water  supply  "  brought  into  connection  with  this 
section,  and  treated  in  much  more  detail.  To  the 
agriculturist,  structural  geology  is  in  the  main  im- 
portant only  as  bearing  upon  water  supply;  it  is 
fundamental  that  he  should  be  able  to  read  a  geo- 
logical map  so  as  to  gauge  the  probabilities  of  obtain- 
ing either  surface  or  deep-seated  water  at  a  practic- 
able depth,  or  to  trace  the  origin  of  landsprings  and 
decide  upon  a  plan  for  tapping  them  or  otherwise 
drying  the  land.  We  trust  Mr.  Marr  will  see  his  way 
in  another  edition  to  work  out  for  the  student  some 
examples  of  the  varying  conditions  of  water  supply, 
not  by  generalised  diagrams,  but  from  the  actual  survey 
maps. 

The  weakest  part  of  the  book  is  the  last,  the  chapters 
dealing  with  stratigraphical  geology;  the  economic 
products  are  but  lightly  touched  upon,  and  the  agri- 
cultural character  of  each  formation  is  dismissed  in 
a  very  sketchy  and  generalised  fashion.  If  we  com- 
pare the  two  pages  or  so  devoted  to  the  structure  of 
Graptolites — the  chitinous  rod,  the  periderm,  the  hydro- 
thccae,  &c. — with  the  amusing  reference  to  the  clay- 
with-flints,  "  Little  will  grow  on  it,  though  in  places 
it  has  been  made  to  yield  good  root  crops,"  we  see 
the  differertce  between  Mr.  Marr  the  geologist,  writ- 
NO.    1750,  VOL.  68] 


ing  of  what  he  likes  and  understands,  and  Mr.  Marr 

"  getting  up  "  things  for  the  agriculturist.  Lastly, 
we  should  have  liked  a  little  more  about  the  "  drift  " 
and  the  superficial  deposits  generally,  for  the  farmer 
is  more  concerned  with  them  than  with  the  solid 
geology.  In  this  connection  we  should  like  to  know 
Mr.  Marr's  evidence  for  the  following  statement 
(p.   128):— 

"  One  very  important  character  of  glacial  drift 
from  the  point  of  view  of  soil  formation  is  due 
to  the  fact  that  the  disintegrating  action  of  ice  is  purely 
mechanical,  and,  consequently,  the  soluble  constituents 
of  the  rocks  from  which  the  drift  has  been  derived 
have  not  been  removed.  These  soluble  constituents 
may  be  taken  up  by  the  plants  but  slowly,  and  ac- 
cordingly the  drift  soils  may  not  yield  such  abundant 
crops  as  other  soils  at  the  outset,  but,  on  the  other 
hand,  they  may  continue  to  furnish  supplies  of  these 
soluble  materials  long  after  those  of  other  soils  have 
been  exhausted." 

We  are  not  sure  we  understand  the  meaning 
of  this  paragraph,  but  at  any  rate  we  demur 
to  the  apparent  implication  that  soils  become  exhausted 
by  cultivation  as  practised  in  this  country. 


APPLIED     MECHANICS. 
Elementary   Applied   Mechanics.     By   Profs.    T.    Alex- 
ander, C.E.,  and  A.  W.  Thomson,  D.Sc.     Pp.  xx  + 
575 ;   281   illustrations.       (London  :    Macmillan    and 
Co.,  Ltd.,  1903.)     Price  425. 

THE  title  of  this  book  is  misleading.  It  is  really  a 
large  and  fairly  advanced  work  dealing  with 
certain  engineering  problems  usually,  now,  classed 
under  the  headings  "  Strength  of  Materials  "  or 
"Theory  of  Structures."  Simple  problems  in  connec- 
tion with  stress  and  strain  are  taken  up  in  chapter  i., 
useful  numerical  examples  being  given  by  way  of 
illustration  and  enforcement.  Such  examples,  in 
fact,  form  a  valuable  feature  of  the  work  throughout. 
The  authors — professors  at  Trinity  College,  Dublin, 
and  Poona,  India,  respectively^ — dedicate  the  book  to 
the  memory  of  their  late  teacher,  Prof.  Rankine. 
Their  study  of  that  great  authority  has  not,  however, 
produced  that  terseness  and  lucidity  of  expression  now 
so  much  prized.  Thus  the  lengthening  of  a  strut  is 
called  "augmentation,"  and  shortening,  we  are  led 
to  infer,  is  "negative  augmentation."  Again,  we 
read, 

"  The  Proof  Load  is  the  stress  of  greatest  intensity 
which  will  just  produce  a  strain  having  the  same  ratio 
to  itself  which  the  strains  bear  constantly  to  the  stresses 
producing  them  for  all  stresses  of  less  intensity. 
If  a  stress  be  applied  of  very  much  greater  intensity, 
the  piece  will  break  at  once,  &c." 

One  notices  circumlocutions  of  this  kind  in  various 
places. 

Internal  stresses  and  strains,  simple  and  compound, 
are  next  taken  up,  and  a  picture  of  a  model  for 
illustrating  Rankine's  "  ellipse  of  stress  "  is  given  and 
explained. 

The  stability  of  earthwork  is  dealt  with  in  chapter  iv. 
— as  usual  in  such  investigatiotis,  all  depends  on  a 
knowledge  of  .the  "angle  of  repose,"  a  very  variable 


30 


NATURE 


[May  14,  1903 


quantity,  and  one  not  easiljr  found  practically. 
Chapter  v.  is  devoted  to  the  design  of  masonry  re- 
taining walls;  the  table  of  thicknesses  for  walls  and 
the  graphical  solutions  at  the  end  of  the  chapter  are 
particularly  valuable.  Chapter  vi.  commences  an  im- 
portant section  dealing  with  transverse  stress,  and 
relating  mainly  to  the  strength  and  stiffness  of  beams. 
After  discussing  the  position  of  the  neutral  axis  and 
the  stress  at  a  point  in  the  section,  the  authors,  oddly 
enough,  give  a  chapter  on  the  parabola,  such  as  one 
might  expect  in  a  work  on  descriptive  geometry.  A 
clearly  written  chapter  on  graphical  statics  might  have 
been  introduced  here  with  advantage.  Diagrams  of 
bending  moment  and  shearing  force  are  next  discussed, 
and  we  come  to  the  subject  of  continuous  beams — one 
of  increasing  importance.  Diagrams  of  shear  and 
bending  for  girders  with  moving  loads  are  then  taken 
up  at  length,  and  a  model  is  illustrated  showing  how 
the  variations  in  these  quantities,  as  a  model  loco, 
passes  over  a  model  bridge,  may  be  exhibited  to  a  class. 
Combined  live  and  dead  loads  are  next  considered, 
and  approximations  by  the  introduction  of  a  so-called 
"  equivalent  live  load  "  are  dealt  with  at  some  length 
in  chapter  xiii.,  after  which  the  resistance  of  a  section 
to  bending  and  shear  is  discussed,  some  neat  graphical 
methods  of  finding  the  moment  of  inertia  of,  and  the 
amount  and  distribution  of  shearing  force  at,  a  section 
being  explained. 

The  very  interesting  use  of  the  polariscope  in  in- 
vestigating internal  stress  and  strain,  due  to  the  late 
Prof.  Peter  Alexander,  is  fully  described.  Questions 
relating  to  curvature  are  next  dealt  with,  the  integral 
calculus  being  freely  used.  Amongst  all  the  mass  of 
weighty  matter  one  does  not  find,  so  frequently  as 
might  be,  useful  practical  rules  and  results  set  out 
clearly  in  heavy  type.  For  instance,  the  point  of,  and 
amount  of,  the  maximum  deflection  of  a  beam  fixed 
at  one  end  and  supported  at  the  other,  with  different 
distributions  of  loading,  is  often  wanted  in  practice — 
we  do  not  notice  it  prominently  given  here. 

Struts,  various  kinds  of  trusses,  linear  arch  ribs,  &c., 
are  taken  up,  analytical  methods  having  the  promin- 
ence rather  than  graphic  methods,  though  the  latter 
are  employed  to  a  very  limited  extent. 

Tables  relating  to  the  "two-nosed  catenary,"  the 
design  of  segmental  arches,  and  other  like  matters 
bring  this  not  at  all  elementary,  yet  valuable,  work  to 
a  close  except  for  an  appendix,  in  which  graphic 
methods  are  applied  to  a  roof  truss — evidently  as  an 
afterthought.  •  R.  G.  B. 


OUR    BOOK    SHELF. 

The    Principles    of    Animal    Nutrition,    with    Special 

Reference  to  the  Nutrition  of  Farm  Animals.     By 

Henry    Prentiss    Armsby,    Ph.D.,    Director    of    the 

Pennsylvania  State  College  Agricultural  Experiment 

Station,       Pp.  vii  +  614.       (New  York:  John  Wiley 

and  Sons;  London  :  Chapman  and  Hall,  Ltd.,  1903.) 

Price  17s. 

The  growth  of  institutions  similar  to  that  with  which 

the   classical   labours   of   Lawes   and   Gilbert   in    this 

country  are  associated   has  been  nowhere  more  marked 

than  in  the  United  States  of  America.     The  natural 


NO.    1750,  VOL.  68] 


advantages  of  unlimited  territory  and  virgin  soil  have 
no  doubt  much  to  do  with  the  position  of  agricultural 
industry  in  that  country,  but  added  to  this  has  been 
the  recognition  by  the  American  people  that  farming, 
to  be  a  success,  must  be  conducted  on  scientific  prin- 
ciples. Our  Canadian  cousins  cannot  be  said  to  be 
behind  their  neighbours  In  this  respect.  The  numerous 
and  valuable  memoirs  which  are  being  constantly 
issued  from  these  agricultural  experiment  stations 
speak  much  for  the  Industry  and  acumen  of  those  en- 
gaged In  conducting  and  superintending  research  there. 

Dr.  Armsby 's  book  is  a  very  successful  attempt  to 
present  the  present  results  of  such  work,  so  far  as  it 
relates  to  nutrition,  in  a  systematic  manner.  It  is, 
however,  not  a  mere  handbook  for  the  stock  raiser,  but 
win  amply  repay  careful  perusal  by  students  of  physi- 
ology. It  is  a  veritable  mine  of  valuable  statistics, 
and  nowhere  do  we  remember  to  have  seen  more  clearly 
stated  the  great  problems  of  metabolism  and  the 
methods  by  which  they  have  been,  and  may  be,  solved. 
The  law  of  the  conservation  of  energy  is  as  true  for 
the  chemistry  of  the  living  organism  as  it  Is  for  that 
of  the  laboratory,  and  it  has  been  Rubner's  epoch- 
making  work  to  demonstrate  that  this  can  be  experi- 
mentally verified.  Much  in  the  present  book  Is 
naturally  taken  from  Rubner;  other  names  promin- 
ently quoted  are  those  of  Zuntz  and  Atwater.  Refer- 
ences are  given  to  all  Important  papers  cited,  and 
this  materially  enhances  the  value  of  Dr.  Armsby 's 
book.  Where  so  much  Is  excellent,  it  seems  rather 
like  carping  criticism  to  point  to  minor  deficiencies. 
We  cannot,  however,  help  noticing  that  the  author's 
views  on  the  digestion  of  proteids  taken  from  a  book 
published  nearly  ten  years  ago  are  somewhat  anti- 
quated; Ktihne's  theory  on  the  hemi-  and  anti-products 
of  gastric  proteolysis  has  now  been  abandoned.  The 
statement,  also,  that  the  fat  of  the  food  Is  absorbed 
largely  in  the  form  of  an  emulsion  requires  revision. 
In  connection  with  the  question  of  uric  acid  formation, 
Dr.  Armsby  does  not  appear  to  have  grasped  the  now 
well-established  fact  that  the  formation  of  this  sub- 
stance in  the  bird  is  mainly  synthetical,  while  In  the 
mammal  it  is  mainly,  if  not  entirely,  oxidative;  he 
need  not,  therefore,  hesitate  to  accept  the  view  of  its 
origin  from  nuclein  and  purin  in  these  animals. 

We,  however,  congratulate  the  author  most  sincerely 
on  the  book  as  a  whole.  So  many  books  that  one 
comes  across  nowadays  are  repetitions  or  imitations 
of  others  that  it  is  refreshing  to  come  across  one  which 
forms  a  material  addition  to  knowledge. 

Chemical  Technology.  Vol.  iv.  Electric  Lighting. 
By  A.  G.  Cooke,  M.A.,  A.M.I.E.E.,  and  Photometry, 
by  W.  J.  Dibdin,  F.I.C.,  F.C.S.  Pp.  xviii  +  378. 
(London  :  J.  and  A.  Churchill,  1903.)     Price  205. 

One  must  not  expect  too  much  of  a  book  which  aims 
at  treating.  In  less  than  300  pages,  the  whole  subject 
of  electric  lighting,  from  the  generation  of  electric 
energy  in  the  central  station  to  the  manufacture  of  the 
lamp  for  its  consumption  in  the  user's  house.  As  a 
work  of  reference  for  technical  men  engaged  in  other 
branches  of  work,  but  coming  occasionally  into  contact 
with  electrical  engineering,  this  book  should  prove 
useful,  just  as  an  article  in  an  encyclopaedia  is  useful. 
And  just  in  the  same  way  as  an  encyclopaedia  article  is 
defective,  it  seems  to  us  that  the  book  before  us  fails ; 
by  endeavouring  to  give  too  much  information  it  only 
succeeds  in  giving  too  little.  These  objections  apply 
rather  to  tho  scheme  of  the  work  than  to  the  way  in 
which  Mr.  Cooke  has  carried  it  out,  which  is  as  satis- 
factory as  possible  In  the  circumstances.  In  some 
Instances  the  book  Is  very  much  up-to-date ;  thus,  it  is 
probably  one  of  the  first  text-books  containing  a  good 
description   of  the   Nernst  lamp,   though   it  is   to  be 


May  14.  1903] 


NATURE 


i:,'^retted  that  the  type  of  lamp  illustrated  is  not  the  one 

Id   in   this   country.       In   other   places   there   is   an 

;)parent  want  of  knowledge  of  recent  progress,  as,  for 

X ample,   where  the  oscillograph  is  spoken  of  as  an 

instrument  of  little  value,   the  point-to-point  method 

being  described  as  more  practical.     These,   however, 

are  minor  blemishes,  such  as  must  be  expected  in  a 

comprehensive  work  in  which  different  branches  are 

not  written  by  separate  experts.     On  the  whole  the 

book  is  to  be  commended ;  the  illustrations  and  curves 

are  good  and  well  selected. 

The  last  hundred  pages  of  the  volume  deal  with  the 
subject  of  photometry ;  all  the  more  important  types  of 
photometer  are  described  and  illustrated,  and  the 
various  standards  of  light  are  carefully  considered. 
It  is  perhaps  to  be  regretted  that  this  part  of  the  book 
should  refer  more  especially  to  gas  photometry,  since 
the  remainder  is  devoted  to  electric  Hghting;  but  then 
it  is  altogether  somewhat  surprising  to  find  a  book 
on  electric  lighting  forming  one  volume  of  a  series  on 
chemical  technology.  M.  S. 

Die  empiristische  Geschichtsauffassung  David  Humes, 
mit  Beriicksichtigung  moderner  methodologischer 
iind  erkcimtnistheoretischer  Prohleme.  Eine  philo- 
sophische  Studie  von  Dr.  Julius  Goldstein.  Pp.  57. 
(Leipzig :  Verlag  der  Durr'schen  Buchhandlung, 
1903.)     Price  1.60  marks. 

This  essay  may  be  described  as  a  chapter  in  the  history 
of  applied  philosophy.  In  Hume  the  author  sees  an 
unique  example  of  the  philosopher  applying  his  own 
principles  to  history.  In  this  case  the  experiment  was 
of  little  advantage  to  history.  Hume's  well-known 
views  on  causation,  the  self,  and  uniformity  leave 
history  destitute  of  any  "inner  essence,"  individuals 
or  real  meaning. 

The  author  relieves  these  somewhat  trite  observ- 
ations by  concrete  examples  from  Hume's  "  History 
of  England."  Apart  from  these,  the  essay  has  been, 
in  the  main,  anticipated  by  Leslie  Stephen's  "  English 
Thought  in  the  XVIIIth  Century."  Perhaps  we 
should  not  forget  that  this  is  a  German  book.  Its 
value  lies  solely  in  focusing  attention  on  Hume  as  an 
example  of  the  way  history  should  not  be  written. 
The  real  value  of  Hume's  work  is  hardly  touched;  he 
is  ranked  above  Voltaire,  but  shares  with  the- Enlighten- 
ment the  glory  of  having  failed  well.  As  to  the 
question  of  method,  there  is  here  only  a  negative  con- 
tribution. Not  only  has  the  failure  of  Hume  and  the 
Enlightenment  left  chaos,  but  the  author  leaves  it  quite 
an  open  question  how  history  is  to  become  a  science. 
That  may  be  wisdom,  but  then  the  title  seems  dispro- 
portionate. In  the  references  to  Green  and  Grose  for 
P.H.  (passim)  read  T.H.  On  p.  51  (note)  the  refer- 
ence is  i.  S.  378,  &c.  (not  ii.).  Siegwart  is,  of  course, 
Sigvvart  (p.  11).  "  Aepinus  "  (p.  39)  and  the  English- 
man "  Marivaud  "  (p.  56)  are  scarcely  recognisable, 
but  probably  symbolise  "  Aquinas  "  and  "  Merivale." 

G.  S.  B. 

Arithmetic.  Part  i.  By  H.  G.  Willis,  M.A.  Pp. 
viii  +  256  +  l.  (London:  Rivingtons,  1903.)  Price 
15.  4d. 

This  collection  of  examples  on  the  simpler  parts  of 
arithmetic  is  arranged  in  a  convenient  and  workable 
manner.  The  exercises  are  divided  into  thirty-nine 
groups,  each  containing  work  enough  for  two  or 
three  lessons;  there  are,  moreover,  duplicate  sets  of 
exercises  which  can,  if  necessary,  be  used  in  alternate 
terms.  Oral  questions  are  set  at  the  beginning  of 
each  exercise.  A  few  examination  papers,  tables  of  \ 
reference,  and  answers  are  given  at  the  end  of  the  book.  < 
The  volume  is  likely  to  prove  useful  for  junior  forms.       ' 

NO.   1750,  VOL.   68] 


LETTERS    TO    THE    EDITOR. 

[The  Editor  does  not  hold  himself  responsible  for  opinions 
expressed  by  his  correspondents.  Neither  can  he  undertake 
to  return,  or  to  correspond  with  the  writers  of,  rejected 
manuscripts  intended  for  this  or  any  other  part  of  Nature. 
No  notice  is  taken  of  anonymous  communications.] 

Action  of  Live  Things  in  Mechanics. 

Dr.  Hobson  (p.  6ii)  appears  to  hold  the  view  that  if 
dynamical  laws  are  exact  and  irrefutable,  the  universe 
must  be  a  completely  determined  mechanical  system,  with 
only  one,  and  that  a  necessary,  solution. 

I  hold,  on  the- other  hand,  that  though  dynamical  laws 
when  properly  stated  are  perfectly  true,  they  do  not  cover 
the  whole  region  of  existence,  and  that,  accordingly,  it  is 
possible  for  live  things  to  affect  the  motions  of  matter  in 
an  unpredictable  and  capricious  manner,  though  always  in 
accordance  with  the  laws  of  motion. 

Dr.  Hobson  says,  or  implies,  that  they  cannot  so  interfere 
without  destroying  the  complete  validity  or  supremacy  of 
mechanical  laws,  and  that  they  may  as  well  upset  the  law 
of  the  conservation  of  energy  as  any  other. 

I  reply  that  it  is  a  question  of  fact  whether  they  do  or 
not.     Experience  seems  to  me  to  prove  : — 

(a)  That  live  animals  do  introduce  fresh  considerations 
and  do  disturb  things — do  not  take  the  path  of  least  re- 
sistance, for  instance ;  they  are  actuated  by  all  sorts  of 
non-mechanical  motives,  climbing  the  Matterhorn  when 
there  is  no  necessity,  and  building  structures  which  would 
not  otherwise  be  built. 

(6)  That  in  so  doing  they  never  run  counter  either  to  the 
conservation  of  energy  or  to  any  other  fundamental 
mechanical  law  ;  they  utilise  the  mechanical  energies  which 
lie  ready  to  their  hands,  directing  them,  but  leaving  their 
amount  unaltered. 

[I  emphasise  the  energy  aspect  because  I  so  often  find 
philosophers  assume  that  any  interference  of  life  with  in- 
animate matter  must  contradict  the  conservation  of  energy^ 
or  else  must  involve  the  doctrine  that  life  itself  is  a  form 
of  energy.] 

I  ask  Dr.  Hobson  to  admit  that  a  unique  solution  of  all 
future  material  motions  is  only  possible  in  a  problem  fron> 
which  all  other  aspects  of  the  universe  have  been  abstracted, 
so  that  we  limit  ourselves  by  hypothesis  to  a  purely 
dynamical  system. 

There  are  many  things  in  the  universe  beside  mechanics, 
some  of  which,  by  odd  chance,  are  enumerated  in  a  footnote 
accidentally  occurring  below  Dr.  Hobson's  letter.  For 
simplicity  it  is  customary  to  eliminate  all  these  from 
dynamical  problems.     But  the  questions  at  issue  are  : — 

(i)  Whether  any  of  these  things  can  interact  with  or 
influence   a  dynamical  system  at  all. 

(2)  Whether  they  can  so  interact  without  upsetting  or 
contradicting  any  fundamental  dynamical  laws. 

I  wish  to  answer  both  these  questions  in  the  affirmative. 
But  it  must  be  understood  that  by  "  dynamical  laws  "  I 
mean  the  fundamental  ones — let  us  say  those  of  Newton. 
I  do  not  mean  modern  generalisations  or  comprehensive 
summaries,  like  the  principle  of  Least  Action,  the  applica- 
bility of  which  can  only  be  postulated  on  certain  simplifying 
assumptions — assumptions  or  abstractions  which,  in  the 
present  instance,  merely  beg  the  question  in  dispute. 

If  Dr.  Hobson  does  not  agree  with  this,  I  trust  he  wilt 
give  us  the  benefit  of  his  further  criticism. 

May  2.  Oliver  Lodge. 


The  Glorification  of  Energy. 

Prof.  Tait,  whenever  he  wrote  of  the  principle  of  the 
conservation  of  energy,  almost  invariably  spoke  of  it  as 
the  "grand"  principle  of  conservation  of  energy;  and, 
following  his  lead,  all  but  the  most  sober  mathematicians 
use  the  laudatory  adjective  when  they  write  about  this 
particular  physical  principle. 

It  may  not  be  altogether  superfluous  to  point  out  that 
there  are  other  principles  equally  entitled  to  the  epithet 
"  grand."  For  example,  there  is  the  "  grand  "  principle 
of  the  conservation  of  matter;  .there  is  the  "  grand  "  prin- 
ciple of  the  conservation  of  force,  the  sum  total  (algebraic) 
of  which   in  the  universe  is  zero,   according  to  Newton's 


32 


NATURE 


[May  14,  1903 


Axiom  il.  ;  there  is  the  "  grand  "  principle  of  the  conserv- 
ation of  momentum,  the  algebraic  sum  total  of  it  along 
any  direction  in  the  universe  being  constant  (and  possibly 
zero)  by  Newton's  Axiom  iii.  ;  as  well  as  the  "  grand  " 
principle  of  the  conservation  of  energy. 

Now  I  hold  that  it  is  invidious  to  apply  laudatory  epithets 
of  various  degrees  to  these  principles ;  but  it  may  not  be 
wrong  to  point  out  that  in  many  respects  the  momentum 
principle  has  a  marked  advantage  over  the  energy  principle, 
the  former  being  very  often  very  easily,  and  without  any 
danger  of  error,  applicable,  while  the  latter  (owing  to  the 
elusiveness  of  energy)  is  full  of  danger  to  the  unwary. 

Postulating  now  the  existence  of  spirit,  we  find  a  difficulty 
in  defining  this  entity ;  but  no  greater  mystery  attaches 
to  it  than  that  involved  in  matter.  The  spiritualists  imagine 
that  they  gain  something  by  calling  matter  hard  and  con- 
temptuous names — "  mere  "  matter,  "  gross  "  matter, 
"  mere  gross  "  matter,  &c.  The  names  are  harmless,  and 
do  not  assist  ideas  in  any  way. 

Postulating,  then,  the  existence  of  a  spiritual  domain,  the 
crucial  question  arises  :  does  Newton's  Axiom  iii.  hold  for 
the  interaction  of  the  domains  of  matter  and  spirit?  If  it 
does,  there  is  no  dynamical  principle  interfered  with  ;  in  the 
dual  domain  there  are  conservations  of  force,  of  momentum 
and  of  energy  ;  but  in  the  physical  universe,  taken  separ- 
ately, neither  force  nor  momentum  would  be  conserved, 
although  energy  might.  On  the  other  hand,  if  Newton's 
Axiom  iii.  does  not  hold  for  the  interaction  of  the  two 
domains,  no  principle  of  conservation  could  be  enunciated 
for  either  domain,  or  for  the  system  of  the  two  together. 

Sir  Oliver  Lodge  is  anxious  to  make  out  the  existence 
of  a  spiritual  domain,  and  to  allow  it  a  certain  influence  on 
the  physical,  which  influence,  however,  "  perturbs  physical 
and  mechanical  laws  no  whit."  How  does  he  effect  this? 
By  assuming  (to  put  the  thing  into  mathematical  language) 
that  the  forces  exerted  on  material  things  by  the  spiritual 
are  forces  which  do  no  work — such  as  are  reactions  of 
smooth  fixed  surfaces,  tensions  of  inextensible  cords,  &c. 
These  are  sometimes  called  "  deviating  "  forces.  Sir  Oliver 
calls  them  "  guiding  and  controlling  "  forces.  But  it 
matters  not  what  they  are  called,  they  fail  in  their  object. 
They  allow,  indeed,  the  physical  universe  to  keep  its  sum 
total  of  energy  intact,  but  they  infallibly  alter  its  total 
momentum  and  total  force  in  every  direction. 

When  Sir  Oliver  says  "  guidance  and  control  are  not 
forms  of  energy,  and  their  superposition  upon  the  scheme 
of  physics  perturbs  physical  and  mechanical  laws  no  whit," 
he  says  what  is  perfectly  true  of  any  conceivable  forces^ — 
whether  merely  "  guiding  "  or  not.  However  force  may 
be  produced  on  a  material  particle,  the  effect  on  the  particle 
will  certainly  be  in  accordance  with  Newton's  Axiom  ii.  ; 
so  that,  in  the  sense  in  which  Sir  Oliver's  statement  is  true, 
there  is  no  necessity  to  postulate  that  spiritual  forces  are 
forces  which  act  on  matter  but  do  no  work. 

It  is  a  physical  and  mechanical  law  that  when  any  system 
of  material  particles  is  subject  to  no  forces  but  its  own 
internal  forces,  the  centre  of  mass  of  the  system  is  either 
at  rest  or  in  uniform  motion  in  a  right  line,  and  also  that 
Its  sum  total  of  energy,  kinetic  and  dynamic,  is  constant. 
But  if  Sir  Oliver  Lodge  implies  that  both  of  these  results 
can  remain  unaltered  if  that  material  system  is  acted  on 
by  spiritual  forces,  he  is  certainly  wrong.  His  deviating, 
or  "  guiding, "  spiritual  forces  can  leave  the  total  energy 
(kinetic  and  dynamic)  of  that  material  system  unaltered, 
hut  they  must  inevitably  interfere  with  the  rest,  or  constant 
motion,  of  the  centre  of  mass.  Many  of  his  readers  may 
take  this  meaning  out  of  his  words;  but  I  am  sure  Ihat  he 
cannot  intend  to  be  thus  understood. 

It   seems   to    me   that   Dr.    Hobson   in   his   letter   on    the 
subject  has  done  well  to  direct  attention  to  the  real  status 
of  the  "  grand  "  principle  of  the  conservation  of  energy. 
George  M.  Minchin. 

Coopers  Hill,  Englefield  Green,  Surrey. 


Psychophysical  Interaction. 
As  a  psychologist  I  have  read  with  deep  interest  Sir 
Oliver  Lodge's  paper  in  your  issue  of  April  23,  and  I  write 
to  ask  him  to  make  clear  some  points  which  his  paper  leaves 
obscure  to  my  mind.  Those  of  us  who  are  not  mathe- 
maticians feel  themselves  to  be  very  much  at  the  mercy  of 

NO.    1750,  VOL.   6S'^ 


those  who  are,  and  we  can  only  beg  the  physicists  to  re- 
member our  infirmity  and  to  put  their  statements  before  us 
in  the  clearest,  simplest,  and  most  carefully  chosen  language. 
Sir  Oliver  Lodge,  as  Clerk  Maxwell  did  before  him,  throws 
out  to  psychologists  the  suggestion  that  mind  may  act  upon 
body  by  exerting  guidance  without  doing  work.  Such 
guidance,  we  are  told,  may  be  effected  by  the  application  of 
force  to  moving  masses  in  the  nervous  system  in  directions 
perpendicular  to  the  direction  of  the  movements  of  those 
masses.  "  Guidance  is  a  passive  exertion  of  force  without 
doing  work  ;  as  a  quiescent  rail  can  guide  a  train  to  its 
destination,  provided  an  active  engine  propels  it."  This 
is  the  sentence  that  I  find  so  indigestible.  And  my  con- 
fusion is  but  increased  by  Sir  Oliver  Lodge's  further  illustra- 
tions. He  distinguishes  two  kinds  of  force.  "  Force  in 
motion  is  a  'power,'  it  does  work  and  transfers  energy 
from  one  body  to  another.  But  a  force  at  rest — a  mere 
statical  stress,  like  that  exerted  by  a  pillar  or  a  watershed 
— does  no  work,  and  alters  no  energy ;  yet  the  one  sustains 
a  roof  which  would  otherwise  fall,  thereby  screening  a 
portion  of  ground  from  vegetation  ;  while  the  other  deflects 
a  rain-drop  into  the  Danube  or  the  Rhine."  And,  again, 
we  read  that  life  can  exert  "  the  same  kind  of  force  which 
can  constrain  a  stone  to  revolve  in  a  circle  instead  of  in  a 
straight  line ;  a  force  like  that  of  a  groove  or  slot  or 
channel  or  '  guide.'  "  My  first  question  is.  Is  it  fair  to 
say  that  the  pillar  supporting  the  roof  exerts  a  force  in  the 
same  sense  as  the  rail  which  guides  the  train,  the  roof 
which  guides  the  rain-drop,  or  the  hand  which  holds  the 
string?  In  the  first  case  there  is  no  motion,  and  therefore 
no  change  of  direction  of  motion,  no  alteration  of  energy  ; 
in  the  other  cases  there  is  motion  and  alteration  of  direc- 
tion of  motion.  Secondly,  is  it  fair  to  call  the  rail 
quiescent?  In  guiding  the  train  round  a  curve  does  not 
the  rail,  and  the  mass  to  which  it  is  made  fast,  suffer  an 
acceleration  or  a  change  of  motion  in  the  direction  opposite 
to  that  of  the  train?  When  I  swing  round  a  heavy  ball 
on  a  string,  and  feel  it  pulling  my  hand  centrifugally,  and 
when  by  muscular  effort  I  resist  the  pull,  is  that  "  a  passive 
exertion  of  force  without  doing  work  "?  Or,  if  the  string 
is  fastened  to  the  end  of  an  upright  pole,  is  there  not 
movement  of  the  mass  to  which  the  pole  is  fixed  in  the 
direction  opposite  to  the  deflection  of  the  movement  of  the 
ball?  Every  kind  of  mechanical  guidance  that  I  can  picture 
to  myself  seems  to  imply  action  and  reaction,  change  of 
direction  of  one  momentum  seems  to  imply  always  an 
opposite  change  of  direction  of  an  equivalent  momentum. 
This  is,  I  suppose,  the  mechanical  law  of  conservation  of 
momentum,  of  which  Prof.  James  Ward  tells  us  that  it  is 
incompatible  with  the  conception  of  guidance  without  work. 
I  ask  Sir  Oliver  Lodge  whether  we  are  to  understand  that 
he  is  prepared  to  throw  this  one  mechanical  law  to  the 
wolves  in  order  to  preserve  the  rest  of  the  creed  of  the 
physicists  unharmed  by  Prof.  Ward's  attack?  Or  are  we 
to  understand  that  he  repudiates  the  law  of  conservation 
of  momentum  in  toto  ?  In  that  case,  I  ask  hjm  to  describe 
for  us  clearly  a  single  case  of  mechanical  guidance  in  which 
momentum  is  not  conserved,  or,  since  my  use  of  the  phrase 
may  be  technically  incorrect,  I  ask  him  to  describe  a  case 
of  change  of  direction  of  motion  of  any  mass  produced 
without  expenditure  of  energy  or  opposite  change  of  direc- 
tion of  motion  of  other  mass  or  masses. 

I  submit  that  Sir  Oliver  Lodge  abstracts  from  the  idea 
of  motion  the  attribute  of  direction  in  space,  and  that  such 
abstraction  is  illegitimate,  save  for  certain  purely  theo- 
retical purposes.  AH  motion  has  direction  in  space,  which 
would  seem  to  be  an  essential  element  in  all  considerations 
of  energy  values.  Sir  Oliver  tells  us  that  life  and  mind 
cannot  generate  energy,  though  they  can  guide  moving 
masses  by  exerting  forces  perpendicular  to  the  direction  of 
motion.  But  consider,  then,  the  following  case.  Imagine 
a  universe  consisting  of  two  inert  masses  flying  through 
empty  space  in  the  same  direction  and  at  the  same  rate, 
and  a  soul  contemplating  them.  That  universe  would  be 
devoid  of  energy.  Then  suppose  the  soul  to  exert  a  force 
upon  one  of  the  two  masses,  perpendicularly  to  its  direction 
of  motion,  so  as  to  swing  it  round  through  a  semicircle 
until  it  rushes  to  meet  the  other  mass.  The  soul,  by 
"guidance,"  has  then  created  energy,  and  I  take  it  that  the 
same  considerations  would  hold  true  in  our  more  complex 
universe. 


May  14,  1903] 


I^tATURE 


ZZ 


But  this  difficulty   in  conceivingf .that  itiind  or  soul  can 

iav  a  part  in  the  world  of  matter  by  acting  upon  masses 

1    the  brain  exists  only   for  those  who  persist   in   holding 

,.■  untenable  hypothesis  that  all  energy  is  kinetic  energy, 

the  motion  of  matter.     This  has  proved,   of  course,    an 

\cellent  working  hypothesis,  but  that  it  is  true  of  all  forms 

energy   is  nothing  more  than   a  pious   hope.     Yet   it  is 

u"  definition  of  energy  in  these  terms  (tacitly  or  explicitly) 

at  perpetuates   the  ancient  difficulty  of  conceiving  the  rela- 

ins  of  mind  and  body,  and  it  is  the  persistent  adherence 

'  this  conception  that,  on  the  one  hand,  has  landed  so  many 

inds    in    the    absurdities    of    psychophysical    parallelism, 

nd,  on  the  other  hand,  drives  so  many  others  to  refuse  a 

'  neral  acceptance  of  the  law  of  conservation  of  energy,  and 

believe  in  an  activity  of  the  soul  unconditioned   by  the 

(i.ist,   a  belief  which  destroys  the  rational   basis  of  morals 

and  renders  a  science  of  history  and  of  society  impossible. 

lo  me  it  seems  that  this  fundamental  problem  can  only 

<■  properly  stated  when  we  cease  to  regard  matter  as  the 

iiimate  physical  reality,  when  with  Prof.  W.  Ostwald  we 

AX,  "  Matter  is  no  longer  present  for  us  as  a  primary  con- 

1  cption  ;  it  arises  as  a  secondary  phenomenon  through  the 

I  nnstant  coexistence  of  certain  forms  of  energy.     We  shall 

iherefore  have  to  frame  the  question  in  a  new  form — How 

are  psychical   phenomena   related   to   the  energy-concept?  " 

and  "  that  in  the  case  of  psychical  processes  we  have  to  do 

with  the  rise  and  the  transformation  of  a  special   kind  of 

nf^rgy,  which  we,   in  order  to  be  able  to  speak  of  it,  will 

line  provisionally  psychical  energy  (geistige  Energie)."' 

I  laslemere,  April  26.  W.  McDougall. 


I  HAVE  pleasure  in  answering  Mr.  McDougall 's  questions 
far  as  they  are  addressed  to  me. 

In  the  first  place  I  have  not  presumed  to  say  how  psychic 
vwiitrol  actually  is  exercised;  but,  in  contradistinction  to 
those  who  hold  that  control  or  guidance  is  impossible  with- 
out the  generation  or  introduction  of  fresh  energy,  I  have 
pointed  out  that  very  simple  and  familiar  mechanical 
arrangements  do  constantly  exert  guidance  without  doing 
any  work  ;  for  instance,  a  line  of  rails. 

Mr.  McDougall  thereupon  asks  me  whether  the  line  of 
rails  is  really  quiescent,  whether  it  is  not  subjected  to  an 
c  pposite  acceleration.  I  reply  yes,  but  what  of  that?  The 
yield  of  rail  is  infinitesimal,  but  whatever  its  magnitude  it 
is  such  as  to  make  the  guidance  less  effective,  not  more  ;  it 
is  a  passive  yield  to  pressure,  not  an  active  exertion  of 
energetic  work-performing  forc6  in  the  direction  of  motion 
or  of  change  of  motion.  The  recoil  of  a  gun  is  of  no  assist- 
ance in  propelling  a  bullet. 

In  so  far  as  the  rails  yield  to  the  train  as  it  enters  Euston 
f        by  a  curve,  they  guide  it  not  to  Euston  as  it  was,  but  to  a 
slightly  shifted  destination.     No  matter,  they  guide  it,  and 
they  have  had  no  energetic  or  propelling  power  whatever. 

He  asks  me  further  if  I  fully  admit  the  principle  of 
universal  equal  opposite  reaction,  and  the  consequent  con- 
' Tvation  of  momentum. 

Certainly  I  do;  but  I  do  not  admit  the  (as  I  think)  mis- 
ken  use  Prof.  James  Ward  makes  of  the  principle  in  the 

ntence  which  he  refers  to. 

Mr.  McDougall  seems  to  overlook  the  fact  that  kinetic 
rcrgy  is  independent  of  direction.  Whether '  a  thing  be 
moving  north  or  south  or  east  or  west  its  energy  depends 
on  mass  and  speed  alone.  To  change  the  speed,  work  is 
necessary ;  no  work  is  needed  to  alter  the  direction. 
IVrhaps  it  may  be  a  help  to  him,  though  it  is  not  really 
important  in  this  connection,  if  I  say  thiit  great  momentum 
does  not  necessarily  imply  great  energy.  The  momentum 
of  a  recoiling  gun  or  earth  is  equal  to  that  of  the  projectile, 
but  the  energy  of  the  projectile  is  enormous  in  comparison 
with  the  energy  of  recoil. 

He  asks  me  for  an  example  of  "  a  change  of  direction  of 
motion  of  any  mass  produced  without  expenditure  of  energy 
(  r  opposite  change  of  direction  of  motion  of  other  mass  or 
masses."  But  the  two  things  are  not  the  same.  An 
instance  of  change  of  direction  of  motion  without  expendi- 
ture of  energy  is  afforded  by  the  instances  we  have  already 
taken,  or  by  any  perfectly  elastic  rebound — that  of  a  comet 
from  the  sun,  for  instance.  Undoubtedly  the  sun  thereby 
acquires  an  equal  opposite  momentum,  but  what  of  that? 
1  "  Vorlesungen  iiber  Natiir('hilosophie  "  (Leipzig,  1902). 
NO.    I  750.   VOL.  68] 


The  modicum  of"  energy  in  this  momentum  is  infinitesimal, 

for  one  thing,  and  for  another  it  comeS  frbni  the  comet,  not 
from  the  sun  ;  it  renders  the  rebound  less  efficient,  not 
more  ;  it  is  no  supply  of  energy  from  the  central  practically 
stationary  mass.  The  same  thing  is  true  of  a  ball  whirling 
on  a  string  round  a  pole.  When  a  boy  holds  the  string  in 
an  active  hand,  it  is  quite  easy  and  usual  to  do  a  little 
work  by  moving  the  hand  a  quadrant  in  advance  of  the 
ball,  and  thus  to  maintain,  or  even  increase,  its  energy  ; 
but  the  force  so  exerted  by  a  hand  is  not  purely  radial,  it 
has  a  tangential  component,  and  this  part  of  it  is  effectively 
propulsive.  An  energetic,  not  a  passive,  centre  is  needed 
for  that. 

Coming  to  another  part  of  his  letter ;  his  illustration  of 
a  great  display  of  available  energy  being  brought  about  by 
the  reversal  of  motion  of  one  of  two  similarly  flying  bodies, 
suffers  from  the  confusion  of  energy  with  available  energy. 
The  flying  of  air  molecules,  for  instance,  is  in  every  direc- 
tion, sometimes  so  as  to  be  able  to  collide,  sometimes  not, 
but  their  energy  is  quite  independent  of  these  directional 
circumstances.  As  Dr.  Hobson  truly  says  in  your  issue  of 
April  30,  "  the  principle  of  energy,  if  applied  to  even  the 
simplest  dynamical  system  which  is  possessed  of  more  than 
one  degree  of  freedom,  is,  taken  by  itself,  wholly  in- 
sufficient for  the  determination  of  the  motion  of  such 
system."  That  is  one  part  of  my  contention,  technically 
stated.  In  so  far  as  a  question  of  absolute  velocity  seems 
involved  in  the  energy  of  a  single  isolated  flying  mass,  I 
might  refer  to  a  discussion  of  that  aspect  of  the  matter  in 
the  Philosophical  Magazine  for  October,   1898. 

In  conclusion,  I  perceive  that  Mr.  McDougall,  like  some 
other  philosophers,  hopes  to  jump  the  admitted  difficulties  of 
psychophysical  interaction  by  ignoring  "  matter  "  altogether 
and  taking  refuge  in  "  energy  "  alone.  I  venture  to  predict 
that  those  who  attempt  this  will  find  that  though  they  may 
wander  in  dimness  for  a  time,  and  may  cultivate  an  un- 
awareness  of  difficulties  by  failing  to  see  them  distinctly, 
they  will  not  derive  any  ultimate  satisfaction  from  the 
blindfolding  ;  nor  do  I  think  that  they  will  be  well  advised 
to  transplant  the  definite  physical  term  "energy,"  even 
though  prefixed  by  a  special  adjective  such  as  geistige,  in 
order  to  denominate  what  is  probably  a  perfectly  distinct 
psychical  entity  with  laws  of  its  own.  Oliver  Lodge. 


Those  of  your  readers  who  have  been  interested  by  Sir 
Oliver  Lodge's  article  printed  in  Nature,  April  23,  on 
the  "  Interaction  Between  the  Mental  and  Material  Aspects 
of  Things,"  may  be  glad  to  be  referred  to  Thomas  Solly's 
essay  on  the  Will,  published  in  1856. 

The  suggestion  of  Solly  is  that  every  act  of  the  will  is 
simply  a  guidance  of  mental  activity,  infinitesimal,  indeed, 
in  its  amount  in  each  individual  act,  but  such  as  to  influence, 
not  the  external  world,  but  the  character  of  the  individual 
exercising  it,  so  that  the  sar.e  external  stimulus  operates 
after  each  successive  act  of  the  will  on  an  individual  whose 
character  has  been  changed  by  that  act,  whence  same 
stimulus  is  no  longer  necessarily  the  same  motive.  By 
thus  regarding  each  act  of  the  will  as  a  "  self-determination 
of  the  subject,"  the  acts  of  choice  or  guidance  are  assumed 
to  take  place  in  a  region  of  activity  about  which  we  have 
no  physical  information  whatever,  and  the  interactions  of 
material  things  are  left  absolutely  untouched. 

The    significance    of    the    suggestion    is    made    extremely 
j  clear  in  Solly's  chapter  on  "  Liberty,  a  Self-Determination 
I  of  the  Subject,"  and   in  subsequent  chapters,   by  means  of 
1  very  happily  chosen  geometrical  illustrations. 
I       Mohuns,  Tavistock,  April  26.         A.  M.  Worthington. 


Mendel's  Principles  of  Heredity  in  Mice. 
The  issues  raised  in  the  case  of  these  mice  are  as  yet  of 
such  a  simple  and  familiar  kind  that  the  source  of  Prof. 
Weldon's  diffiiulty  is  not  easy  to  surmise.  When  a  gamete 
G  bearing  albino  and  pink-eye  meets  a  gamete  G'  bearing 
coloured  coat  (in  this  case  fawn)  and  pink-eye,  a  hetero- 
zygote  GG'  was  produced,  with  dark  eyes  and  coloured  coat. 
Such   hybrids,    as   the   experiments   proved,    gave   off   equal 


?>4 


NATURE 


[May  14.  1Q03 


numbers  of  gametes  G,  bearing  albino  with  pink-eye,  and  G' 
bearing  colour  with  pink-eye.  Consequently  from  GG'x 
GG'  we  expect  and  obtain  GG+aGG'+G'G'  ;  and  from 
GG'xG  equal  numbers  (approximately)  of  GG  and  GG'. 
So  far,  GG  are  pink-eyed  albinos ;  GG'  are  dark-eyed  with 
some  colour  in  coat;  G'G'  are  pink-eyed,  but  with  some 
colour  in  coat. 

If  we  do  not  consider  what  particular  colour  GG'  and 
G'G'  will  have,  we  may  treat  all  gametes  G'  as  identical. 
But  after  crossing  with  albino  such  a.  condition  would  be 
unusual.  The  colour  brought  in  by  the  original  G'  is  gener- 
ally in  part  resolved,  and  various  sorts  of  G'  gametes  are 
formed,  viz.  aG',  bG',  cG',  abcG',  &x.  Therefore  when  the 
hybrids  breed  together  there  will  be  GG'  zygotes  of  several 
colours,  viz.  G.aG',  G.bG',  G.cG',  &c.  ;  also  G'G'  zygotes 
of  several  colours,  viz.  aG'.aG',  aG'.bG',  &c.  Each  com- 
bination will  have  its  appropriate  colour  and  frequency, 
though  (if  the  regularity  be  maintained)  all  GG'  will  have 
dark  eyes  and  some  colour,  and  all  G'G'  pink  eyes  and 
some  colour.  But  as  the  hybrid  produces  G  gametes  equal 
in  number  to  the  various  G'  gametes  collectively,  GG'  x  GG' 
will  give  on  an  average  one  albino  in  four  offspring  (ex- 
periment gave  nine  in  thirty-seven) ;  and  there  is  no  ques- 
tion of  one  in  nine.  We  are  only  concerned  with  one  hypo- 
thesis (that  I  have  set  forth  in  "  Mendel's  Principles  of 
Heredity,"  p.  29),  and  with  this  hypothesis  the  published 
facts  are  in  admirable  agreement. 

Heterogeneous  offspring  from  crossing  two  seemingly 
pure  races  may  seem  to  Prof.  Weldon  an  "  amazing  " 
phenomenon,  but  it  is  one  with  which  the  breeder  early 
becomes  familiar.  Even  albinos  need  not  be  pure  or  their 
gametes  homogeneous  in  characters  other  than  albinism. 

Grantchester,  Cambridge,  May  i.  W.  Bateson. 


Mr.  Bateson  reconciles  his  statements  in  Nature  of 
March  19  and  April  23  by  explaining  that  in  his  first  letter, 
when  he  describes  certain  mice  as  of  constitution  G'G',  he 
is  deliberately  denoting  a  whole  series  of  different  gametes 
by  the  same  name. 

The  suggested  heterogeneity  among  the  gametes  of  pure 
albinos  is  now  said  to  affect  characters  other  than  albinism, 
and  is  therefore  wholly  irrelevant.  The  avowed  vagueness 
in  the  use  of  the  symbol  G'  makes  it  uncertain  whether 
the  fawn-and-white  mice  are  now  supposed  to  produce 
gametes  of  different  character  (with  regard  to  coat-colour 
and  eye-colour)  or  not.  If  the  gametes  of  all  the  fawn-and- 
white  mice  used  are  similar,  then  all  hybrids  between  these 
and  albino  mice  are  of  similar  constitution,  and  the  fact 
that  some  are  yellow,  some  grey,  and  some  black  is  left 
unaccounted  for.  If  the  fawn-aad-white  mice  produce  even 
three  kinds  of  gametes,  G',,  G'^  and  G'3,  then  on  crossing 
with  albinos  the  hybrids  GG',,  GG'j  and  GG'3  may  be  of 
■different  coat-colour ;  but  since  the  fawn-and-white  mice 
always  breed  true  to  colour  when  paired  inter  se,  it  surely 
follows  that  the  combinations  G'^G'i,  G'fi'^,  G'fi'^,  &c., 
which  arise  from  such  unions  (some  homozygotes  and  some 
heterozygotes)  give  rise  to  mice  of  similar  colour.  It  is 
this  consequence  of  heterogeneity  in  a  pure-breeding  race 
which  seems  to  me  amazing. 

In  assuming  that  coat-colour  is  resolved  into  simpler 
elements  when  hybrids  form  their  gametes,  Mr.  Bateson 
follows  Mendel ;  but  in  such  cases  Mendel  assumes  that 
all  the  various  kinds  of  gametes,  produced  by  the  hybrid, 
occur  with  equal  frequency,  and  Mr.  Bateson  has  elsewhere 
attempted  to  bring  this  assumption  into  relation  with  the 
phenomena  of  cell-division  ("  Mendel's  Principles  of 
Heredity,"  p.  30).  In  trying  to  fit  Mr.  Darbishire's  facts 
by  a  Mendelian  formula,  Mr.  Bateson  abandons  this  hypo- 
thesis;  he  now  says  that  a  hybrid  mouse  produces  (i)  a 
series  of  different  kinds  of  colour-bearing  gametes,  and  (2) 
a  number  of  gametes  bearing  the  characters  white  coat  and 
pink  eye,  equal  to  the  sum  of  all  the  other  kinds  of  gametes 
together.  This  departure  from  Mendel's  hypothesis  is 
masked  in  Mr.  Bateson 's  first  letter  by  the  simple  device 
of  calling  the  whole  series  of  different  colour-bearing 
gametes  by  the  same  name  G'. 

Mendel's  own  view  of  the  way  in  which  compound 
characters  behave  gives  a  maximum  possibility  of  one  pure 


recessive  albino  among  sixteen  offspring  of  hybrids ;  a  non- 
Mendelian  view,  lately  put  forward  by  Mr.  Bateson  in 
another  case  of  colout-resolution  {Proc.  Camb.  Phil.  Soc, 
vol.  xii.  p.  52),  gives  a  maximum  of  one  in  nine  ;  the  view 
he  now  suggests  for  mice  gives  one  in  four.  By  modifying 
first  one  and  then  another  of  Mendel's  statements,  his  name 
is  made  to  shelter  almost  any  hypothesis,  and  almost  any 
experimental  test  is  evaded. 

In  the  next  number  of  Biometrika  Mr.  Darbishire  will 
publish  a  series  of  new  results,  which  have  an  important 
bearing  on  the  application  of  Mendel's  "  principles  "  to  hi': 
mice.  Until  these  new  facts  are  available,  I  do  not  think 
further  discussion  will  be  profitable,  and  therefore  I  do  noi 
propose  to  continue  this  correspondence. 

Oxford,  May  6.  W.  F.  R.  Weldon. 

[This  correspondence  must  now  cease. — Ed.] 


INTERNATIONAL    METEOROLOGICAL 
COMMITTEE. 

THE  International  Meteorological  Committee  ap- 
pointed by  the  Paris  Congress  of  1896  in  suc- 
cession to  those  appointed  by  previous  congresses, 
commencing  with  the  Vienna  Congress  of  1873,  will 
meet  this  year  at  Southport  during  the  session  of  the 
British  Association,  September  9  to  16.  The  com- 
mittee held  a  single  meeting  in  the  room  at  the  top 
of  the  Eiffel  Tower  in  1900;  its  last  normal  session 
was  at  St.  Petersburg  in  1899.  It  has  not  met  in 
England  for  twenty-six  years.  The  original  "  per- 
manent "  committee  was  appointed  by  the  Vienna  Con- 
gress in  1873,  and  consisted  of  six  members  under  the 
presidency  of  Buys  Ballot;  its  successor  now  numbers 
seventeen  members,  representing  a  large  number  of 
the  official  meteorological  organisations  of  the  world. 
Prof.  Mascart,  of  the  Bureau  Central  M^t^orologique 
of  France,  is  president,  and  Prof.  H.  H.  Hilde- 
brandsson,  of  the  Royal  Observatory  of  Upsala,  is 
secretary,  having  been  elected  to  that  ofifice  on 
the  resignation  of  Mr.  Scott,  who  was  secre- 
tary from  1874  (the  Utrecht  meeting)  until  the 
close  of  1899.  The  other  members  are  Prof, 
von  Bezold  (German  Empire),  Prof.  Billwiller  (Switzer- 
land), Captain  Chaves  (Azores,  Portugal),  VV.  Davis 
(Argentine),  Sir  J.  Eliot,  K.C.I. E.  (India),  Prof.  S. 
Hepites  (Roumania),  Prof.  H.  Mohn  (Norway),  Prof. 
Willis  L.  Moore  (United  States),  Prof.  L.  Palazzo 
(Italy),  Prof.  Paulsen  (Denmark),  Prof.  J.  M.  Pernter 
(Austria),  Mr.  H.  C.  Russell,  C.M.G.  (Australia), 
General  Rykatcheff  (Russia),  Mr.  W.  N.  Shaw 
(Great  Britain),  and  Prof.  H.  Snellen  (Holland). 

The  functions  of  the  committee  are  to  discuss  meteor- 
ological questions  of  international  interest  and  formu- 
late proposals  for  international  cooperation  in  connec- 
tion therewith.  The  deliberations  have  an  official 
character  in  virtue  of  the  committee  being  ap- 
pointed by  a  congress  of  representatives  dele- 
gated in  response  to  an  official  invitation  of  one  or 
other  of  the  European  Governments,  but  the  committee 
has  no  executive  authority.  It  has  been  the  practice 
for  the  committee  to  appoint  from  time  to  time  various 
"  commissions  "  or  subcommittees  to  prepare  reports 
upon  questions  that  require  preHmlnary  discussion. 
The  members  of  these  subcommittees  are  not  neces- 
sarily members  of  the  International  comrnlttee.  They 
meet  from  time  to  time  on  the  invitation  of  their 
respective  chalrrrien,  and  opportunity  Is  often  taken  of 
the  occasion  of  the  meeting  of  a  subcommittee  to 
obtain  more  general  discussion  by  Inviting  other  per- 
sons Interested  In  the  special  subjects  to  take  part  in 
the  proceedings,  and  sometimes  to  become  members 
of  the  subcommittee.  There  are  at  present  five  sub- 
committees, constituted  as  follows  : — 


NO.    1750,  VOL.  68] 


May  14.  1903] 


NATURE 


35 


(i)  Terrestrial  Magnetism. —Sir  Arthur  Rucker 
(chairman),  Messrs.  Litznar,  Moureaux,  Palazzo, 
Paulsen,  von  Rijkevorsel  and  Rykatcheff. 

(2)  Radiation  and  Insolation.— Proi  VioUo  (chair- 
man), MM.  Angstrom,  Chistoni,  Chwolson,  Snellen, 
Stupart,  and  Tacchini. 

^  :;)  International   Weather  Telegraphy.— Fro{.  J.  M. 
niter    (chairman),    Messrs.    Billwiller,    Mohn,    von 
:,cumaver,   Rykatcheff,   Snellen,  Tacchini. 

(4)  Cloud  Observations.— Proi.  H.  H.  Hildebrands- 
son  (chairman),  Messrs.  Mohn,  Riggenbach,  Rotch, 
Rvkatcheff,  Sprung,  and  Teisserenc  de  Bort. 

'(5)  Aeronautics.— Prof.  H.  Hergesell  (chairman), 
MM.  Assmann,  Erk,  de  Fonvielle,  Hermite,  Jaubert, 
Pomortzeff,  and  Rotch. 

To  the  last  mentioned  the  following  names  have  been 
provisionally  added  by  cooptation  :— Messrs.  Berson, 
Angot,  Bouquet  de  la  Grye,  Cailletet,  Rowanko,  in 
1898;  Prince  Roland  Bonaparte,  Tacchini,  Teisserenc 
de  Bort,  Hildebrandsson,  Pernter,  Hinterstoisser, 
Moedebcch  de  Sigsfeld,  in  1900,  and  others  in  1902. 

The  subcommittee  on  terrestrial  magnetism  held  a 
very  successful  meeting  at  Bristol  during  the  session 
of  the  British  Association  in  1898.  All  the  subcom- 
mittees met  in  Paris  in  1900,  and  the  aeronautical 
committee  met  in  Berlin  in  1902.  The  subcommittee 
on  cloud  observations  has  completed  its  work  for  the 
time  being,  and  Prof.  Hildebrandsson 's  report  has 
just  been  published. 

The  subcommittee  upon  weather  telegraphy  will 
meet  at  Southport,  but  information  as  to  proposed 
meetings  of  other  subcommittees  is  not  yet  forth- 
coming. 

Two  conspicuous  considerations  point  to  the  forth- 
coming meeting  of  the  committee  as  one  of  exceptional 
interest  and  importance.  The  first  is  meteorological. 
The  situation  of  the  British  Isles  with  regard  to  the 
Atlantic  must  necessarily  attract  the  attention  of  all 
meteorologists.  The  problems  which  that  situation 
brings  into  prominence  are  doubtless  among  the  most 
difficult,  but  at  the  same  time  the  most  interesting 
of  meteorological  inquiries.  The  second  is  economical 
or  social.  This  country  is  a  great  centre  for  com- 
munication with  all  parts  of  the  globe,  and  in  spite 
of,  or  perhaps  because  of,  its  insular  position,  is  easy 
of  access  from  all  quarters.  There  are,  therefore,  good 
grounds  for  expecting  that  the  hospitality  of  the 
British  Association  and  of  Southport  will  result  in  a 
meeting  of  unusual  interest  as  regards  meteorology 
and  the  kindred  sciences. 

No  programme  of  proceedings  has  yet  been  issued. 
The  executive  meetings  of  the  committee  must  neces- 
sarily be  exclusive,   but  opportunity  will  be  afforded 
for    the    discussion    of    meteorological    questions    of 
general    interest    in    connection     with    the    meetings 
of  Section  A,  as  was  the  case  with  the  magnetic  sub- 
committee at  Bristol.     Among  the  new  subjects  which 
will  come  before  the  committee  may  be  mentioned  the 
special  question  of  the  relation   between   meteorology 
i      and  solar  physics,  the  discussion  of  which  it  is  hoped 
[      may    be    initiated    by    the    president    of    the    British 
\      Association. 

'  Southport   has   special    appropriateness    for   such   a 

\      meeting.     Its  meteorological  establishment,  the  Fern- 
ley  Observatory,  under  the  direction  of  Mr.  J.  Baxen- 
dell,      is     a     conspicuously     successful     example     of 
;      municipal  enterprise  in  that  direction.     In  connection 
I      with  the  meeting,  provisional  arrangements  have  been 
'       made  for  an  exhibition  of  novel  meteorological  appli- 
'       ances    and    other   objects    of    meteorological    interest. 
A  committee  representing  the  Meteorological  Council, 
the    Royal    Meteorological    Society,    and   the    Scottish 
Meteorological  Society,  with  some  additional  members, 
has  been  formed  to  carry  out  the  arrangements. 

NO.    1750,  VOL.  68] 


MAORI   ART.^ 

NOT  only  students  of  Maori  ethnography,  but  those 
who  are  interested  in  artistic  technology,  will 
heartily  congratulate  Mr.  A.  Hamilton  on  the  comple- 
tion of  his  great  work  on  "  Maori  Art."  Although 
this  magnificently  illustrated  monograph  nominally 
deals  with  decorative  art,  it  is  by  no  means  confined 
to  that  subject,  as  for  many  years  Mr.  Hamilton  has 
been  diligently  collecting  facts  and  illustrations  which 
bear  on  the  social  life  of  the  Maories.  Many  interest- 
ing customs  have  be'en  omitted  as  being  beyond  the 
scope  of  the  work ;  usually  only  those  matters  are  con- 
sidered which  are  connected  more  or  less  closely  with 
objects  which  are  capable  of  being  figured.  Not  too 
soon  has  Mr.  Hamilton  applied  himself  to  his  labour 
of  love;  constantly  throughout  the  book  do  we  find 
uncertainty  as  to  the  exact  significance  of  patterns 
and  designs,  and  occasionally  objects  are  figured  of 
which  the  use  or  meaning  is  very  doubtful.  Nor  is  this 
indefiniteness  due  to  lack  of  energy  on  the  part  of  the 
author;  it  is  merely  another  example  of  the  great 
change  that  is  so  rapidly  modifying  the  majority  of 
backward  peoples.  "  How  much  interesting  inform- 
ation," Mr.  Hamilton  writes,  "has  been  lost  can  be 
estimated  by  the  fragments  which  have  been  gathered. 
The  system  of  laws  for  the  government  of  the  body 
politic  known  as  tapu,  was  the  outcome  of  centuries 
of  experience  of  practical  socialism.  However 
irregular,  capricious,  and  burdensome  it  may  now 
appear  to  have  been,  it  was  certainly  the  source  of 
order  to  them,  and  was  of  great  use  to  conserve  them 
as  a  race,  and  to  sharpen  their  intellectual  and  moral 
faculties,  besides  retaining  the  canon  of  art  in  its 
native  purity.  As  Mr.  Colenso  points  out,  when  all 
this  was  swept  away,  together  with  polygamy  and 
slavery,  without  anything  to  replace  them,  the  nation, 
as  a  people,  was  broken  up.  '  However  distasteful,' 
he  says,  '  these  three  things  might  be  to  an  European 
and  Christian,  they  were  the  life  of  the  New  Zealander. 
They  were,  perhaps,  the  three  rotten  hoops  round  the 
old  cask,  but  they  kept  the  cask  together.'  " 

The  work  consists  of  five  parts,  of  which  the  first 
part  contains  an  account  of  Maori  canoes,  with  ten 
plates.  Part  ii.  deals  with  Maori  habitations,  with 
diagrams  of  the  construction  of  a  house,  plans  and 
sections  of  a  fortified  pas,  with  fifteen  plates,  and  a 
valuable  essay  by  the  Rev.  Herbert  Williams  on  Maori 
rafter  patterns,  illustrated  by  twenty-nine  coloured 
examples ;  these  have  never  been  described,  and  there- 
fore the  explanation  of  Mr.  Williams  of  the  patterns 
is  doubly  welcome.  The  weapons  and  tools  are  de- 
scribed in  the  third  part,  and  are  illustrated  by  eleven 
plates.  The  fourth  part  deals  with  dress  and  personal 
ornaments,  with  fifteen  plates.  The  final  part  is  devoted 
to  the  social  institutions  of  the  Maori  people,  with  de- 
scriptions of  their  games,  amusements,  and  musical 
instruments,  with  thirteen  plates.  Each  of  the  sixty- 
four  plates  contains  illustrations  of  several  objects,  and 
there  are  numerous  figures  in  the  text,  so  that  the 
total  number  of  illustrations  is  very  large,  and  all  of 
them  are  of  excellent  quality  and  constitute  a  mass  of 
information  for  the  ethnographer,  and  a  wealth  of 
material  for  the  student  of  art.  A  noticeable  feature 
of  each  part  is  the  list  of  .words  relating  to  the  subject- 
matter  of  that  part,  which  forms  a  valuable  subject 
vocabulary,  which  will  prove  of  great  use  to  students. 

The  wood-carving  of  the  Maories  is  very  character- 
istic, as  regards  both  technique  and  motive.  The 
designs  are  carved  with  great  boldness,  considerable 
relief  is  employed,  and  the  background  is  usually  filled 
up  with  labyrinthine  designs,  the  spaces  of  which  are 

1  "Maori  An."     By  A.   Hamilton.     Pp.   439;  64  plates  and  numerous 
illustrations    in   the    text.      (New    Zealand    Institute,   Wellington,    N.Z 
Price  4/.  4J. 


36 


NATURE 


[May  14,  1903 


ircqiicntly  perforated.  .  The  most  common  form  of 
surface  decoration  consists  of  ridged  parallel  lines  en- 
closing narrow  bands  or  areas,  which  are  filled  up  with 
short  cross-ridges,  as  in  Fig.  i,  less  frequently  notched 
ornamentation,  called  taratara  o  kai. 

The  carvings  most  frequently  represent  grotesque 
human  figures,  often  associated  with  a  problematical 
creature  called  manaia  (Fig.  2).  Concerning  the 
manaia,    Mr.    Hamilton    says  : 

"  On  the  slab  are  carved  representations  of  a  human 
figure  attended  by  the  monstrous  bird  or  snake-headed 
figures  so  frequent  in  all  carvings  from  the  northern 
portion  of  New  Zealand.  At  present  no  explanation 
is  forthcoming  of  the  esoteric  meaning  of  these  mystic 


■Waka,   or  box   (of  holding  greenstone 
the  hair. 


iments  or  feathers  for 


figures.  To  advance  a  theory  on  the  subject  without 
ascertained  facts  from  the  tohungas  (priests)  of  old 
would  only  add  to  the  difficulties  of  the  interpretation. 
Earle  says,  '  One  of  their  favourite  subjects  is  a  lizard 
taking  hold  of  a  man's  head,  their  tradition  being  that 
this  was  the  origin  of  man.'  Possibly  these  manaias 
may  have  been  considered  as  representations  of  lizards. 
In  Samoa  manaia  is  the  name  of  a  lizard."  Pratt, 
however,  in  his  "  Grammar  and  Dictionary  of  the 
Samoan  Language,"  third  edition,  1893,  gives  manaia 
as  "fine-looking,  handsome;  a  good-looking  man." 
The  interpretation  of  this  motive  is  greatly  to  be 
desired,  as  it  is  evidently  one  of  great  antiquity  and 
importance.       Mr.    J.    Edge    Partington    has    several 


symbolise  fertility.  It  is  possible  that  the  manaia 
originally,  directly  or  indirectly,  had  a  similar  mean- 
ing. If  this  be  so,  it  would  seem  as  if  the  carving  on 
these  store-houses  was  a  magical  formula  to  ensure 
the  abundance  of  the  crops.  Unfortunately,  Mr. 
Hamilton  merely  says,  "  the  pataka  was  the  treasury, 
and  its  adornments  were  not  only  elaborate  and 
beautiful,  but  had  special  significance  "  (p.  90). 

A  considerable  amount  of  work  yet  requires  to  be 
done  before  we  can  feel  that  we  really  understand  the 
symbolism  of  Maori  carvings  and  the  meaning  of  all 
the  patterns.  It  cannot  be  too  often  or  strongly 
insisted  upon  that  this  work  cannot  be  accomplished 
in  European  museums ;  it  is  necessary  for  researches  to 
be  made  on  the  spot.  Let  us  hope  that  it  be  not  yet 
too  late. 

It  seems  rather  ungenerous  to  find  fault  with  Mr. 
Hamilton  after  all  the  pains  he  has  taken,  but  the 
reader  would  have  been  saved  trouble  if  the  author  had 
been  more  careful  in  his  editing.  For  example,  it  most 
frequently  liappens  that  the  plates  on  which  objects 
are  figured  are  not  referred  to  in  the  descriptive  text, 
and  vice  versd;  thus  the  reader  has  to  hunt  through 
the  pages  to  find  the  appropriate  illustration  or  de- 
scription, as  the  case  may  be.  Sometimes  the  same 
class  of  object  is  figured  on  plates  some  distance  apart, 
and  still  more  troublesome  is  the  case  of  the  illustrations 
in  the  text.  It  is  true  there  are  lists  of  specimens 
figured  in  the  plates  and  of  illustrations  in  the  text, 
but  the  continual  turning  the  pages  backwards  and 
forwards  to  consult  these  as  the  text  is  being  read, 
and  the  subsequent  looking  up  the  illustration,  is  apt 
to  try  the  reader's  patience. 

The  study  of  comparative  decorative  art  will  gain 
greatly  by  the  publication  of  this  work,  and  we  echo 
the  author's  expression  of  sincere  thanks  to  the  Board 
of  Governors  of  the  New  Zealand  Institute  at  Welling- 
ton, N.Z.,  who  have  carried  out  the  publication  of  so 
costly  a  work.  Messrs.  Fergusson  and  Mitchell,  the 
publishers  of  Dunedin,  also  deserve  great  credit  for 
the  beauty  of  the  illustrations  and  the  excellence  of  the 
typography.  A.  C.  Haddon. 


Fig.  2. — Carved  Pare,  or  door  Ornament  rejjresenting  a  man.  w 
on  each  side  of  him. 

times  attacked  the  problem  (Journal  Anthrop.  Inst., 
xxix.  p.  305;  XXX,,  Miscellanea,  Nop.  40,  41;  Man, 
1902,  No.  17).  He  believes  it  to  be  a  lizard,  or  perhaps 
a  water-snake.  The  present  writer  has  hazarded  the 
view  (Man,  1901,  No.  55)  that  it  may  be  a  degraded 
and  conventionalised  representation  of  a  bird,  probably 
of  the  sacred  bird  of  the  West  Pacific,  the  frigate  bird 
which  possesses  m.ana  (spiritual  or  magical  power)  in 
an  eminent  degree.  The  Maori  spiral  is  also  called 
manaia,  and  it  appears  to  be  related  to  the  problem- 
atical animal.  The  spiral  manaia  and  the  less  con- 
ventionalised manaia  are  associated  with  human  beings 
on  the  carvings  of  the  store-houses,  and  some  of  these 
human  beings  are  so  grouped  as  to  indicate  that  they, 

NO     1750,  VOL.  68 J 


THE   LONDON    EDUCATION    BILL. 

1"HE  Bill  to  extend  and  adapt  the  Education  Act, 
1902,  to  London,  passed  its  second  reading  on 
Wednesday,  April  29.  As  was  pointed  out  in  the  issue 
of  Nature  for  April  9,  the  Bill  was  introduced  by  Sir 
William  Anson  on  April  7,  and  in  referring  to  the 
first  reading  proceedings  we  summarised  its  main  pro- 
visions. As  a  result  of  the  representations  of  educa- 
tionists of  different  shades  of  political  opinion  on  the 
Bill  in  its  present  form,  the  Government  made  it 
sufficientlv  clear  during  the  course  of  the  second  read- 
ing debate  that  they  were  prepared  to  introduce  modi- 
fications during  the  passage  of  the  Bill  through  the 
Committee  stage. 

The  central  principle  of  the  Bill  was  defined  by  the 
Prime  Minister  during  the  second  reading  debate ;  it  is 
intended  to  provide  that  there  shall  be  a  central  educa- 
tion authority  and  other  local  authorities  to  which 
certain  powers  can  be  delegated.  The  central  authority 
is  to  be  the  London  County  Council,  and  the  bodies  to 
which  delegation  takes  place  are  to  be  the  borough 
councils.  The  vote  on  the  second  reading  affirmed 
this  principle  by  a  majority  of  137 — 163  voting  for  an 
amendment  that  the  Bill  be  read  a  second  time  that 
day  six  months,  and  300  against. 

When  the  Bill  is  interpreted  in  the  light  of  what  Mr. 
Balfour  has  laid  down  as  its  fundamental  principle, 
it  becomes  clear  that  modifications  in  its  provisions  are 
of  great  importance,  and  it  is  instructive  to  study  the 


May  14,  1903 


NA  TURE 


2>7 


question  from  this  point  of  view.  First,  then,  as  re- 
gards the  constitution  of  the  central  authority;  it  is 
proposed  that  the  new  Education  Committee  for 
London  shall  consist  of  ninety-seven  members,  of 
whom  thirty-six  shall  be  members  of  the  London 
County  Council  appointed  by  that  authority;  thirty-one 
shall  be  members  of  the  councils  of  metropolitan 
boroughs  appointed  by  those  councils,  Westminster 
and  the  City  of  London  appointing  two  each,  and  each 
of  the  other  metropolitan  boroughs  appointing  one 
member;  twenty-five  are  to  be  co-opted  members  re- 
presenting expert  educational  opinion,  and  including 
representatives  from  such  institutions  as  the  University 
of  London,  the  City  Guilds,  the  City  Parochial  Chari- 
ties, and  so  on  ;  and  for  the  first  five  years  five  members 
of  the  existing  School  Board.  The  question  is.  Do 
these  proposals  provide  for  the  election  of  a  central 
education  authority  on  which  the  London  County 
Council,  which  has  the  sole  rating  power,  will  have 
paramount  influence?  The  majority  of  competent 
judges  think  not.  There  seems  no  good  reason  forth- 
coming for  the  inclusion  of  representatives  of  borough 
councils,  and  it  is  hoped  that  a  change  in  this  connec- 
tion will  be  made  in  Committee.  This  is  the  more 
probable,  too,  as  the  proposed  education  committee  is 
too  unwieldy,  and  will  from  its  size  be  likely  to  en- 
courage general  debate  on  educational  questions  rather 
than  specific  and  intelligent  administration  of  the  work 
ot  the  schools. 

Then  there  is  the  question  of  the  duties  of  the 
borough  councils  in  their  capacity  of  local  authorities 
with  delegated  powers.  The  Bill  makes  these  councils 
"  managers  of  all  public  elementary  schools  provided 
by  the  local  education  authority  within  their  borough," 
and  gives  them  the  appointment  and  dismissal  of 
teachers  in  these  schools  and  the  custody  of  the  build- 
ings. They  are  to  have,  too,  the  selection  of  sites  for 
new  school-buildings.  It  is  to  be  hoped  that  the 
clauses  of  the  Bill  dealing  with  the  duties  of  borough 
councils  will  be  greatly  changed.  It  is  highly  un- 
desirable that  the  teacher  should  be  regarded  as  the 
servant  of  the  local  rather  than  of  the  central  author- 
ity, and  it  is  a  mistake  to  run  the  risk  of  a  lowering  of 
the  eflficiency  of  the  elementary  school  teachers  in  the 
metropolis  by  allowing  the  possibility  of  local  pre- 
judices, relationships,  wire-pulling,  and  what  not,  to 
influence  the  selection  of  teachers.  The  London  School 
Board  has  secured  the  reputation  of  having  selected 
its  teachers  on  their  merits,  and  it  would  be  a  great 
mistake  to  make  it  possible  for  the  teaching  in  any 
London  borough  to  deteriorate  because  its  councillors 
chose  teachers  from  personal  considerations  rather 
than  on  the  score  of  efficiency.  So,  also,  in  the  case 
of  the  selection  of  sites  for  new  schools;  the  central 
authority  would  undoubtedly  choose  these  because  of 
their  suitability  for  the  purpose;  the  local  councils 
might  conceivably  select  them  for  quite  other  reasons, 
for  example,  because  a  prominent  councillor  with  great 
influence  on  the  council  wished  to  sell.  These  points 
require  very  careful  consideration,  and  it  may  be  safely  j 
predicted  that  during  its  passage  through  Committee  ! 
the  Bill  will  undergo  considerable  modification  in  these  i 
directions. 

But  from  the  point  of  view  of  readers  of  Nature  it  ! 
is  more  important  to  consider  the  extent  to  which  the 
provisions  for  higher  and  secondary  education  con- 
tained in  the  Act  of  last  year  are  affected  by  the  Bill  | 
now  before  the  House  of'Commons.  The  present  Bill 
being  intended  to  extend  the  Act  o''  last  year  to  London, 
it  is  clear  that  the  conditions  which  apply  to  the  rest 
of  the  country,  so  far  as  secondary  and  higher  educa- 
tion are  concerned,  are  also  to  hold  good  in  London. 
The  Act  of  last  year  repealed  the  Technical  Instruc- 
tion Acts,  and  as  a  consequence  the  old  technical  in- 

NO.    1750,  VOL.   68] 


struction  committees  are  disappearing,  and  their  duties 
are  being  taken  over  by  the  new  education  authorities. 
The  same  thing  will,  on  the  passing  of  the  London 
Education  Bill,  take  place  in  London.  The  present 
Technical  Education  Board  of  the  London  County 
Council  will  be  merged  in  the  new  central  education 
authority  which  is  to  be  set  up,  and  from  this  consider- 
ation it  is  of  paramount  importance  that  this  new 
authority  should  be  guided  by  the  same  broad  prin- 
ciples and  actuated  by  the  same  lofty  ideals  as  the  pre- 
sent Technical  Education  Board  has  been.  The 
existing  board,  with  its  absence  of  mere  local  character- 
istics, has  done  excellent  work  for  the  secondary  and 
higher  education  of  London,  and  on  these  grounds 
alone  the  introduction  of  any  local  element  is  to  be 
deprecated. 

As  Sir  Michael  Foster  said  during  the  second  read- 
ing debate,  the  University  of  London  and  the  new 
education  authority  must  work  together  for  the  better 
education  of  the  people  of  London,  and  the  new  author- 
ity must  be  interested  in  university  as  well  as  in 
secondary  and  elementary  education.  It  may  be 
admitted  that  the  new  authority  should  be  in- 
terested in  all  kinds  of  education  from  beginning  to 
end,  and  should  be  prepared  to  give  generous  financial 
aid  to  education  of  university  type,  but  there  is  a 
danger  in  admitting  this  generalisation  which  must 
be  avoided.  There  must  be  nothing  in  the  direction 
of  delegating  powers  of  managing  higher  education 
to  local  bodies  of  any  kind.  University  education  is 
in  a  very  real  sense  a  question  of  national  importance. 
It  must  be  guided  by  men  of  culture  with  the  broadest 
possible  catholicity.  Education  may  be  one  and  in- 
divisible, just  as  London  itself  must  be  regarded  from 
the  point  of  view  of  its  education,  but  the  men  who 
are  competent  to  look  after  the  schools  of  elementary 
grade  are  not  the  persons  in  whose  hands  the  guidance 
of  higher  education  may  with  advantage  be  left.  Be- 
cause every  scheme  of 'higher  education  depends  for 
its  success  on  the  existence  of  youths  possessing  a 
sound  general  education,  no  efforts  should  be  spared 
to  secure  a  satisfactory  system  o^  secondary  and  ele- 
mentary education  In  London  and  the  country  gener- 
ally, but  it  must  be  persistently  remembered  that  this 
is  but  a  means  to  an  end.  Our  boys  must  be  satis- 
factorily educated,  chiefly  because  without  this  pre- 
liminary training  it  is  impossible  to  obtain  a  supply 
of  properly  qualified  students  for  our  universities  and 
colleges,  where,  somehow,  our  manufacturers  and 
merchants  must  be  trained  in  such  a  way  as  to  enable 
them  to  hold  their  own  with  the  highly  qualified  com- 
petitors to  be  found  In  Germany  and  America. 

It  would  be  an  excellent  thing  for  London  and  for 
the  country  if  well-equipped  and  highly  endowed 
university  colleges  could  be  provided  in  several  parts 
of  the  metropolitan  area.  But  though  every  effort 
should  be  made  to  ensure  the  active  Interest  of  the  local 
municipal  councils  in  the  work  of  such  institutions, 
their  management  and  government  should  In  no  sense 
be  of  a  purely  local  nature.  There  should  be  a  real 
connection  with  the  State  as  indicating  the  national 
importance  of  university  education,  a  due  represent- 
ation of  existing  great  universities  to  enable  the 
colleges  of  the  metropolis  to  benefit  by  experience 
gained  In  other  centres,  and  also  members  of  the 
governing  body  elected  by  the  corporations  and  persons 
contributing  to  the  endowment  funds. 

Thus  to  point  out  the  disadvantages  of  saddling 
university  colleges  with  governing  bodies  actuated  with 
parochial  sentiments  is  surely  quite  enough  to  dis- 
courage the  supporters  of  such  a  policy,  and  amply 
sufficient  to  convince  everybody  that  the  most  strenuous 
efforts  must  be  made  in  a  contrary  direction.  It  is  only 
necessary  to  try  to  imagine  the  outburst  of  ridicule  and 


38 


NA  TURE 


[May  t4,  1903 


indignation  which  would  greet  the  suggestion  that  the 
government  of  the  Universities  of  Oxiord  and  Cam- 
bridge should  be  placed  in  the  hands  of  the  munici- 
palities of  Oxford  and  Cambridge  respectively  to  see 
how  indiscreet  is  a  proposal  made  during  the  second 
reading  debate  to  give  the  control  of  "  all  kinds  cf 
education  from  the  beginning  to  the  end  "  to  the  new 
Education  Committee  for  London.  Such  an  authority 
will  have  at  least  quite  enough  to  do  in  building  up  a 
properly  coordinated  and  duly  unified  system  of 
secondary  and  elementary  education,  and  in  continuing 
the  excellent  work  now  being  done  by  the  London 
Technical  Education  Board.  It  would  be  in  the 
highest  degree  unwise  to  give  the  new  authority  any 
sort  of  opportunity  to  interfere,  for  example,  with  the 
procedure  of  the  Senate  of  the  University  of  London, 
though,  as  has  been  said,  it  should  be  made  possible 
for  the  new  committee  to  show  its  sympathy  with 
higher  education  by  contributing  to  the  funds  of  the 
University  of  London  and  of  the  metropolitan  university 
colleges. 

The  university  college  cannot  in  any  narrow  sense  be 
a  local  institution.  To  attempt  to  make  it  so  would  be 
the  work  of  an  enemy  to  higher  education ;  indeed,  it 
would  be  difficult  to  imagine  anything  more  likely  to 
play  into  the  hands  of  our  competitors  than  a  disposi- 
tion to  place  university  education  under  the  control  of 
local  authorities.  Germany,  for  instance,  would  prob- 
ably be  highly  delighted  If  this  were  done. 

At  present  higher  education  in  the  United  Kingdom 
largely  depends  upon  private  munificence  and  upon 
financial  aid  from  municipal  authorities.  But,  when 
the  Government  and  the  people  of  this  country  have 
been  educated  to  understand  that  the  maintenance  of 
universities  on  a  generous  scale  Is  of  prime  Importance 
to  the  nation's  well-being,  it  will  become  evident  that 
the  only  satisfactory  solution  of  a  difficult  problem  Is 
to  regard  the  adequate  provision  of  higher  education  as 
an  Important  function  of  the  State.  When  this  Is  pro- 
perly appreciated,  the  universities  will  be  dependent 
upon  State  grants  alone ;  they  will  no  longer  find  It 
necessary  to  solicit  financial  help  from  individual  muni- 
ficence, or  to  secure  the  voting  interest  of  local  coun- 
cillors with  the  object  of  obtaining  municipal  aid. 


iVOT£5. 
At  the  closing  ceremony  of  the  fourteenth  International 
Congress  of  Medicine,  it  was  announced  that  the  prize  of 
5000  francs  offered  by  the  Moscow  municipality  had  been 
allotted  to  Dr.  Metchnikoflf,  of  the  Pasteur  Institute,  Paris, 
and  the  prize  of  3000  francs  offered  by  the  Paris  munici- 
pality to  Dr.  Grassi,  of  Rome.  The  fifteenth  congress  will 
be  held  in  Portugal  in  1906,  when  the  president  will  be 
Prof.  Coimbra  Costa.  Dr.  Miguel  Bombarda,  who  will  be 
the  general  secretary  of  this  congress,  is  a  member  of  the 
Royal  Academy  of  Sciences  and  president  of  the  Royal 
Academy  of  Medical  Sciences  at  Lisbon. 

The  death  is  announced  of  M.  Worms  de  Romilly, 
formerly  president  of  the  French  Physical  Society,  and  a 
member  of  the  committee  of  the  International  Association 
of  Electricians. 

Prof.  E.  Ray  Lankester,  F.R.S.,  has  been  added  to  the 
departmental  committee  appointed  to  investigate  experi- 
mentally and  to  report  upon  certain  questions  connected 
with  the  dipping  and  treatment  of  sheep. 

Dr.   Robert  Bell,   F.R.S.,   acting  director  of  the  Geo- 
logical Survey  of  Canada,  is  at  present  in  England  for  the 
purpose   of   receiving   personally   the   degree   of   Doctor   of 
Science    which  is  to  be  conferred  upon  him  to-day  by  the 
NO.    1750,  VOL.   68] 


University  of  Cambridge.  Dr.  Bell  was  promoted  to  the 
directorship  of  the  Canadian  Survey  more  than  two  years 
ago,  after  being  associated  with  the  survey  department  for 
forty-six  years,  but  it  will  surprise  all  who  are  not  familiar 
with  official  routine  to  know  that  his  appointment  has  not 
yet  been  gazetted,  and  we  presqme,  therefore,  that  he  does 
not  receive  the  pay  of  the  appointment. 

Ladv  Huggins  and  Miss  A.  M.  Gierke  have  been  elected 
honorary  members  of  the  Royal  Astronomical  Society. 

The  International  Association  of  Botanists  has  just  held 
its  first  congress  at  Leyden  under  the  presidency  of  Prof. 
Goebel,  of  Munich. 

The  Athenaeum  announces  the  death  of  Josef  Enzen- 
berger,  the  director  of  the  scientific  station  of  the  German 
South  Pole  Expedition.  Herr  Enzenberger  was  only  thirty 
years  of  age. 

Mr.  W.  H.  Patchell  has  been  appointed  a  member  of  the 
committee  to  inquire  into  the  use  of  electricity  in  mines  in 
the  place  of  Mr.  James  Swinburne,  resigned. 

The  honorary  treasurer  of  the  Cancer  Research  Fund, 
under  the  direction  of  the  two  Royal  Colleges  of  Physicians 
and  Surgeons,  has  received  the  sum  of  loooi!.  from  Mr. 
H.  L.  Florence  for  the  advancement  of  the  investigation  of 
cancer. 

The  Times  correspondent  at  Wellington,  N.Z.,  points  out 
that  unless  the  next  season  should  prove  more  favourable 
than  the  last,  the  Discovery  will  remain  fast  in  the  ice,  and 
her  ultimate  abandonment  in  the  Antarctic  is  possible.  It 
is  imperative,  therefore,  that  the  relief  ship  should  return. 

Some  additional  particulars  referring  to  the  British 
Antarctic  Expedition  have  been  brought  from  New  Zealand 
by  the  s.s.  Paparoa,  which  arrived  at  Plymouth  on  Sunday 
with  a  member  of  the  Discovery's  crew,  and  also  one  of 
the  crew  of  the  relief  ship  Morning.  A  remarkable  ex- 
perience is  related  by  a  young  New  Zealander  named  Hare, 
who  set  out  from  the  Discovery  with  a  party  of  officers 
and  men  to  deposit  a  record  at  Cape  Crozier.  He  was 
separated  from  the  party  when  returning  to  the  ship,  and 
was  buried  in  a  snowdrift.  After  being  asleep  in  the  snow 
for  thirty-six  hours  he  was  revived  by  the  warmth  of  the 
sun,  and  was  strong  enough  to  rise  out  of  the  snow  and 
walk  to  the  ship.  With  reference  to  some  of  the  work  in 
terrestrial  physics,  Mr.  Bernacchi  says  in  a  letter  : — "  One 
of  the  most  typical  of  the  magnetograms  for  the  year  1902-3, 
with  data  for  reduction,  has  been  sent  home  in  case  some- 
thing should  happen  to  us  before  the  return  of  the  expedi- 
tion. The  seismograph  has  been  working  the  whole  year, 
but  very  few  shocks  and  tremors  are  recorded.  Our  largest 
are  on  May  25  and  on  September  22,  which  seems  to  corre- 
spond with  your  record  on  April  18.  There  are  some 
irregularities  in  the  line  which  might  be  due  to  the  Guate- 
malan earthquake.  There  are  some  tremors,  however, 
which  coincide  with  your  record.  From  October  3  to 
October  8  a  great  many  tremors  were  recorded.  I  also 
have  a  year's  observations  of  atmospheric  electricity." 

In  connection  with  the  celebration  of  the  centenary  of 
Dalton's  enunciation  of  the  atomic  theory,  to  be  held  at 
Manchester  next  week,  the  following  extract  from  the  presi- 
dential address  delivered  by  Prof.  J.  Emerson  Reynolds. 
F.R.S.,  to  the  Chemical  Society,  at  the  last  anniversary 
meeting,  is  of  interest  : — "  This  year  is  the  centenary  of 
the  announcement,  in  a  tentative  form,  of  probably  the  most 
fruitful  and  valuable  of  all  scientific  hypotheses — Dalton's 
Atomic  Theory.     On  October  21,  1803,  Dalton  read  a  paper 


May  14,  1903] 


NATURE 


39 


•"  On  the  Absorption  of  Gases  by  Water  and  other  Liquids  " 
before  a  select  audience  of  nine  members  of  the  Literary 
and  Philosophical  Society  of  Manchester.  He  appended  to 
that  paper  a  statement  which,  according  to  Sir  Henry 
Roscoe  and  Dr.  Harden  ('  A  New  View  of  the  Origin  of 
Dalton's  Atomic  Theory,'  Macmillan,  1896),  is  the  first 
published  indication  of  the  atomic  theory,  though  the  paper 
was  not  circulated  in  the  Manchester  Memoirs  until 
November,  1805.  Thus,  just  100  years  ago,  the  conception 
of  the  discrete  nature  of  matter  was  formulated,  and  used 
to  explain  the  facts  then  known  as  to  the  constant  com- 
position of  chemical  compounds,  and  the  laws  discovered 
by  Dalton  as  to  their  formation  in  definite  and  multiple 
proportions.  This  germ  of  the  molecular  theory  of  matter, 
which  now  pervades  all  thought  in  chemistry  and  physics, 
arose,  as  Nernst  truly  says,  '  by  a  single  effort  of  modern 
science,  like  a  Phoenix  from  the  ashes  of  the  old  Greek 
philosophy.'  Therefore,  physicists  as  well  as  chemists  are 
interested  in  an  event  of  the  highest  significance  in  the 
development  of  both  branches  of  science.  I  am  glad  to 
know  that  a  special  celebration  will  shortly  be  held  in  that 
great  city  which  claims  Dalton  as  her  illustrious  son." 

The  Rumford  premium  of  the  American  Academy  of  Arts 
and  Sciences,  consisting  of  a  gold  and  a  silver  medal,  has 
been  awarded  to  Prof.  George  E.  Hale,  director  of  Yerkes 
Observatory,  in  recognition  of  his  researches  in  solar  and 
stellar  physics,  and  in  particular  for  the  invention  and  per- 
fection of  the  spectroheliograph. 

An  International  Exhibition  of  Hygiene,  Life-saving, 
Sports,  Fishery,  and  Ambulance  is  to  be  held  in  Paris  from 
September  to  November,  1904,  at  the  Grand  Palais  des 
Champs-Elys^es.  Full  particulars  may  be  obtained  on 
application  to  the  Commissaire  G^n^ral,  Exposition  Inter- 
nationale de  1904,  3  rue  des  Moulins,  Paris. 

The  Lancet  reports  that  a  new  building  is  to  be  erected 
in  Manila  to  provide  laboratory  space  for  the  chemical  and 
biological  laboratories  and  the  serum  institute.  The  build- 
ing will  be  divided  into  sixty  rooms,  and  will  be  216  feet 
long  and  60  feet  wide,  having  two  storeys.  The  plans  of 
the  building  have  been  drawn  so  as  to  accommodate  all 
the  work  within  one  building,  one  half  of  which  will  be 
occupied  by  the  chemical  and  the  other  half  by  the  biological 
laboratory. 

We  learn  from  Science  that  Harvard  University,  New 
York  University,  and  the  Bermuda  Natural  History  Society 
unite  in  inviting  botanists  and  zoologists  to  spend  six  weeks 
in  the  temporary  biological  station  provided  at  Bermuda. 
The  two  possible  dates  of  sailing  from  New  York  are  June 
20  and  July  4.  Circulars  and  detailed  information  will  be 
supplied  on  application  either  to  Prof.  C.  L.  Bristol,  Uni- 
versity Heights,  New  York  City,  or  to  Prof.  E.  L.  Mark, 
109  Irving  Street,  Cambridge,  Mass. 

We  learn  from  the  British  Medical  Journal  that  the 
Croonian  lectures  before  the  Royal  College  of  Physicians 
of  London  will  be  delivered  this  year  by  Dr.  C.  E.  Beevor 
on  June  9,  11,  16  and  18.  The  subject  will  be  muscular 
movements  and  their  representation  in  the  central  nervous 
system.  The  first  course  of  FitzPatrick  lectures  will  be 
delivered  by  Dr.  J.  F.  Payne  on  June  23  and  25.  He  has 
chosen  for  his  subject  "  English  Medicine  in  the  Anglo- 
Saxon  and  Anglo-Norman  Periods." 

A   CORRESPONDENT   points   out    that   in   each   of   the   em- 
broidered designs  reproduced  in  a  notice  of  East  Siberian 
decorative  art  (April  16,  p.  560)    it  is  possible  to  distinguish 
No.    1750,  VOL.  68] 


a   man's   face   quite   as   clearly   as   the   conventional   cocks 
which  are  supposed  to  be  grouped  about  the  central  axis. 

A  CONGRESS  commemorative  of  the  fiftieth  anniversary  of 
the  foundation  of  the  Royal  Photographic  Society  will  be 
held  next  week.  The  congress  will  be  opened  on  Tuesday, 
May  19,  at  the  New  Gallery,  Regent  Street,  at  8.30  p.m.] 
when  the  president  will  deliver  an  address.  This  will  be 
followed  by  a  conversazione,  when  the  president.  Sir 
William  Abney,  and  council  will  receive  the  Society's 
members  and  guests.  On  Wednesday,  May  20,  at  the 
Society's  house,  there  will  be  a  meeting  at  which  papers 
will  be  read,  and  in  the  evening  there  will  be  a  dinner.  In 
connection  with  the  congress  there  will  be  a  special  ex- 
hibition at  the  Society's  rooms  of  objects  having  interest 
in  the  history  of  photography.  The  council  hopes  that  this 
exhibition  will  represent  the  various  stages  of  photography 
from  its  infancy  to  the  present  day.  The  commemoration 
of  the  jubilee  will  not  cease  with  the  congress  of  which 
details  are  given  above.  It  is  intended  that  the  annual  ex- 
hibition shall  be  distinguished  by  features  which  will  mark 
the  present  year  as  one  of  more  than  usual  significance. 
There  will  be  a  special  invitation  pictorial  section  in  addition 
to  the  established  pictorial  section,  and  the  scientific  and 
technical  section  will  be  entirely  collected  by  direct  invita- 
tion, both  having  for  their  object  the  illustration  of  the 
progress  and  present  position  of  photography. 

On  May  5  Lord  Avebury,  the  president  of  the  Selborne 
Society,  took  the  chair  at  the  annual  meeting  and  con- 
versazione. He  alluded  to  several  of  the  many  lines  of  work 
upon  which  the  association  is  engaged,  to  wit,  the  interest 
which  it  is  taking  in  the  Home  Counties  Nature-Study  Ex- 
hibition, the  bird  sanctuaries  arranged  for,  and  the  protec- 
tion of  plants.  Lord  Avebury  claimed  that  near  London 
plants  now  needed  more  looking  after  than  birds,  and  quoted 
instances  from  his  own  experience ;  he  also  pointed  out  how 
easy  it  was  for  country  clergymen  to  follow  in  the  steps  of 
the  great  Gilbert  White.  Sir  John  Cockburn  also  alluded 
to  plants  and  the  advantage  of  the  study  of  flowers  to 
children,  saying  that  in  this  respect  we  might  all  well  be 
children.  As  chairman  of  the  Nature-Study  Exhibition 
held  last  year,  he  wished  all  success  to  the  new  undertaking 
mentioned  by  Lord  Avebury.  Sir  George  Kekewich  said 
that  of  all  the  objects  of  the  Selborne  Society,  he  would  put 
nature-study  first.  Dr.  Bowdler  Sharpe  gave  an  illustrated 
lecture  on  Selborne,  and  Mr.  Andrew  Pears,  who  recently 
bought  the  Wakes,  offered  a  cordial  welcome  to  the 
members  of  the  Society  who  are  to  visit  Selborne  in  June 
next. 

The  freedom  of  the  city  of  Rome  was  conferred  upon 
Mr.  Marconi  last  Thursday  by  Prince  Colonna,  Syndic  of 
Rome.  The  occasion  was  marked  by  much  enthusiasm ; 
a  conference  was  held  in  the  afternoon  and  a  banquet  in 
the  evening,  and  from  all  sides  Italians  welcomed  the 
opportunity  of  doing  honour  to  their  distinguished  country- 
man. Since  then  Mr.  Marconi  has  been  conducting  ex- 
periments in  Rome  and  the  neighbourhood  with,  it  is  re- 
ported, very  successful  results ;  before  leaving  Rome  he 
intends  to  select  a  site  for  the  high-power  station  which 
is  to  be  erected  near  the  city. 

Telegrams  from  Ottawa  state  that  Mr.  Fielding, 
Dominion  Minister  of  Finance,  speaking  in  the  House  of 
Commons  with  reference  to  the  Marconi  system,  said  that 
the  system  had  not  been  as  successful  as  had  been  expected, 
and  that  the  Government  did  not  propose  to  make  any 
further   contributions   towards    it.     It   will    be   remembered 


40 


NATURE 


[May  14,  1903 


that  last  year  the  Canadian  Government  rhade  a  contribu- 
tion of  more  than  16,000/.  towards  the  cost  of  establishing 
Transatlantic  communication.  The  Canadian  Government 
is,  however,  still  confident  of  the  ultimate  success  of  the 
system.  The  delay  in  getting  the  Canadian  station  into 
successful  commercial  operation  is  said  to  be  due  merely 
to  a  breakdown  of  a  mechanical  nature.  It  seems  as  if 
some  other  difficulties  are  also  being  encountered,  as  one 
does  not  hear  of  any  Transatlantic  signalling  from  either 
of  the  two  American  stations. 

The  Great  Western  Railway,  following  the  examples  of 
the  London  and  South  Western  and  North  Eastern  com- 
panies, has  decided  to  run  automobile  cars  on  some  sections 
of  its  line.  This  method  of  providing  for  a  more  frequent 
service  has  been  necessitated  by  the  competition  of  electric 
tramways,  and  affords  further  evidence  in  support  of  the 
view  that  electric  traction  is  likely  to  bring  about  in  time 
a  complete  revolution  in  our  methods  of  locomotion.  The 
motor-cars  to  be  used  by  the  Great  Western  are  to  be  steam 
driven.  A  notable  feature  of  the  scheme  is  that  provision 
is  to  be  made  for  frequent  stoppages  between  the  stations 
to  pick  up  passengers  ;  it  is  proposed  that  the  cars  should 
stop  at  all  the  level  crossings — of  which  there  are  four  on 
the  section  between  Chalford  and  Stonehouse,  where  the 
first  experiment  is  to  be  made — and  also,  if  it  is  feasible, 
at  any  points  at  which  foot-paths  give  access  to  the  line. 
It  is  hoped  in  this  way  to  organise  a  successful  competition 
with  the  electric  tramway  which  has  been  projected  and 
sanctioned  parallel  to  this  part  of  the  line.  The  superiority 
of  electric  traction  for  working  of  this  kind  is  so  well 
known  that  one  may  reasonably  expect  the  Great  Western 
Railway  will  find  it  advisable  before  long  to  get  rid  of  the 
steam  motor-cars  and  provide  for  electrical  working  over 
the  section,  which  may  pave  the  way,  in  the  manner  that 
many  have  prophesied,  for  the  ultimate  complete  conversion 
from  steam  to  electricity. 

The  electrification  of  our  steam-driven  railways  proceeds 
apace ;  the  inauguration  of  the  electrical  working  of  the 
Mersey  Railway,  which  took  place  a  few  days  ago,  is 
an  event  which  will  probably  before  long  be  paralleled  by 
many  similar  inaugurations  all  over  the  country.  To  the 
Mersey  Railway  then  belongs,  we  believe,  the  honour  of 
being  the  first  steam  railway  in  Great  Britain  to  undergo 
conversion.  Special  conditions  have  in  this  case  hastened 
the  change ;  the  long  tunnel  under  the  river  made  a  frequent 
train  service  impossible  without  expensive  outlay  in  ventil- 
ation, which  the  company  could  not  afford.  Electrical  work- 
ing was  therefore  decided  upon  in  1900,  and  a  contract  made 
with  the  British  Westinghouse  Co.  to  carry  out  the  con- 
version in  July,  1901.  In  considerably  less  than  two  years  the 
work  has  been  completed,  in  spite  of  the  fact  that  it  involved 
relaying  the  whole  of  the  five  miles  of  permanent  way, 
together  with  putting  down  the  two  additional  lines  of  rails 
•^o  serve  as  conductors  (an  insulated  return  being  used)  and 
the  erection  of  a  power-house  and  plant,  &c.  The  tunnel 
has  been  cleaned  and  lighted  throughout,  and  electric  light- 
ing installed  at  all  the  stations ;  electricity  has,  in  fact, 
been  adopted  for  almost  every  detail  of  the  working.  A 
good  deal  of  the  work  is  naturally  of  American  design,  and 
some  of  it  of  American  construction.  It  is  to  be  hoped  that 
as  we  hear  more  of  other  railways  being  converted,  we 
shall  hear  less  of  their  using  foreign  machinery ;  it  is 
probably  inevitable  that  in  the  not  very  distant  future  our 
whole  railway  system  will  be  "  electrified,"  but  it  is  not 
necessary  that  this  word  should  be  synonymous  with 
"  Americanised." 

NO.    1750  VOL.   68] 


We  regret  to  announce  the  death  last  week  of  Mr. 
Clarence  Bartlett,  who  only  recently  retired  from  the  post 
of  superintendent  of  the  Zoological  Society's  Gardens  in 
the  Reg-ent's  Park,  which  he  had  held  since  the  death  of 
his  father,  whom  he  succeeded,  in  1897.  Mr.  Clarence 
Bartlett  was  the  second  son  of  Mr.  A.  D.  Bartlett,  and  was, 
we  believe,  brought  up  in  the  service  of  the  Zoological 
Society.  During  the  early  "  sixties  "  he  was  appointed 
assistant  superintendent  (and  subsequently  clerk  of  the 
works)  to  the  Gardens,  and  in  1866  he  was  dispatched  by 
the  council  to  Surinam  to  bring  home  a  young  manati, 
which  died  a  few  hours  before  the  vessel  arrived  at  South- 
ampton. A  more  important  mission  fell  to  his  lot  in  1875, 
when  he  was  granted  special  leave  by  the  council  in  order 
to  accompany,  as  zoological  collector.  His  Majesty  the 
King  (then  Prince  of  Wales)  to  India.  From  this  tour  he 
returned  the  following  year,  bringing  home  in  first-rate 
condition  a  large  number  of  living  mammals  and  birds, 
which  were  housed  in  the  Society's  Gardens.  Among  these 
was  the  elephant  "Jung  Pershad,"  which  lived  for  many 
years  in  the  menagerie,  and  the  mounted  skin  of  which  I's- 
exhibited  in  the  Natural  History  Museum,  where,  by  the 
way,  it  has  just  been  transferred  from  the  zoological  to  the 
geological  department,  in  order  that  it  might  stand  side 
by  side  with  the  skeletons  of  its  extinct  relations.  Mr. 
Bartlett  appears  never  to  have  contributed  anything  to  the 
scientific  publications  of  the  Society.  Soon  after  the  resig- 
nation of  the  secretary  in  the  autumn  of  last  year,  ill-health 
and  other  reasons  rendered  it  advisable  that  Mr.  Bartlett 
should  retire  on  a  pension,  but  when  he  left  his  house  in 
the  Gardens  it  was  apparent  to  all  that  he  had  little  prospect 
of  living  to  enjoy  this  reward  of  his  services. 

The  Parliamentary  Report  of  the  Meteorological  Council 
for  th^  year  igor-a  has  recently  been  issued  in  the  same 
form  as  in  the  previous  year.  Among  the  appendices  we 
find  (i)  correspondenpe  with  the  London  County  Council 
respecting  an  inquiry  into  the  occurrence  and  distribution 
of  fogs  in  London  ;  the  report  of  the  inquiry  has  been 
already  published.  (2)  A  comprehensive  statement  of  pro- 
visions for  the  supply  of  information  to  the  public;  and  (3) 
an  interesting  summary  of  conspicuous  meteorological 
occurrences  (with  two  plates).  An  application  was  received 
from  the  Royal  Meteorological  Society  to  assist  in  providing 
means  in  carrying  out  experiments  on  the  exploration  of  the 
upper  air  by  means  of  kites.  In  order  to  facilitate  this 
important  investigation  the  Council  agreed  to  provide  the 
instruments  for  the  establishment  of  a  base  station.  At 
the  request  of  the  Registrar-General  the  Council  has  under- 
taken the  supply  of  meteorological  tables  for  his  weekly, 
quarterly  and  annual  reports  which  had  been  for  many 
years  satisfactorily  prepared  by  Mr.  James  Glaisher,  at 
great  personal  labour.  A  considerable  number  of  returns 
has  been  received  through  the  Foreign  Office  from  African 
Protectorates,  and  the  Council  has  under  consideration  the 
publication  of  an  annual  summary  of  the  observations  from 
these  and  other  colonial  stations ;  the  reduction  and  tabula- 
tion of  these  important  data  will  entail  much  additional 
work  and  expense.  In  order  to  meet  the  constantly  in- 
creasing demands  upon  the  public  usefulness  of  the  depart- 
ment, both  as  regards  land  and  ocean  meteorology,  some 
revision  of  the  organisation  of  the  various  branches  has 
been  necessary,  including  the  opening  oif  the  office  at  8  a.m. 
for  the  service  of  meteorological  telegraphy ;  the  Parlia- 
mentary grant,  however,  remains  at  the  same  figure  as 
heretofore, 

Mi?.-THbMAS  H.  Means,  of  the  U.S.  Department  of  Agri- 
culture, was  recently  Sent  to  Egypt  by  the  U.S.  Secretai^y 


May  14,  1903] 


NATURE 


of  Agriculture  to  investigate  and  report  upon  the  methods 
of  reclaiming  alkali  lands,  with  particular  reference  to  the 
conditions  in  America.  The  abandonment  of  many  acres 
of  once  fertile  land  at  the  time  of  the  Arabian  conquest,  and 
the  change  from  the  annual  flooding  to  the  perennial  system 
of  irrigation  through  canals,  has  caused  the  rise  and  spread 
of  alkali  over  vast  areas  in  Egypt.  The  reclamation  of 
large  tracts  of  this  kind  is  being  taken  up  as  a  business 
enterprise  by  British  engineers,  and  the  work  has  proved 
a  large  financial  success.  The  conditions  met  with  and  the 
methods  used  are  set  forth  by  Mr.  Means  in  Bulletin  No.  21 
of  the  Bureau  of  Soils,  U.S.  Department  of  Agriculture. 

In  the  New  Year's  number  of  Nature  there  appeared  an 
account  of  a  basil,  Ocimum  viride,  a  plant  which  is  known 
to  the  natives  of  Nigeria  as  a  protection  against  mosquitoes. 
Captain  Larymore,  by  whom  this  information  was  first 
obtained,  in  a  recent  letter  to  the  Times  mentions  that  he 
has  brought  home  a  plant  which  he  has  presented  to  the 
authorities  of  the  Kew  Gardens,  and  that  it  may  be  seen 
there.  He  also  states  that  the  natives  believe  in  its  efficacy 
when  taken  as  an  infusion  in  cases  of  malarial  fever. 
Further  evidence  is  offered  in  another  letter  to  the  Times 
by  Sir  George  Birdwood  as  to  the  knowledge  widely  spread 
among  the  Hindus  of  these  qualities  of  the  basils,  which 
occur  wild,  and  are  generally  cultivated  in  India.  Thus, 
during  the  formation  of  the  Victoria  Gardens  in  Bombay, 
the  workmen  were  attacked  both  by  mosquitoes  and  malaria, 
when  upon  the  recommendation  of  the  Hindu  manager  basil 
plants  were  placed  round  the  gardens,  with  the  result  that 
the  unhealthy  nature  of  the  locality  was  effectually  changed. 

Prof.  Hoyle  (Manchester  Memoirs,  vol.  xlvii.  No.  9) 
points  out  that  the  cuttle-fish  described  as  Loligo  eblanae 
is  identical  with  the  one  subsequently  named  Todaropsis 
veranyi,  consequently  the  name  of  the  species  should  be 
T.  eblanae. 

•  In  the  January  issue  of  the  Proceedings  of  the  Phila- 
delphia Academy  Messrs.  Anderson  and  Grinnell  draw  atten- 
tion to  the  birds  of  the  Siskiyou  Mountains,  California,  on 
account  of  the  fact  that  they  exhibit  a  mixture  of  types 
characteristic  of  two  distinct  faunas,  namely,  the  moist 
coast  fauna  and  the  dry  Sierran  fauna. 

From  a  distributional  point  of  view,  the  occurrence  in  the 
Philippines  of  an  indigenous  representative  of  the  Austral- 
asian gum-trees  is  a  matter  of  considerable  interest,  and  it 
is  therefore  satisfactory  to  find  that,  according  to  Mr.  J.  H. 
Madden  (Proc.  U.S.  Nat.  Mus.,  No.  1327),  Eucalyptus 
nandiniana,  which  is  typically  from  New  Britain,  also  occurs 
in  the  aforesaid  islands. 

Among  the  articles  in  the  Journal  of  the  Quekett  Micro- 
scopical Club,  attention  may  be  directed  to  one  hy  Mr. 
W.  H.  Harris  on  the  "  dentition  "  of  flies.  Although  the 
various  forms  assumed  by  the  "  teeth  "  of  these  insects  have 
not  escaped  investigation,  they  seem  to  have  attracted  but 
little  attention  in  this  country,  and  the  author  has  therefore 
done  well  in  pointing  out  the  possibilities  of  this  branch 
of  study.  An  excellent  plate  accompanies  the  paper,  in  the 
course  of  which  Mr.  Harris  expresses  some  doubts  as  to 
whether  the  true  function  of  the  canals  known  as  pseudo- 
trachea;  is  to  convey  liquid-food. 

The  position  in  which  different  birds  carry  their  legs  in 
flight  forms  the  subject  of  an  interesting  paper  by  Captain 
Barrett-Hamilton  in  the  Zoologist  for  April.  In  all  birds 
it  appears  that  the  tibia,  during  continuous  flight,  must 
occupy  a  nearly  horizontal  position,  pointing  directly  back- 
NO.    T75O,  VOL.  68] 


wards.  The  position  of  the  metatarsi,  on  the  other  hand, 
depends  on  whether  the  legs  are  required  to  act  as  a  rudder. 
During  flight,  birds  must  have  an  efficient  rudder,  and  in 
cases  where  the  metatarsi  are  very  long,  as  in  the  heron, 
and  must  of  necessity  be  directed  backwards,  the  legs  serve 
this  function.  On  the  other  hand,  in  many  strong  and 
rapid  flyers,  especially  those  which  make  sharp  turns  and 
twists,  the  steering  is  effected  by  means  of  a  long,  and 
frequently  forked,  tail.  Captain  Hamilton  gives  a  list  of 
birds  exhibiting  these  correlations,  but  points  out  that  our 
knowledge  of  the  subject  is  still  very  imperfect,  and  that 
careful  observation  of  a  large  number  of  species  is  required. 
With  the  exception  of  the  kites  and  fork-tailed  kites,  the 
birds  of  prey  form  an  exception  to  the  rule. 

A  USEFUL  summary  of  our  present  knowledge  of  leprosy, 
its  aetiology  and  prophylaxis,  is  given  by  Mr.  George  Pernet 
in  the  April  number  of  the  Quarterly  Review.  The  author 
discusses  the  introduction  into,  and  prevalence  of,  leprosy 
in  the  British  Isles  in  the  middle  ages,  the  effects  of  the 
segregation  of  lepers,  the  characters  of  the  disease  and  of 
the  leprosy  bacillus,  and  the  danger  of  the  introduction  of 
the  disease  into  other  countries  through  the  importation  of 
coolie,  Chinese,  or  other  labourers  belonging  to  races 
afflicted  with  this  scourge. 

An  important  report  upon  the  aetiology  and  pathology  of 
beri-beri  has  been  published  by  Dr.  Hamilton  Wright.  A 
specific  organism  has  so  far  not  been  discovered,  and  Dr. 
Wright  has  also  failed  to  isolate  one.  His  theory  of  the 
nature  of  the  disease  is  that  it  is  due  to  a  specific  micro- 
organism which  remains  dormant  in  certain  localities,  but 
that,  having  gained  entrance  to  the  body  by  the  mouth,  it 
multiplies  locally  in  the  digestive  tract,  producing  toxins 
which  on  absorption  into  the  general  circulation  cause  the 
various  symptoms  characteristic  of  the  disease.  It  is  note- 
worthy also  that  monkeys  kept  in  a  jail  where  beri-beri 
was  prevalent  suffered  from  a  condition  resembling  the 
disease  in  man. 

A  new  pattern  of  electric  lamp  is  being  put  on  the  market 
by  the  Linolite  Company.  The  filaments,  instead  of  being 
in  ordinary  bulbs,  are  enclosed  in  short  straight  tubes  about 
nine  inches  long ;  the  filament  is  given  a  small  curl  in  the 
middle  to  allow  for  expansion.  These  tubes  are  mounted  end 
to  end  in  a  metallic  casing,  which  serves  as  a  reflector,  and 
also  carries  the  leads  and  the  sockets  into  which  the  lamps 
fit.  There  is  thus  produced  a  single  line  of  light,  which  is 
very  suitable  for  certain  forms  of  illumination,  such  as 
shop-window  lighting,  lighting  by  reflection  from  the  ceil- 
ing, decorative  illumination,  and  the  like.  The  lamps  are 
made  for  all  ordinary  voltages,  and  of  the  same  candle- 
power  and  efficiencies  as  ordinary  lamps  ;  they  are  run  in 
parallel  for  voltages  up  to  130,  but  for  voltages  above  200 
the  lamps  are  run  in  pairs,  the  two  lamps  of  each  pair 
being  in  series.  The  system  has  been  tried  on  several 
occasions  recently  with  very  satisfactory  results. 

At  a  recent  meeting  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences  of 
Vienna,  Prof.  Molisch,  of  Prague,  communicated  a  paper 
upon  phosphorescent  bacteria.  He  has  been  able  to  photo- 
graph the  colonies  of  a  phosphorescent  micrococcus  by 
means  of  its  own  light.  By  inoculating  large  glass  flasks 
of  1-2  litres  capacity  containinar  a  suitable  culture  medium 
with  the  organisms,  a  "  bacterial  lamp  "  is  obtained  with 
which  it  is  quite  possible  for  an  observer  at  a  distance 
of  one  to  two  metres  to  read  a  thermometer  or  to  see  the 
time  of  a  watch.  On  a  dark  night  the  "  bacterial  lamp  " 
is  visible  at  a  distance  of  more  than  sixty  paces.  It  is 
suggested    that    such    cultures    of    phosphorescent    bacteria 


42 


NATURE 


[May  14,  1903 


might  be  employed  in  powder  magazines,  or  for  attracting 
fish,  as  the  flask  might  be  sealed  up  and  lowered  into  the 
water.  Under  suitable  conditions  the  phosphorescent 
properties  of  the  cultures  last  for  two  to  three  weeks.  It 
is  to  be  noted  that  Mr.  J.  E.  Barnard,  of  the  Jenner  Insti- 
tute, some  time  ago  similarly  photographed  cultures  of 
phosphorescent  bacteria,  and  that  at  a  soiree  of  the  Royal 
Society  two  years  ago.  Prof.  Macfadyen  and  Mr.  Barnard 
exhibited  a  fine  series  of  cultures  of  phosphorescent  micro- 
organisms. 

The  new  issue  of  the  "  Psychological  Index,  a  Biblio- 
graphy of  the  Literature  of  Psychology  and  Cognate  Sub- 
jects for  1902,"  published  in  connection  with  the  Psycho- 
logical Review,  has  been  compiled  by  Prof.  H.  C.  Warren, 
of  Princeton  University,  with  the  cooperation  of  M.  J. 
Philippe  and  Dr.  W,  H.  R.  Rivers.  It  includes  the  titles 
of  original  publications  in  all  languages,  together  with 
translations  and  new  editions  in  English,  French,  and 
German. 

The  third  separate  issue  of  the  Annuaire  meteor ologique 
is  that  for  1903,  published  by  the  Royal  Observatory  of 
Belgium  under  the  supervision  of  M.  A.  Lancaster,  the 
director  of  the  Belgian  meteorological  service.  Previous 
to  1900  there  was  a  single  annual  publication  devoted  to 
astronomy  and  meteorology.  M.  Lancaster  contributes  to 
the  present  volume  an  elaborate  article  running  to  130 
pages  on  the  force  of  the  wind  in  Belgium  ;  it  contains  an 
array  of  useful  statistics  and  several  interesting  curves. 

The  Geologists'  Association  has  arranged  an  excursion 
to  North  Staffordshire  for  the  Whitsuntide  holidays.  Stoke 
is  to  be  made  the  centre  from  which  geological  excursions 
will  take  place.  The  members  from  London  will  leave 
Euston  on  Friday  evening.  May  29,  and  return  on  the  follow- 
ing Wednesday  evening.  Notice  should  be  sent  to  Mr. 
E.  P.  Ridley,  Burwood,  Ipswich,  the  excursion  secretary, 
before  May  15  by  all  who  intend  joining  the  excursion.  An 
interesting  programme  of  geological  work  has  been 
arranged,  and  the  daily  visits  should  be  enjoyable  and 
instructive. 

The  April  number  of  the  Essex  Naturalist,  the  journal 
of  the  Essex  Field  Club,  contains  several  sensible  proposals 
for  a  photographic  and  pictorial  survey  of  Essex,  by  Mr. 
A.  E.  Briscoe ;  an  article  on  work  in  the  field  amongst  the 
fungi,  with  additions  to  the  flora  of  Epping  Forest  made 
at  the  fungus  foray,  1902,  by  Dr.  M.  C.  Cooke;  and  a 
paper  by  Messrs.  A.  S.  Kennard  and  B.  B.  Woodward  on 
the  non-marine  Mollusca  of  the  River  Lea  alluvium  at 
Walthamstow.  The  joif-nal  contains  much  other  interest- 
ing material  and  a  number  of  good  illustrations. 

Mr.  John  Murray  has  published  a  third  edition  of  Mr. 
W.  Robinson's  "  Alpine  Flowers  for  Gardens.  Rock,  Wall, 
Marsh  Plants,  and  Mountain  Shrubs,"  which  appeared  first 
in  1870.  The  book  has  been  revised,  and  should  interest 
all  lovers  of  horticulture  in  those  plants  which  grow 
naturally  on  all  high  mountain-chains.  Since  the  author 
states,  in  the  prefatory  note  to  this  edition,  that  "  there  is 
not  a  garden,  even  in  the  suburbs  of  our  great  cities,  in 
which  the  flowers  of  alpine  lands  might  not  be  enjoyed," 
the  addition  of  these  mountain  species  to  the  garden  plants 
usually  cultivated  in  this  country  should  greatly  add  to  the 
interest  of  the  amateur  gardener's  work. 

The  additions  to  the  Zoological  Society's  Gardens  during 

the    past    week    include    a    Black-eared    Marmoset    (Hapale 

penicillata)  from  South-east  Brazil,  presented  by  Miss  Ruby 

Ray  ;  a  Lesser  Black-backed  Gull  {Larus  fuscus)  from  Port 

NO.    1750,  VOL.  68] 


Said,  presented  by  Dixon  Bey  ;  a  Capybara  {Hydrochoerus 
capybara),  a  Brazilian  Cariama  {Cariama  cristata),  a 
Ypecaha  Rail  (Aramides  ypecaha)  from  South  America,  pre- 
sented by  Colonel  Sir  T.  H.  Holdich,  C.B.  ;  a  Yellow 
Baboon  {Papio  cynocephalus)  from  Africa,  two  Maholi 
Galagos  (Galago  maholi),  a  Leopard  Tortoise  {Testudo 
pardalis)  from  South  Africa,  an  Indian  Rat  Snake  {Zamenis 
mucosus),  two  Indian  River  Snakes  {Tropidonotus  piscator) 
from  India,  an  Alligator  Terrapin  (Chelydra  serpentina), 
two  Alaska  Geese  {Bernicla  minima)  from  North  America, 
two  Ross's  Snow  Geese  (Chen  rossi)  from  Antarctic  America, 
three  Lesueur's  Water  Lizards  {Physignathus  lesueuri),  a 
Cunningham's  Skink  {Egernia  cunninghami),  a  Gould's 
Monitor  {Varanus  gouldi),  two  Limbless  Lizards  {Pygopus 
lepidopus)  from  Australia,  a  Slender  Loris  {Loris  gracilis) 
from  Ceylon,  two  Large  Greaved  Tortoises  {Podocnemis 
expansa)  from  the  Amazons,  three  Starred  Lizards  {Agama 
stellio),  a  Spiny-tailed  Uromastix  {Uromastix  acanthinurus) 
from  North  Africa,  a  Mailed  Uromastix  {Uromastix  lori- 
catus)  from  Persia,  deposited. 


OUR  ASTRONOMICAL   COLUMN. 

Comet  1903  b. — From  observations  made  at  Windsor, 
N.S.W.,  on  April  26,  29,  and  May  i,  and  communicated 
by  telegraph  to  the  Kiel  Centralstelle,  Herren  M.  Ebell 
and  H.  Kreutz  have  calculated  the  following  elements  and 
ephemeris  for  the  comet  discovered  by  Mr.  Grigg  on 
April  17  : — 

Elements. 
T=  1903  March  25-5486  Berlin  M.  T. 

a)=l86  407  "I 
a  =213  14-5  [igos-o. 
i=  66  29  6  J 
log^=  971054. 

Ephemeris    for  i2h.  M.T.  Berlin. 

190^^.  a.  5  log  A  Brightness, 

h.    m.     s.  o        / 

May  13  ...  5  36  33  ...  -22  2-8  ...  o-i668  ...  0-51 

17  •■•  5  57  S9  •■•  -22  53-9  ...  o  1779  ...  0-43 

21  ...  6  18  40  ...  -23  34-9  ...  o"i905  ...  o"37 

25  ...  6  38  34  ...  -24  7-2    ..  0-2042  ...  0-31 

29  ...  6  57  34  ...  -24  32-2  ...  0-2190  ...  0-27 

June    2  ...  7  15  40  ...  -24  51-2  ...  0-2345  ...  0-23 

The  brightness  at  time  of  discovery  is  taken  as  unity 
{Kiel  Circular,  No.  59). 

A  Remarkable  Algol  Variable. — Prof.  E.  C.  Pickering, 
writing  to  the  Astronomische  Nachrichten,  No.  3866,  states 
that  the  new  Algol  variable,  4.1903  Draconis,  discovered 
by  Madame  Ceraski,  is  of  unusual  interest  on  account  of 
its  short  period  and  great  range  of  variability. 

An  examination  of  the  plates  obtained  with  the  Draper 
telescopes  shows  that  the  period  is  id.  8h.  347m.,  and  the 
range' of  variability  24  magnitudes.  About  half  an  hour 
before  minimum  the  brightness  decreases  at  the  rate  of 
between  2  and  3  magnitudes  per  hour,  a  rate  probably 
greater  than  any  other  hitherto  discovered.  A  minimum 
was  predicted  and  observed  at  Harvard  on  March  19  at 
i6h.  24m.  G.M.T. 

New  Value  for  the  Solar  Parallax. — In  \iq\v  of  the 
probable  publication,  in  the  near  future,  of  the  results 
obtained  from  observations  of  Eros,  Herr  B.  Weinberg,  of 
the  University  of  Odessa,  has  collected  about  130  of  the 
more  trustworthy  values  for  the  solar  parallax  as  obtained 
by  different  observers,  using  various  methods,  since  1825, 
and  has  discussed  them  in  a  paper  communicated  to  No. 
3806  of  the  Astronomische  Nachrichten.  From  the  dis- 
cussion he  has  obtained 

8"-8oo4±o"oo243 
as  his  final  value  for  this  constant. 


May  14,  1903J 


NATURE 


43 


Instructions  to  Observers  of  the  Sun. — In  the  April 
issue  of  the  Bulletin  de  la  SocUti  astronotnique  de  France 
an  abstract  is  given  of  the  first  chapter  of  "  Instructions 
pour  rObservation  du  Soleil,"  which  will  be  issued  to  any- 
one desirous  of  systematically  recording  solar  phenomena 
by  the  "  commission  solaire. "  The  instructions  give  de- 
tailed and  valuable  suggestions  on  the  observation  and  re- 
cording of  the  positions,  size,  nature  and  general  details 
of  sun-spots  and  faculae,  and  also  suggest  the  atmospheric 
conditions  which  should  be  recorded  concurrently. 

The  object  of  the  commission  is  to  induce  a  large  number 
of  amateur  astronomers,  possessing  instruments  not  exceed- 
ing 10  cm.  in  aperture,  to  participate  in  the  collection  of  a 
large  quantity  of  material  for  the  discussion  of  the  eleven- 
year  period  of  solar  variations. 

Stonyhurst  College  Observatory  Report  for  1902. — 
This  report  contains  a  large  amount  of  useful  and  detailed 
information  and  data  as  to  the  observations  of  meteor- 
ological and  magnetical  phenomena  made  at  the  Stonyhurst 
and  St.  Ignatius  (Malta)  Colleges  during  1902,  together 
with  a  report  and  some  notes  by  Father  Sidgreaves. 

The  sun  was  observed,  at  Stonyhurst,  on  217  days,  and 
on  no  days  drawings  of  the  solar  surface  were  made.  The 
spotted  area  of  the  sun  observed  during  1902  shows  a  return 
of  solar  activity,  the  figures  (unity  representing  one-five- 
thousandth  of  the  visible  disc)  for  1900,  1901,  and  1902 
being  o  55,  o  29,  and  033  respectively. 

Owing  to  unfavourable  meteorological  conditions  the 
stellar  spectrographic  work  was  not  very  fruitful  during 
1902,  but  44  good  spectrographs  of  j3  Lyrae  were  obtained, 
and,  as  soon  as  circumstances  permit,  the  results  of  an 
investigation  of  the  spectrum  of  this  star  will  be  published. 


OPENING  OF  THE  JOHNSTON  LABORA- 
TORIES FOR  MEDICAL  RESEARCH  IN 
THE  UNIVERSITY  COLLEGE,  LIVERPOOL. 
A  WORKING  alliance  between  the  forces  of  science  and 
■^^  commerce  is  a  condition  of  things  that  has  of  late 
been  the  prayer  of  many  well-wishers  to  both.  It  is  a 
happy  union  which,  as  we  are  often  told  with  perfect  truth, 
obtains  less  in  this  country  than  in  many  others.  But  in 
notable  degree  an  exception  must  be  made  among  our  own 
communities  in  the  case  of  Liverpool.  The  opening  cere- 
mony performed  in  Liverpool  on  Saturday  last  for  the 
inauguration  of  the  William  Johnston  Laboratories  of  the 
University  College  exemplified  in  a  remarkable  and  memor- 
able manner  the  strength  of  what  is  already  in  fact,  and 
will  in  a  few  weeks  also  be  in  name,  a  university  of 
municipal  type. 

Mr.  William  Johnston,  shipowner,  of  Liverpool,  last  year 
munificently  endowed  a  chair  for  biochemistry  at  the 
College,  and  also  three  fellowships  for  research  in  physi- 
ology, pathology  and  gynaecology.  He  has  enhanced  his 
splendid  and  far-sighted  gift  by  now  providing  a  large  and 
well-equipped  building  for  the  laboratory  purposes,  not  only 
of  biochemistry,  but  of  tropical  medicine,  experimental 
medicine,  and  comparative  pathology.  The  large  block 
housing  these  four  subjects  is  built  so  as  to  adjoin,  and  have 
free  internal  communication  with,  the  laboratories  of 
,.  physiology  and  pathology  erected  five  years  ago  by  the 
Rev.  Thompson-Yates.  These  Johnston  Laboratories  form 
a  building  90  feet  long  by  from  35  feet  to  50  feet  wide. 
They  constitute  four  floors  in  the  entire  block,  each  floor 
devoted  to  one  separate  department  of  research.  It  is  note- 
worthy that  in  this  building  we  find  a  university  building 
in  which  there  is  not  a  single  class-room  or  lecture-room 
in  the  ordinary  sense  of  those  words.  From  basement  to 
roof  it  is  devoted  absolutely  and  exclusively  to  purposes  of 
research.  Tropical  medicine  is  housed  in  the  ground-floor, 
and  is  under  the  direction  of  Prof.  Ronald  Ross,  F.R.S. 
The  first  floor  is  allotted  to  experimental  medicine,  under 
Dr.  Albert  Griinbaum,  F.R.C.P.,  and  a  large  proportion  of 
Its  rooms  are  already  occupied  by  cancer  research.  The 
second  floor  is  entirely  given  to  Prof.  Moore's  department 
of  biochemistry,  and  its  installation  is  nearly  complete,  two 
workers  availing  themselves  of  its  equipment  and  facilities 
already.     The  basement,  which  is,  in  fact,  only  half-sunken 


NO.    1750,  VOL.  68] 


and  extremely  well  lighted,  is  entirely  given  to  comparative 
;  pathology,  under  the  direction  of  Dr.  Annett. 

The  character  of  the  arrangement  of  the  fixtures  and 
fittings  of  the  laboratories  deserves  some  notice.  The  lead- 
ing idea  has  been  to  break  up  the  internal  space  of  the 
large  area  enclosed  on  each  floor  with  the  external  walls 
as  little  as  possible  by  permanent  walls.  The  main  floor 
is  therefore  cut  up  into  compartments  by  wooden  screens 
that  do  not  reach  the  ceiling.  These  screens  serve  in  many 
cases  to  carry,  as  walls,  both  shelves  and  cupboards,  but 
they  allow  the  twelve  large  windows  to  distribute  light  over 
every  nook  and  corner  of  the  whole.  By  this  arrangement 
the  laboratory  is  practically  divided  into  bays,  in  which 
investigators  can  work  separately,  and  surrounded  on  all 
sides  by  their  working  benches  or  shelves,  and  yet  not 
obstructing  the  light  of  work  going  on  elsewhere.  A  novel 
feature  is  that  the  floor  of  the  rooms  and  the  tops  of  the 
benches  are  made  of  polished  lito-silo,  a  material  which  has 
resiliency,  smoothness,  and  non-absorbent  qualities,  en- 
abling it  to  be  easily  cleaned  and  disinfected.  On  all  the 
floors  there  is  a  complete  supply  of  water,  gas,  electric 
light,  electric  power,  and  steam.  A  lift,  as  well  as  a  stair- 
case, connects  the  floors  together.  The  building  is  warmed 
by  hot  water  and  ventilated  by  the  upper  parts  of  the 
windows  and  by  extraction  shafts  arranged  down  the  centre 
of  the  rooms. 

In  the  department  of  experimental  medicine,  some  of  the 
beautiful  and  costly  apparatus  provided  has  been  furnished 
by  the  fund  of  io,oooZ.  recently  given  by  Mr.  Sutton 
Timmis  for  the  prosecution  of  investigation  into  cancer, 
Dr.  Albert  Griinbaum,  as  the  director  of  the  cancer  research, 
has  already  commenced  experimental  inquiries  in  this  field 
on  this  floor  of  the  laboratories.  One  of  the  rooms  on  the 
same  floor  is  very  fully  equipped  with  electrical  therapeutic 
apparatus  of  the  most  modern  design. 

The  whole  building  forms  a  set  of  laboratories  giving 
probably  unsurpassed  accommodation  to  the  studies  which 
it  was  raised  to  house.  Certainly  we  have  in  the  United 
Kingdom  no  other  so  fine  laboratories  of  biochemistry  or 
of  tropical  medicine.  Their  erection  marks  an  era  in  the 
history  of  these  studies  in  this  country.  That  these  subjects 
and  other  kindred  direct  extensions  of  physiology  and 
pathology  should  now  demand  and  obtain  spacious  accom- 
modation is  but  one  of  the  many  indications  that  the  trend 
of  medical  study,  and  therefore  of  medical  education,  has 
really  entered  upon  a  new  route.  The  narrow  and  facile, 
but  unfruitful  and  mentally  circumscript  ways  of  mere 
human  anatomy  are  being  exchanged  for  studies  of  more 
scientific  character,  and  physical,  chemical,  zoological,  or 
physiological  in  method  and  basis.  This  will  demand,  of 
course,  better  education  in  those  entering  the  profession 
of  medicine.  It  further  inevitably  connotes  a  closer  associa- 
tion than  at  present  between  the  art  of  medicine  and  pure 
science.  Just  as  inevitably  does  it  also  presage  an  era  prob- 
ably even  more  fertile  in  achievements  of  biological  study 
than  that  which  we  already  couple  with  the  names  of  Darwin 
and  Pasteur. 

The  formal  opening  of  the  nev/  laboratory  was  presided 
over  by  the  Right  Hon.  Walter  Long,  President  of  the 
Local  Government  Board.  A  distinguished  company 
attended.  In  addition  to  the  staff  and  students  of  the 
University  College,  Mr.  William  Johnston,  the  donor,  the 
Lord  Mayor  of  the  city,  Mr.  E.  K.  Muspratt,  Sir  John 
Brunner,  Sir  Alfred  Jones,  and  many  other  well-known 
citizens  were  present.  A  large  number  of  visitors,  not  only 
from  various  parts  of  the  United  Kingdom,  but  also  from 
the  Continent  and  America,  had  gathered  to  take  part  "in 
the  ceremony.  Among  these  were  Sir  Michael  Foster, 
Profs.  Clifford  Allbutt,  Armstrong,  Halliburton,  Schafer. 
Waller,  Gotch,  Stirling,  Botazzi,  Hausemann,  Weigert, 
Nocard,  Griitzner,  Blanchard,  Uhlworm,  Eulenberg, 
Perroncito,  Del^pine,  Woodhead,  Ravanel,  Steegmann, 
Lorrain  Smith,  Macdonald,  W.  H.  Thompson,  Trevelyan. 
Drs.  Rose  Bradford,  Monckton  Copeman,  Dawson  Williams, 
Seaton,  Bulstrode,  and  many  others.  In  the  evening  Mr. 
William  Johnston  entertained  a  distinguished  company  to 
dinner  at  the  Adelphi  Hotel.  The  President  of  the  Local 
Government  Board,  in  the  course  of  a  vigorous  speech  on 
the  necessity  of  progress  being  maintained  in  the  advance 
of  natural  science  by  research  in  this  country,  declared  that 


44 


NATURE 


[May  14   190^ 


science  was  the  best  friend  any  worker  could  call  to  his 
aid,  whatsoever  might  be  his  particular  part  and  calling 
in  labour.  Sir  Alfred  Jones  submitted  the  toast  of 
"  Commerce  and  Scientific  Research,"  replied  to  by  Sir 
Michael  Foster  and  Prof.  Armstrong.  To  the  toast  of  "  Our 
Foreign  Guests,"  Prof.  Ravanel  (Philadelphia),  Prof. 
Nocard  (Paris),  Prof.  Weigert  (Frankfort),  and  Prof. 
Perroncito  (Turin)  replied. 


THE  IRON  AND  STEEL  INSTITUTE, 
'T'HE  annual  meeting  of  the  Iron  and  Steel  Institute  was 
-*■      held  at  the  Institution  of  Civil   Engineers  on  May  7 
and  8,  and  was  very  largely  attended. 

The  report  of  the  council,  read  by  Mr.  Bennett  H. 
Brough,  the  secretary,  showed  that  in  1902  the  Institute 
had  made  very  satisfactory  progress.  The  membership 
amounted  to  1692,  and  it  was  announced  that  the  Institute 
had  subscribed  loooZ.,  payable  in  five  yearly  instalments, 
to  the  funds  of  the  National  Physical  Laboratory. 

After  the  usual  routine  business,  the  retiring  president, 
Mr.  William  Whitwell,  inducted  into  the  chair  the  presi- 
dent-elect, Mr.  Andrew  Carnegie.  The  first  duty  of  the 
new  president  was  to  present  the  Bessemer  gold  medal  to 
Sir  James  Kitson,  which  he  did  in  felicitous  terms.  He 
then  handed  the  Andrew  Carnegie  gold  medal  to  Mr.  A. 
Campion  for  his  research  on  the  heat  treatment  of  steel,  and 
a  special  silver  medal  to  Dr.  O.  Boudouard,  of  Paris,  for  his 
research  on  the  determination  of  the  points  of  allotropic 
change  of  iron  and  its  alloy.  The  research  submitted  by 
Mr.  P.  Longmuir,  of  Sheffield,  on  the  influence  of  varying 
casting  temperature  on  the  properties  of  alloys  was  com- 
mended, and  a  further  grant  of  50^.  was  made  to  him  to 
complete  the  work.  Mr.  Campion  also  received  a  further 
grant  of  a  like  amount  to  enable  him  to  carry  his  researches 
further. 

For  the  scholarships  for  the  current  year  a  large  number 
of  applications  was  received,  and  after  very  careful  in- 
vestigation of  the  claims,  the  council  decided  to  award  four 
scholarships  of  lool.,  each  tenable  for  one  year,  to  C.  O. 
Bannister  (London),  to  P.  Breuil  (Paris),  to  K.  A.  Gunnar 
Dillner  in  conjunction  with  A.  F.  Enstrom  (Stockholm), 
and  to  J.  C.  Gardner  (Middlesbrough),  respectively. 

Mr.  Carnegie  then  delivered  his  inaugural  address.  It 
differed  widely  from  all  that  have  preceded  it  in  that  it 
dealt  not  with  metallurgical  technology,  but  with  a  con- 
sideration of  the  best  and  most  economical  methods  of 
obtaining  harmonious  working  between  the  mechanical 
and  business  departments  of  a  concern,  and  of  securing 
hearty  cooperation  between  the  employers  and  the  employed. 
Ihe  address  was  much  appreciated,  and  the  thanks  of  the 
Institute  were  eloquently  expressed  by  Sir  Bernhard 
Samuelson  and  Sir  David  Dale. 

The  first  paper  read  was  by  Mr.  B.  Talbot,  of  Leeds,  who 
described  the  development  of  the  continuous  open-hearth 
process.  Since  this  new  departure  in  metallurgy  was  first 
described  in  1900,  considerable  progress  has  been  made,  and 
a  furnace  of  200  tons  has  been  in  successful  operation  for 
some  months  at  Pittsburg.  Other  furnaces  of  nearly  the 
same  capacity  are  being  erected  in  Great  Britain,  in  France, 
and  in  the  United  States.  In  the  lengthy  discussion  that 
followed,  Mr.  E.  H.  Martin,  of  Pittsburg,  adversely  criti- 
cised the  paper,  whilst  Mr.  P.  C.  Gilchrist,  Mr.  E.  Riley, 
Mr.  Saniter,  Mr.  F.  W.  Paul,  Mr.  G.  Ainsworth,  Mr. 
Harbord,  and  Mr.  T.  H.  Colley  spoke  in  favourable  terms  : 
of  the  process.  j 

The    meeting    then    adjourned    until    May    8,    when    Mr.  I 
Camille    Mercader    gave    an    account    of    the    development 
in     the    manufacture    of    railway    axles    on   a   large   scale 
accomplished  at  the  works  of  the  Carnegie  Steel  Company  ' 
at   Pittsburg.     With   the   aid  of   numerous   illustrations,    he 
described  a  method  of  producing,  by  pressing,  hollow  axles 
having  varying  diameters.    An  animated  discussion  followed,  | 
in  which  Mr.  R.  M.  Daelen  and  Prof.  Bauerman  expressed 
the   opinion    that    the    invention    had    been,  anticipated    by  j 
Ehrhard,     of     Diisseldorf.       Sir    James     Kitson,     Mr.     E.  ' 
Windsor  Richards,  Mr.  S.  Lloyd,  and  Mr.  Vaughan  Hughes 
also  took  part  in  the  discussion. 

Prof.    J.    O.    Arnold    arid    Mr.    G.     B.    Waterhouse,    of 

NO.    1750,   VOL    68J 


Sheffield,  then  read  an  important  paper  on  the  influence  of 
sulphur  and  manganese  on  steel.  The  steels  examined  were 
those  experimented  upon  by  Mr.  Brinell.  The  results  of 
the  authors'  investigations  show  that  sulphide  of  iron  is 
deadly  in  its  effect  upon  steel,  whilst  sulphide  of  manganese 
is  comparatively  harmless  ;  that  the  above  facts  are  due  to 
the  fusibility,  the  high  contraction  coefficient,  and  the 
tendency  of  sulphide  of  iron  to  form  cell  walls  or  envelop- 
ing membranes  surrounding  cells  of  ferrite,  whilst  sulphide 
of  manganese  is  much  less  fusible,  segregates  whilst  the 
iron  is  at  a  high  temperature,  and  so  collects  into  rough 
globules,  and  very  seldom  into  meshes ;  that  manganese 
retards  the  segregation  of  iron  and  hardenite,  and  that 
what  is  called  pearlite  in  a  normally  cooled  manganese 
steel  is  really  a  mixture  of  granular  pearlite  and  unsegre- 
gated  ferrite ;  and  that  the  complete  segregation  of  the 
ferrite  in  a  manganiferous  steel  can  be  brought  about  by 
very  slow  cooling,  but  that  such  annealing  injures  the 
mechanical  properties  of  the  steel  by  lowering  the  maximum 
stress  and  the  reduction  of  area  per  cent,  registered  by  the 
unannealed  steel.  An  interesting  discussion  followed,  in 
which  Mr.  Stead,  Mr.  F.  W.  Harbord,  Mr.  Vaughan 
Hughes,  and  Mr.  Sidney  Houghton  took  part. 

The  next  paper  read  was  by  Mr.  A.  Keller,  of  Paris,  who 
described  the  application  of  the  electric  furnace  in  metal- 
lurgy. This  furnace,  which  is  apt  to  be  regarded  merely 
as  a  laboratory  appliance,  will,  the  author  thinks,  find  a 
place  in  the  iron  industry  on  a  large  scale.  He  shows  that, 
although  the  manufacture  of  alloys  which  are  little  used 
can  scarcely  entitle  it  to  rank  as  a  metallurgical  appliance, 
the  production  of  ferrosilicon,  which  is  one  of  the  bases 
of  modern  metallurgy,  and  of  iron,  steel,  copper,  and 
nickel,  will  permit  it  to  be  regarded  in  this  light,  ihe 
success  is  the  result  of  carefully  controlled  operations  on  a 
large  scale  at  Livet,  in  the  department  of  Is^re.  In  the 
discussion,  Mr.  A.  H.  Allen,  Prof.  Arnold,  Mr.  B.  H. 
Thwaite,  Mr.  A.  Greiner,  Mr.  Stead,  and  Mr.  Kilburn 
Scott  bore  testimony  to  the  value  of  the  invention. 

Mr.  C.  von  Schwarz,  of  Li6ge,  described  the  best  methods 
for  making  Portland  cement  from  blast  furnace  slag,  and 
showed  that  there  is  a  wide  field  open  to  English  blast 
furnace  works  for  carrying  on  a  profitable  industry  by  the 
utilisation  of  their  principal  by-product.  In  the  discussion 
Mr.  Hutchinson  described  at  considerable  length  the  results 
obtained  at  Middlesbrough,  and  Mr.  Stead  spoke  in 
optimistic  terms  of  the  future  development  of  the  manu- 
facture. 

Mr.  Axel  Sahlin  next  described  an  ingenious  blast  furnace 
top  designed  not  to  admit  air  or  to  permit  gas  to  escape. 
Although  the  blast  furnace  top  has  been  greatly  modified 
and  improved  of  late  years  in  order  to  enable  the  furnace 
gases  to  be  utilised,  it  still  possesses  certain  defects  which 
occasionally  lead  to  explosions  and  other  hindrances  to 
eflicient  working.  These  drawbacks  have  been  remedied 
in  the  blast  furnace  top  described.  The  construction  of  this 
furnace  top  and  its  adjuncts  ensures  immunity  from  ex- 
plosions, as  no  air  can  enter  the  furnace  at  the  top,  whilst 
it  also  provides  against  gas  leaks  and  accumulations  of 
dust.  The  success  of  the  new  tpp  is  demonstrated  by  its 
adoption  at  the  Iroquois  Iron  W'orks,  near  Chicago,  where 
the  first  one  was  started  in  1901,  and  where  fourteen  are 
now  working. 

Mr.  B.  H.  Thwaite  then  read  a  paper  on  the  detrimental 
effect  of  flue  dust  upon  the  thermal  efficiency  of  hot-blast 
stoves. 

Colonel  Cubillo,  of  Trubia,  Spain,  submitted  an  elaborate 
paper  on  the  open-hearth  process,  in  which  he  gave  calcula- 
tions of  the  heat  balance  of  the  furnace.  The  experiments 
on  which  the  paper  was  based  were  carried  out  in  a  four-ton 
Siemens  furnace  of  the  new  form. 

Mr.  J.  E.  Stead  submitted  a  note  on  the  alleged  cement- 
ation of  iron  by  silicon  announced  by  Moissan  and  Lebeau. 
Mr.  Stead's  experiments  show  that  at  temperatures  between 
1100°  and  1200°  C.  solid  iron  and  free  silicon  do  not  com- 
bine, and  that  cementation  by  silicon  is  impossible  when  the 
iron  and  steel  operated  upon  are  in  solid  masses. 

Prof.  Thomas  Turner,  of  Birmingham,  submitted  an 
analysis  of  a  specimen  of  Sussex  iron,  some  200  years  old. 
The  results  were  as  follows  i-^graphitic  carbon,  289;  com- 
bined   carbon,    o-J2  ;    silicon,    6-62. ■    sulphur,,    o  08 ;    phos- 


May  14,  1903] 


NA  TURE 


^5 


phorus,   056;   manganese,   077;   and   iron   (by   difference), 

^H76- 

The  memoirs  submitted  by  the  Carnegie  research  scholars 
were  taken  as  read,  and  are  open  to  discussion  by  correspon- 
dence. The  paper  by  Mr.  A.  Campion,  for  which  the  gold 
medal  was  awarded,  covers  seventy-five  pages,  and  is  illus- 
trated by  fifteen  plates.     It  deals  with  the  heat  treatment 

t    steel    under    conditions    of    steelworks'    practice.       The 

iper  by  Dr.  O.  Boudouard,  of  Paris,  for  which  a  special 
nlver  medal  was  awarded,  covers  eighty  pages,  and  deals 
with  the  determination  of  the  points  of  allotropic  change 
of  iron  and  its  alloys  by  the  measurement  of  the  variations 
in  the  electric  resistance.  Results  are  given  for  carbon 
steels,  chrome  steels,  tungsten  steels,  manganese  steels, 
and  nickel  steels.  The  remaining  memoirs  presented  by 
the  Carnegie  research  scholars  deal  with  the  influence  of 
varying  casting  temperature  on  the  properties  of  alloys, 
by  Mr.  P.  Longmuir,  of  Sheffield,  and  with  the  manufacture 
of  tool  steel,  by  Mr.  E.  Schott,  of  Berlin. 

The  proceedings  concluded  with  the  usual  votes  of  thanks 
to  the  Institution  of  Civil  Engineers,  proposed  by  the 
president  and  seconded  by  Prof.  Gowland,  and  to  the  presi- 
dent for  his  conduct  in  the  chair,  proposed  by  Prof.  Syed 
Ali  Bilgrami    and  seconded  by  Mr.  F.  Samuelson. 

In  the  evening  Mr.  Carnegie  presided  at  the  annual 
dinner,  which  was  attended  by  about  six  hundred  members. 
The  Prime  Minister  congratulated  the  Institute  on  its  inter- 
national and  scientific  character,  and  speeches  were  made 
by  the  Duke  of  Devonshire,  Sir  H.  Campbell-Bannerman, 
Mr.  John  Morley,  Viscount  Ridley,  Sir  Henry  Fowler,  Sir 
James  Kitson,  and  Sir  Samuel  Chisholm. 


UNIVERSITY  AND  EDUCATIONAL 
INTELLIGENCE. 

Oxford.— The  248th  meeting  of  the  Junior  Scientific  Club 
was  held  on  Friday,  May  8.  Mr.  R.  T.  Giinther  read  a 
paper  on  "  Changes  of  Land  Level,"  in  which  he  gave  an 
account  of  researches  he  had  carried  out  on  this  subject  in 
the  neighbourhood  of  Naples.  The  paper  was  illustrated 
by  slides  showing  photographs  of  the  coast  in  this  district. 
Mr.  N.  V.  Sidgwick,  Lincoln,  read  a  paper  on  "  The 
Emission  of  Heat  by  Radium  Salts." 

Cambridge. — The  council  of  the  Senate  propose  that  the 
Hartley  University  College,  Southampton,  should  be 
adopted  as  an  institution  affiliated  to  the  University  of 
Cambridgffe. 

The  syndicate  on  the  Mathematical  Pass  Examinations 
have  issued  an  important  report  (University  Reporter,  May 
12,  1903),  in  which  they  recommend  a  number  of  far-reach- 
ir.g  changes  in  respect  to  the  geometry,  arithmetic,  and 
algebra  required  in  the  previous  examination.  They  "  are 
of  opinion  that  it  is  no  longer  desirable  to  insist  on  the 
maintenance  of  Euclid's  Elements  as  a  text-book." 

The  Board  of  Agricultural  Studies  report  that  during  the 
past  year  169  students  have  received  instruction  in  agri- 
cultural science  in  connection  with  the  department.  The 
income  of  the  department,  about  3700Z.,  is  practically 
balanced  by  the  expenditure.  The  need  of  a  permanent 
building  to  accommodate  the  various  branches  of  the  work 
is  becoming  apparent,  and  the  Board  are  considering  how 
the  need  can  be  supplied. 

Dr.  Ruhemann,  university  lecturer  in  organic  chemistry, 
has  been  appointed  the  university  delegate  to  the  Congress 
of  Applied  Chemistry  to  be  held  next  month  in  Berlin. 

A  bust  of  the  late  Dr.  John  Hopkinson  was  unveiled  at 
the  engineering  laboratory  on  Monday.  The  vice-chancellor 
presided,  and  the  speakers  included  Sir  Joseph  Lawrence, 
M.P.,  Lord  Kelvin,  Prof.  Ewing,  and  Principal  Hopkinson. 


Dr.  Charles  Chilton  has  been  offered  and  has  accepted 
the  professorship  of  biology  at  Canterbury  College,  Christ- 
church,  New  Zealand,  in  succession  to  Prof.  Dendy. 

The  Pioneer  Mail  states  that  the  site  assigned  to  British 
India  by  the  Mysore  Government  for  the  Indian  University 
of  Research  to  be  created  in  consequence  of  Mr.  J.  N.  Tata's 
munificent  offer  of  an  endowment    measures  about  370  acres, 

NO.    1750,   VOL.   68J 


is  situated  in  the  north-west  of  Bangalore  Cantonment, 
about  four  miles  beyond  the  municipal  boundary.  Besides 
this  gift  the  Mysore  Government  have  offered  five  lakhs 
for  initial  expenses,  and  they  hold  out  hopes  of  further 
assistance.  Prof.  Masson  and  Colonel  Clibborn  calculate 
the  annual  expenditure  at  10,000/.  sterling. 

BooTHAM  School,  at  York,  was  one  of  the  few  schools 
which  received  medals  at  the  Nature-Study  Exhibition  last 
year  for  their  exhibits  showing  the  extent  and  nature  of 
the  work  in  nature-study  done  by  the  pupils.  The  sixty- 
ninth  annual  report  of  the  Natural  History  Society  of  this 
school  serves  to  explain  the  success  then  achieved.  The 
study  of  natural  objects  is  continued  throughout  the  year, 
and  is  carefully  arranged  by  the  science  masters  so  as  to 
avoid  waste  of  time  and  effort.  A  boy  with  a  love  for  any 
branch  of  natural  history  receives  every  encouragement,  and 
there  can  be  little  doubt  of  the  good  effect  this  sympathetic 
treatment  has  on  the  education  imparted. 

The  fiftieth  report  of  the  Charity  Commissioners  for 
England  and  Wales  shows  that  in  the  three  years  ending 
December  31,  1901,  the  total  amount  of  charitable  bequests 
in  England  and  Wales  reached  6,542,110/.,  of  which 
279,890/.  was  intended  for  education.  It  has  often  been 
pointed  out  in  these  columns  what  large  sums  are  given  to 
higher  education  in  the  United  States.  During  the  three 
years  dealt  with  by  the  Charity  Commissioners  in  their 
report,  benefactions  for  higher  education  alone  to  the  ex- 
tent of  10,392,000/.  were  reported  in  the  United  States. 
That  is  to  say,  for  every  pound  sterling  given  during  1899- 
1901  for  education  in  all  its  grades  in  England  and  Wales, 
more  than  thirty-seven  pounds  were  given  bv  American 
benefactors  for  university  education  alone.  The  sums  de- 
voted by  private  persons  to  higher  education  in  the  United 
States  were  nearly  twice  as  great  during  these  three  years 
as  those  for  every  form  of  charity  in  England  and  Wales. 

Numerous  changes  in  the  regulations  for  examinations 
at  the  University  of  Oxford  have  recently  been  announced. 
Among  the  alterations  are  those  in  mathematics  for  the  first 
public  examination  (pass),  in  connection  with  which  it  is 
stated  that  any  method  of  proof  will  be  accepted  which 
shows  clearness  and  accuracy  in  geometrical  reasoning,  and 
that  in  the  case  of  propositions  1-7,  9,  10  of  Book  ii., 
algebraical  proofs  may  be  used.  The  Board  of  the  Faculty 
of  Natural  Science  has  also  made  similar  changes  in  the 
mathematical  requirements  of  the  Final  Pass  School, 
Group  C.  (i).  These  changes  come  into  force  at  the  ex- 
aminations of  Michaelmas  term,  1904.  There  are  additions 
to  the  schedule  of  mechanics  and  physics  for  the  prelirflinafy; 
examination  of  the  Honour  School  of  Natural  Science, 
which  come  into  force  on  and  after  Trinity  term,  1905. 
The  practical  examinations,  especially  in  physics,  are  to  be 
more  extensive  than  hitherto. 

A  copy  of  the  report  and  handbook  for  the  session  19021 
of  the  Technical  Instruction  Committee  of  the  Essex  County 
Council  has  been  received.  It  contains  detailed  inform- 
ation of  every  department  of  the  work  of  the  committee,  and 
provides  another  example  of  the  thorough  manner  in  which 
the  county  councils  have  performed  the  educational  duties 
entrusted  to  them  by  the  Technical  Instruction  Acts,  now 
repealed.  In  connection  with  the  agricultural  instruction 
in  Essex,  field  meetings  were  held  at  seven  centres.  The 
objects  of  some  of  the  meetings  were  to  demonstrate  the 
destruction  of  charlock  in  field  crops  by  spraying  with  solu- 
tions of  copper  sulphate  and  nitrate  of  soda  ;  the  improve- 
ment of  derelict  grass  land  by  manures  ;  no  verbal  deScrip-- 
tion  could  adequately  convey  an  idea  of  the  improvement' 
effected  by  basic  slag,  which  was  one  of  the  marlures  used, 
on  either  of  these  fields,  and  the  farmers  attending  were 
strongly  impressed  by  the  almost  miraculous  effect  of  this 
manure  both  on  the  quality  and  quantity  of  the  herbage. 

The  annual  exhibition  of  the  work  of  pupils  in  the  day, 
evening  continuation,  truant,  blind,  deaf,  and  special  in- 
struction schools  of  the  London  School  Board  was  opened 
last  Saturday  by  Lord  Reay  at  the  Examination  Hall, 
Thames  Embankment.  The  exhibits  were  very  numerous 
and   thoroughly   representative  of  the  work  of  children  of 


46 


NATURE 


[May  14,  1903 


all  ages,  from  the  lowest  classes  of  infant  schools  to  the 
evening  classes  for  youths.  Though  considerations  of  space 
only  permit  particular  reference  to  the  section  including  the 
science  exhibits  from  the  schools  of  the  Board,  it  may  be 
said  that  the  work  shown  from  the  manual  training  schools, 
the  classes  in  domestic  subjects,  the  institutions  concerned 
with  the  physically  and  mentally  defective,  and  from  the 
classes  in  art  subjects  was  highly  creditable,  and  served 
admirably  to  show  the  extent  and  excellence  of  the  work 
being  done  in  the  public  elementary  schools  of  the  metro- 
polis. The  collection  of  pieces  of  apparatus  to  assist  the 
teaching  of  science  was  this  year  much  smaller  than  on 
previous  occasions,  the  reason  being  that  the  offer  of  prizes 
for  the  most  successful  work  was  this  year  discontinued. 
It  was  satisfactory  to  notice  that  the  plan  recommended 
more  than  once  in  these  columns  was  on  this  occasion 
carried  out  for  the  first  time,  and  added  much  to  the  con- 
venience of  the  visitor — we  refer  to  the  separation  of  the 
work  of  teachers  and  that  of  pupils.  Judging  from  the  ex- 
hibits, more  attention  appears  to  have  been  given  during 
the  past  year  to  work  with  squared  paper  and  to  nature- 
study  subjects,  and  there  were  some  excellent  relief  maps 
made  by  boys  of  thirteen  which  would  have  been  a  credit 
to  much  older  students.  Altogether  there  is  good  reason 
to  believe  that  the  science  work  being  done  in  the  schools 
of  the  London  Board,  under  the  direction  of  Dr.  Stewart 
and  Messrs.  Hubble  and  Todd,  will  lead  to  the  development 
of  habits  of  careful  reasoning  and  alert  observation. 


SCIENTIFIC  SERIAL. 

American  Jdurnal  of  Science.  April.— On  the  gaseous 
composition  of  the  H  and  K  lines  of  the  spectrum,  together 
with  a  discussion  of  reversed  gaseous  lines,  by  John  Trow- 
bridge. The  continuous  spectra  observed  in  Geissler  tubes 
when  submitted  to  powerful  disruptive  sparks  are  not  due  to 
incandescence  of  the  glass  walls.  The  lines  obtained  co- 
inciding closely  with  calcium  lines,  wave-lengths  3968  and 
3933  are  not  due  to  calcium,  but  are  true  gaseous  lines. 
The  conclusion  is  drawn  that  the  method  of  sifting  out  air 
lines  from  metallic  spectra  by  observing  the  lines  which 
are  apparently  common  to  these  spectra  and  setting  down 
such  lines  as  air  lines  is  a  fallacious  method. — The  Boys 
radiomicrometer,  by  C.  C.  Hutchins.  The  simplicity  and 
sensitiveness  of  this  instrument  indicate  its  employment  in 
several  lines  of  work,  but  the  difficulty  of  preparing  the 
small  circuit  which  forms  its  fundamental  part  is  very 
great.  Details  are  given  of  the  methods  suggested  by  the 
author  of  overcoming  these  difficulties. — Meteoric  iron 
from  N'Goureyma,  near  Djenne,  Province  of  Macina, 
Soudan,  by  E.  Cohen.  This  meteorite  belongs  to  the  com- 
paratively rare  group  of  coarsely  granular  irons,  and  pre- 
sents peculiarities  of  structure  which  appear  to  be  unique. 
More  than  97  per  cent,  of  it  consists  of  nickeliferous  iron, 
the  remaining  constituents  being  schreibserite,  troilite, 
daubreelite,  lawrencite,  and  chromite. — Notes  on  the  collec- 
tion of  Triassic  fishes  at  "Vale,  by  G.  F.  Eaton. — ^The 
mechanics  of  igneous  intrusion,  by  R.  A.  Daly.  A  com- 
parison of  the  hypothesis  of  overhead  stoping  in  the  form- 
ation of  magma  chambers  with  the  laccolithic  theory  of 
crustal  displacement,  and  with  the  theory  of  marginal 
assimilation  of  invaded  formations. — Brachiosaurus  alti- 
thorax,  the  largest  known  Dinosaur,  by  E.  S.  Riggs. — 
Some  new  structural  characters  of  Palaeozoic  cockroaches, 
by  E.  H.  Sellards. — The  Bath  furnace  meteorite,  by  H.  A. 
Ward.  This  meteorite  fell  on  November  15,  1902,  the 
date  on  which  the  orbit  of  the  Leonids  cuts  that  of  the 
earth.  The  stone  consists  essentially  of  olivene  and 
pyroxene,  with  troilite  and  metallic  sprinklings.  There  is 
also  present  in  small  quantities  a  completely  colourless, 
almost  isotropic  mineral,  which  is  probably  maskelynite. — 
The  use  of  a  rotating  kathode  in  the  electrolytic  determin- 
ation of  the  metals,  by  F.  A.  Gooch  and  H.  E.  Medway. 
An  ordinary  platinum  crucible,  rotated  by  a  small  electric 
motor  at  a  speed  of  600  to  800  revolutions  per  minute,  is 
used  as  the  kathode.  Details  of  experiments  with  copper, 
nickel  and  silver  are  given,  from  which  it  would  appear 
that  much  higher  current  densities  may  be  employed  than 
with  the  usual  apparatus  without  any  appreciable  loss  of 
accuracy. 

NO. 


1750,  VOL.  68] 


SOCIETIES  AND  ACADEMIES. 
London. 
Chemical  Society,  April  22.— Prof.  W.  A.  Tilden,  F.R.S.^ 
president,  in  the  chair. — The  following  papers  were  read  : — 
The  velocity  and  mechanism  of  the  reaction  between 
potassium  ferricyanide  and  potassium  iodide  in  neutral 
aqueous  solution,  by  F.  G.  Donnan  and  R.  lo  RossiKnol. 
The  velocity  of  this  reaction  can  be  investigated  by  titra- 
tion of  the  iodine  liberated ;  the  simplest  interpretation 
shows  that  it  is  quinquemolecular. — A  microscopic  method 
of  comparing  molecular  weights,  by  G.  Barker.  Small 
quantities  of  the  two  solutions  are  introduced  into  a  capillary 
tube,  where  they  form  bi-concave,  discoid  drops,  care  being 
taken  to  use  the  solutions  alternately,  so  that  each  drop  of 
one  solution  is  enclosed  between  two  drops  of  the  other. 
The  capillary  tube  is  then  sealed  at  both  ends,  and  the  length 
of  each  drop  is  measured  microscopically  from  day  to  day 
until  no  change  in  volume  is  apparent.  At  this  point  the 
solutions  are  equimolecular. — Note  on  the  spectrum  of 
pilocarpine  nitrate,  by  W.  N.  Hartley.  The  author  states 
that  the  curve  recently  described  by  Dobbie  as  that  of  the 
ultra-violet  absorption  spectrum  of  pilocarpine  nitrate  is 
that  of  nitric  acid  slightly  modified  by  the  alkaloid  present. 
— Isomeric  change  of  dipropionanilide  into  propionyl-/>- 
aminopropiophenone,  by  Dr.  F.  D.  Chattaway.  Under 
the  influence  of  various  catalytic  reagents,  e.g.  zinc  and 
hydrogen  chlorides,  dipropionanilide,  like  diacetanilide  and 
dibenzanilide,  undergoes  transformation  into  propionyl-/)- 
aminopropiophenone ;  the  latter  and  some  of  its  derivatives 
are  described. — Note  on  the  formation  of  di-  and  hexa- 
methylammonio-cadmium  chlorides,  by  W.  R.  Lang:.  Dry 
methyl  amine  and  cadmium  chloride  react  at  —11°  to  fornT 
a  white  powder  of  the  composition  CdCU,6CH3.NH2. 
This,  when  heated  to  100°,  furnishes  a  stable  substance  of 
the  composition  CdCl2,2CH3.NHj. 

Royal  Astronomical  Society,  May  8.— Prof.  H.  H. 
Turner,  president,  in  the  chair. — -The  president  announced 
that  the  council  had  elected  Lady  Huggins  and  Miss  Agnes 
M.  Gierke  honorary  members  of  the  Society. — The  secre- 
tary read  a  paper  by  the  Rev.  S.  J.  Johnson  on  a  possible 
cause  of  the  moon's  obscurity  on  April  11,  in  which  the 
author  suggested  that  the  presence  of  volcanic  dust  in  the 
earth's  atmosphere  was  the  cause  of  the  darkness  of  the 
moon's  disc  during  the  recent  partial  eclipse. — Mr.  Lewis 
gave  an  account  of  a  series  of  measures  of  double  stars 
made  with  the  28-inch  refractor  at  the  Royal  Qbs^ryatory, 
Greenwich,  during  1902,  and  described  the  orbits  of  "some 
stars  of  especial  interest. — Mr.  Bryan  Cookson  gave  a 
short  account  of  his  work  on  the  satellites  of  Jupiter  during 
a  recent  stay  of  two  years  at  the  Royal  Observatory,  Cape 
of  Good  Hope. — The  Astronomer  Royal  exhibited  and  ex- 
plained a  series  of  diagrams  of  sun-spots  and  magnetic 
disturbance  observed  at  the  Royal  Observatory  during  the 
years  1874  to  1901.- — Dr.  Rambaut  read  a  paper  on  occult- 
ations  of  stars  observed  at  the  Radcliffe  Observatory, 
Oxford,  during  the  lunar  eclipse,  as  well  as  observations 
of  the  colour  of  the  shadow,  penumbra,  &c.— The  president 
suggested  certain  subjects  for  discussion,  and  a  short  dis- 
cussion took  place  on  Mr.  Percival  Lowell's  recent  pro- 
posal of  a  standard  scale  of  "  seeing." — Mr.  A.  R.  Hinks 
read  extracts  from  a  letter  from  Mr.  Ritchey,  of  the  Yerkes 
Observatory,  in  which  he  described  his  methods  of  develop- 
ing photographs  of  nebulae,  &c.  Mr.  Ritchey  stated  that 
with  regard  to  such  nebulae  as  those  of  Andromeda  or  Orion 
he  made  his  prints  from  a  negative  in  which  the  central 
portions  had  been  reduced.  He  considered  that  the  star 
images  are  smaller  on  a  negative  that  had  been  developed 
extremely  slowly. 

Anthropological  Institute,  April  28. — Mr.  H.  Balfour, 
the  president,  exhibited  specimens  of  the  tools  used  by  the 
natives  of  North-West  Australia  in  the  manufacture  of  glass- 
spearheads.  The  tools  consist  of  a  piece  of  a  sheep's  leg- 
bone  and  of  a  water-worn  pebble  of  a  purely  natural  shape. 
The  pebble  was  used  in  the  earlier  stages  of  the  spearhead '& 
manufacture,  while  the  bone  was  used  in  its  final  shaping. 
Mr.  Balfour  also  exhibited  a  spearhead  which  had  been 
made  with  these  tools.  A  full  account  of  the  exhibit,  illus- 
trated with  a  plate,   will  be  found   in  the  May  number  of 


May  14,  1903] 


NATURE 


47 


.l/an. — Mr.  E.  N.  Fallaize  read  a  paper  on  the  classification 
of  the  subject-matter  of  anthropology.  After  defining 
anthropology  quite  generally  as  the  "  science  of  man,"  and 
pointing  out  how  vast  was  the  scope  of  such  a  science  which 
must  include  all  that  man  is  and  all  that  man  does,  Mr. 
Fallaize  suggested  the  following  classification  of  the  ques- 
tions with  which  the  science  has  to  deal  : — A.  Man's  place 
in  Nature,  including  under  this  head  the  investigation  of 
man's  place  in  time  and  man's  place  in  space,  the  first 
■section  (for  which  the  term  palaeanthropography  was 
-uggested)  dealing  with  the  origin  and  descent  of  man, 
Tertiary  man,  the  physical  types  of  the  Stone,  Bronze,  and 
Iron  ages;  the  second  with  the  distribution  of  mankind,  and 
the  classification  of  races  by  physical  types — general  ethno- 
logy. Under  B.  fall  all  questions  dealing  with  physical 
structure — anthropography  ;  while  C.  deals  with  the  func- 
tioning of  the  organs— physiological  anthropology — in- 
cluding such  questions  as  heredity,  atavism,  racial  fertility, 
and  the  like.  Section  D.  deals  with  specifically  human 
activities  in  the  following  order  : — (a)  gratification  of  the 
senses,  including  dancing  and  the  aesthetic  arts ;  (6) 
^■^ratification  of  the  intellect,  the  sciences,  especially  in  the 
arlier  stages  "of  their  development;  (c)  communication  of 
ideas,  language  and  writing ;  (d)  social  structure,  the  in- 
dividual and  the  social  organism  ;  (e)  man's  intercourse  with 
Nature  :  (o)  material  nature — technology  ;  ()3)  immaterial 
nature — the  study  of  religion  and  folklore. — Mr.  J.  Gray 
read  a  paper  on  the  measurements  of  the  Colonial  Coronation 
contingent.  The  paper  contained  an  analysis  of  the  measure- 
ments of  about  one  hundred  men  of  the  native  troops 
encamped  at  the  Alexandra  Palace  during  the  Coronation 
celebrations.  Amongst  the  races  measured  were  natives  of 
Sierra  Leone  and  the  West  Coast  of  Africa,  Nigeria,  Lagos, 
Old  Calabar,  Central  Africa  and  Somaliland  ;  also  Fijians, 
Maoris,  Chinese  and  Singhalese.  The  mean  values  of  the 
head  dimensions  and  stature  were  calculated  for  each  group, 
and  also  possible  deviations  from  the  mean  in  other  samples. 
The  results  were  plotted  out  on  a  chart,  and  the  conclusions 
arrived  at  were  that  broadly  the  same  race  stretches  from 
Sierra  Leone  to  Somaliland,  but  that  towards  North  Africa 
the  breadth  of  the  head  increases.  The  Asiatic  and  Poly- 
nesian races,  such  as  the  Chinese,  Fijians,  and  Maoris,  were 
infallibly  distinguished  from  the  African  races  by  the 
greater  breadth  of  their  heads.  The  measurements  of  the 
African  races  showed  remarkably  good  agreement  with  Mr. 
Randall  Maclver's  measurements  of  the  Berbers,  and  Sir  H. 
Johnston's  measurements  of  the  Central  Africans. 

Zoological  Society,  April  21.— Dr.  Henry  Woodward, 
F.R.S.,  vice-president,  in  the  chair. — Mr.  Henry  Scherren 
read  a  short  paper  dealing  with  the  literature  of  feather- 
tracts  as  found  in  the  writings  of  Hunter  and  Linnaeus. 
The  author  directed  attention  to  a  figure  in  the  "  Amoeni- 
tates  "  (1766)  in  which  these  tracts  were  shown,  and 
suggested  that  a  passage  in  "  The  Garden  of  Cyrus  "  proved 
that  Sir  Thomas  Browne  knew  of  them,  and  that  they 
varied  in  extent  and  position  in  different  birds. — Mr.  Old- 
field  Thomas  read  a  paper  on  some  mammals  collected  by 
Captain  H.  N.  Dunn  in  the  Egyptian  Soudan.  Nineteen 
species  were  enumerated,  of  which  five  were  described  as 
new. — In  a  paper  on  the  geographical  distribution  of  the 
Mygalomorphae,  an  order  including  the  trapdoor  spiders 
and  the  species  formerly  grouped  together  under  the  com- 
prehensive title  Mygale,  Mr.  R.  L  Pocock  pointed  out 
that  the  known  facts  justified  the  mapping  of  the  world 
into  the  following  zoological  regions  : — (i)  The  Holarctic, 
including  Europe  north  of  the  southern  mountain  chains. 
North  Asia,  and  North  America  north  of  about  the  45th 
parallel  of  latitude.  (2)  The  Mediterranean,  including  South 
Europe,  Africa  north  of  the  Sahara,  and  the  desert  regions', 
of  South-western  Asia.  (3)  The  Sonoran,  including  the  t 
United  States  of  America  south  of  about  the  45th  parallel  \ 
of  latitude  and  the  plateau  of  Mexico.  (4)  The  Ethiopian,  j 
including  Africa  south  of  the  Sahara,  South  Arabia,  and 
Madagascar.  The  last-mentioned  island  ranks  merely  as  \ 
a  subregion  of  the  Ethiopian.  (5)  The  Oriental,  including  j 
India,  Ceylon,  Burma,  Siam,  and  all  the  Indo-  and  Austro- 
Malayan  Islands  to  Australia,  "  Wallace's  line  "  being 
non-existent  so  far  as  spiders  are  concerned.  (6)  The 
Australian,  including  Australia  and  New  Zealand,  the  latter 
being  worthy  of  recognition  as  a  suBregion.     (7)  The  Neo- 

NO.    1750,  VOL.  68] 


tropical,  including  Central  America,  apart  from  the  Mexican 
plateau,  the  West  Indies  and  South  America.  These 
spiders,  moreover,  furnished  very  strong  evidence  in  favour 
of  a  former  union  between  Africa  and  South  America,  and 
of  a  connection  between  the  Afro-Mascarene  and  Austro- 
Zelandian  continents  on  the  one  hand,  and  Austro-Zelandia 
and  the  southern  extremity  of  South  America  on 
the  other.— Mr.  Woodland  read  a  paper  on  the  phylo- 
genetic  cause  of  the  transposition  of  the  testes  in  mammals. 
--A  communication  from  Mr.  F.  F.  Laidlaw  dealt  with  the 
marine  Turbellaria  collected  during  the  "  Skeat  Expedi- 
tion "  to  the  Malay  Peninsula.  In  it  ten  new  species  were 
described,  three  of  which  were  referred  to  new  genera. 

Manchester. 
Literary  and  Philosophical  Society,  April  21.— Mr 
Charles  Bailey,  president,  in  the  chair.— Mr.  Spencer 
Bickham  read  a  paper  on  caoutchouc,  in  which  he  de- 
scribed the  methods  of  collection  and  preparation  employed 
m  the  different  countries  where  this  product  is  obtained  and 
remarked  upon  the  geographical  distribution  of  the  'trees 
from  which  caoutchouc  is  extracted. 

Paris. 
Academy  of  Sciences,  May  4.-M.  Albert  Gaudry  in  the 
cha.r.-Notice  on  Admiral  Ernest  de  Faulque  de  Jon- 
qui^res,  by  M  E.  Ouyou.-Waves  of  the  second  order  with 
respect  to  their  velocity  in  vitreous  media,  possessine 
viscosity,  and  affected  by  finite  movements,  by  M  P 
Duhem.— On  some  physical  properties  of  trimethy'lcarbinol" 
by  M.  de  Forcrand.  Determinations  of  the  melting  and 
boiling  points,  specific  heat  in  the  solid  and  liquid  states 
heat  of  fusion  and  volatilisation  are  given.— On  glvcuronic 
acid  in  the  blood,  by  MM.  R.  L6pino  and  Boulud.— On 
the  ancient  lines  of  the  Pliocene  and  Quaternary  beaches 
on  the  French  coasts  of  the  Mediterranean,  by  M.  Ch 
Dep^ret.  A  preliminary  study  of  the  changes  of  level  of 
the  Mediterranean  from  the  Pliocene  epoch  up  to  the  present 
time.  Four  distinct  lines  of  beach  can  be  made  out;  the 
early  Pliocene  at  an  elevation  of  170  to  175  metres,'  the 
recent  Pliocene  at  an  elevation  of  60  metres,  'early 
Quaternary  at  an  altitude  of  25  metres,  and  a  later 
Quaternary  at  an  altitude  of  4  to  5  metres.  The  hypothesis 
of  a  simple  series  of  negative  movements  lowering  the  level 
of  the  sea  is  insufficient  to  explain  these  facts.— Remarks 
by  M.  Edmond  Perrier  on  the  sixth  volume  of  his  "  Traits 
de  Zoologie.  "—Secular  perturbations,  by  M.  Jean  Mascart. 
—The  period  of  the  sun-spots  and  the  mean  annual 
temperature  variations  of  the  earth,  by  M.  Charles 
Nordmann.  The  work  of  Koppen  has  shown  that  it  is 
only  in  tropical  stations  that  any  connection  can  be  traced 
between  the  mean  annual  temperature  and  the  sun-spot 
frequency.  A  study  of  the  observations  made  at  twelve 
tropical  stations  shows  that  the  mean  annual  temperature 
undergoes  a  variation  the  period  of  which  is  sensibly  equal 
to  that  of  the  sun-spots.  The  effect  of  the  spots  is  to 
diminish  the  mean  terrestrial  temperature,  that  is  to  say, 
the  curve  which  represents  the  temperature  variations  "is 
parallel  to  the  inverse  curve  of  the  sun-spot  frequency. — On 
the  twilights  observed  at  Bordeaux  during  the  winter  of  1902- 
1903,  by  M.  EsclanKon.  The  hypothesis  of  finely  sus- 
pended dust  being  the  cause  of  the  phenomenon  would  appear 
to  be  insufficient.  It  is  more  probably  due  to  clouds. — 
On  the  r  function  and  its  analogues,  by  M.  A.  Pellet. — 
On  the,  approximation  of  numbers  by  rational  numbers, 
by  M.  Emile  Borel. — On  the  relative  motion 'of  the  work 
and  the  tool  in  cutting  the  section  of  a  mechanism,  by 
M.  G.  Koenigrs. — A  transmission  dynamometer  giving 
directly  the  work  in  kilogrammetres,  by  MM.  GaifTe  and 
GUnther.  An  electrical  contrivance  by  means  of  which  the 
work  can  be  directly  read  off  on  an  ammeter.  The 
apparatus  can  be  easily  arranged  to  be  self-recording. — 
The  theory  of  electric  and  magnetic  dichroism,  by  M. 
Georges  Meslin. — The  repulsion  of  the  anode  light  by  the 
kathode  rays,  by  M.  Salles. — On  metallic  diaphragms,  by 
.M.  Andre  Trochet.  If  a  plate  of  platinum  is  interposed 
between  the  two  electrodes  of  a  copper  voltameter,  when 
the  current  has  attained  a  certain  density,  copper  is  de- 
posited on  the  platinum.  The  dependence  of  this  deposit 
upon  the  current  and  the  shape  of  the  bipolar  electrode  is 
studied      quantitatively. — On      compounds     of     aluminium 


48 


NATURE 


[May  14,  1903 


chloride  possessing  the  function  of  a  ferment,  by  M.  G. 
Oustavson.  A  study  of  the  action  of  the  intermediate 
compounds  formed  in  the  Friedel  and  Crafts  reaction. — On 
the  action  of  phosphorous  acid  on  erythrite,  by  M.  P.  Carr6. 
Phosphorous  acid  acts  towards  erythrite  as  a  less  energetic 
dehydrating  agent  than  phosphoric  acid.  Prolonged  action 
gives  a  neutral  phosphite  of  erythran,  and  this  is  immedi- 
ately decomposed  by  water,  the  acid  ester  being  formed.— 
Contribution  to  the  study  of  organic  acids,  by  MM. 
(Echsner  de  Coninck  and  Raynaud.  An  examination  of 
the  relative  stability  of  the  lower  members  of  the  fatty  acids 
towards  hot  concentrated  sulphuric  acid. — On  the  heat  of 
formation  of  some  barium  compounds,  by  M.  Quntz. 
Starting  with  metallic  barium  containing  about  985  per 
cent,  of  the  metal,  the  thermal  changes  associated  with  its 
solution  in  water  and  dilute  hydrochloric  acid  have  been 
determined,  and  the  heat  of  oxidation  of  barium  deduced. — 
On  the  chlorides  of  chlorocinnamylidene  and  bromocinnamyl- 
idene,  by  MM.  Ernest  Charon  and  Edgar  DuKOujon. 
— The  transformations  of  diphenylcarbonic  esters  and  mono- 
salicylic  esters,  by  M.  R.  Fosse. — On  a  new  diiodophenol, 
by  M.  P.  Brenans.  A  description  of  the  mode  of  prepar- 
ation, properties,  and  chief  derivatives  of  the  diiodophenol 
(OH)  :  I  :  1,1  :  3  :  4. — On  some  new  bases  derived  from  the 
pentoses,  by  M.  E.  Roux.  The  new  bases,  arabinamine 
and  xylamine,  are  prepared  by  the  reduction  of  the  oximes 
of  arabinose  and  xylose. — The  action  of  alkalis  on  glycerol. 
The  application  of  the  reaction  to  the  estimation  of  glycerol, 
by  M.  A.  Buisine.  On  heating  potash  lime  with  glycerol 
three  different  reactions  may  take  place  according  to  the 
temperature.  At  320°  the  products  are  potassium  acetate, 
potassium  carbonate,  water  and  hydrogen,  and  a  method 
suitable  for  the  estimation  of  small  quantities  of  glycerol 
can  be  based  on  the  measurement  of  the  hydrogen. — On  the 
existence  of  arsenic  in  the  e.^%  of  the  fowl,  by  M.  Gab. 
Bertrand.  All  parts  of  the  &^^  were  found  to  contain 
appreciable  amounts  of  arsenic.  These  results  confirm  the 
existence  and  probable  function  of  arsenic  in  all  living  cells. 
— The  influence  of  the  radium  rays  on  fertilised  eggs,  and 
on  the  first  stages  of  development,  by  M.  Georges  Bohn. 
— On  the  formation  of  melanic  pigment  in  the  tumours  of 
the  horse,  by  M.  C.  Gessard.  The  abnormal  production 
of  black  pigment  in  the  healthy  or  morbid  tissues  of  man 
is  rare,  but  is  very  common  in  the  horse.  The  chromogenic 
substance  is  tyrosine,  the  oxidation  of  which  by  tyrosinase 
which  is  present  gives  the  colouring  matter. — The  law  of 
action  of  trypsin  on  gelatin,  by  MM.  Victor  Henry  and 
Larguier  des  Banceis.  The  action  was  followed  by  the 
changes  produced  in  the  electrical  conductivity. — On  the 
increase  in  weight  in  white  mice,  by  Mdlle.  M.  Stephan- 
owska. — On  a'  new  secreting  apparatus  in  the  Coniferae, 
by  M.  G.  Chauveaud. — The  development  and  anatomical 
structure  of  the  seminal  tegument  in  the  Gentianaceae,  by 
M.  Paul  Guerin. — A  respiratory  hygrometer,  by  M.  Pierre 
Lesagre.  A  modified  form  of  dew-point  hygrometer.  It 
has  been  found  that  the  pressure  of  the  water  vapour  in 
expired  air  does  not  correspond  to  the  saturation  pressure, 
and  varies  with  state  of  the  man. — The  germination  of  the 
spores  of  truffles,  the  culture  and  characters  of  the  myce- 
lium, by  M.  Louis  Matruchot. — Oh  the'  echinitic  fauna  of 
the  Gulf  of  Suez,  by  M.  R.  Fourtau. — On  the  closed  basins 
of  the  Swiss  Alps,  by  MM.  Maurice  Lug^eon,  Maurice 
Ricklin,  and  F.  Perriraz. 


UIARY  OF  SOCIETIES. 

THURSDAY,  May  14. 

Royal  Society,  at  4.30— The  Combination  of  Hydrogen  .ind  Chlorine 
under  the  Influence  of  Light  :  P.  V.  Bevan.— On  the  Photo-Electric 
Discharge  from  Metallic  Surfaces  in  Different  Gases  :  Dr.  W. 
Mansergh  Varley.— The  Elasmometer,  a  new  Interferential  Form  of 
Elasticity  Apparatus:  A.  E.  Tutton,  F.R.S.— Meteorological  Obser- 
vations by  the  Use  of  Kites  off  the  West  Coast  of  Scotland,  1002  :  Dr 
W.  N.  Shaw,  F.R  S.,  and  W.  H.  Dines  —On  the  Radiation  of  Helium 
and  Mercury  in  a  Magnetic  Field  :  Prof.  A.  Gray,  F.R.S.,  and  Dr.  W. 
Stewart;  with  R.  A.  Houston  and  D.  B.  McQuistan.— A  New  Class  of 
Organo-Tin  Compounds  containing  Halogens  :  Prof  W.  J.  Pope 
F.R  S.,  and  S.  J.  Peachey.— The  Xanthophyll  Group  of  Yellow  Colour- 
ing Matters  :  C.  A.  Schunck. 

Royal  Institution,  at  5.— Proteid-Digestion  in  Plants  :  Prof.  Sidney  H. 
Vines,  F.R.S 


Mathematical  Society,  at  5.30.— Generational  Relations  Defining  an 
Abstract  Simple  Group  of  Order  32736:  W.  H.  Bussoy.— Points  in 
the  Theory  of  Continuous  Groups  :  Dr.  H.  F.  Baker.— On  Fermat's 
Numbers  :  Lieut. -Col.  Cunningham  and  Messrs   Western  and  Cullen. 

Society  of  Arts,  at  4.30. — The  Province  of  Assam  :  Sir  James  Charles 
Lyall,  K.C.S.I. 

Institution  of  Electrical  Engineers,  at  8. — Applications  of  Elec- 
tricity in  Engineering  and  Shipbuilding  Works:  A.  D.  Williamson. — 
Electric  Driving  in  Machine  Shops  :  A.  B.  Chatwood. 

FRIDAY,  May  15 
Royal  Institution,  at  9  —The  Origin  of  Seed-Bearing  Plants:  D.  H. 
Scott,  F.R.S. 

MONDAY,  May  18. 
Society   of  Arts,    at   8.— Mechanical    Road    Carriages:    W.    Worby 
Beaumont. 

TUBS  DA  K,  May  19. 

Royal  Institution,  at  5.— The  Astronomical  Influence  of  the  Tides: 
Prof.  G.  H.  Darwin,  F.R.S. 

Royal  Statistical  Society,  at  5.— The  Growth  and  Direction  of  our 
Foreign  Trade  in  Coal  during  the  Last  Half  Century  :  D.  A.  Thomas, 
M.P. 

WEDNESDAY,  May  20. 

Chemical  Society,  at  5.30.— Isomeric  Partially  Racemic  Salts  containing 
Quinquevalent  Nitrogen,  Part  xi.  Derivatives  of  ^/AMethylhydrind- 
amine  and  (//-«<^tf-Methylhydrindamine.  Isomeric  Salts  of  the  Type 
NR1R2H3  :  G.  Tattersall  and  F.  S.  Kipping.  — The  Conditions  of  Decom- 
position of  Ammonium  Nitrite:  V.  H.  Veley. — Note'  on  the  Action  of 
Methylamine  on  Chromic  Chloride  :  W.  R.  Lang  and  E.  H.  Jolliffe.— 
The  Action  of  Liquefied  Ammonia  on  Chromium  Chloride  :  W.  R.  Lang 
and  C.  M.  Carson. — Cholesterol.  A  Preliminary  Note  :  R.  H.  Pickard 
and  J.  Yates. 

Royal  Microscopical  Society,  at  8.— Exhibition  of  Pond  Life. 

Royal  Meteorological  Society,  at  4.30.— The  Relation  of  the  Rain- 
fall to  the  Depth  of  Water  in  a  Well :  Charles  P.  Hooker.— 1  he  Frost  of 
April,  1903  :  William  Marriott. 

THURSDAY,  May  21. 

Royal  Institution,  at  5.— Proteid-Digestion  in  Plants:  Prof.  S.  H. 
Yines,  F.R.S. 

FRIDA  Y,  May  22. 

RovAL  Institution,  at  9.-  Dictionaries:  Dr.  J.  A.  H.  Murray. 


PAGE 

•  25 
.     29 

•  29 


31 


NO.    1750,  VOL.  68] 


CONTENTS. 

The  University  and  the  Modern  State.     Ill 

Geology  for  Agricultural  Students 

Applied  Mechanics.     By  R.   G.    B 

Our  Book  Shelf:— 

Armsby  :  "The   Principles  of  Animal  Nutrition,  with 

Special  Reference  to  the  Nutrition  of  Farm  Animals" 

Cooke  and  Dibdin  :  "  Cheimical  Technology."  Vol.  iv. 

— M.   S . 

Goldstein  :  "  Die  empiristische  Geschichtsauflfassung 
David  Humes,  mit  Berticksichtigung  moderner 
methodologischer         und        erkenntnistheoretischer 

Probleme."— G.    S.  B 

Willis:  "Arithmetic."     Parti 

Letters  to   the    Editor  : — 

Action   of    Live   Things  in   Mechanics. — Sir    Oliver 

Lodge,  F.R.S 

The    Glorification    of     Energy.  — Prof.   George    M. 

Minchin,     F.R.S.    ...  31 

Psychophysical  Interaction. — W.  McDougall ;  Sir 
Oliver  Lodge,    F.R.S.;    Prof.    A.M.    Worth- 

ington,  F.R.S 32 

Mendel's  Principles  of  Heredity  in  Mice. — W. 
Bateson,   F.R.S.;   Prof.    W.    F.    R.    Weldon, 

F.R.S 33 

International  Meteorological  Committee 34 

Maori  Art.     {Illustrated.)     By  Prof.    A.    C.    Haddon, 

FRS 35 

The  London  Education  Bill 36 

Notes       38 

Our  Astronomical  Column  :— 

Comet  1903  b 42 

A  Remarkable  Algol  Variable 42 

New  Value  for  the  Solar  Parallax      ...        42 

Instructions  to  Observers  of  the  Sun 43 

Stonyhurst  College  Observatory  Report  for  1902  ...    43 
Opening  of  the  Johnston  Laboratories  for  Medical 
Research  in  the  University  College,  Liverpool      .    43 

The  Iron  and  Steel  Institute  .    .  44 

University  and  Educational  Intelligence 45 

Scientific  Serial 46 

Societies  and  Academies 46 

Diary  of  Societies 48 


NATURE 


49 


THURSDAY,    MAY    21,     1903. 


THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    DISEASE. 
ilie    Prevention    of    Disease.      Translated    from    the 
German.     With   introduction  by   H.    H.    Bulstrode, 

tM.A.,  M.D.  Pp.  xviii+1063.  (Westminster:  A. 
Constable  and  Co.,  Ltd.,  1902.)  Price  31s.  6d.  net. 
^  all  studies  we  are  turning  back  to  remoter  and 
f  remoter  causes,  and  to  the  investigation  of 
feins ;  but,  as  we  abstract  and  abstract,  we  are  apt 
Iget  vaguer  and  vaguer,  more  and  more  are  in- 
vidual  features  merged  in  types,  and  in  medicine  we 
mnv  find  ourselves  reduced  at  last  to  the  emptiness  of 
general  counsels  for  a  temperate  and  wholesome  life. 
Nevertheless,  the  modern  physician  cannot  be  content 
with  the  knowledge  that  the  patients  under  his  care 
are  victims  of  phthisis,  of  Bright's  disease,  of  failing 
heart,  of  premature  senile  decay,  and  so  forth,  without 
a  desire  to  learn  the  nature  and  direction  of  the  pro- 
cesses by  which  such  changes  are  initiated.  As  in  but 
few  instances  he  has  discovered  these  small  beginnings 
he  is  discontented ;  and  it  is  well  that  he  should  be  so. 
Our  ancestors  did  not  fail  to  see  that  diseases  are 
moving  things,  so  active  that  some  demon  or  evil 
principle  might  be  behind  them;  but  this  conception 
of  activity,  effective  enough  for  instant  purposes,  con- 
tained no  adequate  notion  of  remote  or  latent  causes. 
Some  such  notions  may  be  traced  in  the  ancient 
doctrines  of  the  temperaments  or  diatheses,  but 
were  speculative  and  comparatively  barren.  Initial 
causes  were,  as  we  should  expect,  first  observed  and 
revealed  in  the  infections,  when  a  definite  external 
pathogenic  factor  enters  into  a  healthy  or  apparently 
healthv  person  ;  but  even  such  events  would  seem  to  be 
very  inconstant  in  their  occurrence.  Of  two  men  ex- 
posed to  such  an  attack,  one  would  betray  no  sign  of 
suffering,  while  the  other  would  fall  111 ;  an  inconstancy 
indicating  that  the  causation  of  an  individual  case 
of  infection  consists  of  far  more  than  the  intrusive 
element  itself,  which  in  some  cases  Impinges  upon  a 
•series  of  cooperating,  in  others  of  antagonistic  causes. 
And  if  the  patient  succumbs,  the  outbreak  of  disorder 
is  not  immediate ;  a  variable  but  specific  interval 
elapses  before  its  first  manifestations.  Now  If  from 
the  recognised  infections  we  turn  to  other  dis- 
eases, we  try  to  discover  if  some  of  these  also 
arise  from  incidental  agencies  of  a  more  occult  kind, 
but  having  also  their  latent  periods  and  gradual 
initiations.  Others,  again,  may  not  be  attributable  to 
«  xternal  elements,  scarcely  even  as  secondary  and 
irceleratlng  causes;  but  arise  as  later  terms  of  pro- 
cesses Implicit  in  the  organism  itself,  perhaps  even 
from  the  embryo. 

Now  the  more  definite  and  prevalent  the  outer  causes, 
(s  in  the  more  notable  Infectious  diseases,  the  better 
is  our  position,  if  we  can  discover  the  laws  of  them, 
to  take  preventive  and  defensive  measures  on  an  ex- 
tensive'scale,  and  to  entrust  them  to  public  physicians 
acting  on  behalf  of  Individuals  only  as  members  of  a 
community.  On  the  other  hand,  the  more  a  disease 
NO.   175 1,  VOL.  68] 


is  the  outcome  of  individual  and  peculiar  proclivities, 
the  less  are  such  public  and  universal  precautions  avail- 
able against  it.  Public  health  may  be  secured  by  uni- 
versal rules  and  enterprises,  but  the  health  of  in- 
dividuals, so  far  as  it  involves  a  study  of  the  constitu- 
tion  of  each  one  of  them,  must  be  a  matter  of  private 
practice ;  though  diseases  such  as  phthisis,  which  arise 
from  a  cooperation  of  general  and  personal  factors, 
need  for  their  prevention  a  combination  of  public  and 
private  means. 

In  respect  of  epidemic  infections,  which  can  be 
studied  on  public  lines,  and  have  more  definite  causes 
and  periods,  much  has  been  done  in  the  way  of  pre- 
vention since  the  time  of  those  first  medical  officers  of 
health,  the  fetlshman  or  voodoo ;  but,  as  Dr.  Bulstrode 
says  in  his  able  preface  to  the  volume  before  us,  simi- 
lar investigation  of  remote  and  initial  causes,  and  the 
preventions  to  be  based  upon  them  when  detected,  have 
made  but  little  way  as  yet  in  constitutional  diseases. 
Indeed,  Dr.  Bulstrode  goes  so  far  as  to  suggest,  justly 
as  we  think,  that  one  of  the  uses  of  this  book  on  the 
prevention  of  disease  in  its  broader  and  yet  more  inti- 
mate sense,  will  be  to  force  upon  the  notice  of 
physicians  that,  meritorious  as  it  is  to  stem  the  tide 
of  established  maladies,  this  function  would  be  less  and 
less  in  demand  if  our  Insight  Into  and  means  of  de- 
tection of  their  Incipient  terms  were  more  largely  de- 
veloped. It  is  the  chief  merit  of  the  work  before  us 
that,  perhaps  for  the  first  time,  our  conception  of  pre- 
ventive medicine  is  carried  in  a  formal  and  imposing 
way  beyond  the  sphere  of  the  infections ;  and  the  first 
comprehensive  attempt  Is  made  to  apply  preventive 
principles  to  the  initial  phases  of  all  diseases. 

The  dangers  of  such  an  enterprise  are  obvious ;  when 
we  leave  conspicuous  and  specific  phases  of  change, 
and  seek  for  the  more  abstract  and  universal  springs 
of  disordered  health,  we  run  the  risk  of  losing  not  only 
colour  and  vivacity,  but  grip  and  precision  also.  As 
we  empty  our  conceptions  of  individual  characters,  we 
may  lapse  into  platitude.  In  the  construction  then 
of  a  pioneer  work  on  these  broad  lines,  and  on 
these  remoter  and  vaguer  conditions  of  disease,  especial 
care  should  be  taken  to  avoid  such  triviality,  and  to 
convince  the  reader  that  in  tracing  rivers  to  their 
sources  the  explorers  have  not  lost  themselves  in  a 
multitude  of  shallow  rills  and  in  a  confusion  of  forests 
and  watersheds.  In  this  somewhat  uncomely,  and, 
seeing  that  illustrations  were  not  needed,  expensive 
volume,  we  think  that  the  dangers  we  have  indicated 
have  not  been  avoided  altogether.  In  a  cooperative 
work  we  expect  to  find  writers  of  very  wide  differences 
of  merit;  some  good,  some  middling,  some  really 
trivial :  but  the  jealous  regard  for  precision  and  touch 
with  nature  which,  as  we  have  seen,  should  be  the  note 
of  such  a  work,  and  the  antidote  to  its  sum- 
mary methods,  has  not  always  been  enforced  by  the 
editors.  The  introductory  article  on  the  history 
of  the  prevention  of  disease  among  the  Hindoos, 
Chinese,  Israelites,  &c.,  was  scarcely  worth  doing  on 
so  small  a  scale,  and  is  certainly  slight  enough  :  it 
contains  some  interesting  points;  but  others  are  not 
thought  out,  many  statements  are  loose,  and  not  a  few 


50 


NATURE 


[May  2  1,  1903 


positively  erroneous.  We  find,  for  example,  the 
amazing-  statement  that  the  speculum  vaginae  was  un- 
known until  a  hundred  years  ago ;  yet  of  medical 
historians  who  could  forget,  at  least,  the  locus 
classicus  in  Paul  of  Egina  concerning  this  instrument 
in  its  valve  and  screw  form,  and  the  instructions  for 
its  use?  In  the  same  article  we  have  dubious  quotations 
from  such  still  more  dubious  authors  as  "  Tralus  "  {sic 
in  text  and  index ;  for  Alexander  of  Tralles  ?)  and  "  Calo- 
mella  "  (a  version  redolent  of  the  shop  !),  slips  which  do 
not  reinforce  our  confidence  in  the  author's  general 
accuracy.  If  the  editors  are  to  blame  for  some  of  these 
oversights,  they  are  surely  still  more  to  blame  for  pass- 
ing sentences  either  so  ignorant  or  so  unfair  as  this  : — 

"  It  has  been  shown,  by  Koch  and  others,  that 
malaria  is  conveyed  largely,  if  not  entirely,  through 
the  instrumentality  of  certain  mosquitoes." 

"  Koch  and  others  "  is  good.  "  Surmise,"  again,  is 
far  too  feeble  a  word  to  indicate  the  epoch-making 
theory  and  practice  of  Semmelweiss  in  puerperal 
fever.  The  next  article,  by  one  Martins  of  Rostock — so 
he  is  called  in  the  contents,  index,  and  in  all  cross  refer- 
ences— is  a  far  abler  one.  We  are  disposed  to  attribute 
it  to  Prof.  Martins.  That  we  ourselves,  and  we  are 
glad  to  observe  Dr.  Bulstrode  also,  diff'er  profoundly 
from  him  in  some  important  respects  is  not,  of  course, 
to  be  pressed  to  his  disadvantage. 

It  would  be  impossible  for  us,  even  within  limits 
far  wider  than  the  present,  to  discuss  each  of  the  many 
articles  in  turn,  or,  indeed,  within  the  limits  of  leisure 
and  patience,  to  read  them  all  critically.  For  the  most 
part  the  bread  is  too  deeply  drowned  in  sack.  In 
many  chapters  there  is  little  but  some  character  of 
attenuation  to  distinguish  the  contents  from  the  thera- 
peutical sections  of  current  text-books ;  while  there  is 
much  to  remind  us  of  the  lip  medicine  of  the  student, 
with  his  common  formulas,  such  as  that  "  the  patient 
is  to  be  put  upon  a  light  and  nutritious  diet,"  &c. 
In  turning  to  the  Index  for  fresh  light  upon  the  initial 
causes  of  particular  maladies,  we  find  too  often 
nothing,  as  in  the  case  of  gall-stones,  pernicious 
anaemia,  acute  rheumatism,'  scurvy  and  certain  other 
maladies  in  which  new  knowledge  seems  to  promise  to 
be  of  high  preventive  value ;  or  we  find  such  vapid 
paragraphs  as  are  given  to  arterial  diseases,  senile 
decay,  dilatation  of  the  stomach,  &c.  ;  or,  again,  equi- 
vocal names,  such  as  "  anaemia  "  undistinguished  from 
chlorosis  and  other  particular  kinds  of  impoverished 
blood.  Thus  too  often  general  views  are  attained  only 
by  slurring  over  essential  differences.  We  have  sought 
in  vain,  moreover,  for  recent  observations  on  the  geo- 
graphical distribution  of  cancer ;  and  for  the  significant 
fact  of  the  prevalence  of  primary  cancerous  growths 
upon  the  surfaces  of  the  body. 

We  are  sorry  we  cannot  speak  with  more  apprecia- 
tion of  this  important  book ;  but  we  feel,  as  Dr.  Wlnd- 
scheld,  of  Leipzig — the  able  author  of  the  chapter  on 
the   prevention    of   diseases   of   the    nervous    system — 

i  For  the  recent  views  of  the  causation  of  rheunatism  we  searched  the 
index  and  found  a  reference  to  p.  112,  but  failed  there  to  find  any  such 
discussion.     There  are  many  errors  in  the  index. 


NO. 


1 75 1,  VOL.  68 J 


evidently  does,  that  it  is  difficult  to  avoid  falling,  a- 
some  of  his  collaborators  certainly  have  done,  betwet  i 
the  stool  of  specific  detail  and  that  of  general  gossljj. 
However,  that  a  work  with  such  aims  should  appear 
at  all  Is  satisfactory ;  we  could  scarcely  expect  the  first 
attempt  to  be  one  of  full  achievement.  The  transla- 
tions, if  slipshod  at  times,  are,  as  the  editors  claim  for 
them,  readable  English  enough;  but  the  editors  have 
failed  too  frequently,  whether  in  the  text  or  by  means 
of  notes,  to  modify  facts  and  opinions,  as,  for  Instance, 
in  respect  of  the  diet  of  the  working  classes,  hours  of 
labour,  the  management  of  schools  and  so  forth,  which, 
however  true  of  German  societies,  are  inapplicable  to 
English  conditions.  T.  C.  A. 


ZOOLOGY   FOR    ARTISTS. 
Anatomic    artistique   des   Animaux.      _Bv    Ed.    Cuyer. 
Pp.  xiI  +  300;  143  figs.     (Paris  :  J.-B.  Bailllere  et  fils, 
1903.)     Price  7.50  francs. 

DOZENS  of  treatises  on  the  anatomy  of  the  human 
body  have  been  written  for  the  use  of  artists,  but 
this  is  the  first  systematic  attempt  to  place  a  know- 
ledge of  the  structure  of  the  more  common  mammals 
at  their  disposal.  During  the  last  ten  years,  M.  fidouard 
Cuyer,  who  is  a  lecturer  on  anatomy  at  I'ficole 
natlonale  des  Beaux-Arts,  has  been  in  the  habit  of 
adding  to  his  ordinary  lectures  on  the  structure  of  the 
human  body  a  number  dealing  with  the  anatomy  of 
the  mammals  more  commonly  drawn  by  artists.  The 
preparation  of  these  lectures  entailed  much  research, 
and  hence  this  work,  which  is  based  on  the  lectures, 
not  only  treats  comparative  anatomy  from  a  new  point 
of  view,  but  also  contains  a  number  of  original  observa- 
tions. In  this  country  M.  Cuyer  is  best  known  as 
an  illustrator  of  anatomical  subjects ;  in  this  rdle  he 
stands  unrivalled,  and  the  drawings  which  he  has  sup- 
plied for  the  work  under  review  are  the  most  accurate 
representations  to  be  found  in  any  work  dealing  with 
the  anatomy  of  mammals. 

No  question  has  been  more  debated  than  the  value 
of  anatomy  as  an  aid  to  art.  Ruskin's  dictum  was 
that  an  artist  should  paint  what  he  could  see,  not  what 
he  knew  he  ought  to  see ;  he  even  went  further,  and 
held  that  art  was  debased  by  a  knowledge  of  anatomy. 
However  that  may  be,  one  might  have  seen,  a  few 
years  ago,  Onslow  Ford,  Briton  Riviere,  and  J.  M. 
Swan,  three  of  the  most  truthful  and  successful  animal 
modellers  and  painters  this  generation  has  produced, 
dissecting  and  drawing,  hour  after  hour,  in  the  prosec- 
torium in  the  Zoological  Gardens  at  Regent's  Park. 
M.  Cuyer  cites  the  great  animal  painter  Barye  as  an 
example  of  an  artist  whose  work  has  gained  In  force 
and  precision  by  his  accurate  knowledge  of  anatomy. 
Anyone  familiar  with  either  the  work  of  Barye  or 
Swan  will  recognise  that  they  are  real  zoologists  who 
epitomise  In  their  modellings  and  drawirigs  the  living 
and  essential  nature  of  the  animals  portrayed. 

M.  Cuyer  presumes  that  the  student  is  already 
familiar  with  the  structure  of  the  human  body,  which 
Is  made  the  basis  for  a  comparative  study  of  anatomy. 


1903] 


AVI  TURE 


51 


Ffirst  sight  the  human  body  may  appear  too  liii^hly 
:iaHsed  to  serve  as  an  efficient  type  for  cxjinpwrison, 
in  reality  this  is  not  so.     The  fact  that  the  ordinary 
imal  presents  a   side  view   to   tlic   arli>l    w  liile   the 
lan  body  is  usualK-  >^tudied  from  the  front  is  merely 
of  detail.     'i"h«    diii  f  points  in  which  the  human 
ordinary   iiianiinaliaii    bodies   differ  relate   to   the 
^d  and  limbs,  and  the  limbs  of  man  are  more  jjrimi- 
in  structure,  less  specialised  and  evolved  than  tlio-^r 
f'the  ordinarv   domcstie   aiiiiiial>.     The   cvoluiioii    of 
quadrupedal   linib^   ionii>   an    "mt(i-c->tini4    siutl\    in 
fh   specialisation   of   one   or    more   digits    and    relro- 
5sion  in  others,  and  it  is  from  this  standpoint  that 
LCuyer  deals  with  the  anatomy  of  the  extremities  of 
[domestic  animals.     Throuj^h  the  limbs  of  the  cat, 
pig,  ox  and  horse  he  traces   the  gradual  retro- 
Ssion    of   the    clavicle,    muscles   of    supination    and 
lation,    ulna,    and   lateral   digits,    and   shows   how 
modifications  are  due  to  the  specialisation  of  the 
>s  as  organs  of  pure  support  instead  of  mixed  in- 
iments  for  prehension  as  well  as  support.     His  dis- 
covery of  a  vestige  of  the  pronator  radii  teres  in  the 
horse  is  of  great  interest ;  how  many  millions  of  years 
it  since  the  ancestor  of  the  horse  required  to  supinate 
pronate  its  arm  ? 

In  the  hands  of  the  artist  the  whole  perspective  of 
anatomy  becomes  changed,  and  it  would  be  for  the 
hinefit  of  our  text-books  if  the  pure  zoologist  some- 
times looked  at  his  work  with  the  eye  of  an  artist. 
M.  Cuyer  recognises  the  fact  that  an  observation  on 
the  dead  animal  remains  dead  until  it  is  transferred  to 
the  living,  and  the  great  merit  of  his  work  is  that  he 
lays  a  greater  emphasis  on  the  actions  than  on  the  at- 
tachments of  muscles.  External  form,  expression,  and 
action  are  the  points  which  an  artist  seeks  to  under- 
stand ;  hence  the  systems  of  the  body  dealt  with  here 
are  the  skeleton,  muscles,  proportion,  and  move- 
ments. Everyone  must  have  noticed  the  marked  dif- 
ference in  form  between  the  haunches  of  an  ox  and  of 
a  horse,  yet  it  is  doubtful  if  any  of  our  modern  compara- 
tive anatomists  could  indicate  the  meaning  of  these 
structural  differences. 

Marey's  work  forms  the  basis  of  the  chapters  in 
which  are  described  the  various  characteristic  move- 
ments of  the  horse.  In  dealing  with  the  proportions  of 
the  ideal  horse  M.  Cuyer  holds  the  common-sense 
opinion  that  there  is  no  absolute  standard  such  as  that 
suggested  by  Bourgelat,  who  held  that  the  length  of 
the  body  from  the  shoulder  to  the  rump  should  measure 
the  same  as  the  height  at  the  withers.  The  observa- 
tions of  Colonel  Duhousset  on  fifty  Arabian  horses  are 
quoted ;  in  ten  of  these  the  length  and  height  were 
equal ;  in  twenty-six  the  height  was  decidedly  the 
greater  measurement ;  in  fourteen  the  length  was  the 
greater. 

M.  Cuyer,  as  is  the  habit  with  many  French  scientific 
writers,  quotes  no  author  outside  the  limits  of  his 
country.  On  p.  33,  for  instance,  he  refers  to  an 
observation  by  Marey,  made  in  1890,  that  there  is  no 
( (jrrelation  between  the  power  of  flight  and  the  develop- 
ment of  air  cells  in  birds.  This  matter  was  fully 
studied  and  accurately  described  in  the  well-known 
work  of  John  Hunter  a  century  before  Marey  was  bom. 
NO.    1 75  I,   VOL.  68] 


HINDU  CHEMISTRY. 
A  History  of  Hindu  Chemistry  from  the  Earliest  Times 
to  the  Middle  of  the  Sixteenth  Century  a.d.,  with 
Sanskrit  Texts,  Variants,  Translation  and  Illustra- 
tions. By  Prafulla  Chandra  Ray,  D.Sc,  Pro- 
fessor of  Chemistry,  Presidency  College,  Calcutta. 
Vol.  i.  P]).  Ix\i\+ 17(1  +  41.  (London  and  Oxford: 
Williams  and  Norgatc,  1902.)  Price  12s.  6d.  net. 
n[^HE  origin  of  Hindu  chemistry  is  hidden  in  the 
i-  cbscurity  of  past  ages.  It  is  certain  that  the 
alchemists  of  western  Europe  Owed  much  of  their 
learning  to  the  Arabs.  M.  Berthelot,  in  "  Les  Origines 
de  PAlchemie."  has  shown  that  the  Arabs  derived  many 
of  their  ideas  from  the  Greeks,  but  Dr.  Ray  quotes 
other  weighty  opinions,  and  furnishes  additional 
evidence  in  support  of  the  view  that  the  Arabs  were 
even  more  indebted  to  the  Hindus.  In  the  eighth 
centurv  the  Caliphs  of  Bagdad  ordered  several  of  the 
medical  works  of  India  to  be  translated,  and  both  then 
and  later  learned  Arabs  were  sent  to  India  to  study 
science.  Not  content  with  pointing  out  these  facts. 
Dr.  Ray  reminds  his  readers  that  the  Greeks  them- 
selves derived  their  knowledge  of  many  things  from  the 
Hindus,  who  had,  for  example,  solved  the  47th  pro- 
position of  the  first  book  of  Euclid,  200  years  before 
the  birth  of  Pythagoras.  Relying  on  this  and  similar 
evidence,  Dr.  Ray  places  the  date  of  the  works  of 
Vaghbata  at  some  time  before  the  eighth  century  a.d., 
and  the  surgical  and  medical  treatises  of  Susruta  and 
Charaka  many  centuries  earlier,  in  pre-Buddha  times. 
The  last-named  book,  however,  "  embodies  the  de- 
liberations of  an  international  congress  of  medical  ex- 
perts, held  in  the  Himalayan  regions,"  and  the  fourth 
veda,  the  Atharva-veda,  appears  so  archaic  by  its  side 
that  it  must  be  older  by  "  probably  a  thousand  years 
or  more."  In  the  Atharva-veda  "plants  and  vege- 
table products  in  general  are  fully  recognised  as  helpful 
agents  in  the  treatment  of  diseases,"  and  at  that  period 
(say  2000  B.C.)  alchemical  notions  had  already 
gathered  round  gold  and  lead,  gold  being  regarded 
as  the  elixir  of  life,  and  lead  as  the  dispeller  of  sorcery. 
The  progress  of  chemistry  in  India,  if  it  were  judged 
only  from  the  manuscripts  still  in  existence,  would 
appear  to  have  been  bound  up  with  the  study  of  medi- 
cine. Preparations  of  mercurj'  and  other  metals  were 
described,  and  their  use  recommended  in  various  dis- 
eases, several  centuries  before  the  time  of  Paracelsus, 
the  internal  use  of  the  black  sulphide  of  mercury  dating 
from  the  tenth  century  A.D.  at  the  latest.  There  are, 
however,  many  signs  that  the  study  of  metals  had 
already  progressed  far  beyond  the  knowledge  required 
by  the  medical  practitioners. 

Thus  in  "  Rasarnava  "  (twelfth  century)  we  read 
"  copper  yields  a  blue  flame  .  .  .  that  of  the  tin  is 
pigeon-coloured;  that  of  the  lead  is  pale  tinted,"  and 
as  another  example  : — 

"  A  pure  metal  is  that  which,  when  melted  in  a 
crucible,  does  not  give  olT  sparks  nor  bubbles,  nor 
spurts,  nor  emits  any  sound,  nor  shows  any  lines  on 
the  surface,  but  is  tranquil  as  a  gem." 

Then  tin n  is  the  Kiitah  pillar  near  Delhi,  a  wrought- 
iron  column  whicii  weighs  ten  tons,  and  is  some  1500 


52 


NATURE 


[May 


L903 


years  old,  the  huge  iron  girders  at  Puri,  the  iron- 
roofed  temple  porch  at  Kanurac,  and  other  relics  which 
show  the  ancient  familiarity  of  the  Hindus  with  this 
metal.  In  the  fourteenth  century  brass  and  bell-metal 
were  stated  to  be  alloys,  and  zinc,  copper  and  tin  to  be 
metals.  The  manufacture  of  gold  jewellery  is  also  of 
great  antiquity  in  India. 

Dr.  Ray  has  ably  carried  out  his  task  of  proving 
that  the  ancient  lore  of  the  Hindus  was  far  in  advance 
of  that  of  the  rest  of  the  world,  China  excepted.  The 
reader  who  is  unversed  in  Sanskrit  may  perhaps  be 
pardoned  if  he  sometimes  loses  himself  for  a  moment 
in  the  maze  of  Hindu  names,  and  it  will  be  well  if  his 
*'  discerning  faculty  is  nimble  and  agile,  and  can 
suddenly  surround  a  proposition."  A  glossary  would 
be  useful,  but  could  scarcely  add  to  the  interest  of  the 
volume.  The  second  volume,  promised  when  Dr.  Ray 
has  examined  further  manuscripts,  will  be  welcome. 

T.  K.  R. 


OVR    BOOK    SHELF. 

The  Soil :  an  Introduction  to  the  Scientific  Study  of 
the  Growth  of  Crops.  By  A.  D.  Hall,  M.A.  Pp. 
xiii  +  286.  (London  :  J.  Murray,  1903.)  Price 
35.  6d. 

When  one  who  has  been  for  many  years  both  a  teacher 
and  an  investigator  commits  to  paper  the  facts  and 
Ideas  which  have  formed  the  substance  of  his  later 
courses  of  instruction,  we  expect  a  very  useful  book, 
and  in  the  present  Instance  we  are  certainly  not  dis- 
appointed. The  book  before  us  takes  a  wide  scope ; 
it  deals  with  the  origin  of  soils,  their  physical  proper- 
ties, their  chemical  properties  and  composition, 
methods  of  analysis,  the  living  organisms  within  the 
soil,  the  causes  of  fertility  and  sterility,  soil  types  and 
the  natural  flora  belonging  to  each.  The  book  is 
primarily  Intended  for  college  students.  Owing  to  its 
wide  scope  It  does  not  attempt  to  treat  any  part  of  the 
subject  In  an  exhaustive  manner ;  It  possesses,  how- 
ever, the  great  merits  of  originality  and  suggestlve- 
ness,  virtues  which  are  not  always  to  be  found  in  the 
formal  text-book.  A  prominent  feature  of  the  work 
is  the  introduction  of  the  results  of  investigations 
carried  on  by  the  author  while  principal  of  the  Agri- 
cultural College  at  Wye.  English  books  on  scientific 
agriculture  have  hitherto  been  so  necessarily  filled  with 
descriptions  of  foreign  researches  that  any  results 
obtained  under  English  conditions  have  an  exceptional 
value,  and  appeal  to  the  farmer  in  a  special  manner. 

In  a  work  dealing  with  so  many  subjects,  there  are 
naturally  some  points  open  to  criticism.  The  author 
seems  to  hesitate  in  attributing  some  of  the  physical 
properties  of  soil  constituents  to  their  colloid  nature, 
and  thus  leaves  unexplained  the  enormous  amount  of 
hygroscopic  water  held  by  humic  matter.  The  indigo 
method  of  determining  nitrates  is  mentioned  as  one 
that  may  be  used  for  determining  nitrates  in  soil  ex- 
tracts; the  method  is,  in  fact,  unsuitable  for  this  pur- 
pose, as  it  gives  results  much  below  the  truth  owing 
to  the  presence  of  organic  matter.  Nitrification  is 
occasionally  spoken  of  as  a  kind  of  "  fermentation  "; 
objection  may  surely  be  taken  to  this  description. 
Fermentation  is  a  word  of  wide  meaning,  but  it  surely 
should  not  include  the  oxidation  of  inorganic  matter 
by  a  living  organism.  The  chapter  dealing  with  the 
power  of  soils  to  retain  various  bases  and  acids  is  full 
of  interest,  yet  the  theory  is  incompletely  stated,  the 
results   of   the   German,    French,    and   some   English 

NO.    1 75  I,  VOL.  68] 


investigations  on  the  subject  being  unnoticed.  TIk 
laws  governing  the  diffusion  of  salts,  and  the  results 
of  their  molecular  diffusion  in  a  moist  soil,  are  also 
not  noticed.  The  cause  of  the  sterility  of  alkali  lands, 
and  their  proper  treatment,  are,  however,  well  dis- 
cussed, and  many  excellent  illustrations  of  the  sub- 
ject are  introduced  from  the  experience  gained  in 
Egypt. 

In  a  book  dealing  with  many  details  some  slips  will 
Inevitably  occur;  the  most  important  one  In  the  present 
case  is  that  King's  determinations  of  nitrates  in  fallow- 
soil  appear  as  cTetermlnations  of  nitrogen  as  nitrates ; 
the  quantity  of  nitrates  present  is  thus  unintentionally 
much  exaggerated. 

The  concluding  chapters  on  fertility  and  soil  typ< 
exhibit  most  fully  the   thoroughly  practical  characti  > 
of  the  author's  teaching,  and  will  be  much  valued  b> 
many   readers.       The   book    is    sure    to   meet   with   a 
favourable  reception.  R.  W. 

Electrical  Problems  for  Engineering  Students.  By 
W.  L.  Hooper,  Ph.D.,  and  R.  T.  Wells,  M.S.  Pp. 
v+  170.  (Boston  and  London  :  Ginn  and  Co.,  1902.) 
Price  6^. 

This  is  a  collection  of  numerical  and  mathematical 
exercises  In  electrical  engineering,  starting  from  the 
most  elementary  beginning  and  ending  in  the  more 
difificult  problems  presented  by  the  design  and  working 
of  direct  and  alternating  current  dynamos  and  motors. 
The  exercises  have  been  tested  by  the  practical  experi- 
ence of  the  authors  at  Tuft's  College,  Mass.,  and  are 
such  as  would  form  a  useful  accompaniment  to  a  two 
or  three  years'  lecture  and  practical  course.  A  dis- 
tinctly good  feature  of  the  book  Is  the  number  of  ex- 
amples requiring  graphical  solutions,  which  cannot 
fail  to  impress  upon  the  student  the  advantages  gained 
by  plotting  curves.  It  is  always  an  objection  to 
exercises  of  this  sort  that  they  tend  too  much  to  the 
purely  arithmetical  and  academic  side  of  the  subject; 
thus,  many  of  the  problems  on  subjects  which  are 
treated  only  in  an  elementary  manner  in  this  book  are 
little  better  than  arithmetic  sums.  For  example,  In 
the  twelfth  chapter,  on  electrochemistry,  there  are 
eleven  problems,  which  are  all  practically  simple  pro- 
portion sums,  and  we  doubt  if  the  student  would  gain 
much  more  by  solving  them  than  he  would  by  solving 
an  equal  number  of  problems  on,  say,  the  number  of 
able-bodied  men  and  boys  required  to  till  a  field.  But, 
If  the  book  be  used  with  discretion,  these  drawbacks 
will  be  lessened,  and  provided  the  student  Is  taught  In 
other  ways  to  think  about  and  really  understand  his 
subject,  these  exercises  will  serve  to  give  him  a  facility 
In  attacking  numerical  problems  as  they  arise.  The 
book  should  prove  a  useful  aid  to  students  and  teachers 
of  electrical  engineering.  M.  S. 

Open-Air  Studies  in  Bird  Life;  Sketches  of  British 
Birds  in  their  Haunts.  By  C.  Dixon.  Pp.  xii  +  280; 
illustrated.  (London  :  GrifTin  and  Co.,  Ltd.,  1903.) 
Price  75.  6d. 
Mr.  Dixon  appears  to  consider  that  the  appetite  of 
the  British  public  for  books  on  the  birds  of  their 
own  Islands  Is  insatiable,  and  as  he  seems  to  find 
a  publisher  for  all  his  works  on  this  subject,  he  is 
perhaps  justified  in  this  opinion.  In  the  present  In- 
stance the  subject  is  treated  from  a  standpoint  some- 
what different  from  the  one  usually  adopted,  the  birds 
being  described  in  connection  with  their  environment 
or  "station,"  instead  of  systematically.  Although 
this  mode  of  treatment  necessarily  involves  a  certain 
amount  of  repetition  (as  in  the  case  of  the  sparrow 
and  the  lapwing),  it  permits  the  descriptive  side  of  the 
subject  to  be  relegated  somewhat  to  the  background, 


May  21,  1903] 


NA  TURE 


53 


and  greater  prominence  given  to  habits.  So  far,  how- 
ever, as  we  can  see,  the  author  appears  to  have  re- 
corded little  or  nothing  new  in  regard  to  the  latter,- 
and  we  venture  to  think  that  he  has  missed  an  oppor- 
tunity of  giving  fuller  detail  as  to  adaptation  to  en- 
vironment, especially  as  regards  coloration.  Neither 
is  he  to  be  congratulated  as  regards  his  style  in  many 
parts  of  the  work,  as  witness  the  following  sentences 
in  the  description  of  the  bearded  tit  (p.  184)  :— "  The 
family  characters  are  the  same  as  the  generic  ones. 
It  is  found  in  various  parts  of  Europe  and  Asia."  It 
may  be  also  pointed  out  that  "  Obb  "  (p.  261)  is  not 
the  name  of  a  well-known  Siberian  river.  Again,  the 
introduction  of  the  word  "  Raptores  "  in  connection 
with  a  cut  on  p.  84  is  unnecessary  and  puzzling,  when 
it  is  not,  so  far  as  we  can  see,  used  in  the  text.  And 
this  reminds  us  that  a  glossary  of  eight  items  seems 
strangely  inadequate  in  a  work  where  a  considerable 
number  of  technical  terms  are  necessarily  employed, 
for  we  quite  fail  to  see  why  it  is  necessary  to  explain 
the  meaning  of  "  aftershaft  '  and  leave  the  reader  to 
find  out  the  signification  of  "  primary." 

As  regards  the  illustrations,  we  have  nothing  but 
( i.nimendation  to  bestow,  the  full-page  plates  by  Mr. 
W  hymper — and  especially  the  one  of  kingfishers — 
being  exquisite  delineations  of  bird-life.  We  notice, 
however,  that  the  small  text-figures  of  birds'  heads  are 
for  the  most  part  the  well-known  cuts  of  Swainson, 
which  were  used  with  full  acknowledgment  by  Prof. 
Newton  in  his  "  Dictionary  of  Birds."  Why,  we  may 
ask,  has  the  author  thought  fit  to  depart  from  this, 
excellent  practice,  and  to  publish  the  cuts  in  question 
as  though  they  were  original  ?  R.  L.     ; 

Thf  Bermuda  Islands.  By  A.  E.  Verrill,  Yale 
L'niversity.  (Published  by  the  Author,  New  Haven, 
("onn.,  U.S.A.,  1902.) 
1  \  this  book,  reprinted  from  the  Transactions  of  the 
C  onnecticut  Academy  of  Sciences,  Prof.  Verrill  gives 
an  account  of  the  Bermuda  group  which  is  intended 
to  subserve  four  distinct  purposes ;  first,  that  of  a 
general  guide-book  on  the  history,  structure,  and  pro- 
ductions of  the  islands,  for  the  use  of  visitors ;  second, 
Q-  an  introductory  text-book  to  the  study  of  the  natural 
history  of  the  archipelago ;  third,  of  a  record  of  the 
more  important  changes  in  the  flora  and  fauna  already 
caused  by  man ;  and,  lastly,  that  of  a  general  intro- 
duction to  a  series  of  more  technical  memoirs,  by  the 
author  and  other  naturalists,  on  the  natural  history  and 
geology  of  the  islands,  now  in  course  of  publica-i 
tion.  The  present  volume  includes  a  general  descrip-' 
tion  of  the  islands,  an  account  of  their  physical  geo- 
graphy and  meteorology,  a  sketch  of  their  discovery  and 
early  history,  and  an  account  of  the  animals  and  plants 
introduced  or  exterminated  since  their  discovery  by 
the  Spaniards  about  1510.  The  last  part  of  Prof.  Verrill's 
work  is  of  special  value,  for,  so  far  as  appears,  no 
huinan  being  had  set  foot  on  the  islands  before  that 
date.  Accounts  of  the  geology  and  marine  zoology 
of  the  group  are  promised  in  a  later  volume.  The 
l)(H)k  is  illustrated  by  thirty-eight  excellent  plates,  and 
a  large  number  of  cuts,  and  a  valuable  bibliography 
is  appended. 

/.a  Pratique  des  Fermentations  industrielles.  By  E. 
Ozard.  Pp.  168.  (Paris  :  Gauthier-Villars,  n.d.) 
Price  2.50  francs. 

This  book  is  intended  specially  for  the  use  of  brewing 
(  hcinists.  The  author  gives  the  essential  principles 
underlying  the  various  fermentation  processes,  which 
allow  of  the  transition  of  sugars  and  starches  into 
alcoholic  products,  and  also  broadly  indicates  how 
those  processes  are  carried  out  in  practice. 

NO.   1 75  I,  VOL.  68] 


LETTERS    TO    THE    EDITOR. 

[The  Editor  docs  not  hold  himself  responsible  for  opinions 
expressed  by  his  correspondents.  Neither  can  he  undertake 
to  return,  or  to  correspond  with  the  writers  of,  rejected 
manuscripts  intended  for  this  or  any  other  part  of  Nature. 
No  notice  is  taken  of  anonymous  communications.] 

Psychophysical  Interaction. 

A  BRIEF  note  to  remove  a  possible  misunderstanding  sug- 
gested by  Prof.  Minchin.  He  seems  to  think,  or  to  imagine 
that  others  will  think,  that  when  speaking  of  the  action  of 
mind  on  matter  I  conceive  of  mind  as  a  thing  that  can 
sustain  a  "reaction";  so  that  a  stress  might  exist  with 
matter  at  one  end  and  mind  at  the  other.  Such  an  absurdity 
would  indeed  play  havoc  with  the  laws  of  mechanics ;  at 
any  rate,  I  never  entertained  such  a  notion  for  a  moment, 
whether  for  a  guiding  or  for  any  other  kind  of  force.  If 
I  lift  a  table  it  is  quite  certain  that  the  weight  of  the 
table,  plus  its  mass-acceleration,  is  transmitted  through  my 
boots  to  the  floor  :  so  far  mechanics  is  supreme.  But  not 
even  Prof.  Minchin  could  calculate  whether  I  shall  lift  the 
table  or  not,  nor  what  I  shall  do  with  it  when  I  have  lifted 
it.  I  should  obey  every  law  of  mechanics  if  I  cast  it  on  a 
bonfire ;  but  I  should  have  interfered  with  the  course  of 
nature,  regarded  as  a  mechanically  determinate  problem, 
even  by  only  lifting  it. 

I  want  to  understand  the  nature  of  this  interference  better  ; 
I  have  no  other  "  anxiety  "  on  the  subject. 

Incidentally  I  should  like  to  transfer  to  your  pages  a 
most  interesting  and  clearly-worded  claim  made  by  Sir 
W.  T.  Thiselton-Dyer  in  to-day's  Times  : — 

"Directive  power ...  wipes  out  [meaning  would  wipe 
out  if  it  were  established]  .  .  .  the  whole  position  won  for 
us  by  Darwin.  It  is  no  use  mincing  matters.  Students  of 
the  Darwinian  theory  must  be  permitted  to  know  the 
strength  and  weakness  of  their  dialectic  position.  What 
that  theory  did  was  to  complete  a  mechanical  theory  of  the 
Universe  by  including  in  it  the  organic  world."  It  is  the 
last  sentence  to  which  I  would  direct  attention. 

Athenaeum  Club,  May   15.  Oliver  Lodge. 


I  AM  not  clear  that  it  is  wise  to  endeavour  to  aid  Sir 
Oliver  Lodge  out  of  the  pit  he  has,  it  seems  to  me,  quite 
unnecessarily  fallen  into.  But  I  will  put  a  rope  down  to 
him,  as  it  must  be  very  uncomfortable  down  at  the  bottom. 

.•\lmost  every  mechanical  problem  leads  by  the  application 
of  ultimate  mechanical  principles  to  a  differential  equation. 
The  solution  of  this  equation  involves  a  certain  number  of 
constants  which  may  be  infinitely  many,  but  which  we 
always  find  to  be  absolutely  determined  by  the  initial  con- 
ditions. At  first  sight  it  seems  difliicult,  without  tacitly 
dropping  a  fundamental  mechanical  principle — such  as  that 
of  momentum — to  allow  for  "  guidance  "  and  "  freewill  " 
therein.  But  differential  equations  occasionally  admit  of 
singular  solutions.  We  may  follow  up  a  particular  solution, 
absolutely  defined  by  the  initial  conditions,  until  we  run 
onto  the  singular  solution.  After  this  we  can  stick  to 
the  singular  solution  or  leave  it  again  at  any  other  contact 
with  a  particular  solution,  which  will  still  satisfy  the  funda- 
mental differential  equation.  Can  "  guidance  "  and  free- 
will correspond  to  a  shunt  of  this  kind? 

I  am  quite  unaware  of  any  differential  equation  in 
mechanics  providing  a  good  illustration  of  this  suggestion. 
Still,  we  must  get  Sir  Oliver  up  to  the  surface  again,  and 
this  is  the  only  rope  by  which  I  can  conceive  him 
ascending.  k.A.-k.v. 


"  Red  Rain"  and  the  Dust  Storm  of  Februaiy  22. 

The  Marquess  Camden  recently  sent  me  a  sample  of  fine 
sand  or  dust  collected  from  the  roof  of  Bayham  Abbey, 
Lamberhiirst,  shortly  after  the  great  dust  storm  of  February 
22,  which  I  have  caused  to  be  examined.  As  the  results 
appear  to  be  of  interest,  especially  in  reference  to  Mr. 
Clayton's  contribution  to  the  Proceedings  of  the  Chemical 


54 


NA  TURE 


[May  2  1,  1903 


Society,  1  should  be  glad  if  you  could  find  space  in  Nature 
for  an  account  of  them. 

The  dust  consisted  essentially  of  ferruginous  sand,  chalk, 
and  silicates  of  alumina,  alkalis,  lime  and  magnesia,  mixed 
with  a  certain  quantity  of  organic  matter  and  with  an 
appreciable  proportion  of  lead. 

The  last-named  substance  is  probably  due  to  the  sample 
having  been  collected  from  a  leaded  roof.  It  may  either 
have  been  scraped  off  during  the  taking  of  the  sample,  or, 
possibly,  cut  from  the  leads  by  the  impact  of  sand  particles 
driven  against  the  roof  by  a  high  wind.  Traces  of  tin  and 
arsenic  were  also  present  in  the  sample ;  these  were  probably 
contained  as  impurities  in  the  lead. 

The  detailed  results  of  the  analysis  are  as  follows  : — 

(Substance  dried  at  100°  C.  before  analysis.) 

Per  cent. 

Loss  on  heating  to  redness 11-28 

Lead,  calculated  as  oxide         3.31 

Arsenic       001 

Tin  Traces 

After  deducting  the  lead,  tin  and  arsenic  as  being  prob- 
ably adventitious,  the  remainder  of  the  sample  is  made  up 
of  the  following  constituents  : — 


Silica 
Alumina     ... 

Iron  oxide  

Lime 
Magnesia 

Alkalis  /  J°f '""}   o'^'de.^ 
(^  Potassium  oxide 

Carbonic  acid       

Water  and  organic  matter 


Per  cent. 

45-94 
18-35 
6-57 
864 
1-86 
116 
230 
610 
908 


The  organic  matter  contained  2- 19  per  cent,  of  carbon 
and  016  per  cent,  of  nitrogen,  the  two  representing,  prob- 
ably, between  3  and  4  per  cent,  of  organic  constituents. 

After  being  heated  to  redness,  3330  per  cent,  of  the  sample 
was  found  to  be  soluble  in  hydrochloric  acid,  the  dissolved 
portion  including  practically  the  whole  of  the  lead,  with 
the  traces  of  tin  and  arsenic.  Again  deducting  those 
elements,  the  dissolved  constituents  were  as  follows  : — 


Silica 

Alumina     ... 
Iron    oxide 
Lime 
Magnesia 
Alkalis 
Carbonic  acid 


Per  cent. 
0-64 
II-20 

5-43 

8-19 
113 
1.46 
348 

31-53 


Thus  about  one-third  of  the  sample  is  dissolved  by  hydro- 
chloric acid,  including  the  greater  part  of  the  alumina,  iron, 
lime  and  magnesia,  but  only  a  small  fraction  of  the  silica. 

Dilute  acetic  acid  readily  dissolved  out  the  greater  part 
of  the  lime,  with  liberation  of  carbonic  acid  gas.  Water 
alone  dissolved  practically  nothing  from  the  sample  except 
minute  traces  of  lime.  These  results  show  that  most  of 
the  lime  is  present  in  the  sample  in  the  form  of  chalk. 

One  or  two  particles  of  metallic  lead  were  detected  in 
the  sample,  together  with  others  partly  oxidised  and 
carbonated. 

It  has  been  surmised  by  Dr.  Mill  and  others  that  the 
sand  which  accompanied  the  storm  of  February  22,  and  was 
observed  to  fall  in  a  great  number  of  places  in  this  country 
as  well  as  on  the  Continent,  was  originally  derived  from  the 
African  deserts. 

It  would  be  interesting  in  this  connection  to  compare  its 
characters  with  that  of  the  dust,  also  presumably  of  African 
origin,  which  was  observed  to  fall  in  the  neighbourhood 
of  Taormina,  by  Sir  Arthur  Riicker,  and  was  made  the 
subject  of  an  interesting  communication  to  Nature  by  Prof. 
Judd  about  a  year  ago.  T.  E.  Thorpe. 

Government  Laboratories,  London,  W.C. 

NO.    175 1,  VOL.  68] 


The  Undistorted  Cylindrical  Wave. 
The  receipt  of  a  paper  by  Prof.  H.  Lamb,  "  On  Wave 
Propagation  in  Two  Dimensions  "  {Proc.  Lond.  Math.  Soc, 
vol.  XXXV.  p.  141),  stimulates  me  to  publish  now  a  con- 
densation of  a  portion  of  a  work  which  will  not  be  further 
alluded  to.  I  once  believed  that  there  could  not  be  an 
undistorted  cylindrical  wave  from  a  straight  axis  as  source. 
But  some  years  ago  the  late  Prof.  FitzGerald  and  I  were 
discussing  in  what  way  a  plane  electromagnetic  wave 
running  along  the  upper  side  of  a  plane  conducting  plate, 
and  coming  to  a  straight  edge,  managed  to  turn  round  to 
the  other  side.  Taking  the  wave  as  a  very  thin  plane  slab, 
one  part  of  the  theory  is  elementary.  The  slab  wave  itself 
goes  right  on  unchanged.  Now  Prof.  FitzGerald  specu- 
latively joined  it  on  to  the  lower  side  of  the  plate  by  means 
of  a  semi-cylindrical  slab  wave.  I  maintained  that  this 
could  not  possibly  work,  because  the  cylindrical  wave 
generated  at  the  edge  was  a  complete  one,  causing  back- 
ward waves  on  both  sides  of  the  plate.  Moreover,  it  was 
not  a  simple  wave,  for  the  disturbance  filled  the  whole 
cylindrical  space,  instead  of  being  condensed  in  a  slab.  It 
was  in  the  course  of  examining  this  question  that  I  arrived 
at  something  else,  which  I  thought  was  quite  a  curiosity, 
namely,  the  undistorted  cylindrical  wave. 

Maxwell's  plane  electromagnetic  wave  consists  of  per- 
pendicularly crossed  straight  electric  and  magnetic  forces,  in 
the  ratio  given  by  E  =  ;uz/H.  Thinking  of  a  thin  slab  only,  it 
travels  through  the  ether  perpendicularly  to  itself  at  speed 
V,  without  any  change  in  transit.  I  have  shown  that  this 
may  be  generalised  thus.  Put  any  distribution  of  electrifi- 
cation in  the  slab,  and  arrange  the  displacement  D  in  the 
proper  two-dimensional  way,  as  if  the  medium  were  non- 
permittive  outside  the  slab.  Then  put  in  H  orthogonally, 
according  to  the  above  mentioned  rule,  and  the  result  is  the 
generalised  plane  wave,  provided  the  electrification  moves 
with  the  wave.  Otherwise,  it  will  break  up.  Another  way  is 
to  have  the  electrification  upon  fixed  perfectly  conducting 
cylinders  arranged  with  their  axes  parallel  to  the  direction 
of  propagation. 

Now  the  first  kind  of  plane  wave  has  no  spherical 
analogue,  obviously.  But  I  have  shown  that  the  other  kinds 
may  be  generalised  spherically.  Put  equal  amounts  of 
positive  and  negative  electrifications  on  a  spherical  surface 
arranged  anyhow.  Distribute  the  displacement  in  the  proper 
way  for  a  spherical  sheet,  as  if  constrained  not  to  leave 
it.  Then  put  in  H  orthogonally  as  above.  The  result  con- 
stitutes an  undistorted  spherical  electromagnetic  wave,  pro- 
vided the  electrification  moves  radially  with  the  wave,  and 
attenuates  in  density  as  its  distance  from  the  centre  in- 
creases, in  the  proper  way  to  suit  E  and  H.  This  attenu- 
ation does  not  count  as  distortion.  Similarly,  the  other  sort 
of  generalised  plane  wave  may  be  imitated  spherically  by 
having  conical  boundaries. 

But  when  we  examine  the  cylinder,  there  is  apparently 
no  possibility  of  having  undistorted  waves.  For  with  a 
simple  axial  source  it  is  known  that  if  it  be  impulsive,  the 
result  is  not  a  cylindrical  impulse,  but  that  the  whole  space 
up  to  the  wave  front  is  filled  with  the  disturbance.  It  is 
easy  to  see  the  reason,  for  any  point  within  the  wave  front 
is  receiving  at  any  moment  disturbances  from  two  points 
of  the  source  on  the  axis,  and  there  is  no  cancellation.  And 
if  the  source  be  on  a  cylindrical  surface  itself,  producing  an 
inward  and  an  outward  wave,  the  whole  space  between  the 
two  wave  fronts  is  filled  with  the  disturbance. 

How,  then,  is  it  possible  to  have  an  undistorted  wave 
from  a  straight  line  source?  By  not  arguing  about  it,  but 
by  showing  that  it  can  be  done.  The  reason  will  then 
come  out  by  itself.  As  the  solution  can  be  easily  tested,  it 
is  only  necessary  to  give  the  results  here.  Take  plane 
coordinates  r  and  0.  Let  the  magnetic  force  be  perpen- 
dicular to  the  plane,  of  intensity  H.  Let  Z  be  its  time- 
integral,  then 

Z  =  ^/(z,/  -  r\       H  =  ^-2i^/'(z,/-.),  (I) 

expresses  the  magnetic  field,  /  being  an  arbitrary  function. 
Now  the  displacement  D  is  the  curl  of  Z.  So  if  E,  is  the 
radial  component  of  E,  and  E3  the  tangential  component,  in 
the  direction  of  increasing  9,  we  have  the  electric  field 
given  by 


■  yi.v  sin  \9 


/, 


Tj.  _tiv  cos  \9  f,  ,  fi-v  cos  \e  r 

^2 :,r~-J  +~^rr^^- 


(2) 


May  2  1,  1903] 


NATURE 


55- 


The  attenuation  factor  r~*  in  (i)  does  not  count  as  dis- 
tortion. 

The  wave  may  go  either  way,  and  various  cases  can  be 

laborated.     If  the  wave  is  outward,  the  axis  (r  =  o)  is  the 

>ource.     The    plane    tf=o    is    a    perfect    electric    conductor. 

I  he   electrification   is  of   the   same   sign   on    its   two   sides. 

Other  details  may  be  got  from  the  formuhe. 

I  give  an  example  to  show  the  not  very  obvious  electrical 
meaning.  Let  the  infinite  plane  conductor  with  the  straight 
edge  be  one  pole  of  a  condenser,  and  a  straight  wire  placed 
parallel  to  the  edge,  and  close  to  it,  be  the  other  pole.  Join 
them  by  a  battery,  charging  the  plate  and  the  wire.  Bring 
the  wire  right  up  to  the  edge,  and  reduce  its  magnitude  to 
a  mere  line.  (This  is  to  be  done  in  order  to  attain  the 
ideal  simplicity  of  the  formulre.)  Take  away  the  battery. 
Then  the  electric  field  is  given  by 


;p  _     sin^fl^  -^      co%hQ  r 


(3) 


where  /„  is  a  constant  and  c  is  the  permittivity. 

Finally,  discharge  the  condenser  by  contact  between  edge 
and  wire.  Then  the  result  at  time  i  later  is  that  outside 
the  cylinder  of  radius  r  =  vt  the  above  field  (3)  persists, 
whilst  inside  the  cylinder  there  is  no  E  or  H.  An  electro- 
magnetic wave  separates  these  regions.  It  started  from 
the  axis  at  the  moment  of  contact,  and  as  it  expands 
swallows  up  the  whole  energy  of  the  field,  and  carries  it 
to  infinity.  Similarly,  as  regards  the  charging  of  the  plate, 
only  the  "  battery  "  should,  to  have  the  same  formulae,  be 
an  impressed  force  acting  at  the  axis,  between  the  edge 
and  the  wire.  At  time  t  after  contact,  the  electric  field  is 
established  fully  within  the  cylinder  r=-i)t.  On  its  boundary 
is  the  impulsive  wave  which  is  laying  down  the  remainder. 
It  also,  if  the  contact  be  instantaneous,  wastes  an  equal 
amount  of  energy  at  infinity. 

Similarly,  by  varying  the  impressed  voltage  anyhow  with 
the  time,  the  emission  of  an  arbitrary  wave  of  H  results. 
With  a  real  plate  and  real  wire,  the  main  features  would 
no  doubt  be  the  same.  The  use  of  the  line  wire  introduces 
infinite  voltage. 

What  somewhat  disguises  the  electromagnetics  is  the 
existence  of  the  steady  electric  force,  or  parts  thereof,  along 
with  the  electromagnetic  E  and  H,  particularly  when  /  is 
arbitrary.  There  is  a  similar  complication  in  the  spherical 
wave  when  the  total  electrification  in  any  thin  shell  is  not 
zero.  There  is  then  an  auxiliary  internal  or  external  electric 
force  to  make  continuity. 

We  cannot  have  an  undistorted  wave  from  a  simple  line 
source.  But  in  the  example  the  apparent  line  source  will 
be  found  to  be  a  doublet.  For  the  curl  of  e  (impressed 
force)  is  the  source  of  the  wave.  It  is  double,  positive  on 
one  side,  negative  on  the  other. 

Solutions  of  the  type 


^  _  ^ Ar"  cos  (wg  +  a) 


(4) 


or  the  same  with  r  and  vt  interchanged  in  the  denominator, 
are  not  distortionless,   save  for  the  solitary  term   in   which 
n=—\.       The   above   distortionless   cylindrical    wave   (i)   is 
unique.     Prove  by  the  characteristic. 
•^Pril  29-  Oliver   Heaviside. 

Seismometry  and  Geite. 
Under  the  above  heading  Prof.  J.  Milne  contributed  an 
mteresting  article  to  Nature  of  April  9,  p.  538,  on  which 
I  wish  to  offer  some  remarks.  Prof.  Milne  seems  hardly 
to  realise  the  significance  of  the  enormous  pressures  to  which 
the  earth [s  deep-seated  material  is  presumably  exposed. 
One  of  his  objections  to  the  hypothesis  of  an  iron  core 
seems  to  be  that  the  wave  velocities  for  an  infinite  isotropic 
medmm  of  the  density  and  elasticity  of  iron  do  not  accord 
with  the  velocities  of  earthquake  waves.  This  objection, 
however,  is  not  conclusive.  In  an  infinite  isotropic  medium 
there  are  two  purely  elastic  wave  velocities,  v^  and  v^,  given 
by  the  equations 

»i=  '>J^i  +  n)lp,     Vt=»fnjp, 

where  p  is  the  density,  m  and  n  Thomson  and  Tait's  two 
elastic  constants.     On  the  ordinary  theory,  nlnt  may  possess 
any  value  consistent  with  Poisson's  ratio  y,  or  (m-n)/2m, 
NO.    1751,  VOL.  68] 


lying  between  o  and  05.  Six  years  ago  I  showed  {Phil. 
Mag.,  March,  1897,  p.  199)  that  observed  seismic  wave 
velocities  can  be  accounted  for  by  elastic  waves  without 
postulating  any  abnormal  value  for  Young's  modulus — the 
modulus  to  which  Prof.  Milne  repeatedly  refers.  For  in- 
stance, we  get  values  of  125  and  25  kilometres  per  second 
respectively  for  v^  and  v^  in  a  medium  of  density  55  with 
a  Young's  modulus  of  only  10"  grammes  weight  per  sq. 
cm.,  if  we  suppose  n/m  =  i/24,  or  7  =  048  approximately; 
and  the  same  results  follow  if  we  increase  density  and 
elastic  constants  in  the  same  proportion. 

In  iron,  as  we  know  it,  7,  of  course,  is  not  048,  but  more 
nearly  025.  A  material,  however,  which  under  low 
pressures  has  7  =  025,  may,  after  prolonged  exposure  to 
enormous  pressures,  behave  as  an  elastic  medium  with  7 
very  nearly  05.  In  fact,  if  the  deep-seated  material  acts 
as  an  elastic  medium,  the  only  consistent  way  yet  pointed 
out  for  its  doing  so  is  by  its  behaving  as  if  7  were  very 
near  the  limiting  value  answering  to  incompressibility. 
Neither  of  the  elastic  wave  velocities,  it  should  be  noticed, 
has  anything  directly  to  do  with  Young's  modulus,  a  point 
which  cannot  be  too  clearly  emphasised.  Another  consider- 
ation is  the  possibly  appreciable  influence  of  gravity  on  the 
wave  velocities. 

Coming  now  to  the  question  of  the  behaviour  of  magneto- 
graphs  at  times  of  seismic  disturbance,  there  must  un- 
doubtedly be  magnetic  disturbances  occasioned  by  earth- 
quakes in  more  than  one  way.  When  a  violent  earthquake 
occurs  where  magnetic  material  abounds,  there  may  be  a 
vast  movement  of  magnetised  matter ;  there  may  be  a  great 
change  in  the  stresses  throughout  adjacent  magnetic 
material  ;  and  there  may  be  a  great  change  of  local  tempera- 
ture. Any  one  of  these  causes  will  give  rise  to  a  magnetic 
disturbance  which  should  be  practically  simultaneous  all 
over  the  world,  and  should  precede  any  seismic  movement 
at  distant  stations.  It  should  also  diminish  very  rapidly 
as  the  distance  from  the  earthquake  origin  increases. 

Again,  as  the  seismic  waves  travel  out  from  their  source 
they  must  cross  volumes  of  magnetic  matter,  and  the 
mechanical  effect  on  any  such  volume  must  necessarily  pro- 
duce changes  in  its  magnetic  field.  Owing  to  the  finite 
velocity  of  seismic  waves,  the  displacements  and  stresses 
simultaneously  existent  in  different  parts  of  any  large 
magnetic  volume  must  be  in  all  kinds  of  phases,  leading 
to  considerable  interference  between  the  magnetic  disturb- 
ances to  which  the  different  parts  give  rise  at  any  con- 
siderable distance.  Thus  the  most  plausible  explanation 
of  why  a  magnetic  disturbance  of  some  prominence — if  real 
— -should  appear  at  one  observatory,  but  not  at  another  only 
100  miles  oft,  is  certainly  the  existence  of  magnetic  material 
close  to  the  former.  Supposing  that  such  local  material 
exists,  the  magnetic  phenomena  may  be  expected  to  vary 
according  to  the  direction  in  which  the  earthquake  wave 
is  travelling. 

One  of  the  chief  difficulties  in  reaching  definite  con- 
clusions is  the  contracted  time  scale  usual  in  magnetograms. 
If  the  true  seismic  and  the  apparent  magnetic  disturbances 
occur  within  a  few  seconds  of  one  another,  it  is  usually 
practically  impossible  to  say  which  is  the  earlier.  To  see 
the  full  force  of  this,  one  must  remember  that  a  by  no  means 
improbable  explanation  of  why  apparent  magnetic  dis- 
turbances accompany  earthquakes  at  one  station,  but  not 
at  another,  is  that  the  magnets  at  the  former,  owing  to 
pattern  or  site,  may  be  much  more  sensitive  seismographs 
than  those  at  the  latter. 

Again,  it  must  be  remembered  that  whilst  the  so-called 
"  large  waves  " — rather  an  unfortunate  term — produce  in 
general  a  much  greater  effect  on  a  horizontal  pendulum  than 
do  the  "  preliminary  tremors,"  it  by  no  means  follows  that 
the  same  will  be  true  of  either  the  true  magnetic  or  the 
purely  mechanical  effects  on  a  magnet.  Much  may  depend 
on  the  method  of  support  and  the  time  of  swing. 

The  passage  of  the  "  preliminary  tremors  "  and  "  large 
waves  "  due  to  an  earthquake  often  occupies  several  hours, 
and 'during  this  interval  several  true  independent  magnetic 
movements  are  not  at  all  unlikely  to  present  themselves, 
even  at  times  of  general  magnetic  calm. 

For  all  these  reasons  a  careful  intercomparison  is  wanted 
of  magnetic  and  seismic  records  from  a  variety  of  stations. 
Something  might  be  done  by  running  magnetographs  for 
soine  time  in  a  district  where  a  local  magnetic  disturbance 


56 


NA  TURE 


[May  2 


903 


is  known  to  exist,  and  contrasting  the  results  with  those 
obtained  elsewhere  with  the  same  instruments. 

Prof.  Milne  mentions  Kew  and  Greenwich  as  representa- 
tives of  stations  where  magnetic  and  gravitational  anomalies 
do  not  exist,  but,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  Rucker  and  Thorpe's 
magnetic  survey  does  show  a  small  magnetic  anomaly  in 
the  Thames  Valley,  and  certain  foreign  observers  have  also 
inferred  a  gravitational  anomaly. 

As  to  Prof.  Milne's  special  term  "  geite  "  for  material  in 
the  earth's  interior,  I  must  confess  that  the  application  of  a 
new  word  to  the  unknown  material  of  a  problematical  core 
seems  to  me  more  likely  to  hinder  than  assist.  Such  special 
terms  constitute  an  additional  obstacle  in  the  way  of  those 
who  are  not  specialists.  Also  existing  terms,  such  as 
nucleus  and  core  on  the  one  hand,  and  layer  or  crust  on  the 
other,  seem  not  inadequate,  the  context  showing  whether 
it  is  the  material  that  is  immediately  in  view. 

I  have  had  repeated  occasion  to  deal  with  elastic  problems 
involving  a  core  and  a  layer  or  layers.  In  fact,  the  very 
*'  earth  "  for  which  Prof.  Milne  expresses  a  preference, 
consisting  of  a  layer  of  about  1/20  of  the  earth's  radius  in 
thickness  with  a  density  of  average  surface  rock,  and  a 
core  of  specific  gravity  approaching  6,  is  one  which  I 
selected  some  years  ago  for  the  purpose  of  investigating 
luni-solar  tidal  action  (Cambridge  Phil.  Trans.,  vol.  xvi. 
p.  151).     Thus  I  do  not  speak  without  experience. 

A  final  point  to  be  remembered  is  that,  according  to  the 
investigations  of  Gauss  and  others,  the  earth  itself  is  a 
magnet  of  considerable  moment.  Any  theory  which  claims 
even  provisional  acceptance  may  be  expected  to  give  a 
plausible  explanation  of  this  fact,  and  of  the  secular  change 
observed  in  terrestrial  magnetism.  C.  Chree. 


Photograph  of  Oscillatory  Electric  Spark. 

The  enclosed  photograph  of  an  oscillatory  electric  spark, 
like  most  of  those  which  I  have  taken,  differs  in  some 
respects,  so  far  as  I  have  seen,  from  those  which  have 
been  recorded  by  other  experimenters.  It  was  obtained  by 
the  discharge  of  22   square  feet  of  coated   surface   through 


Fig.  I. — Oscillatory  electric  spark. 

J  mile  of  coiled  wire,  the  electrodes  being  of  magnesium. 
The  picture  was  focused  on  a  circular  plate  fixed  on  the 
end  of  an  electric  motor,  so  as  to  revolve  in  its  own  plane. 
The  number  of  double  oscillations  was  about  3000  per 
second.  C.  J.  Watson. 

Bottville  Road,  Acocks  Green,  Birmingham. 


Our  Rainfall  in  Relation  to  Bruckner's  Cyfle. 

In  the  instructive  paper  on  solar  and  meteorological 
changes  in  Nature  (May  7),  I  observe  that  Dr.  Lockyer 
suggests  1913  as  probably  about  the  centre  of  the  next  wet 
period.  A  consideration  of  barometric  changes  appears  to 
lead  to  a  similar  result,  and  I  may  be  permitted  to  recall 
a  letter  sent  you  in  1898  (Nature,  December  22,  p.  175),  in 
which,  discussing  with  such  data  the  question,  "  Where  do 
we  stand  in  Briickner's  cycle?  "  I  mentioned  191 1  as  prob- 
ably near  that  centre.  Such  estimates  must,  of  course,  be 
regarded  as  merely  approximate,  and  open  to  revision. 

This  important  cycle  of  Bruckner's  was  lately  discussed 
'in  a  number  of  letters  to  the  Times,  and  it  is  satisfactory 

NO.  1 75 1,  voL.^68] 


to  see  that  more  adequate  attention  is  now,  though  tardily, 
being  given  it. 

Is  it  not  objectionable  to  treat  the  British  Isles  as  a 
whole,  since,  on  Bruckner's  theory,  the  western  portion 
shows  opposite  variation  to  the  eastern? 

There  is  a  method  of  curve-making  which  seems  to  be 
little  used  by  meteorologists,  but  which  is,  I  think,  to  be 
recommended.  A  series  of  annual  rainfall  figures  (say)  is 
first  translated  into  a  series  of  plus  and  minus  values  (re- 
lated to  the  average),  and  this  series  is  then  added  alge- 
braically step  by  step,  e.g. 

+9-3-i-44-o-6-l-o-9-i-6-hi-3,  &c. 
+7-9+8S+9-4+7-8+9-I.  &c. 
This   second   series  is   then   thrown   into   curve  form.     The 
process  is  analogous  to  paying  in   money  to  a  bank,   and 
drawing   money   out,    and   the  point   reached  by   the  curve 
at  any  given  time  indicates  the  balance. 

Each  upward  (annual)  extension  in  such  a  curve  repre- 
sents a  wet  year,  and  each  downward  extension  a  dry  year, 
and  the  degree  of  wetness  or  dryness  is  also  indicated. 

A  large  comparison  of  such  curves  for  European  and  other 
stations  would,  I  think,  throw  a  good  deal  of  light  on  the 
Bruckner  theorv.  Alex.    B.   MacDowall. 


The  Propagation  of  Phthisis, 
In  a  work  called  "  Opera  nuova  intitulata  il  Perche, 
utilissima  ad  intendere  le  cagioni  de  molte  cose,  &c.," 
published  in  Venice  in  1520,  the  following  passage  occurs  :— 
"  Dal  sputo  del  Tisico  o  da  la  sua  boca  viene  fuora  un 
vapore  fetido  e  acuto  che  entra  poi  per  la  boca  de  colui  che 
conversa  con  quello  e  corrode  simelmente  il  pulmone  de  esso 
e  in  questo  modo  genera  tisica." 

Substitute  for  vapore  "  material  particles,"  and  we 
have  the  modern  conception  of  the  mode  of  propagating 
consumption.  This  anticipation  of  modern  science  seems 
worthy  of  note.  Edmund  McClure. 


TANGANYIKA.' 

THE  title  of  this  work  is  perhaps  somewhat  mis- 
leading. The  reader  who  expects  the  book  to 
contain  only  discussions  of  speculative  questions  \yill 
be  agreeabl)'  surprised  by  finding  that  the  positive 
contributions  made  in  it  to  our  knowledge  of  the 
geology,  botany  and  zoology  of  Central  East  Africa 
are  of  the  most  extensive  and  valuable  character.  The 
two  expeditions  which  the  author  undertook  in  1896 
and  1899  to  Lake  Tanganyika  and  the  surround- 
ing districts,  following  upon  the  researches  of  earlier 
travellers,  have  thrown  a  flood  of  light  upon  both  the 
geological  structure  and  the  fauna  and  flora  of  this 
part  of  the  world,  while  they  have  incidentally  sug- 
gested a  number  of  diflficult  problems  of_  no  small 
interest  alike  to  the  geologist  and  the  biologist. 

The  surveys  of  Mr.  Moore  and  of  Mr.  Malcolm 
Ferguson,  the  geologist  who  accompanied  him,  have 
been  of  value  in  rectifying  and  making  noteworthy 
additions  to  the  maps  of  the  area  visited.  The  geo- 
grapher will  find  references  to  a  number  of  new  moun- 
tain peaks,  the  heights  of  many  of  which  are  given, 
with  the  determination  of  the  heights  above  sea-level 
and  the  depths  of  many  of  the  lakes,  in  several  of 
which  numerous  soundings  and  dredgings  were  made. 

One  of  the  most  valuable  results  of  Mr.  Moore's 
explorations  is  the  confirmation  he  is  able  to  supply 
to  the  conclusions  of  Mr.  Scott  Elliot  that  there  exists 
in  East  Central  Africa  a  great  mountain  chain  running 
north  and  south,  and  rising  at  many  points,  even  in 
this  Equatorial  region,  above  the  limits  of  perpetual 
snow.     The  height  of  the  snow-line  is  fixed  by  Mr. 

1  "  The  T.iiiganvika  Problem  ;  an  Account  of  the  Researches  undertaken 
Concerning   the   Existence   of  Marine   Animals   in    Central   Africa."      By 
T.  E.  S.  Moore,  F.R.G.S.,  author  of  "  To  the   Mountams  of  the   Moon 
Pp.  xxiii  +  371  ;  with  7  maps  and  140  illustrations.     (London  :  Hurst  and 
Blackett,  Ltd.,  1903.) 


May 


1903] 


NATURE 


57 


I 


loore  at  13,500  feet,  and  some  of  the  peaks  he  thinks 
lay  attain  a  height  of  16,500  feet,  while  Sir  Harry 
jhnston  believes  that  20,000  feet  is  a  probable  mini- 
lum  of   the   height  of  some  of  them.       This   great 
lountain  chain,  giving  rise  in  some  parts  of  its  course 
numerous  glaciers — the  "  Mountains  of  the  Moon  " 
^f    the    ancients — Mr.    Moore    proposes    to    call    "  the 
reat  Central  African  Chain."     It  extends  from  the 
lountains  of  Abyssinia  in  the  north  to  the  Drakens- 
jrg  in  South  Africa,  though  in  some  places,  as  in  the 
^neighbourhood  of  Tanganyika  and  the  Albert  Edward 
Xyanza,  it  is  a  broad  ridge,  the  culmination  of  long 
eastern  and  western  slopes,  rather  than  a  conspicuous 
chain  ;  so  that,   viewed  from  either  side,   it  has  little 
resemblance    to    a    mountain    range,    even    when    its 
>ummits  rise  ten  or  twelve  thousand  feet  above  the  sea- 
level. 

Mr.  Moore  discusses  the  geological  structure  of  this 
L^reat  mountain  chain,  giving  a  number  of  valuable 
_:i  ological  sections  across  it  at  various  points.  The 
I  igin  of  the  range,  he  believes,  must  be  assigned  to 
lateral  compression,  the  celebrated  "  rift-valleys  "  being 
regarded  by  him  as  subordinate  features  resulting  from 
the  orographic  movements  in  the  earth's  crust.  Al- 
though volcanic  action  has  only  played  a  subordinate 
part  in  the  formation  of  the  great  chain  itself,  in  the 
i^reater  portion  of  its  course,  yet  in  the  district  lying  to 
the  north  of  Tanganyika,  which  was  carefully  explored 
by  our  author,  we  have  the  still  active  volcanic  district 
of  the  Mfumbiro  Mountains,  a  chain  of  volcanoes 
running  east  and  west;  the  highest  of  these,  Kari- 
simbi,  is  often  snow-capped,  and  has  a  height  of  14,000 
■feet.  Mr.  Moore  shows  that  the  structure  of  the 
great  longitudinal  valley  in  which  Tanganyika  lies 
has  been  profoundly  modified  by  the  ejection  of  the 
materials  forming  the  Mfumbiro  chain.  The  surface 
of  Lake  Kivu,  to  the  north  of  Tanganyika,  is  4841 
feet  above  sea-level,  while  Albert  Edward  Nyanza,  still 
further  north,  lies  2000  feet  lower,  and  Tanganyika 
has  a  height  of  2700  feet.  The  author  points  out  that 
previously  to  the  formation  of  the  Mfumbiro  volcanic 
cones,  the  waters  of  Lake  Kivu  must  have  drained 
northwards  into  the  Albert  Edward  Nyanza,  and  not, 
as  now,  into  Lake  Tanganyika,  by  the  Russisi  River. 
Numerous  other  volcanic  cones  occur  in  the  district, 
generally  at  the  bottom  of  the  rift-valleys.  The  waters 
of  Lake  Kivu  contain  such  a  large  amount  of  salts 
that  the  pebbles  and  reeds  on  the  shores  become  en- 
trusted with  a  calcareous  deposit,  which  analysis  shows 
to  contain  12.66  per  cent,  of  magnesium  to  28.65  of 
calcium.  The  waters  of  Lake  Kivu,  which  is  some- 
times more  than  100  fathoms  deep,  have  been  analysed 
and  found  to  contain  a  very  large  proportion  of  mag- 
nesium carbonate. 

The  geological  formations  met  with  in  the  expedi- 
tions, the  distribution  of  which  in  the  neighbourhood 
of  the  several  lakes  is  shown  upon  sketch-maps,  are 
as  follows,  beginning  with  the  oldest  : — 

(i)  Old  crystalline  rocks — granite,  gneisses,  schists, 
quartzite,  &c. 

(2)  Great  thickness  of  unfossiliferous  sandstones  and 
shales. 

(3)  "  Drummond's  beds,"  a  series  of  sandstones  and 
shales  of  about  the  age  of  the  Trias. 

(4)  Recent  lacustrine  strata. 

Unfortunately,  no  satisfactory  evidence  has  yet  been 
adduced  as  to  whether  the  stratified  rocks  (2)  and 
(3)  can,  either  or  both  of  them,  be  regarded  as  of 
marine  origin,  and  some  of  the  unsolved  problems  of 
African  geology  must  await  full  solution  until  this 
determination  has  been  made.  At  present  we  have  no 
proof  that  the  stratified  masses  of  the  older  formation 
are  not,  like  those  of  the  younger,  of  lacustrine  or 
fluviatile  origin. 

NO.    175 1,  VOL.  68] 


Around  some  of  the  great  Central  African  lakes  there 
are  found  extensive  alluvial  deposits  containing  the 
shells  of  species  of  Mollusca,  which  still  live  in  the 
waters  of  the  adjoining  lake.  These,  with  the 
numerous  raised  beaches,  show  that  some  of  the  lakes 
had  formerly  a  much  greater  extent  than  at  present. 
It  is  upon  these  old  alluvial  deposits  that  the  celebrated 
"  Park-lands,"  so  well  described  and  so  convincingly 
explained  by  Mr.  Moore,  are  found.  Among  the 
botanical  results  of  the  two  Tanganyika  expeditions, 
not  the  least  valuable  are.  the  investigation  of  these 
curious  features  thgt  have  attracted  so  much  attention 
from  all  travellers  in  the  district.  Mr.  Moore  shows 
how  the  springing  up  of  scattered  individuals  of  the 
hardy  euphorbias  has  afforded  a  shade  under  which 
plants  less  able  to  withstand  the  burning  heat  of  the  sun 
have  grown  up  and  gradually  extended  outwards.  Of 
course,  in  the  end,  these  outward  spreading  patches  ol 
vegetation  must  coalesce  and  form  a  tangled  forest 
growth,  such  as  occurs  in  other  parts  of  Central  Africa. 
Mr.  Moore  ingeniously  argues  that  the  amount  of  de- 
velopment towards  this  forest  growth  may  be  utilised 
as  a  means  of  determining  the  geological  age  of  the 
alluvial  flats  upon  which  they  are  found. 

It  is  on  the  zoological  results  of  these  expeditions, 
however,  that  the  author  of  the  work  before  us  must 
be  especially  congratulated.  The  addition  of  nearly 
200  species  of  animals  to  the  fauna  of  the  district 
is  the  least  important  of  his  achievements,  though 
it  shows  how  assiduous  and  successful  must  have 
been  his  work  as  a  collector.  But  Mr.  Moore  is 
far  more  than  a  collector.  By  careful  observations  and 
experiments  carried  on  during  his  residence  among  the 
lakes,  by  his  studies  of  living  animals  in  their  peculiar 
environment,  and  by  his  work  in  the  laboratory  upon 
the  specimens  he  has  brought  home,  he  has  made  the 
most  substantial  additions  to  zoological  science. 

On  questions  of  distribution  the  researches  of  Mr. 
Moore  have  a  very  important  bearing.  The  discovery 
by  Speke  and  the  missionaries  of  marine  types  of 
mollusca  in  the  waters  of  Tanganyika,  followed  as  it 
was  by  Boehm's  discovery  of  a  medusa  in  the  same 
fresh  waters,  made  it  a  question  of  first  importance 
to  determine  whether  the  same  phenomena  were  ex- 
hibited in  any  other  of  the  African  lakes.  To  this 
question  Mr.  Moore  has  afforded  a  complete  answer. 
He  has  himself  examined  the  faunas  of  lakes  Shirwa, 
Nyassa,  Kela,  Tanganyika,  Kivu,  the  Albert  Edward 
Nyanza,  the  Albert  Nyanza,  the  Victoria  Nyanza,  and 
Nivasha.  The  faunas  of  four  or  five  more  lakes  are 
less  perfectly  known  from  the  work  of  other  travellers, 
and  it  is  now  certain  that  the  peculiar  "  halolimnic 
fauna,"  as  Mr.  Moore  calls  it,  is  confined  to  Tangan- 
yika, all  the  other  neighbouring  lakes  containing  only 
the  ordinary  types  of  fresh-water  mollusca  and  fish 
that  occur  in  similar  situations  all  over  the  globe.  The 
account  given  of  the  distribution  of  these  forms  by  Mr. 
Moore,  especially  in  the  salt  lake  of  Shirwa,  will  prove 
of  interest  both  to  zoologists  and  to  geologists. 

The  fish-fauna  of  Tanganyika  consists  of  eighty- 
seven  species,  of  which  no  less  than  seven t)^-f our  are 
new  to  science,  and  have  been  described  and  figured 
by  Mr.  Boulenger.  The  medusa  (Limnocnida  tangan- 
yicae)  of  Tanganyika  has  been  described  from  spirit 
specimens  by  Mr.  Robert  Giinther,  of  Oxford ;  but  Mr. 
Moore  has  been  able,  during  his  residence  at  the  lake, 
to  make  drawings  of  the  living  animal,  to  work  out 
its  development,  and  to  add  much  to  our  knowledge 
of  its  habits.  We  reproduce  his  drawings  of  this 
curious  organism,  which  varies  in  size  from  a  shilling 
to  a  two-shilling  piece. 

The  complete  study  of  the  anatomy  of  the  "  halo- 
limnic "  gasteropods,  which  so  closelv  resemble  marine 
forms  of  the  Jurassic  period,  has  been  carried  out  by 


58 


NATURE 


[May  21,  1903 


Mr.  Moore  and  fellow-workers  in  the  Royal  College  of 
Science,  and  a  curious  form  of  polyzoan,  with  some 
prawns  and  sponges,  have  been  added  to  the  fauna 
with  marine  affinities  that  have  made  Tanganyika  so 
interesting  to  naturalists. 

Want  of  space  forbids  our  entering  on  a  discussion 
of   the   theoretical   questions   dealt   with   in    the   work 


Fig.  I.— Living  asexual  aduh  of  the  Tanganyika  medusa,  enlarged  about 
one-third.     To  the  right  is  seen  a  string  of  buds  becoming  detached. 


before  us.  On  many  of  these  the  last  word  has  not 
been  said,  and  some  of  the  speculations  put  forward 
by  the  author  can  be  regarded  as  having  only  the 
value  of  ingenious  suggestions.  In  dealing  with  so 
large  a  mass  of  new  and  varied  material,  the  author 
may  have  been  led  in  places  to  express  hasty  judgments, 


Fig.  2. — Living  sexual  adult  of  the  Tanganyika  medusa,  showing  the 
character  of  the  manubrium. 


while  some  of  his  statements  may  need  qualification  or 
revision ;  but  we  are  convinced  that  every  naturalist 
who  peruses  the  work  will  give  him  the  highest  credit 
for  a  work  of  exploration  efficiently  carried  out,  and 
for  preparing  an  account  of  his  researches  which  is 
not  only  satisfactory  to  the  student  of  science,  but  is 
full  of  interest  for  the  general  reader.  J.  W.  J. 

NO.    I  75  I,  VOL.  68] 


ENLARGEMENT   OF   THE  KEW   HERBARIUM. 

SIR  WILLIAM  J.  HOOKER,  the  first  director  of 
Kew  Gardens,  as  a  public  establishment,  was 
really  the  founder  of  the  herbarium  at  Kew,  for  before 
any  bequests  or  gifts  were  made,  his  extensive  private 
collection  of  dried  plants  and  books  was,  by  arrange- 
ment with  the  Government,  used  for  the  purposes  of 
the  gardens,  and  accessible  to  botanists  of  all  coun- 
tries. When  Sir  William  took  up  his  appointment  in 
1841,  there  was  neither  specimen  nor  book  the  property 
of  the  garden,  and  his  herbarium  and  library  were 
first  deposited  in  his  own  residence  at  West  Park.  In 
1853  his  herbarium  and  a  portion  of  his  library  were 
lodged  in  the  original  portion  of  the  present  block  of 
buildings,  and  he  received  a  small  annual  grant  from 
Government  for  assistance  and  maintenance,  on  the 
condition  that  the  plants  and  books  were  free  to  other 
botanists.  The  same  year  Miss  Bromfield  presented 
the  herbarium  and  library  collected  by  her  deceased 
brother,  W.  Arnold  Bromfield,  the  author  of  the 
"  Flora  Vectensis,"  which  was  edited  after  his  death 
bv  Sir  Joseph  Hooker. 

"This  gift,  though  not  so  extensive  as  some  subse- 
quent ones,  was  very  valuable,  both  in  plants  and 
books,  the  latter  including  a  number  of  excellent  copies 
of  the  best  editions  of  many  of  the  early  authors,  or 
*'  old  masters."  The  following  year,  1854,  Mr.  George 
Bentham  presented  his  very  rich  herbarium  and  library 
to  the  nation,  on  the  condition  that  they  should  be 
deposited  at  Kew,  and  so  housed  and  arranged  as  to 
be  accessible  to  himself  and  other  botanists.  I 
may  add,  parenthetically,  that  Bentham  continued  his 
botanical  work  at  Kew,  almost  uninterruptedly,  for 
thirty  years,  the  end  of  which  saw  the  completion  of 
the  '"'  Genera  Plantarum  "  of  Bentham  and  Hooker,  a 
work  which  has  not  yet  been  replaced  by  an  equally 
concise  and  useful  synopsis  of  a  uniform  character. 
Sir  William  Hooker  died  in  1865,  and  in  1866  the 
Government  purchased  his  herbarium  and  library,  so 
far  as  they  were  not  already  represented  in  the  national 
collection  at  Kew.  This  purchase  included  museum 
specimens,  drawings,  manuscripts,  portraits  of 
botanists,  and  Sir  William's  botanical  correspondence, 
covering  a  period  of  sixty  years.  As  is  well  known  to 
the  older  generations.  Sir  Joseph  Hooker  succeeded 
his  father  in  the  directorship,  and  he  in  turn  was  suc- 
ceeded by  his  son-in-law.  Sir  William  Thiselton-Dyer, 
the  present  director. 

Under  these  successive  directors,  due  greatly  to  their 
activity  and  zeal,  the  collections  of  plants  and  books 
have  continued  to  increase  with  great  rapidity,  partly 
from  increasing  Government  grants,  and  partly  from 
private  munificence.  Among  the  latter  the  collections 
specially  deserving  mention  are  : — A.  Cunningham's 
Australasian;  Burchell's  St.  Helena,  S.  African  and 
S.  American;  Borrer's  British;  H.  C.  Watson's 
British;  Miss  Griffith's  Algae;  Wight  and  Rottler's 
Indian;  Boott's  Carices ;  J.  Gay's  general,  presented 
by  Sir  Joseph  Hooker;  Ball's  general  herbarium  and 
botanical  library;  Carey's  N.  American;  and  quite 
recently  Dr.  Alexander  Prior's  general  herbarium,  re- 
ceived through  Sir  Prior  Goldney. 

All  these  important  gifts  consist  mainly  of  named 
and  mounted  specimens.  Smaller  donations  number 
many  hundreds.  The  enormous  Indian  collections 
of  Hooker  and  Thomson  reached  Kew  in  1851.  They 
were  estimated  at  8000  species,  and  the  specimens  were 
so  numerous  that  no  less  than  sixty  sets  were  given 
away  to  other  botanists  and  botanical  establishments. 
The  distribution  of  these  specimens,  and  seven  wagon- 
loads  of  specimens  (chiefiy  of  Griffith,  Heifer  and 
Falconer's  collecting)  received  from  the  India  House 
in  1858,  was  not  completed  until  1863. 

The  rapid  growth  of  the  herbarium  and  library  neces- 


May  2  1,  1903] 


NATURE 


jtated  enlars^ement  of  the  building  about  twenty-five 
;ars  ago,  when  a  large  hall  was  added.     This  is  a 
iadrangular  structure  eighty-six   feet  by   forty-three 
;t,  with  a  ground  floor  and  two  galleries  connected  by 
iro  spiral  staircases,  and  lighted  by  forty-eight  win- 
)ws.     A  second  hall  of  the  same  dimensions  has  just 
;n  completed,  and  will  soon  be  occupied.     It  is  con- 
scted  with  the  old  hall  on  each  floor  by  a  corridor  fifty- 
feet  long,  and  the  floors  and  roof  are  of  concrete,  anu 
is  intended  to  replace  those  of  the  old  hall  with  the 
ime  material  at  once.     It  is  estimated  that  the  entire 
llection  comprises  considerably  more  than  2,000,000 
imens,  attached  to  1,300,000  sheets, 
ith  the  exception  of  Carey's  North  American  her- 
rjum,    Lindley's  orchids,  and  Borrer  and  Watson's 
itish  herbaria,  the  plants  from  all  parts  of  the  world 
arranged  in  one  series,   the  genera  according  to 
jntham  and  Hooker's  "  Genera  Plantarum,"  and  the 
:ies  geographically.      It  is  unnecessary  to  enlarge 
the  value  of  a  herbarium  containing  the  types  of 
the  colonial    floras   and   other   works   issued    from 
jw— it  is  known  to  all  botanists.     The  library,  which 
present  director  has  made  his  special  care,  is  one 
■the  richest,  even  if  not  the  richest,  in  existence,  and 
admirable  condition.       It  comprises  upwards  o!" 
20,000  volumes,  besides  about  10,000  pamphlets.     The 
Government    published   a   catalogue   of    the   books    in 
iSqq,    and   annual    supplements   since.     There    is   also 
ri  separate  collection  of  about  100,000  published  figures 
iind  original  drawings  of  plants. 

W.  BoniNG  Hemslev. 


I'HK    SOUTH     AFRICAN    ASSOCIATION. 

THE  inauguration  of  the  South  African  Association 
for  the  Advancement  of  Science  took  place  at 
Cape  Town  on  April  27.  The  Cape  I  imes,  to  which 
we  are  indebted  for  the  details  of  the  proceedings,  de- 
scribes the  successful  gathering  as  a  British  Association 
meeting  in  miniature.  The  new  Association  enters 
upon  its  career  with  a  membership  of  seven  hundred 
persons  from  many  parts  of  South  Africa. 

The  main  objects  of  the  organisation  are  the  same 
as  those  of  the  parent  body.  As  defined  in  the  Con- 
stitution, they  are  "  to  give  a  stronger  impulse  and 
a  systematic  direction  to  scientific  inquiry ;  to  promote 
the  intercourse  of  societies  and  individuals  interested 
in  science  in  different  parts  of  South  Africa;  to  obtain 
.(  more  general  attention  to  the  objects  of  pure  and 
Pljlied  science,  and  the  removal  of  any  disadvantages 
t  a  public  kind  which  may  impede  its  progress." 

The  presidential  address  was  delivered  by  Sir  David 
(iill,  K.C.B.,  the  Astronomer  Royal  for  South  Africa, 
who  explained  the  nature  of  the  work  which  it  was 
hoped  the  new  Association  would  accomplish.  During 
the  course  of  his  able  address  Sir  i^avid  (iill  announced 
that  Lord  Kelvin  had  written  that,  although  in  1905 
he  will  be  eighty-one  years  of  age,  he  intends,  if  he 
is  as  well  then  as  he  is  now,  to  accompany  the  British 
Association  on  the  visit  to  South  Africa. 

The  work  of  the  sections  began  on  the  second  aay 
of  the  meeting.  The  presidential  addresses  in  the 
various  sections  were  delivered  by  the  following  men 
of  science  : — 

Section  \. — Astronomy,  Chemistry,  Mathematics, 
Meteorology,  and  Physics,  by  Prof.  P.  D.  Hahn ;  Section 
B. ^Anthropology,  Ethnology,  Bacteriology,  Botany, 
(ipography,  (leology,  Mineralogy,  and  Zoology,  by  Dr.  R. 
Marlotti  ;  ard  Section  C. — Archaeology,  Education,  Mental 
Science,  Philology,  Political  Economy,  Sociology,  and 
Statistics,  by  Dr.  Thomas  Muir,  C.M.G.,  F.R.S.,  Director 
(if  Education  for  Cape  Colony. 

Among  the  papers  read  during  the  course  of  the  meetings 
the  following  deserve  mention.     In  .Section  A,  on  ferments 

NO.    I  75  I,  VOL.   68] 


causing  "  casse  "  in  wine,  by  Mr.  Raymond  Dubois; 
meteorology  in  .South  Africa  :  a  retrospect  and  prospect,  by 
Mr.  C.  .M.  Stewart;  close  binary  systems,  by  Dr.  Alex.  W. 
Roberts;  determination  of  mean  temperature,  &c.,  from 
observations  made  at  second-order  stations  on  the  Table 
Land,  by  Mr.  J.  R.  Sutton;  some  recent  work  on  the  dis- 
charge of  electricity  from  heated  bodies,  by  Prof.  J.  C. 
Beattie. 

In  Section  B,  (i)  on  the  occurrence  of  an  epidemic  among 
the  domesticated  animals  in  Mauritius  in  which  Trypano- 
somata  were  found  in  the  blood  ;  (2)  note  on  the  co-relation 
of  several  diseases  occurring  among  animals  in  South 
Africa  ;  (3)  on  the  production  of  a  malarial  form  of  South 
African  horse  sickness,  by  Dr.  Alex.  Edington  ;  the  minerals 
of  some  South  African  granites,  by  Mr.  F.  P.  Mennell ;  on 
the  classification  of  the  Theriodonts  and  their  allies,  by 
Dr  R.  Broom ;  (i)  some  morphological  and  biological 
observations  on  the  genus  Anacampseros ;  (2)  on  some  stone 
implements  in  the  Albany  Museum,  by  Dr.  S.  Schonland. 

In  Section  C,  some  aspects  of  South  African  forestry,  by 
Mr.  D.  E.  Hutchins ;  dry  crushing  of  ore  preparatory  to 
the  extraction  of  gold,  by  Mr.  Franklin  White ;  sewage 
disposal  in  Cape  Colony,  by  Mr.  J.  Edward  Fitt. 

In  Section  D,  the  library  system  of  South  Africa  in  com- 
parison with  those  of  England  and  America,  by  Mr. 
Bertram  L.  Dyer ;  iteration  as  a  factor  in  language,  by 
Prof.  W.  Ritchie  ;  common  sense  and  examination,  by  Mr. 
P.  A.  Barnett ;  Cape  Dutch,  by  Prof.  W.  S.  Logeman  ;  how 
we  get  knowledge  through  our  senses,  by  Rev.  Dr.  F.  C. 
Kolbe. 

The  example  set  by  the  British  Association  of 
airanging  for  receptions  and  other  social  functions  to 
lighten  the  intellectual  fare  provided  was  followed  at 
Cape  Town,  and  the  excursions,  conversazioni,  &c., 
were  well  attended  and  much  appreciated. 


T' 


THE  ROYAL  SOCIETY  CONVERSAZIONE. 
HE  conversazione  held  at  the  Royal  Society  on 
Friday  last  was  attended  by  a  large  and  dis- 
tinguished company,  among  the  visitors  being  H.R.H. 
the  Prince  of  Wales  and  H.S.H.  the  Duke  of  Teck. 
There  were  numerous  exhibits  illustrating  progress  in 
various  branches  of  science,  several  of  them  being  of 
great  interest.  P'ollowing  our  usual  course,  we  abridge 
the  particulars  given  in  the  descriptive  catalogue  as  to 
the  character  and  purpose  of  the  objects  on  view. 

Sir  William  Crookes,  F.R.S.,  exhibited  objects  illustrating 
certain  properties  of  the  emanations  of  radium.  If  a  solid 
piece  of  radium  nitrate  is  brought  near  a  blende  screen,  and 
the  surface  exainined  with  a  pocket  lens  magnifying  about 
20  diameters,  scintillating  spots  are  seen  to  be  sparsely 
scattered  over  the  surface.  On  bringing  the  radium  nearer 
the  screen  the  scintillations  become  more  numerous  and 
brighter,  until  when  close  together  the  flashes  follow  each 
other  so  quickly  that  the  surface  looks  like  a  turbulent 
luminous  sea.  A  convenient  way  to  show  these  scintil- 
lations is  to  fit  the  blende  screen  at  the  end  of  a  brass  tube 
with  a  speck  of  radium  salt  in  front  of  it  and  about  a  milli- 
metre off,  and  to  have  a  lens  at  the  other  end.  Focusing, 
which  must  be  accurately  effected  to  see  the  best  effects,  is 
done  by  drawing  the  lens  tube  in  or  out.  It  is  proposed  to 
call   this  little  instrument   the   "  Spinthariscope." 

Specimens  of  brittle  gold  and  photographs  illustrating 
their  microstructure  were  shown  by  Dr.  T.  K.  Rose.  Gold 
of  the  British  imperial  standard,  containing  916  per  cent, 
of  gold  and  83  per  cent,  of  copper,  is  made  brittle  and 
unfit  for  coinage  by  the  presence  of  minute  traces  of  certain 
impurities  such  as  telluriuin,  lead,  bismuth,  &c.  Similar 
or  even  considerably  greater  quantities  of  these  elements, 
excepting  bismuth,  do  not  affect  the  ductility  of  fine  gold. 
The  deleterious  effects  of  the  impurities  are  removed  by  the 
presence  of  oxide  of  copper  dissolved  in  the  metal.  The 
changes  in  the  quality  of  coinage  bars  are  accompanied  by 
profound  changes  in  the  microstructure  of  the  metal. 

Dr.  Morris  W.  Travers  exhibited  hydrogen  thermometers 
for  measuring  low  temperatures.  The  thermometers  are 
of    the    constant-volume    type,    and    are    intended    for    the 


6o 


NATURE 


[May  2  1,  1903 


measurement  of  temperatures  between  0°  and— 253°  C.  One 
is  graduated  directly  in  degrees  on  the  hydrogen  scale,  and 
can  be  employed  for  the  direct  measurement  of  low  tem- 
peratures to  within  one  degree.  The  other  is  intended  for 
more  accurate  measurements. 

A  new  coherer,  as  applied  to  wireless  telegraphy,  was 
shown  by  Sir  Oliver  Lodge,  F.R.S.,  and  Dr.  Alexander 
Muirhead.  A  steel  wheel  rotates  so  that  its  edge  touches 
a  pool  of  mercury  through  a  film  of  oil.  (See  Froc. 
Roy.  Soc,  March.)  This  is  the  coherer,  and  its  de- 
coherence  is  automatic.  A  fraction  of  a  volt  is  used  in 
the  detecting  circuit,  which  works  a  siphon  recorder  as 
the  receiving  instrument.  The  sending  part  of  a  station, 
including  an  automatic  transmitter  and  a  "  buzzer  "  for 
carving  a  steady  current  into  intermittencies,  was  also 
shown. 

Incandescent  oil  burners  were  exhibited  by  Mr.  T. 
Matthews.  These  burners  have  been  designed  by  the 
exhibitor  primarily  for  use  in  the  Trinity  House  Light- 
house Service.  The  intensity  of  the  single  mantle  burner 
for  flashing  lights  is  iioo  candles,  and  the  consumption  of 
oil  one  pint  per  hour ;  the  intensity  of  the  triple  mantle 
burner  for  fixed  and  occulting  lights  is  2700  candles,  and 
the  consumption  of  oil  three  pints  per  hour,  the  flashing 
point  of  the  oil  being  in  each  case  from  145°  to  160° 
Fahrenheit  (close  test). 

Experiments  on  controlling  and  regulating  spark  dis- 
charges, shown  by  Mr.  Alfred  Williams,  illustrate  how  the 
use  of  a  shunt,  or  of  a  point  and  shunt,  or  of  plates  of  high 
resistance,  so  influence  the  field  in  a  spark  gap  that  the 
discharges  are  made  more  regular  and  placed  more  under 
control  for  therapeutic  and   wireless  telegraphy  purposes. 

The  "  Elasmometer,"  a  new  form  of  interference 
apparatus  for  the  determination  of  the  elasticity  of  solid 
substances,  was  exhibited  by  Mr.  A.  E.  Tutton,  F.R.S. 
The  apparatus  is  designed  to  measure  the  amount  of  bend- 
ing suffered  by  a  thin  plate  of  the  substance  investigated, 
when  supported  near  its  ends  against  a  pair  of  platinum- 
iridium  knife-edges,  under  a  weight  applied  at  its  centre. 

Prof.  A.  G.  Greenhill,  F.R.S.,  showed  a  gyroscopic  pen- 
dulum, for  lecture  experiment.  A  bicycle  wheel  is  sus- 
pended by  a  prolongation  of  its  axis  from  a  universal  joint, 
formed  with  a  hub  and  its  ball-bearings.  The  wheel  is 
rotated  by  a  stick  inserted  in  the  spokes,  and  projected  to 
illustrate  the  variety  of  gyroscopic  motion. 

Dr.  W.  Ramsden  demonstrated  by  exoeriments  and  illus- 
trated by  photomicrographs  and  specimens,  the  presence 
and  spontaneous  formation  of  solid  membranes  upon  the  free 
surfaces  of  certain  solutions.  He  also  showed  that  solid 
membranes  are  present  on  certain  bubbles. 

Aerial  photographs  were  shown  by  the  Rev.  John  M. 
Bacon.  Among  the  pictures  was  one  showing  the  sea 
bottom  at  a  depth  of  ten  fathoms  photographed  from  an 
altitude  of  600  feet. 

The  physical  sciences  were  also  represented  by  the  follow- 
ing objects  and  experiments  : — A  series  of  photographs  and 
objects  relating  to  Dr.  William  Gilbert,  of  Colchester  (1544- 
1603),  author  of  the  treatise  "  De  Magnete,"  Prof. 
Silvanus  P.  Thompson,  F.R.S.  ;  a  direct  vision  spectroscope 
of  one  kind  of  glass,  and  of  minimum  deviation  for  any 
ray  in  the  centre  of  the  field  of  view,  Mr.  T.  H.  Blakesley 
(see  p.  71) ;  apparatus  for  the  detection  and  estimation  of 
minute  quantities  of  arsenic  in  beer  and  brewing  materials, 
as  recommended  by  a  Departmental  Committee  of  the  Board 
of  Inland  Revenue,  Prof.  T.  E.  Thorpe,  C.B.,  For.Sec.R.S.  ; 
ephelkystika,  or  tractate  curves,  and  machine  for  draw- 
ing them.  Col.  Hippisley,  C.B.,  R.E.  ;  (i)  gravimetric 
recording  hvgrometer,  (2)  an  electrical  dewpoint  hygro- 
meter, Prof.  F.  T.  Trouton,  F.R.S.  ;  Calendar's  com- 
pensated barometer,  Mr.  N.  Eumorfopoulos ;  light  mirrors, 
suitable  for  galvanometers  (see  p.  72),  Mr.  W.  Watson, 
F.R.S.  ;  micrometer  for  measuring  screws,  made  for  the 
British  Association  Screw  Gauge  Committee,  the  Cam- 
bridge Scientific  Instrument  Company  ;  photographs  of  dust 
deposits.  Dr.  W.  J.  Russell,  F.R.S.  ;  examples  of  Lipp- 
mann's  process  of  photography  in  colours,  Mr.  Edwin 
Edser  and  Mr.  Edgar  Senior ;  an  experiment  illustrating 
the  conductivity  imparted  to  a  vacuum  by  hot  carbon,  Mr. 
O.  W.  Richardson  ;  a  high  pressure  spark-gap  used  in  con- 
nection with  an  inductor  of  the  Tesla  type,  and  also  in 
connection  with  a  radiator  of  Hertzian  waves.   Rev.   F.  J. 

NO.    1751.   VOL    68] 


Jervis-Smith,    F.R.S.  ;  diagrams  illustrating  the  order  and 
origin  of  the  musical  scales,  Mr.  Joseph  Goold. 

An  artificial  horizon  attachment  to  sextants,  exhibited  by 
Commander  Campbell  Hepworth,  C.B.,  consists  essentially 
of  a  contact  maker,  operated  by  a  plummet  mounted  on  a 
sextant,  and  connected  with  a  galvanic  battery.  It  is  so 
adjusted  as  to  close  the  circuit  and  ring  a  bell  when  a  slit 
or  line  on  the  horizon  glass  is  in  alignment  with  the  eye 
of  the  observer  and  the  sensible  horizon.  Observations  for 
latitude  and  longitude  at  sea  are  rendered  impossible  when 
the  natural  horizon  is  obscured  by  fog  or  mist,  although 
sun,  moon,  or  stars  may  be  shining  clearly  ;  but  with  the 
aid  of  this  instrument  the  observer  may  obtain  the  true 
altitude  of  a  heave'nly  body  v^fithin  five  minutes  of  arc. 

The  Solar  Physics  Observatory,  South  Kensington,  ex- 
hibited (i)  photographic  comparison  of  the  arc  spectra  of 
various  samples  of  dust ;  (2)  curves,  illustrating  the  long 
period  solar  and  meteorological  (rainfall)  variations  of  about 
thirty-five  years ;  (3)  photographs  of  new  curved  slit  by 
Hilg'er.  This  slit  is  used  at  the  focus  of  the  second  objective 
of  the  photo-spectro-heliograph,  and  is  intended  for  the 
isolation  of  the  K  (calcium)  line  in  the  solar  spectrum,  Nos. 
3  a  and  h. 

The  use  of  a  colour  screen  in  photographing  bright  stars 
was  illustrated  by  the  Cambridge  Observatory.  By  the  use 
of  a  yellow  spot  on  a  worked  glass  screen  in  contact  with 
the  sensitive  plate,  the  image  of  a  bright  star  can  be 
reduced  to  equality  with  the  images  of  the  comparison 
stars.  It  thus  becomes  possible  to  apply  photography  _  to 
the  determination  of  the  parallaxes  of  bright  stars,  which 
have  been  dealt  with  hitherto  almost  entirely  by  the  helio- 
meter. 

The  chromospheric  spectrum  near  the  South  Pole  of  the 
Sun  was  shown  by  Mr.  J.  Evershed.  Nebular  spectra  of 
Nova  Persei  from  May  3,  1901,  to  January  14,  1902,  with 
previous  spectra  'for  comparison,  were  illustrated  by  Mr. 
Frank  McClean,  F.R.S.  Other  exhibits  were  :— (i)  coUi- 
mating  gun  sight  for  day  and  night ;  (2)  optical  sight  for 
guns  and  rifles ;  (3)  spherometer  of  great  delicacy,  by  Dr. 
A.  A.  Common,  F.R.S. 

Methods  of  disintegrating  cells  and  microorganisms,  and 
of  obtaining  their  intracellular  constituents,  were  shown 
by  Dr.  A.  Macfadyen  and  Mr.  S.  Rowland.  In  the  first 
method  the  cells  are  disintegrated  by  the  violent  impact  of 
sand  particles  in  the  apparatus  exhibited.  In  the  second 
method  the  use  of  extraneous  disintegrating  material  is 
dispensed  with,  the  cells  or  organisms  being  disintegrated 
when  in  a  frozen  condition.  In  the  apparatus  exhibited  the 
necessary  cold  and  brittleness  are  secured  by  the  use  of 
liquid  air. 

Dr.  Leonard  Rogers  exhibited  five  specimens  of  Hydro- 
phidiE  (poisonous  sea  snakes).  These  snakes  swarm  round 
the  coasts  of  India  and  in  other  tropical  seas,  and  cause 
some  loss  of  life  among  fishermen.  Their  poison  has 
lecently  been  found  to  be  more  powerful  than  that  of  any 
other  snakes. 

Miss  E.  R.  Saunders  illustrated  interesting  cases  of  struc- 
tural atavism  resulting  from  cross-breeding.  Experiments 
(Report  Evolution  Committee,  1902)  with  stocks  suggested 
that  when  glabrous  plants  of  dissimilar  colours  are  crossed 
together,  the  offspring  might  be  hoary.  Actual  trials  have 
proved  this  to  be  true.  When  glabrous  cream  or  white 
are  crossed  with  each  other,  or  with  glabrous  plants  of  other 
colours,  the  offspring  are  all  hoary  ;  but  when  colours  other 
than  white  or  cream  are  crossed  together,  the  offspring  are 
all  glabrous. 

Fossils  in  Cambrian  quartzite  were  shown  by  Prof.  J. 
Norman  Collie,  F.R.S.  These  fossils  were  found  on  the 
surface  of  a  glacier  in  Desolation  Valley  (near  Laggan 
Railwav  Station),  Canadian  Rocky  Mountains. 

Dr.  Henry  Woodward,  F.R.S.,  exhibited  two  photographs 
of  Tetrabelodon  (Mastodon)  angustidens,  Cuvier,  from  the 
Miocene  of  Sansan,  France,  taken  from  the  skeleton  in  the 
Museum  of  Natural  History,  Paris.  This  primitive  form  of 
Mastodon  still  retains  two  pairs  of  functional  incisor  teeth 
(tusks),  one  pair  in  the  upper  and  one  pair  in  the  lower  jaw, 
the  upper  ones  being  directed  downwards.  In  modern 
elephants  only  one  pair  (the  upper)  incisors  are  present,  and 
these  are  usually  curved  upwards.  (See  Dr.  C.  W.  Andrews's 
paper,  Proc.  Roy.  Soc,  No.  474.) 

The  Royal  Geographical  Society  had  on  view  (i)  hypso- 


May  2  1,  1903] 


NATURE 


61 


metrical  and  bathymetrical  map  of  the  Western  Mediter- 
ranean and  surrounding  countries,  curved  to  show  the  figure 
of  the  earth  ;  (2)  relief  map  of  a  part  of  the  valley  of  the 
Semois  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Rochepaut,  Belgian 
Ardennes.  These  maps  have  been  prepared  under  the  direc- 
tion of  Prof.  Elisee  Reclus  by  Mr.  E.  Patesson.  The  map 
of  the  Mediterranean,  in  aluminium,  is  drawn  on  the  scale 
of  I  :  5,000,000.  It  is  curved  to  show  the  exact  figure  of 
the  earth.  Elevations  of  land  and  depths  of  water  are 
shown  by  a  system  of  contours  and  tinting.  The  second 
map  is  in  copper,  and  represents  the  relief  of  the  district 
without  exaggeration  of  the  vertical  scale,  and  with  the 
surface  features  carefully  laid  down.  Both  maps  are  in- 
tended for  educational  purposes. 

Pictures  shown  by  Mr.  Arthur  J.  Evans,  F.R.S.,  illustrated 
excavations  at  Knossos,  in  Crete,  and  included  :  (i)  general 
plan  of  the  palace,  showing  excavations  to  June,  1902,  and 
general  section,  showing  successive  terrace '  levels,  &c.  ; 
(2)  photographic  views ;  (3)  coloured  drawings  of  palace 
frescoes. 

Other  exhibits  were  chloroformed  calf  lymph  ;  method  of 
its  preparation  (from  the  Government  Lymph  Laboratories), 
Dr.  Alan  B.  Green ;  development  and  variation  of  the 
colour-pattern  in  Mexican  species  of  lizards  (Cnemidophorus 
and  Ameiva),  Dr.  H.  Gadow,  F.R.S.  ;  (i)  true  (glandular) 
hermaphroditism  in  a  domestic  fowl ;  (2)  microscopic 
sections  of  prehistoric  human  bone,  and  of  a  prehistoric 
human  urinary  calculus,  Mr.  S.  G.  Shattock.  Mimicry 
in  butterflies  from  British  East  Africa  and  Uganda, 
Mr.  S.  A.  Neave ;  specimen  of  Trypanosoma  found  by 
Dr.  Castellani  in  cerebro-spinal  fluid  from  sleeping  sick- 
ness patients  (Uganda),  Dr.  Aldo  Castellani  ;  specimens 
of  a  remarkable  radiolarian  of  complex  structure.  Dr.  G.  H. 
Fowler ;  restored  models  of  extinct  fishes,  the  Director, 
British  Museum  (Natural  History) ;  preparations  illustrat- 
ing the  cell-phenomena  met  with  in  apogamy,  Prof.  J.  B. 
Farmer,  F.R.S.,  Mr.  J.  E.  S.  Moore,  and  Miss  L.  Digby 
(see  p.  71) ;  remains  of  pigmy  elephant  and  pigmy  hippo- 
potamus obtained  from  caves  in  Cyprus,  Miss  Dorothy 
M.  A.  Bate  (see  p.  71) ;  (i)  photographs  illustrating  the  late 
eruptions  in  St.  Vincent  and  Martinique  ;  (2)  volcanic  dusts, 
ashes,  and  other  ejecta  of  the  West  Indian  volcanoes.  West 
Indies  Volcanoes  Committee  of  the  Royal  Society  ;  micro- 
graphs of  volcanic  dust  from  Mount  Soufri^re,  St.  Vincent, 
eruption,  May  8,  1902,  Mr.  Thomas  Andrews,  F.R.S.  ;  (i) 
the  experimental  demonstration  of  the  curvature  of  the 
earth's  surface  recorded  by  photography  T  (2)  photograph  of 
ship  hull-dovin  at  sea,  Mr.   H.  Yule  Oldham. 

During  the  evening  lantern  demonstrations  were  given  by 
Sir  Benjamin  Baker,  K.C.B.,  F.R.S.,  illustrative  of  the 
Nile  Dam  Works,  and  by  Prof.  Harold  B.  Dixon,  F.R.S., 
on  the  analysis  of  explosion  flames  by  photography.  The 
latter  demonstration  included  (i)  photographs  of  explosion 
flames,  taken  on  very  rapidly  moving  films,  showing  the 
genesis  of  the  explosion-wave  as  the  flame  travels  from 
the  point  of  ignition,  and  the  influence  of  reflections  from 
the  ends  of  the  tube ;  (2)  photographs  of  sound-waves 
moving  through  the  explosion-flame,  by  which  the  approxi- 
mate temperature  of  the  flame  may  be  calculated. 


COOPERATION   IN   ASTRONOMY. 

THE  suggestions  contained  in  the  subjoined  ex- 
tracts from  a  paper  by  Prof.  E.  C.  Pickering  on 
"  The  Endowment  of  Astronomical  Research,"  recently 
issued  from  Harvard  College  Observatory,  will,  we 
hope,  be  taken  up  by  one  of  the  many  generous  bene- 
factors of  science  and  higher  education  in  the  United 
States.  The  fundamental  idea  is  the  organisation  of 
the  forces  which  exist  for  the  advancement  of  know- 
ledge of  astronomy.  Many  gifts  have  been  made  to 
astronomy  in  the  United  States,  but  in  some  cases  the 
results  have  been  disappointing,  because  the  donors 
have  not  consulted  astronomers  as  to  the  best  way  to 
promote  scientific  advance. 

Imposing  observatories  are  useless  without  instru- 
ments,  and  fine  telescopes  and  spectroscopes  depend 

NO.    1751,  VOL.  68] 


upon  "  the  man  at  the  eye  end  "  for  the  return  they 
will  give  for  the  expenditure  upon  them.  To  obtain 
:  the  best  results,  the  astronomer  with  original  ideas  and 
I  progressive  spirit  should  be  placed  in  a  position  where 
he  can  carry  on  his  work  to  the  best  advantage,  and 
instruments  should  be  used  by  men  who  require  them 
for  the  increase  of  knowledge.  This  is  the  object  of 
the  plan  proposed  by  Prof.  Pickering.  Money, 
materials  and  men  available  for  astronomical  research 
are  to  be  brought  together  so  that  each  is  used  to  the 
best  advantage. 

In  the  United  States,  where  the  liberal  benefactor 
has  endowed  scientific  work  to  an  extent  unparalleled 
in  any  other  country,  the  scheme  will  probably  be  taken 
up.  Though  the  gifts  to  higher  education  and  re- 
search have  been  so  many  and  generous  in  the  past. 
Prof.  Pickering  remarks  that  owing  to  the  industrial 
prosperity  of  America  "  gifts  may  be  expected  ten 
times  as  large  as  those  of  the  last  century,  during 
which  Harvard  College  Observatory  received  three 
funds  exceeding  one,  two,  and  three  hundred  thousand 
dollars  respectively."  He  has  therefore  considered 
how  a  gift  of  one  or  two  million  dollars,  if  given  to 
Harvard  for  astronomical  purposes,  could  be  best  ex- 
pended. The  cooperative  scheme  of  work  suggested 
is  one  which  would  certainly  accelerate  progress,  and 
the  results  attained  would  "be  such  that  enlightened 
donors  could  see  and  appreciate  them. 

There  would  be  no  attempt  to  interfere  with  indepen- 
dent work ;  in  fact,  the  scheme  aims  at  promoting  such 
work  and  providing  for  the  publication  of  the  results. 
The  Carnegie  Institution  was  established  with  the 
same  objects,  and  has  already  provided  the  means  for 
carrying  on  important  inquiries  in  various  branches  of 
science.  Prof.  Pickering's  plan  is  worthy  of  the  broad 
views  associated  with  Harvard  College  Observatory, 
and  we  trust  that  means  will  be  forthcoming  to  carry 
it  into  effect.  We  reprint  part  of  the  circular  in  which 
the  plan  is  put  forward. 

The  following  outline  of  a  plan  will  show  how  a  sum  of 
fifty  to  one  hundred  thousand  dollars  annually  could  be 
advantageously  expended  for  astronomy  by  this  observatory. 
A  board  of  advisers,  consisting  of  several  of  the  leading 
astronomers  of  the  country,  would  be  appointed  which  would 
meet  once  a  vear,  or  at  first  oftener,  to  consider  how  the 
available  income  could  be  best  expended  in  order  to  receive 
the  greatest  scientific  return. 

This  board  would  consist  partly  of  the  directors  of 
observatories  who  could  expend  portions  of  the  income 
themselves,  and  partly  of  older  astronomers  who,  having 
retired  from  active  work,  could  decide  without  prejudice 
how  the  income  could  be  expended  to  the  best  advantage  by 
others.  They  would  have  authority  to  add  temporarily  to 
their  number  astronomers  who  might  be  invited  to  partici- 
pate in  any  special  work,  and  who  could  thus  take  part  in 
their  discussions  on  equal  terms.  All  expenses  of  this 
board  would  be  paid  from  the  income,  and  except  for  clerk 
hire  these  would  be  almost  the  only  executive  expenses. 
A  circular  letter  would  be  sent  to  all  astronomers,  inviting 
application  for  aid  and  suggestions  for  methods  of  expend- 
ing the  income.  If  possible,  close  relations  would  be  estab- 
lished with  the  trustees  of  all  the  research  funds  which 
could  be  used  for  astronomical  purposes,  to  increase  efficiency 
and  avoid  duplication  of  work.  The  most  important  duty 
of  the  board  of  advisers  would  be  to  consider  each  year 
what  departments  of  astronomy  were  being  neglected,  and 
to  secure  the  needed  observations,  or  if  necessary  undertake 
them  themselves,  or  see  that  they  were  made  at  Harvard. 
As  every  astronomer  is  inclined  to  undertake  the  work  which 
attracts  him  most,  especially  interesting  investigations  are 
likely  to  be  duplicated  unnecessarily,  while  laborious  or 
unattractive  investigations  are  neglected.  This  is  particu- 
larly objectionable,  since  in  astronomy,  a  science  of  observ- 
ation and  not  of  experiment,  an  opportunity  once  missed 
can  in  many  cases  never  be  recovered.  As  an  example  of 
needless  duplication,  fifty  observatories  agreed  to  observe 
the  planet  Eros  during  its  opposition   in   1900,   but,   so  far 


62 


NATURE 


[May  21,  1903 


as  known,  only  two  or  three  have  made  the  reductions 
needed  to  render  their  observations  of  any  value.  When  a 
plan  was  decided  on,  it  would  be  discussed  by  the  entire 
board,  and  it  is  obvious  that  their  combined  experience 
would  render  serious  mistakes  less  probable  than  when  all 
•depends  on  the  judgment  of  a  single  individual,  as  is  now 
the  case.  They  could  find  the  best  man  for  a  given  re- 
search, and  give  him  the  best  possible  facilities  for  carrying 
it  on.  They  could  undertake  larger  and  more  difficult  re- 
searches than  a  single  observatory  could  attempt.  It  would 
be  the  power  of  many,  instead  of  one,  and  of  large,  instead 
of  restricted,  resources.  The  opportunity  offered  to  such  a 
■board  of  advisers,  having  control  of  the  principal  instru- 
ments of  the  country  and  a  large  sum  of  money  available 
to  set  at  work  any  particular  corps  of  astronomers,  ought 
-to  secure  results  far  beyond  those  attainable  at  any  existing 
•observatory.  All  the  advantages  of  a  trust  would  be 
secured,  with  none  of  its  objections.  No  one  could  object 
to  a  trust  in  wheat,  for  example,  if  its  only  object  was  to 
increase  the  quality  and  quantity  of  the  crop,  and  to  furnish 
it  to  consumers  at  the  lowest  rates,  also  to  aid  those  not 
members  of  the  trust  in  every  possible  way.  In  the  present 
case,  these  conditions  would  be  enforced  by  a  body  of  men 
entirely  unprejudiced,  the  Corporation  of  Harvard  College. 
It  is  universally  admitted  that  in  the  industrial  arts  there 
is  a  great  advantage  in  cooperation,  and  in  carrying  on 
work  on  a  very  large  scale.  The  same  remarks  appiv  to 
scientific  investigation,  with  the  added  advantage  that'  the 
supply  and  demand  are  indefinitely  great,  so  that  the  market 
can  never  be  glutted. 

Apart  from  the  advantages  to  astronomy  of  such  a  plan 
as  is  here  outlined,  it  is  believed  that  it  would  serve  as  a 
valuable  e.xample  to  the  other  sciences,  and  the  moral  effect 
of  promoting  uniformity  of  purpose,  and  friendly  aid  to 
one  another  by  astronomers  of  all  countries,  would  en- 
courage other  donors.  An  incidental  advantage  of  this 
plan  is  that  it  could  be  tried  on  a  small  scale,  as  for  a 
single  year,  and  the  donor  could  thus  see  what  results  were 
likely  to  follow  if  he  made  the  plan  permanent. 

Of  course,  every  effort  would  be  made  to  establish  the 
closest  relations  with  astronomers  in  general,  as  the  object 
of  the  institution  could  not  be  attained  if  the  work  done  was 
not  regarded  as  advancing  astronomical  research  in  the 
best  way.  Much  might  be  accomplished  through  existing 
societies  and  periodicals.  Another  matter  of  especial  im- 
portance is  that  when  an  astronomer  is  aided  who  is  quali- 
fied to  carry  on  a  work  in  the  best  way,  no  restrictions 
should  be  made  on  the  appropriation  which  would  in  any 
way  interfere  with  his  obtaining  the  best  results. 

It  will  be  noticed  that  this  plan  differs  from  those  govern- 
ing existing  funds  for  research  in  being  active  and  not 
passive.  While  the  trustees  of  other  funds  wait  for  applica- 
tions, and  then  consider  what  appropriations  can  be  made, 
it  would  be  the  aim  of  the  advisers  of  this  fund  to  learn 
what  astronomers  desired  aid,  what  instruments  now  unused 
were  available  for  work,  and  what  valuable  material  re- 
mained unpublished  and  consequently  useless  for  lack  of 
means.  Its  special  object  would  be  to  determine  the  needs 
of  astronomers,  to  find  what  subjects  were  being  neglected, 
especially  those  the  usefulness  of  which  would  be  lost  by  de- 
lay, and,  if  possible,  to  take  the  necessary  steps  to  secure 
their  execution.  Much  might  be  done  with  existing  funds,  and 
It  IS  believed  that  the  trustees  of  such  funds  would,  in  manv 
cases,  welcome  the  means  of  expending  the  available  in- 
come to  the  best  advantage.  The  opportunities  for  good 
work  are  far  in  excess  of  the  present  means  for  supplying 
them.  Even  the  great  resources  of  the  Carnegie  Institution 
will  be  able  to  respond  to  only  a  portion  of  the  excellent 
applications  made  to  it  for  aid. 

It  is  most  important  that  unnecessary  delays  should  be 
avoided.  It  often  happens  that  an  astronomer  could  under- 
take a  piece  of  work  at  once,  perhaps  during  a  summer 
vacation,  while  after  a  delav  of  several  months  he  might 
be  unable  to  carry  it  out,  or  might  have  lost  many  of  the 
details  then  fresh  in  his  mind.  This  is  still  more  im- 
portant with  large  pieces  of  work.  A  delay  of  several  years 
may  render  a  mature  astronomer  incapable  of  completing  a 
work,  which  if  undertaken  at  once,  he  could  carry  out  with 
his  greatest  vigour  and  skill. 

These  remarks  apply  with  equal  force  to  the  present  plan 


NO.    175 1,  VOL.  68] 


of  work.  The  Harvard  Observatory  has  now  the  appli- 
ances, both  intellectual  and  physical,  for  undertaking  large 
pieces  of  work.  Several  of  the  leading  astronomers  of  the 
country  are  in  sympathy  with  such  a  plan  for  cooperation, 
so  that  the  important  methods  of  organising  and  initiating 
a  system  could  be  devised  at  the  present  time  under  very 
favourable  conditions  which  may  not  prevail  a  few  years 
hence,  although  the  plan  once  started  could  easily  be  carried 
on  by  others.  It  therefore  seems  wise  to  make  a  beginning, 
however  small,  hoping  to  show  results  that  will  lead  to  an 
early  fulfilment  of  the  entire  plan. 

The  undersigned,  therefore,  invites  the  astronomers  of 
this  and  other  countries  to  send  to  him  applications  for  aid. 
A  brief  statement  of  the  case  in  form  for  publication  should 
be  made,  generally  not  exceeding  two  hundred  words  in 
length,  with  an  estimate  of  the  cost,  and  any  additional 
necessary  details.  If  publication  is  not  desired,  it  should 
be  stated. 

The  undersigned  will  then  use  his  best  efforts  to  secure 
the  execution  of  such  of  these  plans  as  commend  themselves 
to  him,  reserving  the  right  to  omit  all  others.  If  the  list 
of  applications  received  seems  worthy  of  it,  he  will  publish 
and  distribute  it  to  possible  donors,  and  will  endeavour  to 
secure  its  publication  elsewhere.  He  will  also  bring  such 
applications  as  commend  themselves  to  him  to  the  attention 
of  the  officers  in  charge  of  the  following  research  funds, 
with  which  he  is  officially  connected  : — 

Rumford  Fund  of  the  American  Acaderny.  Principal, 
52,000  dollars.  Income  available  to  aid  American  investi- 
gators in  light  and  heat. 

Elizabeth  Thompson  Science  Fund.  Principal,  26,000 
dollars.  Income  available  for  investigators  of  all  countries 
in  all  departments  of  science.  Appropriations  seldom  ex- 
ceed 300  dollars. 

Henry  Draper  Fund  of  the  National  Academy.  Principal, 
6000  dollars.  Accumulated  income  April  15,  1902,  i5is^99 
dollars.  Available  for  investigations  in  astronomical 
physics,  by  citizens  of  the  United  States. 

Advancement  of  Astronomical  Science  Fund  of  the  Har- 
vard College  Observatory.  Principal,  70,000  dollars,  of 
which  10,000  dollars  is  now  available  as  stated  above.  In- 
come may  be  used  for  astronomers  of  any  country. 

When  we  consider  the  great  sums  at  the  disposal  of  the 
trustees  of  the  Carnegie  Institution,  and  the  large  un- 
expended balances  of  the  various  research  funds  of  the 
National  Academy,  it  is  not  probable  that  any  really  worthy 
investigation  requiring  only  a  few  hundred  dollars  for  its 
execution  need  fail  for  want  of  such  a  sum. 

There  is  another  direction  in  which  the  writer  believes 
that  a  great  astronomical  return  could  be  obtained  for  a 
reasonable  expenditure  of  money,  some  of  which  is  already 
available.  There  are,  in  the  United  States,  many  tele- 
scopes of  large  size,  which  are  now  in  use  during  only  a 
small  portion  of  every  clear  night.  It  is  believed  that  in 
many  cases  advanced  students  in  astronomy  would  be  glad 
to  undertake  systematic  observations  with  such  instruments 
for  a  salary  equivalent  to  a  fellowship.  They  would  thus 
be  enabled  to  continue  their  studies,  and  at  the  same  time 
make  valuable  additions  to  our  knowledge  of  astronomy. 

Larger  investigations  may  be  carried  on  by  the  Carnegie 
Institution  or  by  private  gift.  For  such  investigations  the 
undersigned  offers  assistance  to  prospective  donors,  t'/  ihey 
desire  it.  He  will  in  that  case  secure  for  them  the  opinions 
of  the  leading  astronomers  of  the  country  regarding  any 
proposed  investigation.  A  wealthy  man,  when  making  a 
large  investment  in  an  industrial  enterprise  with  which  he 
was  not  familiar,  would  always  obtain  the  opinion  of  an 
expert,  for  which  he  would  often  pay  a  large  sum.  How 
much  more  important  is  it  in  a  subject  like  astronomy,  with 
which  he  is  likely  to  be  still  less  familiar,  that  he  should 
learn  the  views,  which  would  be  given  freely  and  without 
charge,  of  the  principal  experts  in  the  country  who  have 
devoted  their  entire  lives  to  the  consideration  of  these 
subjects. 

In  brief,  it  is  proposed  to  establish  an  institution  in  connec- 
tion with  the  Harvard  Observatory  the  aim  of  which  should 
be  to  advance  astronomy  as  much  as  possible  by  making 
appropriations  under  the  combined  advice  of  the  leading 
astronomers  of  the  country.  Much  attention  would  be  paid 
to  neglected  subjects,   especially  to  those  which   cannot  be 


May  2  1,  1903] 


NATURE 


63 


provided  for  by  later  observations,  to  secure  for  persons 
properly  qualified  the  use  of  powerful  telescopes  now  idle 
and  therefore  useless,  and,  in  general,  to  secure  for  the 
person  best  qualified  for  any  given  research  the  best  possible 
means  of  carrying  it  on.  It  would  provide  means  for  co- 
operation, and  would  aim  at  the  advancement  of  astronomy, 
regardless  of  country  or  any  personal  considerations.  The 
cost  of  this  plan,  if  fully  carried  out,  would  be  less  than 
that  of  a  first-class  observatory,  and  it  could  be  fairly  tried 
for  a  short  time  at  a  moderate  expense.  For  success,  it 
must  be  wholly  unselfish  and  this  condition  permanently 
secured,  the  investments  must  be  safe,  and  the  net  income 
large.  It  is  believed  that  no  guardian  would  more  surely 
fulfil  these  conditions  than  the  Corporation  of  Harvard 
College.  Edward  C.  Pickering. 


THE  ROYAL  VISIT  TO  GLASGOW. 
'IP  HE  laying-  of  the  memorial  stone  of  the  new  build- 
-*-  ings  for  the  Glasgow  and  West  of  Scotland 
Technical  College  by  His  Majesty  King  Edward  on 
Thursday,  May  14,  'is  a  gratifying  indication  of  the 
importance  now  attached  to  an  efficient  system  of 
technical  education.  The  ceremony  at  the  College  was 
the  first  item  on  the  programme  of  the  Royal  visit  to 
the  city,  and,  except  as  regards  the  weather,  which 
was  more  lavish  of  the  April  shower  than  the  May  sun- 
shine, was  most  successfully  carried  out.  An  hour 
before  the  arrival  of  the  King  and  Queen  upwards  of 
4000  guests  had  assembled  on  the  site  of  the  new  build- 
ings, and  their  Majesties,  on  stepping  on  to  the  royal 
platform,  received  a  most  loyal  welcome.  Lord 
Balfour  of  Burleigh,  the  minister  in  attendance  on  the 
King,  introduced  to  His  Majesty  Mr.  W.  R.  Copland, 
the  chairman  of  the  Governors  of  the  College,  and  Mr. 
I).  Barclay,  the  architect  of  the  new  buildings,  and 
the  laying  of  the  memorial  stone  was  immediately 
proceeded  with.  In  thanking  His  Majesty,  Mr. 
Copland  recalled  the  fact  that,  so  long  ago  as  188 1,  on 
the  laying  of  the  memorial  stone  of  the  Central 
Technical  College  of  the  City  and  Guilds  of  London, 
His  Majesty  was  pleased  to  recognise  the  importance 
of  educating  persons  destined  to  take  part  in  me  pro- 
ductive industries  of  the  kingdom,  and  referred  to  the 
training  of  the  intelligence  of  the  industrial  community 
as  the  great  factor  in  retaining  the  position  of  Britain 
as  a  manufacturing  nation.  The  King,  in  reply,  ex- 
pressed the  great  pleasure  it  had  given  him  to  lay  the 
memorial  stone ;  he  had  long  recognised  the  import- 
ance of  the  work  done  by  institutions  of  this  kind,  and 
hoped  the  building  now  to  be  erected  would  realise  to 
the  full  the  expectations  of  the  governors. 

In  the  course  of  the  day  their  Majesties  visited  the 
I'niversitv,  the  foundation'stone  of  which  they  had  laid 
on  October  8,  1868.  The  Very  Rev.  R.  H.  Story, 
D.D.,  Principal  and  Vice-Chancellor  of  the  University, 
the  professors,  lecturers  and  demonstrators,  and  a  large 
body  of  graduates  were  assembled  in  front  of  the 
magnificent  building  on  Gilmorehill,  and  in  the  name 
of  the  University  the  principal  presented  an  address 
to  His  Majesty.  In  the  address  it  was  noted  that, 
I  xcept  on  two  occasions,  in  1849  and  in  1888,  when 
Oueen  Victoria  visited  Glasgow,  no  Sovereign  of 
Great  Britain  had  seen  this  University  since  King 
James  \'I.  visited  it  on  his  return  to  his  ancient 
kingdom  after  succeeding  to  the  throne  of  England. 
In  his  reply  the  King  expressed  his  great  gratification 
at  having  an  opportunity,  accompanied  bv  the  Queen, 
of  renewing  his  acquaintance  with  the  ancient 
University;  he  was  deeply  interested  in  the  allusions 
to  the  visits  of  his  predecessor  King  James  VI. 
and  of  his  august  and  beloved  mother.  Queen 
Victoria ;  he  recalled  with  satisfaction  his  own  ^hare 


NO,    175 1,  VOL.  68] 


in  laying  the  foundation  stone  of  the  noble  building, 
and  he  earnestly  desired  that  this  and  other  universities 
as  schools  of  higher  learning  might  grow  and  prosper, 
and  so  advance  the  material  progress  of  his  people. 

After  His  Majesty  had  replied  to  the  address,  the 
Deans  of  Faculties  were  presented  to  him  by  Lord 
Balfour. 


The  constitution  under  which  the  Glasgow  and  West  of 
Scotland  Technical  College  is  now  working  dates  from 
1886,  but  the  institution  itself  had  its  origin  in  Anderson's 
College,  which  was  founded  in  1796  under  the  will  of  John 
Anderson,  M.A.,  F.R.S.,  professor  of  natural  philosophy  in 
the  University  of  Glasgow,  and  is  thus  certainly  the  oldest 
institution  of  the  kind  in  Great  Britain,  and  probably  in 
the  world.  Prof.  Anderson  was  in  many  respects  a  remark- 
able man.  The  idiosyncrasies  of  his  character  brought  him 
into  frequent  conflict  with  his  colleagues  in  the  University, 
but  it  is  more  pleasant  to  record  that  he  seems  to  have  been 
deeply  impressed  with  the  importance  to  the  industries  of 
the  city  of  awakening  in  masters  and  workmen  an  in- 
telligent interest  in  the  scientific  aspects  of  their  trade,  tie 
made  frequent  visits  to  the  local  workshops,  and  took  great 
pains  to  make  himself  familiar  with  local  industries.  It 
is  well  known  that  when  James  Watt  had  difficulties  put 
in  his  way  by  the  incorporation  of  hammermen  of  Glasgow 
he  was  appointed  mathematical  instrument  maker  to  the 
University,  and  it  was  Anderson  with  whom  he  was  most 
closely  associated  in  this  post.  In  furtherance  of  his  aims 
Prof.  Anderson  inaugurated  classes  in  the  University 
designed  to  attract  employers  and  workmen  as  well  as  the 
ordinary  university  students,  and  these  he  carried  on  until 
his  death  in  1796.  At  the  present  day,  when  technical 
education  has  assumed  such  a  prominent  position  in  the 
public  mind,  it  is  but  fair  to  recall  with  gratitude  the  work 
of  the  man  who  may  be  justly  named  its  pioneer. 

On  his  death  Prof.  Anderson  bequeathed  all  his  means 
"  to  the  public,  for  the  good  of  mankind  and  the  improve- 
ment of  science,  in  an  institution  to  be  denominated 
'Anderson's  University.'"  He  directed  that  the  manage- 
ment of  the  institution  was  to  be  vested  in  the  Board  of 
Trustees  constituted  under  his  will,  and  this  Board  con- 
tinued in  existence  until  1886,  when  the  institution  was 
incorporated  in  the  Glasgow  and  West  of  Scotland  Technical 
College. 

The  first  chair  created  was  that  of  chemistry  and  natural 
philosophy,  and  was  occupied  by  Dr.  Thomas  Garnett  until 
1799,  when  he  was  called  to  fill  the  first  professorship  in 
the  Royal  Institution.  His  successor  in  Glasgow  was  Dr. 
George  Birkbeck,  who  formed  a  special  class  for  "  the 
gratuitous  instruction  of  the  operatives  of  Glasgow  in 
mechanical  and  chemical  philosophy,"  in  the  belief  that 
"  men  should  be  taught  the  principles  of  the  arts  they 
practise."  This  class,  which  was  named  "  the  Mechanics' 
Class,"  separated  in  1823  from  Anderson's  College  and  took 
the  title  of  "  Mechanics'  Institution,"  the  first  of  the  many 
mechanics'  institutions  that  marked  the  movement  for  the 
scientific  education  of  artisans.  In  1881  the  Glasgow 
Mechanics'  Institution  changed  its  title  to  that  of  "  The 
College  of  Science  and  Arts,"  and  continued  to  maintain 
a  separate  existence  until  it  was  merged  with  the  parent 
institution  in  the  present  Technical  College. 

The  names  of  many  eminent  men  are  associated  with 
Anderson's  College.  Among  its  professors  were  Dr. 
.'\ndrew  Ure,  author  of  "  The  Dictionary  of  Arts  and 
Manufactures";  Dr.  Thomas  Graham,  afterwards  Master 
of  the  Mint,  for  whom  the  honour  is  claimed  of  establishing 
the  first  laboratory  for  public  instruction  in  chemistry  in 
Great  Britain  ;  Dr.  Thorpe,  the  present  Director  of  the 
Government  Laboratories  ;  Dr.  W.  Dittniar  ;  and  Dr.  G. 
Carey  Foster,  the  present  Principal  of  I'liivprsily  College, 
London.  Among  its  sliulcnt^  were  Dr.  Livingstone;  Lord 
Playfair;  Dr.  James  ^■()llnl;,  the  IouikI.m  of  the  Scottish 
oil  industry;  and  Sir  J.  II. dilboit,  of  Ruthamsted.  Lord 
Kelvin  and  his  brother.  Prof.  James  Thomson,  were  students 
of  the  Mechanics'  Institution. 

In  1886,  by  an  Order  of  Her  late  Majesty,  Queen  Victoria, 
in  Council,  Anderson's  College,  the  College  of  Science  and 
Arts,  the  "  Young  "  Chair  of  Technical  Chemistry — founded 


64 


NATURE 


[May  2  1,  190- 


in  connection  with  Anderson's  College  by  its  then  president. 
Dr.  James  Young,  referred  to  above — Allan  Glen's  Institu- 
tion, and  the  Atkinson  Institution  were  amalgamated  to 
form  the  Glasgow  and  West  of  Scotland  Technical  College. 
The  main  object  of  the  governors  of  the  reconstituted  in- 
stitution has  been  from  the  first  "  to  afford  a  suitable  educa- 
tion to  those  who  wished  to  qualify  themselves  for  follow- 
ing an  industrial  profession  or  trade  "  ;  it  is  not  the  purpose 
of  the  College  to  supersede  the  ordinary  apprenticeship,  but 
rather  to  supplement  it,  and  the  courses  for  day  students 
in  engineering  are  arranged  to  permit  of  their  spending 
the  summer  months  in  serving  part  of  their  apprenticeship, 
while  devoting  the  winter  months  to  college  work. 

The  maintenance  of  the  institution  entails  an  annual 
expenditure  of  about  25,000/.,  derived  in  appro.vimately 
equal  proportions  from  endowments,  students'  fees.  Govern- 
ment grants,  and  grants  from  the  Corporation  of  Glasgow 
and  other  public  bodies. 

The  College  work  has  hitherto  been  conducted  in  the 
buildings  formerly  occupied  by  the  amalgamated  institu- 
tions and  in  hired  premises  scattered  over  the  centre  of  the 
city,  but  these  have  long  been  inadequate,  and  for  some 
years  it  has  been  necessary  to  refuse  admission  to  hundreds 
of  students  for  lack  of  room.  So  serious  is  the  want  of 
accommodation  that  a  gift  of  5000Z.  by  Mrs.  John  Elder 
to  make  provision  for  lectures  of  a  popular  character  on 
descriptive  astronomy  cannot  be  utilised  under  existing  con- 
ditions, and  contemplated  extensions  in  other  directions 
are  meanwhile  impossible  for  similar  reasons.  In 
December,  1900,  a  meeting  of  the  citizens  was  convened 
by  the  Lord  Provost  of  Glasgow  to  consider  the  scheme 
which  the  Governors,  after  full  deliberation  on  the  various 
alternatives,  had  adopted  for  the  erection  of  new  buildings. 
A  committee  was  formed  to  obtain  subscriptions,  and  in 
less  than  two  years  a  sum  of  nearly  i8o,oooZ.  was  raised. 

The  Governors  appointed  Mr.  David  Barclay,  F.R.I.B.A., 
to  be  their  architect,  and  they  are  satisfied  that  he  has 
designed  buildings  admirably  adapted  to  the  purpose  in 
view.  They  will  consist  of  five  large  wings,  two  being 
parallel  to  George  Street ;  the  other  three  will  be  placed 
at  right  angles  to  them,  and  parallel  to  Montrose  Street. 
The  walls  facing  the  streets  will  be  of  red  Dumfriesshire 
stone  ;  all  the  other  exterior  walls  will  be  of  white  enamelled 
brick,  thus  securing  a  surface  which  will  give  the  greatest 
amount  of  light  to  the  rooms  facing  the  three  interior 
courts. 

The  following  table  indicates  the  main  departments  of 
the  College,  and,  approximately,  the  space  (in  square  feet) 
allotted  to  each  : — mathematics,  5500 ;  natural  philosophy, 
10,400 ;  chemistry,  16,500 ;  technical  chemistry,  7500 ; 
mechanics,  10,000 ;  machine  design,  10,000 ;  prime  movers, 
15,100;  metallurgy,  4800;  electrical  engineering,  15,900; 
practical  engineering,  4000 ;  mining  and  geology,  3400 ; 
architecture  and  building  construction,  7700 ;  biology, 
3200  ;  industrial  arts,  4000  ;  workshops,  7900  ;  bakery  school, 
2100;  administration,  library,  general  class-rooms,  &c., 
37,000. 

The  prime  movers  laboratory,  the  dynamo  laboratory, 
and  the  practical  engineering  laboratory  will  be  placed  at 
the  bottom  of  the  interior  courts,  and  will  be  lighted  entirely 
from  glass  roofs.  The  chemical  departments  will  occupy 
practically  the  whole  of  the  top  floor,  and  will  contain 
several  large  laboratories  and  other  similar  rooms  set  apart 
for  special  purposes.  The  plan  of  confining  each  depart- 
ment to  one  floor  has  been  followed  throughout,  with  a  view 
to  promote  efficiency  in  working. 

The  buildings  will  be  the  largest  of  the  kind  in  Great 
Britain,  and  will  cover  nearly  two  acres ;  their  cost,  with 
the  site,  but  exclusive  of  the  equipment,  will  amount  to 
about  2io,oooL  Meantime,  contracts  have  been  made  for 
the  erection  of  the  first  section  of  the  buildings,  comprising 
nearly  three-fourths  of  the  whole. 

The  inadequacy  of  the  present  buildings  for  the  work  of 
a  technical  institution  has  been  long  felt  by  teachers  and 
students,  but  there  are  many  scattered  all  over  the  world 
who  have  a  grateful  remembrance  of  the  instruction  and 
guidance  they  obtained  in  these  old-fashioned  rooms ;  there 
is  every  reason  to  hope  that  with  improved  facilities  for 
work  there  will  be  quickened  zeal  to  take  advantage  of 
them.  G.  A.  G. 


NO.    I  75  I,  VOL.   68] 


NOTES. 

We  are  glad  to  know  that  steps  have  been  taken  to  secure 
and  erect  a  memorial  of  the  late  Sir  George  Stokes  in 
Westminster  Abbey.  At  a  meeting  of  a  joint  committee 
of  the  University  of  Cambridge  and  the  Royal  Society,  held 
on  March  12,  the  Duke  of  Devonshire  being  in  the  chair, 
it  was  resolved  that  the  authority  of  the  Dean  and  Chapter 
of  Westminster  be  requested  to  place  a  medallion  relief 
portrait  of  Sir  George  Stokes  in  the  Abbey  of  the  same 
general  character  as  the  memorials  of  Darwin  and  other 
scientific  men  already  there.  A  letter  has  since  been 
received  from  the  Dean  of  Westminster  expressing  his- 
general  assent  to  the  proposal  and  his  willingness  to  take 
detailed  plans  into  consideration.  Mr.  Hamo  Thornycroft, 
R.A.,  has  undertaken  to  prepare  a  medallion,  the  material 
to  be  bronze,  and  the  head  to  be  in  high  relief.  It  is- 
estimated  that  the  cost  of  placing  this  memorial  in  West- 
minster Abbey  will  be  about  400Z.,  and  as  there  are  doubt- 
less many  admirers  of  Stokes  who  would  like  to  contribute 
to  the  fund  being  raised  for  the  purpose  of  the  memorial 
to  him,  a  subscription  list  has  been  opened.  The  treasurers 
of  the  fund  are  the  Vice-Chancellor  of  the  University  of 
Cambridge  and  the  treasurer  of  the  Royal  Society.  Sub- 
scriptions should  be  made  payable  to  Messrs.  Barclay  and 
Co.,  Ltd.,  and  should  be  sent  either  to  them  at  their  Cam- 
bridge branch    or  to  the  treasurer  of  the  Royal  Society. 

The  two  gold  Hofmann  medals,  established  in  1888  in 
connection  with  the  seventieth  birthday  of  August  Wilhelm 
von  Hofmann,  for  award  to  distinguished  foreign  men  of 
science,  have  been  conferred  by  the  German  Chemical 
Society  upon  Prof.  Henri  Moissan  and  Sir  William  Ramsay. 

The  centenary  of  the  announcement  of  the  atomic  theory 
by  Dalton  was  celebrated  at  Manchester  on  Tuesday  and 
Wednesday.  We  propose  to  publish  an  account  of  the 
celebration  in  our  next  number  with  an  article  upon  the 
atomic  theory. 

The  Royal  Society  of  Edinburgh  will  hold  a  conversazione 
in  the  rooms  of  the  Royal  Institution,  Edinburgh,  on 
Saturday,  June  6. 

An  International  Exhibition  will  be  opened  at  Athens  on 
June  3,  and  will  last  six  months.  The  British  exhibits,  as 
at  present  arranged,  will  occupy  500  square  metres,  and  will 
consist  mainly  of  engines,  ship-models,  and  guns. 

The  Central  News  Agency  reports  that,  according  to  a 
despatch  from  the  city  of  Mexico,  the  Colima  volcano  is- 
again  in  active  eruption. 

During  the  week  beginning  June  i,  Prof.  J.  J.  Thomson, 
F.R.S.,  Cavendish  professor  of  experimental  physics  in  the 
University  of  Cambridge,  will,  says  Science,  give  a  course 
of  lectures  in  the  physical  laboratory  of  the  Johns  Hopkins 
University  on  "  A  Theory  of  the  Arc  and  Spark  Discharges." 

Mr.  W.  L.  Sclater  left  England  last  week  to  resume  his 
duties  as  director  of  the  South  African  Museum  at  Cape 
Town.  Before  his  departure  he  was  presented  with  an 
address  signed  by  nearly  six  hundred  members  of  the  Zoo- 
logical Society,  testifying  to  the  tact  and  ability  shown  by 
him  while  occupying  the  post  of  secretary,  to  which  he  was 
provisionally  elected. 

A  MARBLE  bust  of  George  Stephenson  was  unveiled  at  the 
railway  station  at  Rome  on  April  23.  The  bust  was  pre- 
sented by  the  Institution  of  Civil  Engineers  to  the  munici- 
pality of  Rome  as  a  supplement  to  the  tablet  placed  in  the 
vestibule  of  the  railway  station  at  Rome  in  1881  to  com- 
memorate the  centenary  of  the  birth  of  the  father  of  the 
railway  system. 


May  21,  1903] 


NATURE 


65 


A  GENERAL  meeting  of  the  British  Academy  was  held  on 
May  14,  Lord  Reay,  the  president,  being  in  the  chair. 
Papers  were  read  by  Dr.  Edward  Caird,  Master  of  Balliol 
College,  Oxford,  on  "  Idealism  and  the  Theory  of  Know- 
ledge," and  by  Prof.  W.  M.  Ramsay  on  "  The  Importance 
of  a  Systematic  Exploration  of  Asia  Minor  (in  conjunction 
with  the  recently  formed  societies  for  the  same  purpose  in 
Austria  and  in  Germany)." 

We  regret  to  record  the  death,  on  May  12,  of  Mr.  William 
Talbot  Avcline,  at  the  age  of  eighty-one.  He  was  engaged 
on  the  staff  of  the  Geological  Survey  under  De  la 
Beche,  as  long  ago  as  1840.  His  early  field-work  was 
carried  on  in  the  region  of  the  Mendip  Hills  and  in  South 
Wales ;  subsequently  in  many  parts  of  North  Wales,  the 
western  and  midland  counties  of  England,  he  personally 
surveyed  large  areas,  while  in  later  years  he  was  called  on 
to  superintend  the  field-work  in  the  Lake  District.  The 
maps  and  sections  of  the  Geological  Survey,  especially  in 
Silurian  regions,  form  the  chief  records  of  his  labours,  for 
he  wrote  but  little.  He  became  a  fellow  of  the  Geological 
Society  in  1848,  and  in  1894  he  was  awarded  the  Murchison 
medal  in  appreciation  of  his  long-continued  and  careful 
labours  in  field-geology. 

We  learn  from  the  Athenaeum  that  a  Norwegian  ex- 
pedition, commanded  by  Captain  Roald  Amundsen,  left 
Christiania  a  few  days  ago  with  the  object  of  fixing  the 
■exact  situation  of  the  magnetic  North  Pole.  The  party  are 
expected  to  be  absent  for  four  years,  the  route  taken  being 
by  Lancaster  Sound,  Boothia  Felix,  where  a  magnetic 
observatory  will  be  established  for  a  period  of  two  years 
under  control  of  two  members  of  the  scientific  staff,  and 
back  by  the  North-West  Passage,  Victoria  Land,  and  the 
Behring  Straits. 

On  Tuesday  next,  May  26,  Prof.  E.  J.  Garwood  delivers 
the  first  of  two  lectures  at  the  Royal  Institution  on  "  Ihe 
Work  of  Ice  as  a  Geological  Agent  "  ;  on  Thursday,  May 
:28,  Prof.  J.  A.  Fleming  commences  a  course  of  two  lectures 
on  "  Electric  Resonance  and  Wireless  Telegraphy  " ;  and 
on  Saturday,  May  30,  Prof.  S.  P.  Thompson  begins  a  course 
of  two  lectures  on  "  The  '  De  Magnete  '  and  its  Author." 
The  Friday  evening  discourse  on  May  29  will  be  delivered 
by  His  Highness  the  Prince  of  Monaco  on  "  The  Progress 
of  Oceanography,"  and  on  June  5  by  Prof.  H.  H.  Turner 
on  "  The  New  Star  in  Gemini."  The  extra  discourse  on 
June  19  win  be  delivered  in  French  by  Prof.  Pierre  Curie 
on  "  Radium." 

A  Paris  correspondent  states  that  on  May  8,  a  balloon 
built  for  MM.  Lebaudy  made  a  notable  performance.  The 
balloon  left  the  Moisson  Aerodrome  in  the  morning  and  re- 
turned to  it  after  having  navigated  round  Mantes  at  a  dis- 
tance of  10  kilometres.  The  performance  was  executed  in 
ih.  36m.  by  a  circuitous  way  the  length  of  which  has  been 
estimated  as  37  kilometres.  The  length  of  the  air-ship  is 
56  metres,  and  the  volume  2300  cubic  metres.  The  engine 
is  a  40  horse-power.  There  were  two  persons  on  board, 
M.  Juchm^s,  a  well-known  professional  aeronaut,  and  a 
mechanician.  The  peculiarity  of  the  balloon  is  that  it  has 
two  screws  working  in  the  central  part,  and  not  a  single 
propeller  at  some  distance  behind.  There  are  two  rudders 
behind  at  a  distance  of  about  20  metres  from  the  car,  one  for 
the  vertical  motion  and  the  other  for  movement  in  a  hori- 
zontal direction. 

During  the  course  of  his  speech  at  the  opening  of  the 
Johnston   Laboratories  of  the  University  College  of  Liver- 
pool, of  which  a  short  account  was  given  in  these  columns 
last   week,    the   President  of  the   Local   Government    Board 
NO.    175  I,  VOL.   68] 


made  it  clear  that  he  at  least  understands  fully  the  im- 
portant part  science  has  taken  in  the  work  of  civilisation 
and  progress.  Mr.  Long  said  that  so  long  as  he  had  the 
honour  to  occupy  the  position  he  now  held  he  would  do  his 
best  to  secure  on  behalf  of  the  Government  of  the  day  the 
utmost  assistance  that  could  be  given  to  the  advancement 
of  science  in  all  parts  of  the  country.  It  seemed  to  him  that 
the  connection  was  very  close  between  the  development  of 
science,  and  especially  of  that  form  of  science  which  was 
known  as  preventive  medicine,  and  the  commerce  for  which 
this  great  country  was  so  justly  famous.  There  is  no  doubt 
of  this  intimate  interdependence  of  scientific  knowledge  and 
commercial  success,  and  Mr.  Long  did  well  to  commend 
the  people  of  Liverpool  for  having  raised  by  donations  to 
university  education  the  sum  of  200,000/. 

At  the  anniversary  meeting  of  the  Royal  Geographical 
Society  on  Monday,  the  medals  and  awards  which  are 
given  annually  for  the  encouragement  of  geographical 
science  and  discovery,  and  have  already  been  announced 
(March  19,  p.  469),  were  presented.  In  the  course  of  an 
address  the  president  said  that  Captain  Sverdrup,  in  com- 
pleting our  knowledge  of  the  Parry  archipelago,  had  also 
completed  our  general  knowledge  of  Arctic  geography. 
The  whole  problem  of  Arctic  geography  had  now  been 
solved.  There  were  many  isolated  pieces  of  work  that 
would  have  to  be  undertaken,  but  none  which  would  justify 
the  dispatch  of  an  expedition  on  a  large  scale.  With 
regard  to  the  Antarctic  regions,  he  said  that  the  German 
expedition  had  the  great  advantage  of  having  selected  one 
of  the  two  best  routes  for  Antarctic  discovery.  After  giving 
a  short  summary  of  the  position  of  the  British  expedition, 
the  president  said  that  the  Morning  must  go  south  again 
next  December,  and  for  this  purpose  funds,  amounting  to 
perhaps  15,000/.,  must  be  provided. 

The  fall  of  dust  between   February   21    and   23   last  was 
observed    over    such    an    exceptionally    extensive    area    of 
Europe,     from    Ireland    eastward    into    Austria,     that    the 
phenomenon  has  attracted  more  than  usual  attention,   and 
already  a  number  of  papers  dealing  with   local   falls  have 
been   written.     On   the   May  pilot  chart,   just   published  by 
the  Meteorological  Office,   there  is,   however,   an  extremely 
interesting  map  of  the  area  from  the  Equator  to  55°  N.,  and 
from  40°  W.  to  20°  E.,  exhibiting  at  a  glance  the  distribu- 
tion   of    dust    or    sand,    of    mist,    haze    or    fog,    the    mean 
barometric  pressure  for  the  five  days     February   18  to   22, 
and   the  wind   direction   recorded   by  observers  out   at   sea. 
The  accompanying  letterpress  shows  that  prior  to  the  dust 
reaching  Europe,   sandstorms  had   interfered  with  the  pro- 
gress of  the  British  Boundary  Commission  in  Nigeria,  south 
of  the  Sahara,  and  had  also  been  experienced  on  the  northern 
edge  of  the  Sahara.     At  sea,  off  Africa,  ships  were  hampered 
in    their   movements   by   the   obscuration    due   to    the   great 
quantities  of  sand  in  the  air,  from  the  Gulf  of  Guinea  to 
30°  W.  and  up  to  the  Azores.     The  map  shows  very  clearly 
that    the   wind    about   the   Canaries,    becoming    easterly    to 
south-easterly  in  direction  on  February   19,  drove  the  dust- 
cloud    to   west   and   north-west,    and    near   the   Azores,    the 
wind   being  south-westerly,    the  cloud   was  quickly   carried 
north-eastward  to  England  and  Europe.     It  is  deserving  of 
notice  that,  according  to  the  log  of  the  R.M.S.  Briton,  keep- 
ing near  the  African  coast,  the  sand  was  very  dense,  "  huge 
quantities  of  red  dust,"  with  the  wind  at  north-east,   but 
a   temporary   change   to   south-south-west   for   ten    minutes 
cleared  the  air  immediately.     On  the  wind  going  back  into 
north-east,   the  sandstorm  came  over  again.     The  steamer 
Kirkby,  on  the  other  hand,  running  westward  from  Madeira, 
had  the  dust  fall  with  a  south-east  wind  ;   when  the  wind 
changed  to  north  the  dust  ceased. 


66 


NATURE 


[May  2  1.  1903 


A  CORRESPONDENT  of  the  Ttmes,  writing  from  St.  Vincent 
on  April  22,  gives  some  interesting  particulars  of  the 
Soufri^re  eruption  of  that  date.  Soon  after  daylight,  he 
observed  that  inside  of  a  quarter  of  an  hour  the  enormous 
umbrella-like  steam-cloud  spread  out  enormously.  At  this 
time  no  noise  was  noticeable  in  the  town.  A  little  later, 
violent  explosions  occurred  at  frequent  intervals.  It  soon 
became  quite  dark,  but,  following  previous  cases,  every- 
thing began  to  go  in  the  direction  of  Barbados.  Fine 
metallic  dust  fell  until  next  day,  black  and  gritty,  apparently 
magnetite.  Chateaubelair  did  not  suffer  this  time  except 
for  another  deposit  of  sand  and  small  stones.  Georgetown 
suffered  much,  and  large  stones  fell  throughout  the  Carib 
country. 

Much  discussion  has  recently  taken  place  with  reference 
to  the  behaviour  of  the  Weston  galvanic  cell  as  a  standard 
of  electromotive  force.  The  observed  anomalies  appear  to 
be  dependent  upon  the  behaviour  of  the  particular  concentra- 
tion (14-3  per  cent.)  of  the  cadmium  amalgam  previously 
recommended  for  the  standard  form  of  the  instrument,  and 
are  not  connected  with  any  change  in  the  condition  of  the 
cadmium  sulphate  which  enters  into  the  composition  of  the 
cell.  It  seems  to  be  now  definitely  established  that  with 
less  concentrated  cadmium  amalgams  the  Weston  element 
gives  quite  normal  and  trustworthy  indications. 

In  the  Sitzungsberichte  der  Berliner  Akademie  Profs. 
Holborn  and  Austin  describe  some  important  experiments 
on  the  loss  of  weight  of  the  platinum  metals  when  heated 
to  temperatures  of  1000°  to  1500°  C.  by  means  of  an  electric 
current.  In  the  case  of  platinum,  rhodium  and  iridium 
this  loss  of  weight  only  takes  place  in  an  atmosphere  con- 
taining oxygen,  and  is  probably  due  to  a  chemical  change. 
With  palladium  the  phenomenon  is  independent  of  the 
nature  of  the  surrounding  gas,  but  depends  very  consider- 
ably on  the  pressure,  the  rate  of  loss  of  weight  increasing 
as  the  pressure  of  the  gas  decreases.  The  behaviour  of 
palladium  agrees  with  the  supposition  that  the  loss  of 
weight  is  simply  due  to  sublimation. 

We  have  received  from  Dr.  Jansen  a  short  summary  of 
the  work  already  accomplished  in  the  preparation  of  the 
"  Technolexicon, "  to  which  we  have  referred  on  one  or  two 
occasions  recently.  Up  to  the  present  assistance  has  been 
received  from  341  societies  and  more  than  2000  industrial 
establishments  and  individuals.  Of  the  societies,  272  are 
German,  42  English  and  American,  and  27  French. 
An  analysis  of  existing  dictionaries,  catalogues,  &c.,  has 
given  a  list  of  something  like  one  and  a  quarter  million 
words,  and  it  is  expected  that  a  large  number  more  will  be 
obtained  from  the  note-books  of  collaborators,  which  will 
be  called  in  during  1904.  It  is  not  expected  that  the 
dictionary  will  be  ready  for  printing  until  the  end  of  1906. 

Prof.  Ladislaus  Natanson  has  published  in  the  Journal 
of  Physical  Chemistry  for  February  a  lecture  delivered 
before  the  Cracow  Academy  of  Sciences  on  "  Inertia 
and  Coercion."  The  author  considers  that  the  phenomena 
of  nature  can  be  divided  into  two  classes,  those  which  bear 
a  character  of  permanence,  and  those  which  tend  to  subside. 
Under  the  first  category  he  places  the  motions  considered  in 
the  ideal  systems  of  rational  dynamics,  and  the  equilibria  of 
classical  thermodynamics.  There  are,  however,  other  cases 
in  which  the  two  classes  of  phenomena  cannot  be  considered 
separately ;  these  are  studied  in  the  subject  of  thermo- 
kinetics.  Equilibrium  is  only  a  limit  to  phenomena,  and 
to  study  what  actually  occurs  in  nature  we  must  go  on  to 
study  the  laws  which  preside  over  their  progress.  In  cases 
where  a  disturbance  tends   to  subside,    as  in  the  diffusion 

NO.   175 1,  VOL.   68] 


of  gases,  the  conduction  of  heat,  and  the  flow  of  electricity, 
we  find  that  the  progress  of  the  phenomenon  is  represented 
quantitatively  by  the  flux  of  a  certain  quantity  per  unit 
time  across  unit  surface.  This  flux  depends  in  general  on 
what  may  be  called  the  stimulus  of  the  phenomenon.  This 
"  stimulus  "  may  give  impetus  to  the  flux,  but  it  will  in 
every  case  be  largely  employed  in  overcoming  "  coercion," 
a  property  which  always  tends  to  impede  the  flow,  but  does 
not  in  general  {e.g.  in  the  case  of  diffusion  of  gases)  destroy 
it  altogether. 

In  the  Contemporary  Review  for  May,  Mr.  Frederick 
Soddy,  whose  name  is  well-known  as  a  co-worker  with  Prof. 
E.  Rutherford  at  the  McGill  University,  Montreal,  describes 
what  may  be  referred  to  as  the  Canadian  view  of  radio- 
activity. Briefly  stated,  this  is  to  the  effect  that  the  radio- 
active thorium  X,  which  is  contained  in  ordinary  thorium, 
and  can  be  separated  by  precipitating  the  inactive  thorium  by 
means  of  ammonia,  is  a  first  decomposition-product  of  the 
unstable  thorium  atoms,  that  the  radio-active  emanations 
which  are  transmitted  by  thorium  X  to  neutral  gases,  such 
as  hydrogen  and  nitrogen,  and  which  are  condensed  by 
cooling  to  —130°  C,  represent  a  further  stage  in  the 
atomic  degradation,  and  finally  it  is  suggested  that  helium 
— an  invariable  constituent  of  radio-active  minerals — is 
possibly  the  last  and  stable  product  of  the  shattered  thorium 
atoms.  According  to  this  view,  which  will  not  be  received 
without  an  effort  by  chemists  trained  to  believe  in  the  con- 
servation of  matter  and  the  immutability  of  the  elements, 
the  energy  of  radium  is  derived  from  the  deflagration  of  a 
minute  and  unweighable  proportion  of  the  almost  explosive 
radium  atoms. 

In  the  Nineteenth  Century,  Mr.  William  Ackroyd,  writing 
on  "  Radium  and  its  Position  in  Nature,"  directs  attention 
to  the  fact  that  radium  not  only  has  the  highest  atomic 
weight,  but  probably,  in  accordance  with  a  well-known  law, 
is  also  the  rarest  of  the  known  elements.  The  close  re- 
semblance between  Becquerel  rays  and  X-rays  is  referred 
to,  and  it  is  suggested  that  the  production  of  the  former 
is  analogous  to  the  phosphorescence  of  calcium  sulphide 
after  exposure  to  sunlight.  The  possibility  that  an  atomic 
bombardment  may  be  the  source  of  energy  of  radio-active 
bodies  is,  however,  inferred  from  a  reversed  phenomenon 
observed  by  Prof.  Graham  Bell  and  Mr.  Sumner  Tainter, 
in  which  solids,  liquids  and  gases  are  made  to  emit  a 
musical  sound  under  the  influence  of  an  intermittent  beam 
of  light  pulsating  500  or  600  times  in  a  second. 

In  a  paper  dealing  with  the  infection-powers  of  ascospores 
in  the  Erysiphaceae  (Journal  of  Botany,  May),  Mr.  E.  S. 
Salmon  takes  up  a  subject  which  has  been  almost  un- 
touched. It  is  known  that  conidial  forms  of  apparently 
the  same  species  are  restricted  in  their  power  of  germin- 
ating to  definite  and  distinct  host-plants,  and  thus  there 
are  differentiated  a  number  of  so-called  biologic  forms. 
Whether  ascospores  show  a  similar  selective  capacity  for 
infecting  host-plants  is  the  problem  which  Mr.  E.  S. 
Salmon  endeavours  to  elucidate. 

An  article  of  considerable  interest  which  appears  in  the 
Transactions  of  the  Royal  Scottish  Arboricultural  Society 
refers  to  the  inception  of  the  scheme  for  laying  out  tree 
plantations  on  the  gathering  grounds  of  waterworks.  On 
the  lands  belonging  to  the  Halifax  Corporation,  which  took 
the  lead  in  this  matter,  ash,  sycamore  and  alder  have  been 
planted  along  with  Scots  pine  and  larch,  but  the  intention 
is  to  leave  the  hardwood  only  as  a  permanent  crop.  Other 
papers  which  are  of  primary  importance  to  foresters  relate 
to  the  larch  and  its  diseases,  thinnings  in  planted  spruce, 
and  the  injurious  effect  of  smoke  on  trees. 


May  2  1,  1903] 


NATURE 


67 


The  study  of  ecological  botany  has  not  been  so  vigorously 
pursued  during  recent  years  in  Great  Britain  as  in  other 
countries,  but  the  few  papers  that  have  appeared  have  been 
the  outcome  of  thoroughly  sound  work.  A  botanical  survey 
of  the  West  Riding  of  Yorkshire  has  been  completed,  and 
the  results  obtained  by  Dr.  W.  G.  Smith  and  Mr.  C.  E. 
Moss  for  the  south-western  district  are  incorporated  in  an 
article  published  in  the  Geographical  Journal.  Both  the 
descriptions  and  photographic  illustrations  are  exceedingly 
good,  but  the  main  feature  is  the  representation  of  the 
various  formations  on  a  map  on  the  scale  of  two  miles  to 
the  inch,  which  should  be  carefully  studied  by  all  ecological 
workers  ;  also  the  origin  and  relationships  of  the  types  of 
vegetation  are  critically  discussed. 

No.  5  of  the  Proceedings  of  the  Chester  Society  of 
Natural  History  contains  a  list  of  the  species  of  Lepidoptera 
recorded  from  Chester  and  four  adjacent  counties,  drawn 
up  by  Mr.  G.  O.  Day,  with  the  assistance  of  two  other 
gentlemen. 

We  have  received  vol.  iv.  of  "  El  Peru,"  a  work  on  the 
geology  and  mineralogy  of  that  country  published  by  the 
Geographical  Society  of  Lima.  It  appears  that  by  the 
decease  of  Dr.  Antonio  Raimondi  in  1890,  the  publication 
of  this  work,  which  commenced  in  1874,  was  interrupted. 
The  present  volume  is  based  on  that  observer's  manuscripts, 
which  it  has  taken  a  long  time  to  prepare  for  publication. 
The  bulk  of  the  volume  is  devoted  to  the  rocks  of  the 
country,  both  igneous  and  sedimentary ;  but  the  latter 
part  includes  a  series  of  miscellaneous  observations,  in- 
cluding the  description  of  a  lower  jaw  of  Mastodon  andiutn 
from  a  Peruvian  locality.  The  work  should  be  invaluable 
to  Peruvian  geologists  and  petrologists. 

A  VERY  important  and  interesting  contribution  to  the 
study  of  the  venation  of  the  wings  of  dragon-flies  appears 
in  No.  133 1  of  the  Proceedings  of  the  U.S.  Nat.  Museum, 
illustrated  by  no  less  than  twenty-four  plates  and  many 
text-figures.  The  author,  Mr.  J.  G.  Needham,  treats  the 
subject  from  a  phylogenetic  point  of  view,  and  claims  to 
have  discovered  features  in  wing-development  which  will 
be  applicable  to  insects  generally,  as  well  as  others  affect- 
ing the  classification  of  dragon-flies.  He  finds,  for  ex- 
ample, that  the  same  type  of  wing,  in  accordance  with  the 
needs  of  the  mode  of  life,  has  been  independently  developed 
in  totally  different  sections  of  the  group.  This,  of  course, 
largely  affects  the  determination  of  fossil  dragon-flies,  which 
have  been  to  a  great  extent  named  on  the  evidence  of  the 
wings,  or  portions  of  the  same,  and  it  is  shown  that  in 
several  instances  these  determinations  are  wholly  incorrect. 
Libellulium  kaupi,  for  instance,  is  probably  not  a  dragon-fly 
at  all,  while  L.  agrias  belongs  to  the  /Eschnidae,  the  details 
of  the  specimen  figured  by  Westwood  being  entirely  different 
to  those  characteristic  of  the  Libellulidae. 

Visitors  to  the  Natural  History  Museum  will  not  fail 
to  notice  a  great  improvement  in  the  appearance  and  in- 
structiveness  of  the  exhibits  in  the  reptile  and  fish  galleries, 
which  were  left  at  the  death  of  Sir  W.  H.  Flower  in  their 
original  condition.  Until  the  director  undertook  the 
rearrangement,  the  cases  were  crammed  with  a  number 
of  faded  and  "  khaki  "-coloured  specimens,  unaccompanied 
by  any  descriptive  labels.  The  duplicate  and  superfluous 
specimens  have  now,  for  the  most  part,  been  weeded  out, 
and  those  that  are  left  placed  so  that  they  can  be  well  seen 
by  visitors.  In  many  instances  old  specimens  have  either 
been  replaced  by  new  ones  or  have  been  painted  up  so  as 
to  give  them,  so  far  as  possible,  some  sort  of  resemblance 

NO.  1 75 1,  VOL.  68] 


to  the  living  animals ;  and  this  process  of  replacement  and 
renovation  is  being  actively  continued.  A  large  specimen 
of  a  thunny  which  has  been  for  many  years  in  the  museum 
affords  an  excellent  example  of  what  can  be  done  by  judicious 
painting.  The  splendid  colouring  of  the  Malay  python  is 
displayed  in  a  specimen  presented  by  Mr.  Rothschild,  as  well 
as  by  a  second  example,  on  which  an  artist  was  still  engaged 
at  the  time  when  this  was  written.  In  the  reptile  gallery, 
which  is  in  the  more  forward  condition,  descriptive  labels 
have  already  been  placed  in  several  of  the  cases,  in  which 
the  specimens  have  been  removed  from  the  old  hideous 
sycamore  stands  and  set  on  sanded  ground-work. 

The  fourth  part  of  vol.  Ixxiii.  of  the  Zeitschrift  fUr  wissen- 
schaftliche  Zoologie  is  entirely  occupied  by  the  first  part 
of  an  exhaustive  menio'r  on  the  structure  of  the  cell,  the 
author.  Prof.  E.  Rohde,  in  this  section  devoting  his  atten- 
tion to  the  nucleus  and  nucleolus.  No  less  than  nine 
beautifully  coloured  plates  (some  of  which  are  double)  illus- 
trate this  section  of  the  subject.  To  the  first  part  of  the 
succeeding  volume  (Ixxiv.)  Herr  E.  H.  Zietzschmann  con- 
tributes an  account  of  the  morphology  and  histology  of 
the  scent-glands  which  occur  on  the  face  and  limbs  of 
different  members  of  the  deer  family.  Very  full  details  are 
given  of  the  nature  of  these  structures  in  the  greater 
number  of  the  generic  groups,  and  the  existence  of  a  small 
metatarsal  gland  in  the  elk  is  confirmed.  It  is  perhaps 
a  matter  for  regret  that  the  author  did  not  see  his  way 
to  express  any  opinion  as  to  the  existence  of  an  homology 
between  the  limb-glands  of  the  deer  and  those  of  other 
ungulates.  The  scent-gland  of  the  centipede  lulus  com- 
munis forms  the  subject  of  an  article  by  Dr.  G.  Rosse  in 
the  same  fasciculus,  which  also  contains  papers  on  the  sper- 
matogenesis of  Ccelenterata,  and  on  the  development  of 
Dolomedes. 

That  our  village  ancestors  were  not  devoid  of  artistic 
sense  is  apparent  from  many  old  articles  of  furniture  that 
are  bought  up  and  treasured  by  the  more  wealthy  classes. 
In  a  paper  on  the  decorative  arts  of  our  forefathers  as 
exemplified  in  a  Southdown  village  in  the  Reliquary  for 
April,  Mr.  W.  Heneage  Legge  has  given  some  in- 
teresting examples  of  beautiful  objects  still  to  be  found  in 
a  single  village,  but  the  trend  of  modern  ideas  is  to  induce 
a  dead  monotony  of  machine-made  shop  goods.  In  the 
same  journal  Mr.  F.  W.  Galpin  gives  an  illustrated  account 
of  the  Portland  reeve  staffs.  These  are  notched  quad- 
rangular rods,  by  means  of  which  the  annually  appointed 
reeve,  or  steward,  keeps  his  account  of  the  rents  due  to 
the  King  as  Lord  of  the  Manor. 

Marriage  customs  are  generally  interesting  on  account  of 
the  often  rude  symbolism  that  accompanies  them  ;  students 
of  this  branch  of  ethnology  will  find  many  marriage  customs 
of  various  southern  Indian  tribes  related  by  E.  Thurston 
in  Bulletin  vol.  iv.,  No.  3,  of  the  Madras  Government 
Museum.  Ethnologists  are  fully  aware  of  the  value  of 
the  Bulletins  of  this  museum,  and  the  current  number  con- 
tains a  mass  of  valuable  material  contributed  by  the 
energetic  director  of  the  museum.  A  short  account  of  fire- 
walking  in  Ganjdm  does  not  record  any  new  feature.  Our 
schoolmasters  are  not  likely  to  adopt  any  of  the  forty-two 
kinds  of  punishment  inflicted  on  naughty  boys  in  native 
schools. 

We  have  received  the  April  number  of  the  Journal  of 
Hygiene  (vol.  iii.  No.  2).  Several  papers  deal  with  pre- 
ventive medicine,  e.g.  the  significance  of  the  presence  of 
the  colon  bacillus  in  ground  waters,   by  Mr.   Horton ;   the 


68 


NATURE 


[May  2  1,  1Q03 


distribution  of  the  diphtheria  bacillus  in  the  throats  of 
"  contacts,"  by  Dr.  Graham  Smith  ;  and  upon  the  correlation 
of  several  diseases  of  animals  in  South  Africa,  by  Dr. 
Edington.  Messrs.  Graham  Smith  and  Sanger  discuss 
the  biological  or  precipitin  test  for  blood  in  its  medico-legal 
aspects,  and  Messrs.  Nuttall  and  Shipley  complete  their 
monograph  upon  the  structure  and  biology  of  the  Anopheles 
mosquito.  The  last  is  an  important  contribution,  and  is 
illustrated  with  some  beautiful  figures. 

A  SECOND,  revised  and  enlarged,  edition  of  Mr.  H.  M. 
Leaf's  "  The  Internal  Wiring  of  Buildings  "  has  been 
published  by  Messrs.  Archibald  Constable  and  Co.,  Ltd. 
The  new  edition  contains  an  additional  chapter  on  electricity 
meters. 

Mr.  Edward  Arnold  has  published  a  revised  edition  of 
"  A  Course  of  Practical  Chemistry,"  by  Mr.  W.  A.  Shen- 
stone,  F.R.S.  This  little  book  is  intended  as  a  labor- 
atory companion  for  use  with  the  author's  "  Inorganic 
Chemistry." 

The  fourth  volume  of  the  "  Petite  Encyclop^die  Scien- 
tifique  du  XX*  Si^cle,"  viz.,  "  La  Chimie  dans  I'lndustrie, 
dans  la  Vie  et  dans  la  Nature,"  by  M.  A.  Perret,  published 
by  MM.  Schleicher  Fr^res  and  Co.,  of  Paris,  has  reached  a 
second  edition. 

We  have  received  a  copy  of  "  A  Guide  to  the  Early 
Christian  and  Byzantine  Antiquities  in  the  Department  of 
British  and  Medieval  Antiquities,"  printed  by  order  of  the 
Trustees  of  the  British  Museum.  The  book  runs  to  116 
pages,  and  is  illustrated  with  fifteen  plates  and  eighty-four 
wood-cuts.  Visits  to  the  Christian  Room  of  the  British 
Museum  with  this  guide  as  a  companion  will,  if  the  book 
has  been  previously  studied,  be  full  of  interest.  The  guide, 
even  without  the  visits,  will  prove  of  great  value  to  teachers 
of  history. 

A  SECOND  edition  of  the  "Life  History  Album,"  edited 
some  years  ago  by  Mr.  Francis  Galton,  F.R.S. ,  has  been 
published  by  Messrs.  Macmillan  and  Co.,  Ltd.  The 
"  Album  "  was,  in  its  original  form,  the  joint  production 
of  a  small  committee  of  medical  men,  but  Mr.  Galton  has 
largely  rearranged  and  rewritten  the  contents,  so  that  the 
present  volume  may  be  regarded  almost  as  a  new  publica- 
tion. Convenient  provision  is  made  in  numerous  well- 
arranged  tables  for  a  record  of  the  genealogy,  description 
at  birth,  the  life  and  medical  history  for  each  year  from 
birth  to  a  hundred  years  of  age,  and  for  records  as  to  wife 
(or  husband)  and  children.  An  appendix  supplies  tests  of 
vision  and  nine  charts  on  which  to  represent  graphically 
the  weight  and  stature  for  each  vear  of  life. 

A  SUPPLEMENTARY  volume  to  the  "  Scientific  Memoirs  of 
Thomas  Henry  Huxley,"  edited  by  Sir  Michael  Foster  and 
Prof.  E.  Ray  Lankester,  has  been  published  by  Messrs. 
Macmillan  and  Co.,  Ltd.  In  the  preface  to  the  new  volume 
Prof.  Lankester  says,  "  when  it  was  discovered  that  owing 
to  a  bibliographical  obscurity  we  had  omitted  the  later 
portions  of  Huxley's  '  Survey  Memoir  '  on  fossil  fishes  from 
our  collection,  it  became  necessary  to  issue  a  supplement 
containing  the  important  work  which  we  had  inadvertently 
passed  over.  The  opportunity  is  taken  to  add  three  interest- 
ing essays  by  Huxley,  which,  .  .  .  have  considerable  interest 
for  zoologists."  These  essays  are  "  Vestiges  of  the  Natural 
History  of  Creation.  Tenth  Edition.  London,  1853." 
"  The  Rede  Lecture,  1883,"  and  the  "  Inaugural  Address. 
Fisheries  Exhibition.  London,  1883."  The  essays  referred 
to  are  not  contained  in  the  published  edition  of  Huxley's 
more  general  essays. 

NO.  1 75 1,  VOL.  68] 


In  a  recent  number  of  the  Berichte  Carl  Neuberg  de- 
scribes a  method  of  resolving  racemic  aldehydes  and  ketones 
by  means  of  an  optically  active  hydrazine.  The  difference 
in  solubility  between  the  stereoisomeric  hydrazones  is  very 
considerable,  and  on  combining  racemic  arabinose  with 
Z^menthylhydrazine,  it  was  found  that  the  hydrazone  of  the 
laevorotatory  d-arabinose  readily  crystallised  out  in  colour- 
less prisms,  which  were  practically  pure,  whilst  the  hydr- 
azone of  the  Z-sugar  remained  in  solution  as  syrup,  which 
could  not  be  crystallised. 

The  wandering  of  a  methyl  group  in  the  conversion  of 
pinacone  into  pinacoline  is  a  phenomenon  that  has  long 
been  familiar  to  chemists,  and  further  illustrations  have 
recently  been  given  by  Crossley  in  the  case  of  the  dimethyl- 
dihydroresorcins.  Three  further  examples  occurring  in  the 
antipyrin  group  of  compounds  are  described  by  Knorr  in 
the  Berichte,  and  it  is  noteworthy  that  in  every  case  the 
transference  of  the  methyl  radicle  takes  place  from  a 
>C(CH3)2  group.  It  would  therefore  appear  that  the 
reluctance  of  one  carbon  atom  to  carry  two  methyl  groups 
is  an  important  factor  in  bringing  about  this  somewhat 
unusual  type  of  change. 

The  additions  to  the  Zoological  Society's  Gardens  during 
the  past  week  include  a  Great  Wallaroo  {Macropus  robiisfus) 
from  South  Australia,  presented  by  Mr.  T.  Becket  Birt ; 
a  Black-crested  Eagle  {Lophaetus  occipitalis)  from  West 
Africa,  presented  by  Mr.  A.  Boyd  ;  a  Black-eared  Marmoset 
{Hapale  penicillata)  from  South-east  Brazil,  a  Schneider's 
Skink  (Eumeces  schneideri),  five  Common  Skinks  {Scincus 
officinalis),  four  Common  Chameleons  {Chanweleon  vul- 
garis) from  North  Africa,  six  Hispid  Lizards  {Agama 
hispida)  from  South  Africa,  a  Naked-necked  Iguana 
{Iguana  delictissima)  from  Tropical  America,  two  Seven- 
banded  Snakes  {Tropidonotus  septemvittatus),  a  Mocassin 
Snake  (Tropidonotus  fasciatus),  two  Testaceous  Snakes 
{Zamenis  flagelliformis),  a  Hog-nosed  Snake  (Heterodon 
platyrhinos)  from  North  America,  four  Gallot's  Lizards 
{Lacerta  galloti),  four  Atlantic  Lizards  (Lacerta  atlantica) 
from  the  Canary  Islands,  deposited  ;  a  Cape  Zorilla  {Ictonyx 
zorilla)  from  South  Africa,  purchased. 


OUR  ASTRONOMICAL   COLUMN. 

Nova  Geminorum. — Bulletin  No.  19  of  the  Yerkes  Observ- 
atory is  devoted  to  the  observations  of  Nova  Geminorum 
which  have  been  made  since  the  telegram  announcing  its 
discovery  was  received  on  March  27. 

Prof.  Hale  records  the  colour  of  the  Nova  as  "  a  strong 
red,"  and  when  in  the  best  focus  of  the  40-inch  telescope 
there  is  a  decided  crimson  glow  around  the  image  for  about 
2"  or  3",  which  is  not  present  with  the  images  of  the  com- 
parison stars.  Prof.  Barnard  found  that  with  the  40-inch 
refractor  the  focus  of  the  Nova  did  not  differ  appreciably 
from  that  of  the  surrounding  stars. 

Magnitude  observations  show  a  decrease  from  8-51  on 
March  27-715  to  8-96  on  April  4583,  with  a  secondary 
maximum  of  876  intervening  on  March  30-673  (H.C.O. 
scale  of  magnitudes). 

Two  of  the  prisms  of  the  Bruce  spectroscope  were  removed 
and  a  special  camera  constructed  on  March  28,  and  the 
spectrum  of  the  Nova  photographed  the  same  night 
with  an  exposure  of  3h.  12m.  In  the  spectrogram  obtained 
Prof.  Frost  has  found  a  band  extending  from  about  \  4598 
to  A  4696  (mean  about  A  4647),  and  a  very  strong  H/3  line 
having  its  mean  value  at  \  4862,  with  two  narrow  bright 
maxima  near  the  less  refrangible  end  at  about  AA  4877  and 
4882.  A  less  refrangible  band  extends  from  A  5647  to 
A  5685  (mean  at  A  5666),  and  another  from  A  5729  to 
A  5775  (mean  about  A  5752) ;  a  sharp  boundary  on  the  violet 
side  of   the   latter  suggests  the   presence  of  a  dark   band. 


May  2  [,  1903] 


NATURE 


69 


The  kind  of  plate  used  is  not  very  sensitive  at  about  A.  5000, 
and  this  may  account  for  the  absence  of  the  band  \  5016, 
which,  however,  is  exceedingly  faint  in  this  Nova.  H7  is 
present,  but  scarcely  strong  enough  to  measure,  and  merges 
into  a  brighter  band  which  extends  from  A.  4347  to  X  4371 
<mean  at  A  4359). 

A  reproduction  of  the  spectrogram  is  given,  and  it  is 
seen  that  the  spectrum  corresponds  to  those  of  Nova 
Aurigae  and  Nova  Persei  at  the  later  stages  of  their  develop- 
ment. 

A  very  faint  bright  band  in  the  spectrum  of  Nova 
Geminorum  in  the  region  of  the  chief  nebula  lines  is  far 
too  weak  to  measure. 

Parallax  of  the  Binary  System  5  Equulei. — Mr.  W.  J. 
Hussey  publishes  in  Bulletin  No.  32  of  the  Lick  Observ- 
atory the  results  of  his  calculation  of  the  parallax  of 
•S  Equulei,  based  on  the  micrometrical  and  spectroscopical 
measurements  made  at  the  Lick  Observatory  during  the 
past  three  years.  The  method  pursued  is  theoretically  abso- 
lute, for  in  no  way  is  the  result  dependent  upon  the  assump- 
tion of  values  for  comparison  stars,  as  it  is  in  the  ordinary 
method  of  calculating  parallax. 

The  formula  used  was  published  by  Prof.  A.  A.  Rambaut 
{M.N.  March,  1890),  and  gives  the  absolute  parallax  of  a 
system  when  the  elements  of  the  orbit,  the  relative  velocity 
of  the  components  in  the  line  of  sight,  and  the  orbital 
velocity  of  the  earth  at  the  time  are  known. 

The  determination  of  the  elements  of  the  orbit  made  at 
Lick  has  led  to  the  adoption  of  57  years  as  the  periodic 
time  of  revolution  ;  using  this  value  for  the  period,  and 
taking  the  mean  distance  as  o"-28,  the  eccentricity  as  0-46, 
the  apastron  and  periastron  distances  as  o"-409  and  o"i5i 
respectively,  the  relative  velocity  in  the  line  of  sight,  deter- 
mined by  the  observers  using  the  Mills  spectrograph,  as 
;2o  5  miles  per  second,  and  the  orbital  velocity  of  the  earth 
at  the  time  as  18-2  miles  per  second,  Mr.  Hussey  obtains 

ir  =  o'''o7i 
as    the    parallax    of    this    system,    but    states    that    this    is 
probably    not    the    final    value,    for    the    elements    may    be 
appreciably   modified  during  the  critical   observations'  it   is 
proposed  to  make  during  the  next  three  years. 

Taking  this  value  for  the  parallax  and  the  mean  distance 
and  period  given  above,  the  mass  of  the  system  becomes 
1-89,  the  mass  of  the  sun  being  taken  as  unity,  and,  as  the 
components  are  not  quite  equal  in  magnitude,  the  brighter 
may  have  a  mass  equal  to,  but  not  greatly  exceeding,  that 
of  the  sun.  The  mean  distance  of  the  components  is  about 
four  times  that  of  the  earth  from  the  sun,  but,  owing  to 
the  great  eccentricity  of  the  orbit,  the  actual  distance  at 
periastron  is  just  more  than  twice,  and  at  apastron  about 
five  times,  that  unit.  As  the  spectra  of  the  components 
are  both  of  the  solar  type,  and  as  their  masses  are  com- 
parable with  that  of  the  sun,  it  might  be  reasonably  assumed 
that  their  densities  do  not  differ  to  any  great  extent  from 
the  density  of  that  body. 


A 


A  REGULATING  OR  RECORDING 
THERMOMETER. 
THERMOMETER  which  is  capable  of  regulating  the 
temperature  of  a  room  with  considerable  accuracy,  or 
of  keeping  a  continuous  record  of  the  temperature,  is  fre- 
quently required  in  laboratory  work.  Such  a  thermometer 
is  described  in  the  present  article.  Although  there  is  little 
essentially  new  in  its  construction,  the  details  on  which 
success  depends  are  the  result  of  considerable  practical  ex- 
perience, and  as  the  manufacture  of  such  an  instrument 
should  be  within  the  powers  of  most  laboratories  employing 
a  mechanic,  it  has  been  thought  desirable  to  publish  an 
account  of  it. 

The  estimation  of  temperature  in  this  thermometer  de- 
pends on  the  alteration  in  shape  of  a  piece  of  flat  brass 
tubing  bent  into  spiral  form  and  filled  with  a  liquid  possess- 
ing a  large  coefficient  of  expansion.  If  one  end  of  the  tube 
is  fixed,  the  motion  of  the  other  end,  magnified  by  a  suit- 
able arrangement  of  levers,  serves  as  a  measure  of  tempera- 
ture. As  the  thermometer  is  intended  for  use  within  a 
range  of  temperature  of  at  most  three  or  four  degrees,  we 

NO.    1751,   VOL.    68] 


are  not  concerned  with  the  equality  of  the  graduations  per 
degree  at  different  parts  of  the  scale. 

The  illustration  (Fig.  i)  shows  the  general  appearance  of 
the  thermometer  arranged  as  a  recording  instrument.  The 
brass  tubing  of  which  the  spiral  is  formed  has  a  section  in 
the  shape  of  a  very  flat  ellipse,  the  longer  diameter  being 
J  inch,  the  shorter  3/16  inch,  while  the  thickness  of  the 
wall  is  002  inch.  The  tube  is  bent  into  the  spiral  form  by 
filling  it  with  melted  resin  and  bending  it  round  a  cylinder 
8  inches  in  diameter,  on  which  is  cut  a  spiral  groove.  After 
the  resin  has  been  removed  by  heating  the  tube,  brass  plugs' 
are  soldered  into  the  ends,  each  plug  having  a  central  hole 
for  the  purpose  of  filling  the  tube  with  liquid.  In  the 
thermometer  illustrated,  these  holes  are  shown  closed  by 
steel  screws.  A  simpler  and  more  efficient  plan  is  to  solder 
a  short  length  of  lead  tubing  into  the  brass  plug.  Then, 
when  the  thermometer  has  been  filled  with  liquid,  the  end 
of  the  lead  tube  is  pinched  together  and  soldered.  The 
spiral  can  thus  be  hermetically  sealed  without  loss  of  liquid. 

In  order  that  the  thermometer  may  acquire  the  tempera- 
ture of  the  surrounding  air  as  rapidly  as  possible,  the  surface 
is  increased  by  soldering  to  the  spiral  a  strip  of  thin  sheet 
copper  about  four  inches  wide.  The  whole  is  painted  dead 
black. 

For  filling  the  tube  creosote  has  been  found  to  answer 
well.  The  process  of  filling  the  tube  is  the  most  trouble- 
some part  of  the  work,  as  it  is  difficult  to  get  rid  of  the  air 
bubbles  which  cling  to  the  interior.  While  it  is  being 
carried    out    the    tube    should    be    placed    in    melting    ice. 


Fig.  I. — Recording  Thermometer. 

Funnels  may  be  attached  to  the  open  ends  of  the  spiral  to 
facilitate  the  introduction  of  the  liquid.  When  the  tube  is 
nearly  full,  liquid  should  be  poured  into  either  end  in  turn 
until  the  creosote  rises  in  the  other  funnel  free  from  air 
bubbles. 

When  the  tube  has  been  hermetically  sealed,  it  is  ready 
for  attachment  to  the  stand.  Instead  of  fixing  one  end 
of  the  tube  directly  to  the  base  board,  it  is  fastened  to  one 
flap  of  a  common  brass  hinge,  the  other  end  of  which  is 
screwed  to  the  board.  A  hole  is  tapped  in  the  upper  flap  and 
fitted  with  a  screw  the  point  of  which  bears  against  the  lower 
flap,  thus  providing  an  adjustment  for  the  distance  between 
the  two.  This  is  a  very  simple  method  of  giving  a  small 
alteration  to  the  position  of  the  fixed  end  of  the  spiral,  and 
so  adjusting  the  pen  to  any  desired  height  on  the  recording 
cylinder. 

The  free  end  of  the  spiral  is  attached  by  a  connecting  rod 
of  thin  aluminium  to  a  brass  lever,  half  an  inch  in  length, 
fixed  to  the  spindle  that  carries  the  tracing  arm.  The 
length  of  the  light  arm  which  carries  the  pen  is  sixteen 
inches.  Thus  the  actual  motion  of  the  end  of  the  spiral  is 
multiplied  by  the  factor  32  at  the  recording  drum. 

The  bracket  carrying  the  spindle  is  formed  of  two  up- 
rights of  thin  sheet  brass,  screwed  and  soldered  to  a  thicker 
base  plate.  The  spindle  itself  is  made  of  steel  wire  about 
three-sixteenths  of  an  inch  in  diameter ;  the  ends  forming 
the  pivots  are  turned  down  to  a  somewhat  smaller  diameter 
and  ground  into  holes  bored  in  the  uprights.  On  the  outer 
side  of  each  upright  is  screwed  a  short  length  of  flat  steel 

1  The  plugs  should  be  of  drawn  brass,  as  it  is  found  that  creosote  gradu- 
ally percolates  through  cast  brass. 


70 


NATURE 


[May  21,  1903 


spring,    which    bears    against    the    projecting    point   of    the 
spindle  and  so  controls  any  lateral  movement. 

In  addition  to  the  recording  cylinder  a  second  clock  will 
be  noticed  in  the  illustration.  This  was  introduced  because 
it  was  found  that  the  pen  was  inclined  to  stick  to  the  paper, 
so  that  the  full  range  of  temperature  was  not  recorded. 
The  clock  once  in  every  minute  draws  the  pen  away  froili 
the  paper,  so  that  it  is  free  to  take  up  its  natural  position. 
Hence  the  trace  is  made  up  of  a  series  of  dots  instead  of 
being  a  continuous  line.  The  minute  hand  of  the  clock  is 
replaced  by  a  wheel  in  which  sixty  teeth  are  cut.  Every 
minute  one  of  the  teeth  engages  with  a  short  pin  supported 
by  a  flat  steel  spring.  When  this  pin  is  pushed  aside  it 
draws  after  it  one  of  the  springs  referred  to  above  as  press- 
ing against  the  point  of  the  spindle.  The  spring  at  the 
opposite  end  of  the  spindle  consequently  comes  into  plav 
and  pushes  the  spindle  in  the  direction  of  its  length,  thus 
relieving  the  pen  from  the  paper. 

In  this  thermometer  the  motion  of  the  pen  for  a  change 
in  temperature  of  one  degree  Fahrenheit  is  about  one  inch 
(4-5  cm.  per  degree  C.)  at  ordinary  temperatures. 

The  thermometer  selected  for  description  is  adapted  for 
securing  a  continuous  record  of  temperature.  When  it  is 
desired  to  use  such  a  thermometer  to  regulate  the  tempera- 
ture, the  pen  may  be  replaced  by  a  platinum  point  which 
is  arranged  to  complete  an  electric  circuit  by  contact  with 
a  platinum  terminal  or  by  dipping  into  a  mercury  cup. 
The  current  so  set  up  may  be  used  to  operate  a  relay,  and 
so  switch  on  a  stronger  current,  if  heating  by  electricity  is 
employed,  or  it  may  actuate  some  suitable  mechanical 
arrangement  for  regulating  the  supply  of  gas  to  a  stove. 
When  it  is  necessary  to  maintain  a  uniform  temperature 
for  days  or  weeks  together,  it  is  most  important  that  the 
sparking  which  takes  place  at  the  contact  should  be  as  far 
as  possible  reduced,  otherwise  the  surfaces  may  become 
so  contaminated  that  contact  is  uncertain,  or  in  the  case 
of  platinum  contacts  may  fuse  together  so  that  the  con- 
tact is  never  broken.  These  are  difficulties  which  those  who 
have  worked  with  such  arrangements  will  appreciate.  To 
overcome  them  it  is  well  to  reduce  the  current  through  the 
contact  to  the  smallest  possible  value,  and  to  place  in 
parallel  with  the  electromagnet  which  will  form  part  of 
the  circuit  a  non-inductive  resistance.  This  resistance  may 
be  kept  comparatively  small,  even  at  the  expense  of  a 
somewhat  larger  current.  A  condenser  inserted  between 
the  points  of  contact  may  be  of  service,  but  is  not  so 
effective  as  the  plan  mentioned. 

It  may  be  of  interest  to  give  some  account  of  the  success 
which  has  attended  the  use  of  these  methods  of  regulating 
temperature  in  connection  with  the  Blythswood  dividing 
engine.  The  engine  is  placed  in  a  detached  building  in 
a  room  fifteen  feet  long,  ten  feet  wide,  and  ten  feet  high. 
Local  conditions  render  it  impossible  to  make  use  of  a 
cellar.  The  room  has  double  windows  and  shutters  ;  it  is 
warmed  by  two  gas  stoves,  of  which  one  is  controlled  by 
the  regulating  thermometer.  During  the  greater  part  of 
the  year  this  room  can  be  kept  at  a  temperature  of  60°  F., 
the  variation  in  temperature  being  not  more  than  one  degree. 

The  controlling  thermometer  in  this  instance  actuates, 
by  an  electromagnetic  release,  clockwork  which  supplies 
the  necessary  power  for  turning  the  gas  on  or  off. 

The  dividing  engine  is  enclosed  in  a  wooden  case  inside 
this  room.  Originally  the  interior  of  the  case  was  heated 
by  electricity  under  the  control  of  a  regulating  thermo- 
meter. The  variations  in  temperature  that  were  introduced 
by  this  method  were  sufficient  to  produce  disastrous  results 
in  cutting  a  diffraction  grating.  Accordingly  the  case  was 
surrounded  with  a  lining  of  six  inches  of  wool,  and  all  the 
arrangements  for  securing  a  uniform  temperature  were 
made  in  the  room  outside.  When  this  was  done  it  was 
found  that  the  temperature  inside  the  case  fell  slowly  but 
continuously.  This  was  shown  to  be  due  to  leakage  of  heat 
through  the  stand  of  the  machine,  which  rested  on  a  large 
stone  block.  To  prevent  this  a  space  was  cleared  round 
the  bottom  of  the  stand,  and  this  space  was  kept  at  a 
uniform  temperature  by  electrical  heating.  This  precau- 
tion was  found  to  be  effective,  and  the  temperature  of  the 
case  can  now  be  kept  constant  with  very  considerable 
accuracy,  the  variation  in  four  or  five  days  not  amounting 
to  more,  than  two-tenths  of  a  degree  Fahrenheit. 

H.  S.  Allen. 
NO.    175 1,  VOL.  68] 


UNIVERSITY  AND   EDUCATIONAL 
INTELLIGENCE. 

Cambridge. — The  Public  Orator,  Dr.  Sandys,  spoke  a» 
follows  on  May  14,  in  presenting  .Mr.  Robert  Bell,  LL.D., 
F.R.S.,  Director  of  the  Geological  Survey  in  Canada,  for 
the  degree  of  Doctor  in  .Science  honoris  causa  : 

Magnu  n  profecto  est  provinciae  maximae  penitus  explor- 
andae  et  scientiarum  terminus  latius  proferendis  vitam  suam 
totam  dedicasse.  Salutamus  virum,  qui  per  annos  plus 
quam  quadraginta  provinciae  maximae  Canadensis  flumina, 
lacus,  montes,  campos  denique  latissime  patentes  explor- 
avit  ;  ibi  locis  plurimis  nomina  primus  imposuit,  et,  ipse 
mortalium  modestissimus,  flumini  a  se  primum  indagato 
suum  nomen  ab  aliis  inditum  audivit.  Atqui  nomen  suum 
non  in  aqua  scriptum,  sed  provinciae  tantae  in  saxis  potius 
insculptum  reliquit  ;  regionis  illius  immensae  geologiam, 
geographiam,  biologiam,  i'rchaeologiam  libellorum  in  serie 
longa  illustravit,  et  non  modo  provinciae  ipsius  terminos 
ubique  definivit,  sed  etiam  scientiarum  fines  ubique  propa- 
gavit. 

Duco  ad  vos  Reginae  Universitatis  Canadensis  doctorem, 
Societatis  Regiae  Londinensis  socium,  provinciae  Cana- 
densis exploratorem  indefessum,   Robertum  Bell. 

A  university  lectureship  in  mathematics,  stipend  50/.  a 
year,  is  vacant  by  the  election  of  Prof.  Larmor  to  the 
Lucasian  chair.  Candidates  are  to  send  their  names  to 
the  Vice-Chancellor  by  June  3,  with  statements  of  the 
branches  of  mathematics  on  which  they  are  prepared  to 
lecture. 

In  a  report  on  the  administration  of  the  engineering 
laboratory  it  is  proposed  that  two  readerships,  one  in 
mechanical  engineering  and  one  in  electrical  engineering, 
should  be  established  for  Mr.  Peace  and  Mr.  Lamb,  the 
present  demonstrators ;  that  two  new  university  demon- 
strators should  also  be  appointed,  and  that,  in  addition  to 
their  stipends,  each  of  these  should  receive  certain  pay- 
ments from  the  fees  of  students  receiving  instruction  in  the 
department.  The  growth  of  the  latter  under  Prof.  Ewing's 
direction  may  be  gathered  from  the  fact  that  in  1892  the 
number  of  students  was  39,  and  the  fees  546/.,  while  in 
1902  there  were  211  students,  who  paid  5005Z.  in  fees. 
In  the  present  year  there  are  twelve  teachers,  in  addition 
to  the  professor  and  the  two  demonstrators,  engaged  in  the 
work. 

The  syndicate  report  that  the  new  building  for  the 
medical  school  is  almost  completed,  and  that  the  last  stone 
of  the  Humphry  Museum  has  been  laid.  A  sum  of  8062/.. 
is  required  for  fittings,  furniture,  electric  lighting,  and 
heating  appliances. 

The  discussion  in  the  Senate  on  the  proposed  reestablish- 
ment  of  the  professorship  of  surgery  turned  chiefly  on  the 
question  whether  or  not  full  residence  should  be  required 
of  the  professor.  If  non-residence  were  permitted,  a  smaller 
stipend  might  suffice,  and  the  field  of  choice  might  be 
widened.  Prof.  Liveing,  Prof.  W'oodhead  and  others  urged 
strongly  that  the  professor's  usefulness  would  depend  on 
his  being  resident  in  the  University. 

Mr.  Edwin  Edser  has  been  appointed  head  of  the  physical 
department  of  the  Goldsmiths'  Institute,  New  Cross. 

A  CONVERSAZIONE  of  the  Parents'  National  Educational 
Union  will  be  held  at  the  Kensington  Town  Hall  on  Monday, 
June  8.  The  Countess  of  Aberdeen  will  preside,  and  a 
paper  will  be  contributed  by  Miss  .Mason,  founder  of  the 
Union. 

The  Court  of  Governors  of  University  College,  Sheffield, 
has  adopted  resolutions  to  the  effect  that  in  the  interests 
of  higher  education  in  the  city  and  district  it  is  essential 
that  Sheffield  College  shall  have  the  powers  and  status  of 
a  university  similar  to  those  granted  to  Birmingham,  Liver- 
pool, and  Manchester,  and  also  that  application  be  made 
to  the  Privy  Council  for  a  charter. 

The  Secretary  of  State  for  India  has  appointed  a  small 
committee  to  inquire  and  report  to  him  on  the  question  of 
the  expediency  of  maintaining  the  Engineering  College  at 
Coopers  Hill,  as  a  Government  institution  for  the  supply 
of  officers  to  the  Public  Works  Department  in  India.  The 
committee  will  be  composed  as  follows  : — Sir  Charles  Cros- 
thwaite.  Sir  James  Mackay,  G.C.M.G.,  Sir  William  Arrol, 


May  21,  1903 


NATURE 


71 


M.P.,  Sir  Arthur  Riicker,  and  Sir  Thomas  Higham, 
K.C.I.E.,  with  Mr.  J.  E.  Ferard,  of  the  India  Office,  as 
-ccretary. 

Fhe  new  science  rooms  of  the  Colston's  Girls'  School, 
Hristol,  were  opened  on  Friday  last.  May  15,  by  the  Right 
Hon.  Henrv  Hobhouse,  M.P.  The  new  building  com- 
prises three  rooms,  about  30  feet  by  26  feet,  and  one 
^mailer.     The    lecture    room    will    be   largely    used    for    the 

udv  of  botany,  and  is  provided  with  a  small  conservatory, 
window  box,  in  which  experiments,  such  as  those  show- 
,A-^  the  process  of  germination,  will  be  carried  out.  In 
the  chemistry  laboratory  benches  are  provided  at  which  girls 
will  work  in  sets  of  two,  and  each  set  will  have  a  balance 
(>n  side  benches  close  at  hand.  The  physics  laboratory  is 
on  verv  much  the  same  plan  as  the  chemistry  room.  Mr. 
Hobhouse,  in  the  course  of  his  speech,  remarked  that  tne 
.ducation  of  girls  was  of  the  highest  importance,  not  only 
in  order  to  fit  them  for  their  domestic  duties,  but  also  to 
provide  good  women  teachers.     Prof.  Armstrong  hailed  the 

.)ining  of  the  new  science  rooms  as  a  proof  that  science, 

re    almost    neglected,    was    now    considered    a    necessary 

,rt  of  a  liberal  education. 


SOCIETIES  AND  ACADEMIES. 

London. 

Royal  Society,  March  26.— "  On  the  Cytology  of  Apogamy 

1    Aposporv.     (i)    Preliminary    Note   on    .Apogamy."     By 

H.  Farmer,  F.R.S.,  J.  E.  S.  Moore,  and  Miss  L.  Digrby. 

The  phenomenon  of  apogamy  is  exhibited  when  the  young 

fern-plant    springs    directly    from    the    tissue    cells    of    the 

prothallium  generation,   instead  of  arising  as  the  result  of 

segmentation  of  the  egg  within   the  archegonium.     It  has 

been  regarded  as  a  "  short  cut  "  in  the  life-cycle,  and  some 

hf-ontiVal  importance  has  been  attached  to  it  in  connection 


Fig.  I.— Group  of  prothallial  cells  with  migrating  nuclei. 


with  the  relationships  believed  to  exist  between  the  gameto- 
phyte  and  the  sporophyte,  that  is,  between  the  prothallium 
and  the  fern-plant.  Now  it  has  been  known  for  some  years 
that  the  nuclei  of  these  two  generations  exhibit  a  constant 
difference  inter  se  of  such  a  nature  that  each  sporophyte 
nucleus  contains  twice  as  many  chromosomes  as  do  the 
individual  nuclei  of  the  gametophyte. 

Evidence  is  brought  forward   to   show   that  this  nuclear 


change  is  brought  about,  in  the  apogamous  development, 
by  the  migration  of  a  nucleus  to  an  adjacent  cell,  and  its 
subsequent  fusion  with  the  nucleus  of  that  cell.  .\  consider- 
able number  of  instances  were  observed  in  which  single 
cells  contained  two  nuclei,  and  when  this  was  the  case,  one 
of  the  contiguous  cells  was  always  seen  to  be  destitute  of 
a  nucleus.  Instances  of  the  transit  of  the  nuclei  through 
the  walls  were  also  seen.  Further,  the  nuclei  of  some  of 
the  cells  in  the  region  where  these  occurrences  were  dis- 
coverable could  occasionally  be  met  with  in  stages  at  which 
it  was  found  possible  to  estimate  the  number  of  chromo- 
somes. In  such  cases  these  were  double  the  number  of 
those  of  the  ordinary  prothallial  nuclei. 

These  facts  lead  to  the  inference  that  we  are  dealing 
with  an  irregular  kind  of  fertilisation,  or,  at  any  rate,  with 
a  mechanism  for  doubling  the  nuclear  chromosomes  that 
is  practically  identical  with  what  is  seen  in  normal  fertilisa- 
tion. In  the  latter  case  the  double  number  is  arrived  at  by 
the  addition  of  the  chromosomes  of  the  sperm-nucleus  to 
those  of  the  nucleus  of  the  egg. 

The  annexed  figure  illustrates  (1)  two  cells  in  which  the 
nucleus  of  the  one  is  passing  through  the  parti-wall,  and 
apparently  fusing  directly  with  the  other  nucleus  ;  (2)  a  cell 
with  two  nuclei,  one  of  which  has  been  derived  from  the 
ceil  at  the  top  right-hand  corner  of  the  figure. 

May  7. — "  Preliminary  Note  on  the  Discovery  of  a 
Pigmy  Elephant  in  the  Pleistocene  of  Cyprus."  By 
Dorothv  M.  A.  Bate.  Communicated  bv  Henry  Wood- 
ward, LL.D.,  F.R.S.,  F.G.S.,  V.P.Z.S.,'  late  Keeper  of 
Geology,  British  Museum,  Natural  History. 

The  elephant  described  was  discovered*  by  the  author  in 
iqo2  during  a  search  for  bone-caves  in  the  Kerynia  Range 
in  the  north  of  the  island.  The  collection  obtained  chiefly 
consists  of  a  series  of  teeth,  all  procured  from  a  single  de- 
posit, which  also  contained  a  very  much  larger  quantity  of 
the  remains  of  Hippopotamus  minutus. 

The  teeth  of  the  Cypriote  elephant  are  considerably 
smaller  than  those  of  Elcphas  mnaidriensis,  the  largest  of 
the  Maltese  forms,  and  are  also  slightly  inferior  in  size  to 
those  of  E.  melitensis.  As  a  general  feature  it  may  be  said 
that  the  molars  from  Cyprus  are  more  simply  constructed 
than  those  of  the  last-mentioned  species,  showing  a  slighter 
tendency  to  "  crimping  "  in  the  enamel  and  in  being  less 
inclined  to  develop  the  mesial  expansion  of  the  plates  of 
dentine  so  characteristic  of  those  of  E.  ajricanus.  Taking 
into  consideration  the  several  characters  in  which  the  teeth 
if  the  Cyprus  form  differ  from  those  of  all  hitherto  de- 
-ribed  dwarf  species  (putting  on  one  side  E.  lamarmorae, 
ho  teeth  of  which  are  unknown  to  science),  as  well  as  the 

Istinct  habitat  of  the  animal,  it  is  believed  to  be  specifically 

i^tinct,  and  it  is  therefore  proposed  to  name  it  Elephas 
Cypriotes.  The  discovery  of  this  pigmy  species  is  interest- 
ing in  comparison  with  those  from  Malta  and  Sicily,  and 
I  he  occurrence  of  these  different,  though  apparently  closely 
related,  small  races  of  elephants  in  widely  separated  islands 

t  the  Mediterranean  lends  probability  to  the  theory  that 
this    is    a    case   of    independent    development    along    similar 

nos,  the  result  of  similar  conditions  of  existence. 

Physical  Society,  May  8.— Dr.  R.  T.  Glazebrook,  F.R.S., 
president,  in  the  chair. — Mr.  T.  H.  Blakesley  exhibited 
and  described  a  spectroscope  of  direct  vision,  of  one 
kind  of  glass,  and  of  minimum  deviation  for  every 
ray  that  comes  into  the  centre  of  the  field  of  view.  The 
refracting  angles  are  such  that  the  cosines  of  half  the 
refracting  angles  are  equal  to  half  the  index  of  refraction 
fo;-  the  ray  which  is  to  have  no  deviation.  The  first  prism 
is  right-angled,  and  has  one  angle  equal  to  the  refracting 
angle  calculated  by  the  above  rule.  The  second  prism  and 
the  third  possess  the  refracting  angle  so  obtained,  and  the 
fourth  is  similar  to  the  first.  The  plan  adopted  can  be 
extended  by  employing  more  than  one  of  the  arrangements 
described,  in  sequence. — Prof.  J.  D.  Everett  read  a  paper 
on  the  mathematics  of  bees'  cells. — Mr.  W.  A.  Price  read 
a  note  on  the  coloured  map  problem.  He  referred  to  the 
fact  that  only  four  colours  are  required  to  colour  a  map 
on  the  surface  of  a  simply  connected  region,  such  as  a 
sphere,  in  such  a  way  that  two  countries  marching  on  a 
boundary  line  are  coloured  differently,  and  exhibited  two 
models  of  anchor  rings  the  surfaces  of  which  were  divided 
in  each  case  into  six  sections,  o:\rh  of  which  marched  with 


NO.    J 75 1.  VOL.  68] 


72 


NATURE 


[May  2  1,  1903 


the  other  five ;  and  a  model  of  a  ring  having  a  cross-bar 
or  stud,  the  surface  of  which  was  divided  into  eight  sections, 
each  of  which  marched  with  the  other  seven.  In  the  case 
of  maps  on  such  surfaces,  at  least  six  and  eight  colours 
would  be  required  in  the  respective  cases.— Dr.  Watson 
read  a  note  on  the  construction  and  attachment  of  galvano- 
meter mirrors.  It  has  often  been  pointed  out,  notably  by 
Lord  Rayleigh  and  Prof.  Threlfall,  that  it  is  better  to 
increase  the  sensitiveness  of  galvanometers  and  similar 
instruments  by  improving  the  optical  system,  rather  than 
by  pushing  the  electrical  sensitiveness  to  extreme  limits. 
When  working  with  ordinary  silver  on  glass  mirrors 
difficulties  arise  in  connection  with  the  attachment  of  the 
fibre  and  the  fact  that  it  is  necessary  to  use  a  varnish,  which 
in  all  cases  produces  distortion.  These  difficulties  have 
been  overcome  by  using  quartz  instead  of  glass,  and 
platinum  instead  of  silver.  • 

Mathematical  Society,  May  14. — Prof.   H.   Lamb,  presi- 
dent,     in     the     chair. — Lieut.-Colonel     A.     Cunningham 

announced  the  discovery  of  seven  new  factors  of  Fermat's 
numbers  (2-  ',  viz.  when  n  is  9,  the  factor  2'°. 37+1  ;  when 
n  is  II,  the  factors  2^^.3.13+1  and  2^.7.17+1  ;  when  n  is 
12,  the  factors  2'*. 397+1  and  2"'.7.i39+i;  when  n  is  18, 
the  factor  2^°.i3+i  ;  when  n  is  38,  the  factor  2*^3+1.  In 
the  cases  of  9,  12,  18,  the  factors  were  discovered  by  Mr. 
A.  E.  Western  ;  in  the  case  of  11,  by  Lieut.-Colonel  Cunning- 
ham ;  in  the  case  of  38,  jointly  by  collaboration  of  these 
authors  with  Rev.  J.  Cullen. — Dr.  H.  F.  Baker  com- 
municated a  series  of  notes  : — (i)  On  the  definiteness  of 
quadratic  forms  with  imaginary  coefficients ;  (2)  On  a 
certain  form  of  logical  argument  which  occurs  in  the  proofs 
of  several  fundamental  theorems  of  pure  mathematics  ;  (3) 
On  the  summation  of  Neumann's  series  representing  a 
potential  determined  by  boundary  values ;  (4)  On  the  form- 
ation of  the  variant  equation  in  the  theory  of  differential 
equations  ;  (5)  On  some  points  in  the  theory  of  continuous 
groups. — The  following  papers  were  communicated  : — Mrs. 
Youngr,  The  surface  representing  all  right-angled  spherical 
triangles. — Mr.  W.  H.  Bussey,  Generational  relations  de- 
fining an  abstract  simple  group  of  order  32736. — Mr.  W.  H. 
Young:,  (i)  On  skew  surfaces  contained  in  a  linear  con- 
gruence ;  (2)  On  closed  sets  of  points  and  Cantor's  numbers. 
In  the  last  of  these  papers  methods  and  results  obtained  by 
the  author  in  a  previous  paper  on  the  theory  of  sets  of 
intervals  are  applied  to  the  theory  of  linear  sets  of  points. 
The  theory  of  the  higher  transfinite  numbers  is  avoided, 
but  the  transition  to  these  numbers  is  shown  to  arise 
naturally,  and  a  short  account  is  given  of  the  most  recent 
work  on  this  subject. 

New  South  Wales. 
Linnean  Society,  March  25. — Mr.  J.  H.  Maiden,  presi- 
dent, in  the  chair.— The  president  delivered  the  annual 
address,  which  was  devoted  chiefly  to  the  consideration  of 
the  principles  of  botanical  nomenclature. — The  newly-elected 
president.  Dr.  T.  Storie  Dixson,  then  took  the  chair,  and 
the  following  papers  were  read  : — A  monograph  of  the 
Australian  Membracidae,  by  Dr.  F.  W.  Coding'.  In  study- 
ing this  group,  twelve  genera,  represented  by  thirty-five 
species,  have  been  recognised. — Revision  of  Australian 
Lepidoptera,  by  Dr.  A.  Jefferis  Turner.  Under  the  above 
heading  the  author  hopes  to  publish  a  series  of  papers  deal- 
ing with  the  different  families  as  time  and  opportunity 
permit.  This  first  instalment  treats  of  the  Notodontidae 
and  Hyponomeutidae. 

DIARY  OF  SOCIETIES^ 

THURSDAY,  May  21. 

Royal  Institution,  at  5.— Proteid-Digestion  in  Plants:  Prof.  S.  H. 
Vines,  F.R.S. 

Institution  of  Mining  and  Metallurgy,  at  8. — Diamond  Drilling  in 
West  Africa  :  J.  N.  Justice.— On  the  Occurrence  of  Mica  in  Brazil,  and 
on  its  Preparation  for  the  Market :  H.  Kilburn  Scott.— Analytical  Work 
in  Connection  with  the  Cyanide  Prpcess  :  J.  E.  Clennell.— Notes  on  the 
Treatment  of  Gold  Slimes  in  Venezuela:  Leslie  Symonds.— Notes  on 
Cupriferous  Cyanide  Solutions  :  H.  A.  Barker.— Notes  on  Chorolque 
Tin  Mines  and  Alluvial  Deposits,  Bolivia  :  M.  Roberts. 
J' RID  A  Y,  May  22. 

Royal  Institution,  at  9.-  Dictionaries:  Dr.  J.  A.  H.  Murray. 

Physical  Society,  at  5.— Exhibition  of  Nernst  Lamps,  showing  their 
Development  from  the  Experimental  Form  up  to  the  most  Recent  Types  : 
J.  Stottner.— Exhibition  of  a  Diagram  of  Single-piece  Lenses:  T.  H. 
Blakesley.- On  an  Instrument  for  Measuring  the  Lateral  Contraction 
of  Tie-Bars,  and  on  the  Determination  of  Poisson's  Ratio  :  J.  Morrow. 


MONDAY,  May  25. 

Linnean  Society,  at  3.— Anniversary  Meeting. 

Society  of    Chemical   Industry,  at  8.— (i)  Neatsfoot  Oil;  (2I   The 

Nitric  Acid  Test  for  Cotton  Seed  Oil :  J.  H.  Coste  and  E.  T.  Shelbourn. 

TUESDAY, M\Y  16. 

Roval  Institution,  at  5.— The  Work  of  Ice  as  a  Geological  Agent: 
Prof.  E.  J.  Garwood. 

Zoological  Society,  at  8.30.— On  the  present  State  of  Knowledge  as  to 
the  Inheritance  of  Colour  in  Fancy  Rats  and  Mice  :  W.  Bateson,  F.R.S. 
— List  of  the  Batrachians  and  Reptiles  collected  by  M.  A.  Robert  at 
Chapada,  Matto  Grosso  (Percy  Sladen  Expedition  to  Central  Brazil): 
G.  A.  Boulenger,  F.R.S. — Note  on  some  Bulimulidae  from  Matto  Grosso 
(Percy  Sladen  Expedition  to  Central  Brazil) :  Edgar  A.  Smith. 

Epidemiological  Society,  at  8.30. — The  Etiology  of  Leprosy:  Tonathan 
Hutchinson,  F.R.S. 

WEDNESDA  Y,  May  27. 

Geological  Society,  at  8.— An  Experiment  in  Mountain-Building: 
Lord  Avebury,  P.C,  F.R.S.— (i)  The  Toarcian  of  Bredon  Hill,  and  a 
Comparison  with  Deposits  Elsewhere  ;  (2)  Two  Toarcian  Ammonites  : 
Sydney  S.  Buckman. 

THURSDA  K,  May  28. 

Royal  Society,  at  4.^0 — Probable  /'a;>?r.f:— On  the  Bending  of  Waves 
round  a  Spherical  Obstacle:  Lord  Rayleigh,  O.M.,  F.R.S. — Sur  la 
Diffraction  des  Ondes  Electriques  a  propos  d'un  Article  de  M.  Mac- 
donald:  Prof.  H.  Poincare,  For.Mem.R.S  — An  Analysis  of  the 
Results  from  the  Kew  Magnetographs  on  Quiet  Days  during  the  Eleven 
Years  1890-1900,  with  a  Discussion  of  Certain  Phenomena  in  the 
Absolute  Observations:  Dr.  C.  Chree,  F.R  S.— On  the  Theory  of 
Refraction  in  Gases  :  G.  W.  Walker.— Researches  on  Tetanus  :  Prof. 
Hans  Meyer  and  Dr.  F.  Ransom.— The  Hydrolysis  of  Fats  in  vitro  by 
Means  of  Steapsin  :  Dr.  J.  Lewkowltsch  and  Dr.  J.  J.  R.  Macleod. 

Royal  Institution,  at  5— Electric  Resonance  and  Wireless  Telegraphy  : 
Prof.  J.  A.  Fleming,  F.R.S. 

Institution  of  Electrical  Engineers,  at  s-— Annual  General 
Meeting. 

FRIDA  Y,  May  29 

Royal  Institution,  at  9.— The  Progress  of  Oceanography:  Prince  of 
Monaco. 

SATURDAY,  May  30. 

Royal  Institution,  at  3.— The  "  De  Magnete  "  and  its  Author  :  Prof. 
S.  P.  Thompson,  F.R.S. 


CONTENTS.  PAGE 

The  Principles  of  Disease.     By  T.  C.  A 49 

Zoology  for  Artists  50 

Hindu  Chemistry.     By  T.  K.  R 51 

Our  Book  Shelf:— 

Hall:  "The  Soil:  an  Introduction  to  the  Scientific 

Study  of  the  Growth  of  Crops." — R.  W 52 

Hooper  and  Wells  :  "  Electrical  Problems  for  Engineer- 
ing Students." — M.  S 52 

Dixon  :  "  Open-air  Studies  in  Bird  Life  ;  Sketches  of 

British  Birds  in  their  Haunts." — R.   L 52 

Verrill :   "  The  Bermuda  Islands  "        53 

Ozard  :   "La  Pratique  des  Fermentations  industrielles  "    53 
Letters  to   the    Editor  :— 

Psychophysical     Interaction. — Sir     Oliver     Lodge, 

F.R.S.  ;  «:.\.7r.)/ 53 

"Red  Rain"  and  the  Dust  Storm  of  February  22. — 

Dr.  T.  E.  Thorpe,  C.B.,  F.R.S 53 

The  Undistorted  Cylindrical   Wave.  — Oliver    Heavi- 

side,  F.R.S 54 

Seismometry  and  Geite.— Dr.  C.  Chree,  F.R.S.  .    .    .    55 
Photograph  of  Oscillatory  Electric  Spark.     {Illustrated. ) 

C.  J.  Watson 56 

Our  Rainfall  in  Relation  to  Bitickner's  Cycle.— Alex. 

B.|,MacDowall 56 

The      Propagation     of      Phthisis. — Rev.       Edmund 

McClure 56 

Tanganyika.     {Illustrated.)     ByJ.  W.  J 56 

Enlargement     of     the     Kew    Herbarium.     By    W. 

Botting  Hemsley,  F.R.S 58 

The  South  African  Association 59 

The  Royal  Society  Conversazione 59 

Cooperation    in    Astronomy.     By  Prof.  Edward    C. 

Pickering 61 

The  Royal  Visit  to  Glasgow.     By  G.  A.  G 63 

Notes       64 

Our  Astronomical  Column  : — 

Nova  Geminorum 68 

Parallax  of  the  Binary  System  5  Equulei 69 

A    Regulating  or    Recording   Thermometer.     {Ilhis- 

trated.)      By  H.   S.    Allen 69 

University  and  Educational  Intelligence 70 

Societies  and  Academies.     {Illustrated.)      71 

Diary  of  Societies 72 


NO.    175 1,  VOL.  68] 


NATURE 


11 


THURSDAY,    MAY    28,     1903. 


THE    ERUPTIONS    OF    MONT    PELhE. 
Mont  Pelie  and  the  Tragedy  of  Martinique.  By  Angelo 
Heilprin.     Pp.     xiii      +      335.     (Philadelphia     and 
London  :      J.    B.    Lippincott  Company.)     Price    155. 
net. 

THERE  have  been  not  a  few  greater  catastrophes 
than  that  in  which  the  city  of  St.  Pierre  was  anni- 
hilated, and  all  its  inhabitants  (with  only  one  or  two 
exceptions)  killed  in  a  few  minutes,  but  the  peculiar 
circumstances  of  that  tragedy  have  combined  to  bestow 
on  it  a  great  amount  of  interest.  The  city  was  one 
of  the  fairest  in  the  western  hemisphere,  and  no  less 
famous  for  its  profligacy  than  for  its  beauty.  The 
suddenness  with  which  it  was  destroyed,  the  awful 
circumstances  with  which  this  was  attended,  and  the 
strange  and  almost  unprecedented  nature  of  the 
calamity  have  all  combined  to  lend  it  a  peculiar  horror. 
At  first  the  newspapers  were  filled  with  lurid  and  inco- 
herent accounts  of  what  had  taken  place,  and  all 
manner  of  exaggerations  regarding  the  condition  of 
Martinique  were  mingled  with  the  most  gloomy  fore- 
bodings regarding  the  future  of  the  island.  In  course 
of  time  a  more  rational  spirit  prevailed,  but  it  is  per- 
haps even  yet  too  soon  to  expect  a  calm  and  entirely 
scientific  study  of  all  the  remarkable  features  of  the 
catastrophe. 

Meanwhile  the  facts  are  being  carefully  sifted  by 
various  scientific  men,  and  to  the  brief  reports  already 
published  by  Prof.  R.  T.  Hill,  Mr.  E.  O.  Hovey,  and 
ihe  Commissioners  of  the  French  Academy  of  Science, 
this  most  interesting  volume  by  Prof.  Heilprin  is  a  very 
welcome  addition.  In  many  ways  the  author  of  this 
book  combines  the  qualifications  necessary  for  success- 
ful treatment  of  the  subject.  He  is  an  eminent  natur- 
alist, a  much  travelled  geographer,  and  to  his  scien- 
tific knowledge  he  adds  a  dauntless  courage  which  has 
enabled  him  to  face  calmly  all  the  dangers  of  the 
dreaded  volcano  of  Martinique.  The  book,  moreover, 
is  written  in  a  style  so  graphic  and  vigorous  that  the 
reader  is  carried  along  in  breathless  interest,  and  no 
one  who  can  enjoy  a  thrilling  tale  of  adventure,  how- 
ever little  he  may  be  interested  in  scientific  theories 
about  volcanoes,  could  possibly  put  it  down  until  he  had 
reached  the  concluding  page.  The  photographic  illus- 
trations are  excellent.  Many  of  them  have  been  taken 
from  Prof.  Heilprin 's  negatives;  others  are  from  other 
sources,  and  have  already  appeared  in  the  newspapers. 

To  those  who  have  followed  carefully  the  history  of 
the  eruptions,  there  is  a  great  deal  in  the  book  that 
is  not  new.  Much  of  it  has  appeared  already  in  maga- 
zine articles  by  Prof.  Heilprin  and  other  writers,  but 
even  when  following  a  well-worn  path,  the  author  is 
never  dull,  and  his  resume  of  the  earlier  accounts  is 
valuable,  if  only  because  he  was  one  of  the  first 
scientific  men  to  reach  the  island  after  the  tragedy,  and 
had  in  consequence  special  facilities  for  sifting  the 
evidence  before  that  rank  growth  of  misstatement  and 
exaggeration,  which  rapidly  sprang  up,  had  time  to 
reach  its  full  development.  This,  however,  is  merely 
the  prelude  to  his  tale,  and  the  interest  deepens  when 
NO.    1752,  VOL.   68] 


he  describes  the  efforts  he  made  to  obtain  a  view  of 
the  crater  near  the  summit  of  the  mountain,  and  to 
study  the  processes  at  work  there.  He  was  the  first 
to  reach  the  actual  summit  after  the  tragedy  of  May, 
1902,  but  luck  was  against  him,  and  the  mountain  was 
veiled  in  mist ;  next  day  he  returned,  but  still  was 
unable  to  make  out  the  details  of  the  interior  of  the 
crater.  In  this  he  was  not  more  unfortunate  than  other 
observers ;  we  met  a  newspaper  correspondent  in  Fort 
de  France  last  year  who  had  been  five  times  on  the 
top  of  Montagne  Pel6e,  and  had  failed  to  secure  a 
single  photograph  that  would  bear  reproduction.  As 
a  matter  of  fact,  those  who  would  learn  the  condition 
of  the  crater  should  refer  to  the  descriptions  by  Mr. 
Hovey  and  Prof.  Lacroix,  whose  accounts  are  much 
clearer  than  those  given  in  the  book  before  us. 

Though  baffled,  he  was  not  defeated,  and  in  the 
month  of  August  Prof.  Heilprin  returned  to  Martin- 
ique to  renew  his  investigations.  He  again  ascended 
the  mountain  from  its  eastern  base,  and  this  time  it 
is  clear  that  he  had  a  very  narrow  escape  with  his 
life.  The  volcano  was  very  active,  and  was  emitting 
a  vast  cloud  of  dust  and  casting  great  bombs  for 
hundreds  of  5'ards  from  the  crater.  The  descriptions 
of  the  scenes  on  the  upper  part  of  the  volcanic  cone 
are  vivid,  and  to  those  who  know  with  what  sudden- 
ness the  deadly  black  cloud  can  rise  from  the  crater 
and  sweep  down  the  mountain  slopes  to  the  sea,  it  is 
evident  that  the  party  carried  their  lives  in  their  hands. 
Not  much  information  of  scientific  value  was  likely  to 
be  obtained  in  the  circumstances,  for  it  was  im- 
possible to  approach  sufficiently  near  the  crater  to  see 
what  was  going  on  there.  Prof.  Lacroix  has  subse- 
quently ascertained  that  what  was  at  first  regarded 
as  an  interior  cone  of  ash  is  really  a  solid  pillar  of 
lava  rising  up  from  the  bottom  of  the  crater  until  it 
overtops  the  former  summit  of  the  mountain.  The 
lava  of  Montagne  Pel^e,  in  fact,  is  so  viscous  and  so 
nearly  consolidated  that  it  is  being  forced  out  as  ice 
or  lead  can  be  forced  through  a  narrow  orifice  under 
great  pressure.  So  long  as  it  is  in  its  present  con- 
dition it  cannot  possibly  flow  over  the  ground,  and 
when  the  steam  within  it  expands  the  mass  is  in  large 
part  shivered  into  dust. 

The  second  fatal  eruption  of  Pel^e,  that  in  which 
the  village  of  Morne  Rouge  was  destroyed  and  2000 
lives  were  lost,  took  place  when  Prof.  Heilprin  was 
residing  on  the  mountain.  His  narrative  of  the  events 
is  wonderfully  graphic,  and  though  the  fatal  cloud  was 
discharged  at  night,  and  in  the  darkness  it  was  not 
possible  to  see  exactly  what  happened,  it  is  quite  certain 
that  the  eruption  was  of  the  same  type  as  that  in  which 
St.  Pierre  was  levelled  with  the  ground.  Next  day 
Prof.  Heilprin  visited  the  scene  of  the  disaster  and 
interviewed  the  survivors.  Their  experiences  seem  to 
have  been  very  similar  to  those  of  the  inhabitants  of 
the  Carib  country  of  St.  \  incent  during  the  great 
eruption  of  May  7.  The  chapters  of  this  book 
in  which  the  story  of  this  eruption  is  recor4ed  are  a 
very  valuable  contribution  to  the  scientific  history  of 
the  activity  of  Montagne  Pel<5e. 

The  concluding  chapter,  in  which  the  phenomena  of 
the  eruption  are  discussed,  is  in  some  ways  not  the 
least  interesting  in  the  book.     From  it  we  learn  th-Jt 

E 


74 


NATURE 


[May  28,  1903 


the  author  has  discarded  his  bizarre  hypothesis  that 
the  black  cloud  consists  of  *'  carbon  gases  "  produced 
by  the  distillation  of  beds  of  asphalt  in  Tertiary  de- 
posits beneath  the  volcano.  He  is  now  of  the  same 
opinion  as  other  scientific  men,  viz.,  that  the  main 
constituents  of  the  cloud  were  steam,  hot  dust  and 
sulphurous  acid.  We  can  hardly  pass  without  remark 
his  extraordinary  calculations  of  the  amount  of  dust 
ejected  by  Montagne  Pel^e  during  the  latter  part  of 
1902.  He  arrives  at  the  conclusion  that  480  millions 
of  cubic  feet  of  solid  sediment  have  been  discharged 
every  hour,  and  is  inclined  to  believe  that  this  is  an 
under-estimate.  So  far  at  least  as  regards  that  period 
when  we  were  in  Martinique  in  July,  this  is  a  wild 
exaggeration.  For  hours  at  a  time  the  volcano  emitted 
hardly  a  puff  of  steam ;  a  casual  visitor  might  never 
have  suspected  that  the  deep  gully  near  the  summit 
led  into  the  crater ;  the  amount  of  dust  discharged  was 
negligible.  Yet  this  was  the  period  immediately 
preceding  and  immediately  following  the  eruption  of 
July  9,  which  was  one  of  the  most  important  erup- 
tions of  last  summer.  When  Prof.  Heilprin  adds, 
"  We  ask  ourselves  the  questions — What  becomes  of 
the  void  that  is  formed  in  the  interior?  What  form 
of  new  catastrophe  does  it  invite?  "  we  seem  to  hear 
the  echo  of  the  dire  predictions  which  resounded  in 
the  colonial  journals  about  twelve  months  ago. 

John  S.   Flett, 


EXPERIMENTS    ON    ANIMALS. 
Experiments   on    Animals.     By    Stephen    Paget.     Pp. 
xvi  +  387.     New     and     revised     edition.     (London  : 
Murray,  1903.)     Price  65. 

A  BOOK  which  reaches  a  second  edition  in  two 
years  can  do  so  only  in  response  to  some  distinct 
demand,  and  such  a  demand  is  in  itself  no  little  recom- 
mendation as  to  its  merits.  The  author  of  the  book, 
Mr.  Stephen  Paget,  was  for  twelve  years  secretary  to 
the  Association  for  the  Advancement  of  Medicine  by 
Research,  and  it  was  therefore  his  business  "  to  know 
something  about  experiments  on  animals,  and  to 
follow  the  working  of  the  (Vivisection)  Act  of  1876." 
He  is  therefore  to  a  peculiar  degree  competent  to 
write  a  book  dealing  with  these  subjects,  and  it  is  a 
matter  for  congratulation  that  the  council  of  the 
Association  above  mentioned  decided  that  the  book 
should  be  written  with  a  view  to  general  reading. 
Though  in  this  present  edition  all  references  to  anti- 
vivisection  societies  and  their  methods  are  very  wisely 
omitted,  yet  the  obvious  purpose  of  the  book  is  to 
combat  the  misleading  statements  which  these  socie- 
ties have  disseminated  broadcast  amongst  the  unin- 
structed  public,  and  to  afford  information  concerning 
the  results  achieved  by  such  experiments  on  animals, 
whereby  the  public  may  be  enabled  to  judge  for  them- 
selves as  to  the  claims  of  the  anti-vivisectors.  To 
quote  Lord  Lister,  who  writes  an  introduction  to  this 
volume, 

"  The  action  of  these  well-meaning  persons  is 
based  upon  ignorance.  They  allow  that  man  is  per- 
mitted to  inflict  pain   upon   the  lower  animals  when 

NO.    1752,  VOL.  68] 


some  substantial  advantage  is  to  be  gained;  but  they 
deny  that  any  good  has  ever  resulted  from  the  re- 
searches which  they  condemn." 

Mr.  Paget 's  object  is  therefore  to  convey  to  the 
general  reader  some  idea  of  the  inestimable  advantages 
which  have  accrued  to  medical  science  from  experi- 
mental research  on  animals.  In  the  closing  pages  of 
the  book,  moreover,  he  points  out  that  the  vast 
majority  of  the  experiments  carried  out  at  the  present 
day  in  Great  Britain  involve  no  pain  at  all  to  the 
animals  operated  upon.  The  comparatively  few 
animals  subjected  to  painful  experiment 

"  cannot  be  compared  with  the  same  number  of  horses, 
cattle,  or  sheep  mutilated  by  breeders  and  farmers ;  for 
these  mutilations  are  done,  some  of  them,  without  any 
anaesthetic.  They  cannot  be  compared  with  the  same 
number  of  pheasants  or  rabbits  badly  wounded,  but 
not  killed,  in  sport ;  for  the  animals  thus  wounded  re- 
ceive no  subsequent  care,  and,  if  they  are  in  pain, 
nobody  puts  them  out  of  it." 

To  come  to  the  actual  contents  of  the  book,  we  find 
that  Mr,  Paget  devotes  more  than  200  pages  to  the 
consideration  of  experiments  in  bacteriology,  but  only 
84  pages  to  experiments  in  physiology.  It  is  to  be 
regretted  that  the  subject  which  forms  the  foundation 
of  all  medical  science  should  be  treated  so  cursorily, 
but  in  excuse  it  may  be  admitted  that  the  practical 
importance  of  much  physiological  work  is  indirect, 
whilst  that  of  bacteriological  work  is  obvious  and 
immediate. 

In  his  account  of  experiments  in  physiology,  Mr. 
Paget  gives  a  concise  risumi  of  certain  chapters  in 
the  history  of  physiology.  The  circulation  of  the 
blood  is  treated  rather  more  fully  than  other  subjects, 
though  Harvey's  work  receives  but  four  pages  of  de- 
scription and  quotation.  In  the  chapter  on  gastric 
juice,  Mr.  Paget  very  pertinently  refers  to  the  well- 
known  case  of  Alexis  St.  Martin,  In  whom  a  permanent 
gastric  fistula  was  produced  by  a  gun-shot  wound. 
Yet  in  spite  of  the  numerous  experiments  made  upon 
this  man  by  Dr.  Beaumont,  no  pain  was  experienced. 
Presumably,  therefore,  artificially  produced  fistulae  in 
animals  are  equally  painless.  In  the  chapter  upon  the 
nervous  system,  the  important  results  obtained  by 
Galen  are  described,  and  it  Is  pointed  out  that  the  men 
who  followed  after  him,  though  they  worshipped  his 
name,  missed  the  whole  meaning  of  his  work  through 
their  neglect  of  the  experimental  method  which  he  em- 
ployed. 

In  his  pathological  chapters  Mr.  Paget  gives  a  brief 
account  of  Inflammation  and  suppuration,  and  then 
passes  on  to  serum  therapeutics.  As  the  book  is 
admittedly  for  general  readers,  it  is  a  pity  that  no 
general  introduction  to  this  subject  is  given.  The 
meaning  of  antitoxins  and  their  method  of  prepara- 
tion are  nowhere  described.  The  various  chapters 
adduce  a  very  copious  body  of  facts  as  to  the  cure  of 
diseases  by  serum-therapy  and  preventive  inoculation, 
but  the  absolute  necessity  for  experiments  on  animals, 
not  only  for  the  discovery  and  elucidation  of  the  cura- 
tive and  preventive  methods,  but  for  the  direct  deriva- 
tion of  the  Immunising  sera,  is  Implied  rather  than 
clearly  stated  in   so  many  words.       In  fact,    It  looks 


May  28,  1903] 


NA  TURE 


75 


iier  as  if  the  author  had  for  the  time  being  forgotten 
primary  object  of  his  book,  and  had  become  so 
I  K'd  away  by  the  intrinsic  interest  of  his  subject    as 
ir  oblivious  to  the  fact  that  most  of  his  readers  must 
.ntirely   ignorant   of    the   rudiments   of   preventive 
(Heine.     With  this  slight  criticism  we  may  pass  on 
I  numerate   some   of   the   contents   of   this   section. 
r  chapters  on  anthrax  and  tubercle    comes  a  very 
^  one  on  diphtheria,  in  which  an  almost  unneces- 
ily  full  list  of  statistics  is  given.     In  the  chapter  on 
AS    we  have  an  admirable  description  of  Pasteur's 
Dvery  and  method  of  preparation  of  rabies  virus. 
1  iif  cholera  chapter  is  no  less  interesting.     The  plague 
chapter  gives  a  detailed  and  most  instructive  account 
of    the    report    of    the    Indian    Plague    Commission. 
Judging  from  the  evidence  adduced,  this  report  seems 
unduly  pessimistic,  and  one  would  have  thought  the 
commissioners    entitled    to    go    beyond    their    finding 
that  "  the  method  of  serum-therapy  is  in  plague,  as  in 
iitT  infectious  diseases,  the  only  method  which  holds 
h  a  prospect  of  ultimate  success."     In  the  typhoid 
[)ter  we  are  interested  to  learn  that  of  the   12,234 
rcrs  and  men  forming  the  military  garrison  in  the 
f^e    of    Ladysmith,     1705    were    inoculated    against 
typhoid  fever,  and  that  amongst  these  the  proportion 
of  typhoid  cases  was  only   i   in  48-7,   whilst  amongst 
the    uninoculated   it    was    i    in    7.07.       Still,    there    is 
nothing  to  indicate  whether  the  inoculated  were  a  fair 
sample  of  both  men  and  officers,  or  were  chiefly  com- 
posed of  the  latter.     The  intensely  interesting  chapter 
on    malaria    and    yellow    fever    gives    an    admirable 
epitome  of  the  most  important  work  done  and  results 
achieved  in  the  elucidation  of  the  cause  and  prevention 
of  these  diseases,  and  should  be  read  by  everyone  who 
is  compelled  by  circumstance  to  live  near  fever-haunted 
spots.     Still  other  chapters  deal  with  myxoedema,  the 
action  of  drugs,   and  snake-venom,   whilst  the   book 
closes  with  an  account  of  the  Vivisection  Act  and  in- 
spectors' reports.  H.  M.  V. 


CHEMICAL  TESTS  AND  THEIR  DISCOVERERS. 
Tests  and  Reagents,  Chemical  and  Microscopical, 
known  by  their  Authors'  Names.  Compiled  by 
Alfred  I.  Cohn.  Pp.  iii  +  383.  (New  York:  John 
Wiley  and  Sons;  London  :  Chapman  and  Hall,  Ltd., 
1903.)     Price  3  dollars. 

THE  appearance  of  this  volume  reminds  one  of  two 
opposite  tendencies  that  are  developing  in   the 
terminology  of  modern  chemistry.     On  the  one  hand, 
and  more  particularly  in   the  "  organic  "  division   of 
'^e  science,  the  chemist  nowadays  eschews  all  trivial  or 
kopular  terms  for  his  compounds,  and  strives  to  find 
Ippellations  for  them  which  shall  be  not  merely  names 
remember  the  substances  by,   but  titles  which,   at 
st  to  the  initiated,  are  more  or  less  self-expl&natory. 
is  is  very  meet  and  proper,  and  indeed  some  such 
stem  is  probably  unavoidable.     But  the  union  of  the 
tular  with  the  descriptive,  mariage  de  convenance  as 
is,    often    produces    some    very    ungainly   offspring, 
nder  the  writer's  eye  there  lies  a  recent  volume  of  the 
iirnal   of    the    Chemical    Society,    several    pages    of 
*|»rhich  are  plentifully  besprinkled  with  such  "  names  " 
I  NO.    1752,  VOL.  68J 


as  Ethylbromoketohydro.\ydihydropentanthrenedicarb- 
oxylate,  and  this  is  by  no  means  the  worst  example 
that  could  be  cited.  Mark  Twain  once  remarked  of 
certain  German  polysyllabic  achievements  that  they 
were  "  not  words,  but  alphabetical  processions."  Simi- 
larly one  may  say  of  productions  like  the  one  above 
quoted  that  they  are  not  names,  but  descriptive  sen- 
tences with  the  verbs  left  out. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  instinct  for  brevity — combined 
sometimes,  perhaps,  with  a  suggestion  of  hero-worship 
or  a  tinge  of  Chauvinism — has  simultaneously  asserted 
itself  in  the  upgrowth  of  a  kind  of  personal  nomen- 
clature for  numerous  things  chemical  and  matters 
microscopical.  We  have  A's  test  and  B's  process;  C's 
reagent  and  D's  reaction;  E's  "number"  and  F's. 
"  value  ";  G's  theory  and  H's  "  law  ";  every  month 
sees  additions  to  the  list;  and  o'  the  making  of  these 
minor  immortals  there  seems  no  end.  Time  was  when 
the  cognominal  designation  was  a  distinct  convenience. 
Perhaps  it  is  so  still,  but  in  proportion  as  the  number 
of  such  titles  increases  their  utility  diminishes,  and  if 
the  hyphenless  monstrosities  of  organic  chemistry  are 
sometimes  almost  undecipherable  from  their  length,  the 
proper  names  have  become  confusing  by  their 
multiplicity. 

These  now  need,  in  fact,  a  dictionary  to  themselves. 
So  far  as  tests  and  reagents  are  concerned,  such  an  aid 
is  furnished  by  the  present  volume.  It  gives  in  alpha- 
betical order  many  hundreds  of  proper  names  by  which 
various  chemicals  and  operations  are  more  or  less  gener- 
ally known,  and  after  each  name  describes,  usually  in 
a  few  words,  the  essential  features  of  the  test  or  re- 
agent with  which  the  name  is  associated.  Most  of  the 
matter  has  already  been  published  serially  by  the  com- 
piler in  Merck's  Report,  and  the  amplified  instalments 
are  now  collected  in  a  single  volume,  where  they  will 
be  found  very  convenient  for  reference. 

What  chiefly  strikes  one  on  looking  through  the 
book  is  that  its  value  would  have  been  much  enhanced 
by  the  inclusion  of  more  references  to  original  descrip- 
tions, of  which,  indeed,  only  a  very  few  are  actually 
given.  The  increased  space  required  would,  surely, 
have  been  amply  compensated  by  the  greater  utility 
secured.  On  account  of  the  condensed  style  in  which 
the  descriptions  are  generally  written,  they  are  apt  to^ 
be  sometimes  obscure;  indeed,  their  chief  value  in 
many  cases  is  that  of  a  reminder  to  one  who  is  already 
more  or  less  familiar  with  the  operation  described.  A 
person  who  had  never  previously  performed  the  experi- 
ments would  often  want  more  detail,  but  as  to  where 
he  could  obtain  it  the  author  gives  him  no  inkling. 
Nevertheless,  the  book  will  be  of  service  to  the  busy 
chemist  or  microscopist.  It  does  not  claim  to  be  a  com- 
plete record,  but  there  is  a  good  deal  of  information 
I  given,  and  it  appears  to  be  generally  accurate  in  sub- 
stance if  sometimes  awkward  in  expression. 

An  index  of  subjects  closes  the  volume,  and  is  rather 
a  curiosity  in  its  way,  since  the  body  of  it  is  made  up 
almost  entirely  of  proper  names.  The  book  may  well 
find  a  place  with  the  compiler's  "  Indicators  "  on  the 
shelves  of  the  chemical  laboratory,  and  will  be  found 
useful  in  the  microscopist 's  workroom. 

C.    SiMMONDS. 


76 


NATURE 


[May 


1903 


OVR    BOOK    SHELF. 

Dictionary  of  Philosophy  and  Psychology.  Vol.  ii. 
Edited  by  J.  M.  Baldwin.  Pp.  xvi  +  892.  (London  : 
Macmillan  and  Co.,  Ltd.,  1902.)  Price  21s.  net. 
This,  the  second  of  the  three  volumes  of  Prof.  Bald- 
win's dictionary,  completes  the  text,  for_  the  third 
volume  is  to  consist  wholly  of  bibliographies.  As  in 
the  case  of  the  first  volume,  many  of  the  articles  are 
of  high  merit,  but  the  standard  of  achievement  varies 
pretty  widely.  The  editor  has  taken  a  very  liberal  view 
of  the  range  of  subjects  that  call  for  notice,  with  the 
result  that  the  ground  is  very  completely  covered,  and 
place  is  given  to  a  considerable  number  of  topics  in 
physical  and  biological  science  which  a  generation  ago 
would  hardly  have  been  mentioned  in  a  dictionary  of 
philosophy  or  psychology.  Perhaps  the  most  valuable 
articles  are  those  written  by  Dr.  Stout  and  Prof.  Bald- 
win conjointly,  and  forming  a  fairly  complete  series 
of  careful  definitions  of  psychological  terms.  We 
should  like  to  have  seen  recognised  the  claims 
of  psj'chology  to  rank  as  an  independent  science,  freed 
from  its  ancient  bondage  to  metaphysical  philosophy, 
and  if  all  that  pertains  to  psychology  had  been 
Brought  together  in  a  separate  volume  it  would  have 
formed  a  more  useful,  because  more  manageable,  work 
of  reference  for  the  psychologist.  The  treatment  of 
some  topics  suffers  through  being  distributed  under 
many  separate  headings,  e.g.  social  science  is  treated 
of  under  that  heading,  but  also  under  social  dynamics, 
social  evolution,  social  philosophy,  sociology,  social 
ethics,  &c.  Other  subjects,  again,  suffer  through 
being  treated  by  too  many  hands,  working  not  con- 
jointly, but  separately,  and  with  imperfect  coordin- 
ation, so  that  we  even  find  definitions  begun  by  one 
writer  or  writers  and  finished  by  another,  and  in  some 
cases  conflicting  views  within  the  limits  of  one  article. 
This  is  especially  the  case  in  the  long  article  on  vision. 
The  biographical  notes  are  unsatisfactory,  because  so 
very  brief,  and  we  note  some  slight  inaccuracies,  e.g. 
the  description  of  G.  H.  Lewes  as  an  English  positivist, 
of  R.  H.  Lotze  as  professor  at  Leipzig.  These,  how- 
ever, are  but  small  blemishes  in  a  work  that  should 
be  found  very  useful,  not  only  by  the  philosopher  and 
general  reader,  but  by  all  students  of  psychology  and 
the  other  biological  sciences.  It  is  interesting  to  note 
that  "  psychical  research  "  receives  formal  recognition 
as  a  legitimate  subject  for  study  and  research  by  the 
inclusion  of  several  excellent  articles  from  the  pen  of 
Mrs.  Sidgwick. 

How  to  Attract  the  Birds.  By  Neltje  Blanchan.  Pp. 
244;  illustrated.  (London:  W.  Heinemann,  1903.) 
Price  55.  net. 
Whether  the  author  of  this  book  should  be  addressed 
as  Mr.,  Mrs.,  or  Miss,  and  whether  the  name  which 
appears  on  the  title-page  be  real  or  assumed,  we 
cannot  determine,  but  we  have  little  hesitation 
in  saying  that  this  and  other  works  by  the  same 
pen  have  a  charm  and  a  freshness  by  no  means 
apparent  in  all  the  bird-books  which  have  come  under 
our  notice.  Although  written  in  America,  and  treat- 
ing solely  of  American  birds,  the  present  work,  like 
its  predecessors,  can  scarcely  fail  to  appeal  to 
the  English  reader  and  bird-lover;  and  many  of 
the  hints  given  as  to  the  best  mode  of  attracting 
and  keeping  birds  in.  gardens  and  plantations  on 
the  other  side  of  the  Atlantic  will  be  equally 
applicable  in  the  case  of  our  native  British  species. 
On  one  point  the  author  is  very  emphatic — 
namely,  the  impossibility  of  getting  a  large  number 
of  shy  and  attractive  birds  to  frequent  and  build  in 
a  garden  when  a  cat  is  also  kept  on  the  establishment. 
Not  only  are  such  attempts  unsuccessful,  but  they  are 
also  cruel.     In  America,  where  garden  crops  and  pro- 

NO.    1752.  VOL.  68] 


duce  suffer  perhaps  even  more  damage  from  insect 
than  is  the  case  in  this  country,  the  small  expenses  coi 
nected  with  populating  an  estate  with  birds  are  mo; 
than  compensated  by  the  accruing  advantages  to  fru- 
and  flowers  by  the  destruction  of  insect  life. 

"  One  pair  of  chickadees  (whatever  these  may  bi 
in  an  orchard,"  writes  the  author,  "  will  destroy  mor. 
insect  eggs  than  the  most  expensive  spray  in  i^ 
machine."  Apparently,  indeed,  the  author  will  no; 
allow  that  any  bird  can  do  harm  in  a  garden  ;  but  then 
he  (or  she)  has  probably  never  seen  a  flock  of  bull- 
finches in  a  gooseberry  plantation,  or  witnessed  thi 
mischievous  devastation  inflicted  on  a  primrose-bordi  1 
by  sparrows  ! 

An  attractive  feature  of  the  book  is,  of  course,  th( 
numerous,  and  for  the  most  part  exquisite  illustra- 
tions, more  especially  those  of  nests  and  eggs.  In 
the  case  of  some  of  the  adult  birds  represented  in 
foliage,  we  have  a  shrewd  suspicion  that  they  havi 
been  "  faked  up  "  by  means  of  stuffed  specimens,  but 
even  then  the  general  effect  is  in  most  cases  good. 
While  devoting  much  attention  to  the  proper  subject 
of  the  book,  the  author  by  no  means  omits  referent 
to  the  scientific  aspects  of  ornithology,  and  the  observ- 
ations with  regard  to  the  white  "  recognition  marks  " 
on  the  loins  of  birds  like  oar  own  wheatear  are  worth \ 
of  all  attention.  As  a  whole,  Neltje  Blanchan 's  latf^t 
work  may  be  pronounced  a  charming  and  attracts 
volume.  R.  L. 

Telephone   Lines.     By   W.    C.    Owen.     Pp.    xvi  +  3<,' 

(London  :  Whittaker  and  Co.,  1903.)  Price  5s. 
This  book  deals  in  a  thoroughly  practical  manner  wi- 
the construction  and  erection  of  overhead  telepho:. 
lines  and  the  laying  of  underground  cables.  The 
author's  long  experience  as  a  telephone  engineer 
enables  him  to  write  with  authority  on  the  subject, 
which  he  treats  in  all  its  important  engineering  aspects, 
from  the  best  methods  of  preserving  the  wood  used  for 
poles  to  the  final  electrical  testing  of  the  finished  line. 
American  and  continental  practice  is  described  as  well 
as  British  methods.  Telephony  has  always  been  re- 
garded as  a  branch  of  applied  science  in  which  this 
country  can  by  no  means  claim  to  be  to  the  fore ;  the 
perusal  of  Mr.  Owen's  book  certainly  lends  support 
to  this  belief,  as  the  examples  of  continental  methods 
which  are  quoted  show  in  many  instances  considerable 
superiority.  The  theoretical  explanations  which  are 
here  and  there  required  to  show  the  necessity  of  certain 
methods  of  construction  are  expressed  in  clear  and 
non-technical  language  well  suited  to  linesmen  and 
others  who  are  not  technical  experts,  for  whom  the 
book  is  largely  written.  A  large  number  of  illustra- 
tions help  to  explain  the  text;  the  book  should  prove 
very  useful  to  those  engaged  in,  or  having  anything 
to  do  with,  telephone  work,  and  may,  moreover,  be 
read  with  interest  by  all  who  care  about  the  practical 
applications  of  science.  M.  S. 

The  Globe  Geography  Readers.  Intermediate.  Our 
Island  Home.  By  Vincent  T.  Murch^.  Pp.  293. 
(London  :  Macmillan  and  Co.,  ^.td.,  1903.)  Price 
IS.  6d. 
In  the  introductory  and  junior  readers  belonging  to 
this  series,  already  noticed  in  these  columns,  the 
young  pupil  is  provided  with  simple  explanations  of 
the  general  principles  underlying  the  study  of  geo- 
graphy; the  present  volume  deals  specifically  with  the 
physical  and  political  geography  of  the  United  King- 
dom in  fifty-six  short  lessons,  the  subject-matter  of 
which  is  varied  and  discursive,  ranging  from  an 
account  of  the  prehistoric  inhabitants  of  Britain  to  a 
description  of  Irish  scenery.  The  lessons  are  written 
in  an  interesting,  conversational  style,  and  are  accom- 
panied by  an  abundance  of  instructive  illustrations, 
including  sixteen  coloured  plates. 


May  28,  1903] 


NATURE 


77 


LETTERS    TO    THE    EDITOR. 

[The  Editor  does  not  Iwld  himself  responsible  for  opinions 
expressed  by  his  correspondents.  Neither  can  he  undertake 
to  return,  or  to  correspond  with  the  ivriters  of,  rejected 
manuscripts  intended  for  this  or  any  other  part  of  Nature. 
No  notice  is  taken  of  anonymous  communications.] 

Psychophysical  Interaction. 

I  MUST  demur  to  the  statement  of  my  views  which  Sir  O. 
Lodge  has  given  in  his  letter  printed  in  Nature  for  May  14, 
"  that  if  dynamical  laws  are  exact  and  irrefutable,  the 
universe  must  be  a  completely  determined  mechanical 
system,  with  only  one,  and  that  a  necessary,  solution." 
In  the  first  place,  I  made  no  statement  as  to  the  universe 
as  a  whole ;  as  I  do  not  know  the  physical  universe  to  be 
finite  in  extent,  I  prefer  to  make  statements  only  about 
finite  portions  of  the  universe,  and  the  interactions 
of  such  finite  portions.  I  certainly  hold  the  view  that  the 
laws  of  dynamics,  which  are  a  self-consistent  system  of 
formal  laws,  are  exact  and  irrefutable,  but  the  question 
whether  the  motions  of  all  parts  of  a  living  organism  are 
in  accordance  with  those  laws  is  quite  another  matter,  and 
one  on  which  I  have  expressed  no  opinion.  What  I  did  in 
effect  say,  w^as  that  a  material  system  upon  which  forces  of 
psychical  origin  and  of  incalculable  magnitude  acted, 
traversed  the  laws  of  dynamics  in  the  only  sense  in  which 
such  a  system  of  laws  can  be  traversed,  viz.  that  the 
motions  would  not  be  in  accordance  with  the  laws,  whether 
the  supposititious  forces  do  mechanical  work  or  not. 

Sir  O.  Lodge  maintains  that  the  psychical  and  the 
physical  can  interact  without  upsetting  any  fundamental 
dynamical  law  ;  he  objects  to  the  principle  of  Least  Action 
as  containing  assumptions  which  beg  the  question  at  issue, 
and  pins  his  faith  to  Newton's  laws.  Now,  although  the 
principle  of  Least  Action  contains  nothing  which  is  not 
deducible  from  Newton's  laws,  provided  the  same  form  of 
energy-function  is  taken  in  the  two  cases,  I  will,  for  the 
sake  of  argument,  accept  the  test  that  Sir  O.  Lodge  lays 
down.  One  of  Newton's  laws  is  that  to  every  action  there 
is  always  an  equal  and  opposite  reaction,  or  every  stress 
has  two  aspects;  now  I  suggest  for  Sir  O.  Lodge's  con- 
sideration the  following  questions  :- — What  are  the  reactions 
corresponding  to  the  forces  of  psychical  origin  which  act 
upon  parts  of  a  living  organism?  On  what  do  such  re- 
actions act?  It  will  clearly  not  suffice  to  say  that  the 
reactions  are  something  of  a  different  character  from  the 
actions,  and  are  appropriate  to  exert  an  influence  upon 
the  psychical ;  Newton's  reactions  are  mechanical  forces 
acting  upon  material  systems. 

As  an  example  of  a  mechanical  system  the  motions  of  the 
parts  of  which  are  determinate  through  the  laws  of  dynamics 
in  conjunction  with  the  law  of  gravitation,  we  may  take 
the  solar  system,  supposing  each  member  of  it  to  be  treated 
as  a  whole.  Let  us  suppose  that  there  resided  in  the  solar 
system  some  agency  of  a  non-material  character  which 
was  capable  of  applying  to  the  planets  forces  of  unknown 
magnitudes  along  the  normals  to  their  orbits  relative  to 
the  centre  of  gravity  of  the  system.  The  paths  of  the 
planets  could  then  no  longer  be  calculated  ;  in  fact,  there 
would  be  an  end  of  gravitational  astronomy ;  both  the 
linear  and  angular  momenta  of  the  system,  so  far  from 
being  conserved,  would  become  absolutely  indeterminate, 
and  yet  Sir  O.  Lodge  must  in  consistency  maintain  that 
the  laws  of  dynamics  would  not  be  traversed.  Moreover, 
although  the  sum  of  the  potential  energy  and  the  kinetic 
energy  of  the  motions  relative  to  the  centre  of  gravity 
would  be  unaltered,  the  energy  of  the  motion  of  the  whole 
system  through  space  would  be  altered  to  an  unknown 
extent.  If  the  disturbing  forces  acted  normally  to  the 
paths  relative  to  a  point  regarded  as  a  fixed  origin  for  the 
sun  and  stars,  the  energy  of  the  system  would  be  con- 
served, but  in  all  other  respects  the  same  result  as  before 
would  ensue,  namely,  chaos. 

There  are,  I  take  it,  in  the  main  three  views  which  may 
be  maintained  as  regards  the  relations  of  the  psychical  and 
the  physical  in  living  organisms. 

(i)    The    view     known     as     pure     naturalism,     that    the 
physical  forms  an  independent  system,  and  the  psychical  is 
only  a   Begleiterscheinung  influenced  by,  or  perhaps  deter- 
mined  by,    the  physical,    but   exerting  no  inflXience   on   the 
NO.    1752.   VOL.  68] 


physical.     In    this   case    the    motions   of    the    physical    are 
entirely  determinate  in  accordance  with  mechanical  laws. 

(2)  The  view  that  the  psychical  and  the  physical  form 
two  systems  linked  together,  with  interaction  between  the- 
two ;  on  this  view  neither  system  is  complete  in  itself,  and 
the  physical  cannot  be  determined  completely  by  any  system 
of  purely  mechanical  laws.  This  view  does  not  exclude 
pure  determinism  as  regards  the  whole  complex,  since  it 
may  be  held  that  the  psychical  has  a  dynamics  of  its  own, 
and  that  the  interaction  between  the  psychical  and  physical 
is  determinate  in  accordance  with  some  scheme  of  laws. 

(3)  Lastly,  it  may  be  held  that  the  dualism  of  the  physical 
and  psychical  is  entirely  inadequate  as  an  ultimate  formula- 
tion ;  in  fact,  that  both  (i)  and  (2)  are  unworkable  as 
thorough-going  hypotheses ;  on  this  monistic  view,  both 
the  physical  and  the  psychical  must  be  regarded  as  manifest- 
ations of  something  more  fundamental  than  either.  This- 
view,  as  also  (2),  does  not  exclude  the  partial  and  tentative 
application  of  mechanical  laws,  even  to  the  case  of  living 
organisms ;  there  may  be  a  partial  or  practical  indepen- 
dence of  the  physical  in  certain  classes  or  cases,  but 
such  practical  independence  could  never  be  presumed  apart 
from  proof  of  its  existence  by  means  of  actual  observation, 
and  there  must  certainly  be  a  point  at  which  the  practical 
independence  breaks  down,  and  at  which  the  dualism  of 
our  ordinary  mode  of  thinking  becomes  inadequate  as  a 
representation  of  what  happens.  It  is  this  last  view  of  the 
matter  which  I  am  inclined,  personally,  to  regard  as  the 
true  one.  E.  W.  Hobson. 

Christ's  College,  Cambridge,  May  17. 

With  the  help  of  one  of  Clerk  Maxwell's  demons  a  very 
simple  illustration  of  change  of  motion  in  a  dynamical 
system,  without  any  interference  with  the  sums  of  energy 
and  momentum,  can  be  constructed,  which  may  perhaps, 
be  of  service  to  Mr.  McDougall. 

Let  the  demon  provide  himself  with  some  inextensible, 
perfectly  flexible,  mass-less  string.  (It  is  found  abundantly 
in  text-books  of  Dynamics.)  Let  him  observe  two  bodies 
of  the  system,  havjng,  it  may  be,  motions  of  rotation  as  well 
as  of  translation  ;  and  when  he  discovers  a  point  on  each 
the  relative  velocity  of  which  with  respect  to  the  other  point 
is  either  zero  or  at  right  angles  to  the  straight  line  between 
them,  and  which  also  are  about  to  recede  from  each  other, 
let  him,  at  the  very  instant  when  things  are  so,  attach  a 
piece  of  his  string  to  these  two  points  exactly  equal  in 
lepgth  to  the  distance  between  them.  The  two  bodies  will 
thus  be  suddenly  yoked  together  without  any  shock  whatever, 
and  consequently  without  any  loss  of  energy.  Their  sub- 
sequent motions  of  translation  and  rotation  will  be  altered 
by  the  action  of  the  string ;  but  their  total  energy  and  their 
total  momentum  will  remain  entirely  unaltered.  As  soon  as 
the  string  slacks  the  demon  must  be  careful  to  remove  it,  in 
order  to  avoid  the  possible  shock  when  it  again  tightens. 

If  the  string  be  perfectly  elastic  (so  that  no  energy  is 
dissipated  in  internal  work  when  the  string  stretches)  in- 
stead of  inextensible,  the  demon  may  attach  it  to  any  two 
points  on  the  surfaces  of  the  bodies  without  affecting  the 
momentum  sum  or  the  energy  sum  ;  but  so  long  as  the 
string  is  at  all  stretched,  a  portion  of  the  energy  of  the 
two  bodies  will  be  stored  up  in  it. 

For  example,  let  the  two  bodies  be  spheres  moving  with 
the  same  uniform,  rectilineal,  velocity ;  and  suppose  the 
centre  of  figure  of  each  to  be  its  centre  of  inertia.  Let  each 
be  spinning  about  an  axis  through  its  centre,  perpendicular 
to  the  plane  in  which  the  centres  are  moving.  Then  the 
demon  may  safely  fasten  his  inextensible  string  to  the  two 
points  where  the  straight  line  joining  the  centres  cuts  the 
surfaces.  There  will  be  no  shock,  and  therefore  no  loss 
of  energy.  There  will  be  also  no  change  in  the  total 
momentum  of  the  spheres,  whether  linear  or  angular,  nor 
any  change  in  the  uniform,  rectilineal,  motion  of  their 
common  centre  of  inertia ;  nevertheless,  when  the  demon 
releases  them,  they  may  be  moving  in  divergent  instead  of 
parallel  directions,  and  with  diminished  or  increased 
velocities  of  rotation. 

Demoniacal  guidance  of  this  kind  conflicts  neither  with 
the  law  of  conservation  of  energy  nor  with  that  of  the  con- 
servation of  momentum,  and  so  far  would  seem  to 
contradict  Prof.  Ward's  criticism  in  his  "  Naturalism  and 
Agnosticism,"  vol.  ii.  p.  83.  J.  W.  Sharph. 

Woodroffe,  Bournerhouth. 


7S 


AT  A  rURE 


[May  28,  1903 


Prok.  MiNciiiN  raises  the  question  of  the  desirability,  or 
undesirability,  of  the  use  of  adjectives  with  regard  to 
physical  principles.  If  the  noun  deserve  the  adjective,  and 
if  the  meaning-  of  the  adjective  be  clear,  it  is  not  easy  to 
see  why  the  word  should  be  omitted.  Prof.  Tait  is  cited, 
rather  unfortun  ttely,  as  the  leader  of  those  who  apply  the 
word  "  grand  '  to  the  principle  of  conservation  of  energy, 
while  refraining  from  its  application  to  certain  other 
physical  principles.  Whether  or  not  it  be  the  case  that 
*'  following  his  lead,  all  but  the  most  sober  mathematicians 
use  the  laudatory  adjective  when  they  write,  about  this 
particular  physical  principle,"  it  is  certain  that  all  but  the 
least  sober  physicists  will  see  a  very  real  reason  for  the 
use  of  the  term — precisely  the  reason  which  led  Tait  to 
adopt  jt. 

Prof.  Tait's  use  of  adjectives  is  instructive.  He  made 
a  very  characteristic  use  of  the  term  "  mere,"  a  word  which 
Prof.  Minchin  would  abolish  along  with  "  grand."  He 
spoke  of  the  mere  mathematician,  that  is,  a  mathematical 
machine  not  possessed  by  the  soul  of  a  physicist. 

But  Tait  did  not  refuse  glorification  to  the  principle  of 
conservation  of  matter.  He  placed  it,  in  that  respect,  on 
the  same  high  level  as  the  principle  of  conservation  of 
energy.  And  he  glorified  Newton's  laws,  so  glorifying  the 
principle  of  conservation  of  momentum  and  the  other 
principles  alluded  to  by  Prof.   Minchin. 

Tait  also  knew  that  it'  was  possible  so  to  state  the 
principle  of  conservation  of  energy  in  a  dynamical  system 
as  to  make  it  include  that  of  conservation  of  momentum. 
This  was  pointed  out  in  an  early  chapter  of  a  text-book  on 
dynamics  which  he  never  completed. 

Assume  an  origin  and  axes  of  reference.  Let  the  (con- 
served) energy  of  a  system  be  Ej,  so  that 

•2.{mv"')  =  2E,. 
Assume  that  the  energy   is  also  constant   (  =  £3)   when   the 
motions  are  referred   to  an   origin   moving  uniformly   with 
speed  02   in   a  direction  making  an  angle   ^  with   the  line 
of  motion  of  the  mass  m,  and  we  get 

a./2(w)  -  2a.p.{mv  COS  &)  =   2(E2  -  Ej). 
Similarly 

Oj^SCw)  -  2ast(mv  cos  0)  =  2(E3  -  E^) 
if  we  refer  to  an  origin  moving  with  uniform  speed    a,    in 
the  same  direction.     Hence 

2{w)  =^  o,  ^2{wv  cos  e)  =  o. 

The  latter  equation  asserts  conservation  of  momentum,  the 
former  asserts  conservation  of  matter. 

In  the  same  way,  if  we  postulate  that  momentum,  found 
to  be  conserved  when  referred  to  certain  axes  and  a  given 
origin,  is  also  conserved  when  referred  to  an  origin  moving 
uniformly  with  regard  to  this  reference  system,  we  can 
deduce  the  principle  of  conservation  of  matter. 

It  is  impossible  that  all  three — matter,  momentum,  and 
energy — can  be  in  general  found  to  be  conserved  simul- 
taneously when  referred  to  an  origin  in  varying  motion. 
If  matter  be  conserved,  and  if  we  could  measure,  from  our 
standpoint  on  the  earth,  the  momentum  and  energy  of  the 
universe,  we  should  find  one  or  both  to  be  subject  to  at 
least  yearly,  rnonthly,  daily,  &c.,  periodic  variations.  If 
the  origin  move  with  the  centre  of  inertia,  as  in  all  cases 
■directly  experimented  upon,  all  three  principles  hold  if  two 
hold,  while  the  energy  is  found  to  be  constant  in  at  least 
•one  state  of  motion  of  the  centre  of  inertia,  say  zero.  The 
discussion  of  absolute  conservation  is  as  futile  as  the  dis- 
cussion of  absolute  motion. 

It  may  be  that  energy,  or  momentum,  is  only  conserved 
on  the  average  as  to  space  and  time,  the  departures  being 
on  an  ultra-measurable  scale  and  yet  sufficient  to  account 
for  "  guidance  "  action  in  living  beings.  But  we  do  not 
require  to  postulate  this  in  order  to  account  for  guidance 
action.  Such  action  might  occur  and  yet  be  in  accordance 
with  conservation  of  both  momentum  and  energy.  Max- 
well's demons  could  bring  it  about.  Suppose  that  the  mass 
of  a  demon  is  zero,  that  he  is  perfectly  elastic,  and  that  his 
parts  are  capable  of  rapid  relative  motion.  Let  an  army 
of  such  demons  receive  orders  to  abstract  heat  from  one 
portion  of  a  body  and  give  it  to  an  adjacent  portion,  so  as 
to  establish  a  diiTerence  of  temperature  while  keeping  the 
itotal    energy    constant.        Because    of    his    zero    mass,    each 


demon  must  adjust  himself,  in  acting  upon  molecules,  so 
as  to  produce  zero  change  of  momentum  at  any  instant. 
He  can  allow  quickly  moving  molecules  to  pass  in  one  direc- 
tion, slowly  moving  molecules  in  the  other,  while  he  prevents 
to  some  extent  the  reverse  process.  He  might  thus  work 
railway  points  with  no  expenditure  of  energy  on  the  whole, 
and  with  no  change  of  momentum  on  the  whole.  The  onlv 
principle  temporarily  interfered  with  is  the  principle  o'f 
dissipation  of  energy ;  and  that  is  temporarily  interfered 
with  constantly  in  nature. 

Such  speculations  are  of  no  value  except  as  showing  that 
guidance  action  may  occur  without  overthrowing  accepted 
dynamical  principles.  Further  discussion  lies  outside 
physics.  As  Tait  said,  "  human  science  has  its  limits,  and 
there  are^  realities  with  which  it  is  altogether  incompetent 
to  deal."  A  sufficiently  wide  Monism  is  scientific  and 
good._  '^v    Peddie. 

university,  Edinburgh. 


NO.    1752,  VOL.   68] 


In  his  letter  on  the  conservation  of  energy  (p.  31),  Prof. 
Minchin  holds  that,  while  energy  might  be  conserved  in 
the  physical  universe  acted  on  in  some  way  by  mind,  yet 
neither  force  nor  momentum  would  be.  "  They  "' (the 
causes  altering  the  configuration  of  a  system)  "  infallibly 
alter  its  total  momentum  and  total  force  in  every  direction.'' 
Even  for  changes  produced  by  physical  causes,  e.g.  the 
pressure  of  a  smooth  rail,  this  may  not  be  the  case.  It 
IS  true  the  rail  will  not  guide  a  moving  body  along 
It  unless  It  exerts  pressure,  and  then  it  will  generally  alter 
the  momentum  of  the  system,  to  which  the  rail  itself  is 
not  supposed  to  belong.  It  may  happen,  however,  that 
the  pressure  from  without  is  exerted  in  equal  amount  in 
opposite  directions.  Further,  if  it  were  true  that  the  total 
momentum  would  be  infallibly  altered  by  a  physical  cause 
this  would  prove  nothing  for  psychophysical  action,  unless 
we  beg  the  whole  question,  and  assume  at  the  outset  thai 
the  motion  of  matter  can  only  be  affected  by  what  i« 
material. 

The  constant  use  of  physical  analogy  in  this  connection 
soon  leads  to  obscurity.  The  only  resemblance  that  can  at 
present  be  said  to  exist  between  the  action  of  mind  and  that 
of  an  ideal  immovable  rail  is  that  both  do  no  work.  To 
explain  how  mind  acts  on  matter,  such  analogies  are  use- 
less. At  most,  in  the  case  under  discussion,  they  can  only 
serve  to  show  that  there  are  possible  causes  of  change  which 
do  not  afTect  the  energy.  It  is  only,  I  think,  an  undue  us» 
of  physical  analogy— the  action  of  the  mind,  for  instance 
being  thought  of  as  pressure— that  can  prompt  the  state- 
ment that  any  cause  of  change  must  alter  the  total 
momentum  in  some  direction. 

The  laws  of  mechanics  are  merely  regulative,  and  are 
not  of  themselves  sufficient  to  account  for  the  motion  of 
a  dynamical  system  with  given  initial  conditions  unless  it 
IS  stipulated  that  all  action  is  mechanical,  or  at  least  unless 
t^he  action  on,  or  interference  with,  the  motion  is  exactly 
defined.  This  is  proved  by  the  simple  fact  that  we  can 
solve  examples  in  dynamics  in  which  we  suppose  arbitrary 
known  interference  to  take  place.  In  such  examples  as 'a 
rule,  the  momentum  of  the  system  would  be  altered  but 
that  IS  not  at  all  necessary.  ' 

In  conclusion,  then,  it  may  be  agreed  that  the  action  of 
mmd  does  not  violate  the  laws  of  mechanics,  but  that  no 
more  prevents  mind  producing  changes  than  it  prevents 
those  produced  by  ordinary  mechanical  action. 

The    University,    Birmingham.  C.    T.    Preece. 

Extension  of  Kelvin's  Thermoelectric  Theory. 
Lord  Kelvin's  thermoelectric  theory  has  always  seemed  to 
me  to  be  one  of  his  best  works.  Since  its  enunciation  the  scope 
of  the  electric  current  has  been  extended,  as  in  Maxwell's  theory 
It  IS  now  the  curl  of  the  magnetic  force  of  the  field  always  and 
everywhere.  A  corresponding  extension  of  the  thermoelectric 
theory  is  needed.  I  do  not  know  whether  it  has  been  done,  but 
it  may  be  shortly  stated,  and  contains  some  .striking  results  '  As 
regards  the  necessity,  the  following  case  will  show  it  plainly 
Make  up  a  circuit  of  two  parallel  wires  of  different  materials^ 
both  thermoelectrically  neutral,  say  one  of  lead,  the  other  of  one 
of  Tait's  alloys.  The  places  of  thermoelectric  force  in  the 
circuit  are  then  the  terminals.  Now  send  short  waves  along  the 
circuit,  in  the  way  so  often  done  of  late  years.  There  need  be 
no  current  at  all  in  the  circuit  at  one  end  to  pair  with  that  at 


May  28,  1903] 


NATURE 


79 


the  other.     So  there  is  complete  failure  of  the  theory  of  metallic 
circuits. 

But  the  needed  extension  is  easily  made  by  following  Lord 
Kelvin's  method,  and  using  the  enlarged  meaning  of  electric 
current.  Let  e  be  the  intrinsic  voltage  per  unit  length  due  to 
reversible  thermal  action,  and  let  C  be  the  current  density.  Then 
eC  is  the  heat  per  unit  volume  absorbed  per  second,  and  the 
second  thermodynamic  law  requires  that2eC/9  =  o,if  Ois  tempera- 
ture, the  summation  to  be  complete  as  regards  e.  Here  C  may  be 
any  circuital  current,  so  e/O  is  polar  ;  that  is,  e=  -  Qvp,  where 
/  is  a  scalar,  the  thermoelectric  power.  In  a  homogeneous 
conductor,  ;*  is  a  function  of  the  temperature  only,  to  suit 
Magnus's  results.  But  it  is  also  a  function  of  the  material.  In 
what  way  is  not  known,  but  it  shows  itself  at  the  junction  of 
different  metals.  Then  /  changes,  say,  from  /i  to  /j,  so  the 
intrinsic  voltage  at  the  junction  is  Pi2  =  ^(/i -/^a)-  This  is  the 
Peltier  force  from  the  first  to  the  second  metal.  So  far  is  all 
that  is  necessary  for  steady  currents.  But  when  the  current 
varies,  part  of  it  leaves  the  metals.  Now  at  a  metal-air  junction, 
the  thermoelectric  power  falls  from  /  to  o,  so  there  is  an 
additional  thermoelectric  force  FN  or  /^N  acting  outwards, 
N  being  the  unit  normal.  It  is  here  assumed  that  the  thermo- 
electric power  of  air  is  zero.  It  does  not  seem  likely  that  its 
value  is  important  compared  with  /  in  a  metal.  This  FN 
multiplied  by  the  current  leaving  the  conductor  measures  the 
reversible  thermal  effect  at  the  boundary.  The  system  is  now 
complete,  provided  there  is  no  external  e.  But  should  there 
be,  then  it  must  be  counted  too,  if,  for  instance,  a  current  is 
induced  in  an  external  conductor.  In  any  case,  e=  -  Qyp  will 
be  valid,  with  the  usual  proper  interpretation  of  discontinuities, 
and  the  Maxwellian  meaning  of  the  current. 

It  will  be  sufficient  to  suppose  that  p  =  o  outside  a  circuit  of  two 
metals.  Then  there  is  the  Thomson  force  in  the  metals,  the  Feltier 
force  at  the  metal  junctions,  and  the  metal-air  force 
PN  of  variable  intensity  all  over  the  circuit.  In 
the  extreme  case  with  which  I  commenced,  there 
may  be  only  one  Peltier  force  in  operation,  or 
even  none  at  all,  but  just  the  metal-air  force 
alone.  If  so,  there  is  reversible  evolution  of  heat 
at  some  parts,  and  absorption  at  other  parts  of  the 
boundary. 

As  regards  the  application  of  the  second  thermo- 
dynamic law,  it  seems  to  be  justified  by  experi- 
mental results  with  steady  currents.  I  see  no 
reason  why  it  should  not  be  applied  to  variable 
currents,  even  when  varying  very  rapidly.  For  p 
is  a  property  of  the  material  and  its  temperature  at 
any  place,  and  has  nothing  to  do  at  the  moment 
with  what  is  going  on  at  other  places.  Yet 
a  reservation  is  necessary.  For  the  second  law 
results  from  averages.  So  there  must  be  some 
limit  to  the  rapidity  with  which  the  current  at  any 
spot  may  vary,  if  the  second  law  is  to  be  fully 
valid  there. 

The  Volta  contact  force  must  not  be  forgotten  in 
connection  with  the  metal-air  thermoelectric  force. 
Mr.  J.  Brown  has  lately  made  the  Volta  force 
disappear  by  heating  it  away  in  oil.  If  this  is  fully 
confirmed,  it  perhaps  proves  that  chemical  action 
between  the  metal  and  an  electrolytic  film  of 
moisture  is  the  real  source  of  the  energy  of  the 
transient  Volta  current,  as  Mr.  Brown  maintains. 
How  will  this  affect  the  thermal  force  ?  If  we 
allow  properly  for  the  change  in  /  in  passing 
through  the  film  from  the  metal  to  the  air,  it 
seems  likely  that  the  thermoelectric  effects  will  be 
simply  superposed  upon  the  Volta  effects,  because 
the  sources  of  energy  are  different.  Yet  they  might 
have  to  be  combined  in  some  unknown  way. 

Returning  to  the  steady  current  in  a  circuit  of  two  metals, 
Lord  Kelvin  showed  that  the  complete  intrinsic  voltage  amounted 
10  IpdQ.  This  does  not  express  the  real  distribution  of  intrinsic 
force  in  the  circuit,  and  seems  to  have  no  meaning.  But  it  has 
a  curious  interpretation,  which  is  of  importance  in  the  extended 
theory.  The  necessity  of  the  metal-air  force  is  shown  in  another 
way.  I  have  shown  that  the  source  of  H  in  varying  states  is 
the  curl  of  e  everywhere.  Here  this  is  f=Vv/V^.  It  is  zero 
in  a  homogeneous  conductor,  and  also  at  the  metal  junctions, 
but  has  the  boundary  value  VNflv/,  which  would  represent 
the  source  of  H  if  there  were  no  metal  air  force.     But  add  on 


the  curl  of  the  metal-air  force  FN  or  />flN.  It  is  -  VNvP,  and 
the  sum  of  the  two  is  -  VN/vfl.  Now  this  is  also  the  curl  of 
the  fictitious  intrinsic  force  referred  to,  that  is,  pvQ  in  the  metals 
only.  So  we  come  to  this  striking  result,  that  Lord  Kelvin's 
IpdQ  in  the  metal  circuit  alone  is  a  fictitious  distribution  which 
not  only  gives  the  same  steady  current  as  the  real  distribution 
of  intrinsic  force,  but  also  gives  the  true  E  and  H  everywhere 
in  variable  states  as  well,  provided  the  real  intrinsic  forces 
include  the  metal-air  forces  along  with  the  Peltier  and  Thomson 
forces.  Oliver  Heaviside. 

May  18. 


H 


THE  FARTHEST  NORTH. 
R.H.  Prince  Luigi  Amedeo  of  Savoy,  Duke  of  the 
Abruzzi,  has  given  to  the  English-reading  public 
a  superb  account  of  his  great  Arctic  expedition. ^  Though 
he  has  fortunately  adopted  a  smaller  size  of  volume 
than  his  Imperial  namesake,  the  Archduke  Ludwig 
Salvator,  devotes  to  his  luxurious  memoirs  on  Medi- 
terranean islands,  the  book  is  still  both  ponderous  and 
imposing.  Although  in  otftavo,  it  is  as  large  as  most 
quartos,  and  it  is  a  credit  to  the  publishers  in  every 
way.  A  royal  opulence  is  reflected  from  the  burnished 
pages,  which  reflect  the  light  also  so  perfectly  that 
at  night  it  is  impossible,  without  elaborate  precautions, 
to  prevent  the  image  of  the  lamp-flame  from  concealing 
part  of  the  text.  The  very  fine  half-tone  reproduc- 
tions of  photographs  with  which  the  book  is  crammed 
profit  by  the  quality  of  the  paper.  The  portraits  of 
Admiral   Markham  and  Dr.   Nansen,   illustrating  th^ 


■'^'^ 


Fig.  I.— Cape  Saule 


'  On  the  Fo^uf  Star    in  ihe 


NO.    1752,  VOL.  68] 


introduction,  are  not,  however,  very  happily  chosen, 
and  we  miss  a  satisfactory  portrait  of  Captain  Cagni, 
the  hero  of  the  memorable  journey  to  the  farthest 
north. 

The  royal  author  writes    modestly    and    well,    his 

1  "()n  the  Polar  Star  in  the  Arctic  Sea."  By  His  Royal  Highness. 
Luigi  Amedeo  of  Savoy,  Di  ke  of  the  Abruzzi,  with  the  Statements  of 
Commander  U.  C?gni  upon  Ihe  Sledge  Expedition  10  86°  34'  N.,  and  of  Dr. 
A.  Cavalli  Molimlh  upon  his  Return  to  the  Bay  of  Teplitz.  Translated  by- 
William  Le  Queux.  In  two  vols.  ;  with  212  illustrations  in  the  text,  16  fulj- 
page  photogravure  plates,  2  panoramas  and  5  maps.  Pp.  702  -i-  xxii  +  xii. 
(London  :  Huichinson  and  Co.,  1903) 


83 


NATURE 


[May  28.  1903 


narrative  occupying  the  first  volume,  and  serving  to 
show  that  he  was  a  good  comrade  and  a  brave  explorer, 
sharing  all  the  discomforts  of  a  somewhat  rniserable 
wintering  without  complaint.  The  translation,  too, 
is  well  done,  running  so  smoothly  that  it  is  rarely  re- 
cognisable as  a  translation  at  all.  Now  and  again, 
however,  little  bits  of  awkwardness  come  to  _  light. 
A  medical  man  would  hardly  write  in  English  of 
the  "  digestive  tube,"  nor  would  a  sailor  refer  to  the 
"'  left  side  "  or  the  "  chimney  "  of  a  steamer — "  it's  no 
a  lum,  it's  a  funnel,"  said  "Wee  Macgreeger  "  scorn- 
fully on  one  occasion.  Trifles  of  nomenclature  also 
show  the  want  of  first-hand  knowledge;  where  the 
form  is  so  beautiful  it  jars  one  to  run  against  a 
*'  Thompson  "  compass,  a  "  Clement  "  Markham,  or 


-The  Polar  Star  after  the  Ice  Pressure.     (From  "  On  the  Polar  Star  in  the  Arctic  Sea 


even  an  "Ommaney. "  We  wonder  whether  the 
British  public  nowadays  attaches  any  more  definite 
meaning  to  a  dram  as  a  unit  of  weight  than  it  does 
to  a  gramme ;  and  we  are  sorry  for  the  task  set  to 
poor  Dr.  Cavalli  in  weighing  out  8oz.  i3.o958dr.  of 
tinned  meat  for  each  man  every  day ;  though  we  are 
reassured  in  finding  that  the  metric  units  quoted  along- 
side prescribe  only  the  quarter  of  a  kilogramme,  and 
we  presume  that  he  did  not  trouble  himself  to  weigh 
it  to  the  fifth  of  a  milligramme  as  the  English  version 
suggests.  This  habit  of  translating  foreign  units  by 
some  theoretical  table  is  so  common  that  it  is  really 
time  to  put  in  a  plea  for  the  exercise  of  common 
sense,  which  in  this  case  would  suggest  8|oz.  as  a 
sufficient  cauivalent  for  250  grammes,  and  in  another 


would  delete  a  residuum  of  4  drams  in  a  weight  of 
nearly  a  ton. 

The  narrative  of  the  Italian  expedition  has  already 
been  summarised  in  Nature  (vol.  Ixiv.,  190 1,  p.  158), 
and  it  need  not  be  repeated.  The  first  of  the  volumes 
before  us  supplies  many  additional  particulars  as  to 
the  first  navigation  of  Queen  Victoria  Sea,  and  the 
long  struggle  with  the  ice  before  the  Stella  Polare 
reached  the  northern  limit  of  the  Franz  Josef  Land 
archipelago  beyond  Rudolf  Island.  It  deals  with  all 
the  usual  incidents  of  a  winter  sojourn  in  high  lati- 
tudes, made  in  this  case  unexpectedly  hard  by 
the  party  being  obliged  to  leave  the  ship,'  which  had 
been  specially  prepared  for  wintering  in,  and  to  camp 
instead  in  extemporised  tents.  There  are  few  refer- 
ences to  scientific  work,  but  observa- 
tions were  made  and  collections  obtained 
which  are  being  discussed  in  a  series  of 
volumes  by  Italian  specialists.  Enough 
is  said,  however,  to  show  that  the  ob- 
servations must  have  been  frequently 
interrupted.  The  difficulties  of  high 
wind  and  snowdrift  proved  much  greater 
than  were  expected  with  regard  to  the 
meteorological  instruments,  in  the 
management  of  which  some  pre- 
liminary experience  at  a  high-level  ob- 
servatory in  Europe  would  have  been  of 
great  assistance.  The  magnetic  hut, 
too,  suffered  from  stress  of  weather; 
but  we  hope  that  the  results  obtained 
will  yet  prove  of  value. 

Most  interest  naturally  attaches  to  the 
second  volume,  which  deals  mainly  with 
Captain  Cagni's  fine  attempt  to  reach 
the  Pole.  This  attempt  proved  more 
nearly  successful  than  any  sledging  ex- 
pedition before  or  since,  and  it  is 
narrated  by  the  captain  himself.  There 
is  no  doubt  that  if  the  commander  of  the 
expedition  had  sufficiently  recovered 
from  the  serious  frost-bite  from  which 
he  suffered  he  would  have  led  the  ad- 
vanced party  to  the  farthest  point.  The 
pluck  and  endurance  of  the  Duke  of  the 
Abruzzi  have  been  amply  proved,  while 
the  fact  that  when  himself  disabled  he 
insisted  none  the  less  on  his  second  in 
command  carrying  out  the  programme 
speaks  volumes  for  his  generosity  and 
patriotism.  The  expedition  was  a 
private  one,  planned  to  gratTfy  the  laud- 
able ambition  of  an  illustrious  person- 
age, and  no  one  could  have  reasonably 
objected  if  the  commander  had  changed 
his  plans  and  stopped  the  expedition 
when  he  found  he  could  go  no  farther. 
Captain  Cagni  and  the  three  Italian 
alpine  guides  who  accompanied  him 
were  worthy  of  the  confidence  reposed  in  them, 
and  they  were  rewarded  by  being  able  to  carry 
the  Italian  flag  a  little  nearer  to  the  Pole  than 
the  flag  of  any  other  nation  has  yet  been  taken. 
Beyond  observations  of  latitude,  no  scientific  work  was, 
possible  on  this  arduous  journey ;  but  the  result  showed 
clearly  that,  given  a  sufficiency  of  dogs,  no  piece  of 
polar 'travel  need  prove  too  difficult  for  resolute  men. 
The  dogs  of  the  Stella  Polare  not  only  drew  the  sledges, 
but,  as  in  Nansen's  case,  they  furnished  a  food-supply 
for  their  surviving  comrades,  and  in  this  case  towards 
the  end  for  the  explorers  themselves.  It  is  curious 
to  find  that  the  exhaustion  of  provisions,  or  even  of 
the  petroleum  used  for  fuel,  excited  comparatively 
little  interest  so  long  as  a  few  dogs  were  left  to  furnish 


NO. 


1752,    VOL.    68] 


■May  28,  1903] 


I 

IKeat  and  grease  to  burn  for  cooking  it ;  but  the  utmost 

l^fcuety    was    caused    by    the    wearing    out    of    the 

fTBuminium  stove  and  cooking  utensils.       As  regards 

clothing,   the   Italians   found   woollen   material   much 

more  useful  and  satisfactory  than  furs.     The  point  is 

discussed  at  some  length  by  Dr.  Cavalli,  who  observed 

that   light   porous   cloth   allowed   the   perspiration   to 

n.iss  to  the  outside  before  freezing,  and  there  it  could 

-^craped  off  and  the  clothes  kept  comparatively  dry ; 

reas  when  skin  clothing  of  any  kind  was  used, 

snuw  and  ice  were  formed  on  the  inner  surface,  and 

when   warmed   in   the   sleeping-bag  the  clothes  were 

saturated  with  moisture. 

The  Italian  and  Norwegian  members  of  the  expedi- 
tion appear  to  have  been  on  the  best  of  terms  through- 
'  lit,  and  but  for  the  loss  of  the  first  party  returning 
n  the  great  journey  over  the  sea-ice,  their 
I  in  the  Arctic  regions  must  be  pronounced 
a  most  successful  one.  What  is  now  wanted  in  the 
interest  of  science  is  no  mere  dash  to  the  Pole,  no  more 
experiments  as  to  modes  of  travelling,  but  a  repetition 
of  the  drift  of  the  Fram  from  a  point  north  of  Bering 
Strait,  with  abundant  equipment  for  oceanographical, 
meteorological  and  magnetic  research.  It  would  cost 
but  a  trifle  compared  with  the  expense  of  an  expedition 
with  dogs  and  stores  enough  to  ensure  reaching  a  very 
high  latitude  from  any  land  base,  and  the  value  of  the 
results  is  certain,  though  five  years  might  not  be  too 
much  to  allow  for  obtaining  them.  It  is  a  great  oppor- 
tunity, ready  for  some  wealthy  person  with  a  love  of 
solitude  and  science. 


THE  RESTORATION  OF  THE  LAND  OF 
CHALDEA. 

TWO  lectures  by  Sir  William  Willcocks,  late  Director- 
General  of  the  Irrigation  Works  in  Egypt,  delivered 
before  the  Khedival  Geographical  Society  at  Cairo, 
have  been  published  in  a  pamphlet,'  a  copy  of  which  has 
been  received.  Sir  William  Willcocks,  as  is  well 
known,  is  an  enthusiast  in  irrigation  matters,  and  has 
had  a  very  large  share  in  bringing  Egypt  to  its  present 
state  of  prosperity  by  the  reorganisation  of  the  canal 
and  reservoir  system,  and  in  designing  the  new  works 
that  have  recently  been  carried  out  at  Assuan.  The 
pamphlet  under  notice  relates  to  the  ancient  country 
of  Chaldea,  which  bears  a  great  resemblance  in  its 
physical  features  to  Egypt,  the  river  Tigris  being 
capable  of  performing  the  same  functions  as  the  Nile. 

In  view  of  the  proposed  Bagdad  Railway,  which  will 
traverse  this  delta,  the  subject  is  of  considerable  in- 
t'  rest.  The  author's  view  is  that  the  resuscitation  of 
till-  ancient  canal  system  would  create  along  the  line  of 
railway  a  country  as  rich  as  Egypt,  the  rent  of  which 
would  pay  for  both  railway  and  irrigation  works,  and 
1.  ave  a  surplus  "  which  only  those  can  realise  who  have 
been   in   intimate   touch   with   Egyptian   Agriculture." 

Bagdad  lies  at  a  distance  of  about  500  miles  from 
the  sea,  measured  along  its  course.  From  the  city  to 
the  Persian  Gulf  is  a  country  now  completely  desolate, 
but  which  formerly  was  one  of  the  most  fertile  and 
populous  districts  in  the  world.  Opis,  situated  on  the 
banks  of  the  Tigris,  and  which  was  at  one  time  the 
wealthiest  mart  of  the  East,  bears  to  the  delta  of  the 
Tigris  very  much  the  same  relation  that  Cairo  bears  to 
the  delta  of  the  Nile ;  and  here  were  situated  the  head 
of  the  great  canals  which  irrigated  the  delta.  The 
great  Nahrwan  canal  had  its  intake  in  this  locality, 
and  extended  for  a  length  of  about  250  miles,  feeding 
an  immense  number  of  subsidiary  canals.     This  canal, 

1  "The  Restoration  of  the  Ancient  Irrigation  Works  of  the  Tigris  :  or,  the 
Re-creation  of  Chaldea";  and  "  t^gypt  Fifty  Years  Hence."  By  Sir  William 
Willcocks.  Pp.  71  ;  with  lo  plates.  (Cairo  :  National  Printing  Depart- 
ment, 1903.) 


NATURE 


81 


for  the  first  ten  miles  of  its  course,  was  cut  through 
hard  conglomerate  rock  to  a  depth  of  50  feet,  and  was 
65  feet  wide,  increasing  lower  down  to  394  feet.  These 
dimensions  considerably  exceed  those  of  the  largest 
irrigation  canal  in  Egypt.  It  was  described  as  late 
as  970  A.D.  as  flowing  amid  continuous  and  extensive 
villages,  date  groves,  and  well-cultivated  lands,  the 
whole  region  over  an  area  of  4600  square  miles  con- 
taining a  population,  judged  from  the  ruins  left,  that 
no  spot  on  the  globe  could  excel.  Owing  to 
neglect  of  the  works  the  main  stream  of  the 
Tigris  became  diverted,  the  old  bed  of  the  river 
silted  up,  and  the  ruin  of  the  irrigation  system 
became  complete,  and  now  the  ruins  of  Opis  and  many 
other  mounds  of  adjacent  buildings  spread  like  islands 
over  the  deserted  plain,  which  is  quite  bare  of  vegeta- 
tion. The  author  of  the  pamphlet  estimates  that  there 
are  about  one  and  a  quarter  million  acres  of  first-class 
land  of  the  value  of  38,000, oooZ.  that  could  be  reclaimed 
and  once  more  made  prosperous  by  an  outlay  of 
8,ooo,oooZ.,  and  which  would  produce  a  rental  of 
3,840,000^  Beyond  this  is  an  area  of  one  and  a  half 
millions  of  acres  of  less  fertile  land,  that  could  also  be 
reclaimed  and  cultivated. 

The  second  lecture  is  a  description  of  what  Egypt  will 
be  in  fifty  years'  time,  according  to  the  author's  ideas, 
when  the  country  "  will  attain  a  height  of  splendour 
and  magnificence."  which  will  surpass  the  great  works 
of  the  days  of  the  Pharaohs,  which  have  survived  the 
revolutions  and  catastrophes  of  four  thousand  years. 


THE  DALTON  CELEBRATIONS  AT 
MANCHESTER. 

THE  Manchester  celebrations  in  connection  with  the 
centenary  of  Dalton's  atomic  theory  began  on 
Tuesday  afternoon.  May  19,  when  Prof.  F.  W.  Clarke, 
chairman  of  the  International  Commission  on  Atomic 
Weights,  delivered  the  "Wilde"  lecture  on  "The 
Atomic  Theory  "  to  the  Manchester  Literary  and  Philo- 
sophical Society.  Addresses  were  presented  on  behalf 
of  the  Royal  Society  and  the  Chemical  Society,  and  a 
message  was  received  from  the  Russian  Physico- 
Chemical  Society.  In  an  admirable  discourse  Prof. 
Clarke  sketched  the  history  of  the  atomic  theory  from 
its  first  conception  in  the  minds  of  Greek  philosophers 
down  to  the  present  day.  He  pointed  out  the  directions 
in  which  the  atomic  theory  would  probably  develop, 
but  declared  that  the  problem  of  matter  would  never  be 
solved  until  the  atomic  weights  of  the  elements  had 
been  finally  settled.  "Who,"  he  asked,  "will 
establish  the  Dalton  Laboratory  for  pure  research,  and 
so  give  the  work  which  he  started  a  permanent 
home?  " 

In  the  evening  the  Literary  and  Philosophical  Society 
gave  a  dinner,  at  which  the  principal  guests  were 
Profs.  Clarke  and  van  't  Hoff,  Prof.  A.  E.  Armstrong, 
Mr.  Brereton  Baker,  Prof.  P.  F.  Frankland,  Mr. 
Vernon  Harcourt,  Dr.  Harden,  Sir  James  Hoy,  Prof. 
Kipping,  Dr.  W.  H.  Perkin,  sen.,  Sir  William  Ram- 
say, Prof.  Emerson  Reynolds,  Sir  Henrv  Roscoe,  Prof. 
Smithells,  Dr.  Scott,  Prof.  Thorpe  and  Prof.  Tilden. 

In  proposing  the  toast  of  the  evening,  the  "  Wilde  " 
medallist— Prof.  Clarke — and  the  Dalton  medallist- 
Prof.  Osborne  Reynolds — Sir  Henry  Roscoe  said  that 
Dalton's  atomic  theory  and  Joule's  discovery  of  the 
mechanical  equivalent  of  heat  reflected  more  distinction 
on  Manchester  than  the  city's  association  with  the 
cotton  industry  or  with  the  Ship  Canal. 

On  Wednesday  morning  a  special  meetmg  of  the 
Owens  College  Chemical  Society  was  held  to  offer  an 
address  to  the  great  Dutch  chemist,  J.  H.  van  't  Hoff, 
now  professor  at  the  Berlin  University.     Prof.   Dixon 


NO.    1752,  VOL.  68] 


82 


NATURE 


[May  28,  1903 


was  in  the  chair.  The  address  was  presented  by  Mr. 
Norman  Smith,  a  former  student  under  Prof,  van  't 
Hoff.  The  professor,  who  was  enthusiastically  re- 
ceived, said  the  question  was  often  asked,  nowadays, 
whether  the  atomic  theory  had  not  outlived  its  utility. 
His  reply  was  that,  in  dealing  with  natural  pheno- 
mena, with  states  of  unstable  equilibrium,  the  atomic 
theory  was  indispensable  for  essential  explanations. 
He  had  come  to  regard  the  conception  of  the  carbon 
atom  as  the  centre  of  a  tetrahedron  as  childish,  but  it 
contained  the  germ  of  a  profound  truth,  the  solution 
of  which  must  be  left  to  the  future.  He  suggested 
that  valency  was  due  to  an  equilibrium.  Tne  four 
mutually  repellent  "  electric  atoms  "  of  Helmholtz  were 
kept  in  equilibrium  by  their  attraction  for  the  carbon 
atom  at  the  centre. 

Later  in  the  morning  Earl  Spencer,  Chancellor  of 
the  Victoria  University,  conferred  the  honorary  degree 
of  Doctor  of  Science  on  Prof.  Clarke  and  Prof,  van  't 
Hoff,  who  were  presented  by  Prof.  Dixon.  After  the 
conclusion  of  the  ceremony  Prof,  van  't  Hoff  laid  the 


Memorial  Tablet  over  door  of  house  in  which  John  Dalton  was  born.  From 
a  photograph  supplied  by  Mr.  A.  Humphreys.  The  inscription  on  the 
tablet  re.ads  : — "John  Dalton,  D.C.L.,  LL.D.,  the  Discoverer  of  The 
Atomic  Theory,  was  born  here  Sept.  6,  1766.  Died  at  Manchester 
July  27,  1844." 

first  stone  of  the  proposed  extension  of  the  Owens 
College  Chemical  Laboratories,  and  was  presented,  as 
a  memento  of  the  occasion,  with  a  silver  trowel  by  the 
College  Chemical  Society.  The  celebrations  were  con- 
cluded by  a  soiree  held  at  the  Owens  College  on 
Thursday  night,  when  Dr.  Harden  gave  an  interesting 
account  of  John  Dalton,  and  many  Dalton  relics  were 
exhibited  by  the  Manchester  Literary  and  Philosophical 
Society,  Prof.  H.  B.  Dixon,  Mr.  Theodore  Neild,  Mr. 
G.  W.  Graham  and  Mr.  G.  S.  WooUey.  E.  C.  E. 


THE  ATOMIC  THEORY  AND  THE 
DEVELOPMENT    OF    MODERN    CHEMISTRY. 

MANCHESTER  celebrated  last  week,  just  a 
little  prematurely,  the  centenary  of  John  Dalton 's 
atomic  theory.  It  was  on  September  6,  1803,  that  he 
drew  up  in  his  notebook  his  first  table  of  weights  of 
the  "  ultimate  atoms  "  of  hydrogen  (which  he  took  as 
his   unit),    oxygen,   "  azot,"   carbon,    sulphur,    and  of 

NO.    1752,  VOL,   68] 


water,  ammonia,  nitrous  gas,  nitrous  oxide,  and  oth* 
binary  compounds  of  these  elements.     With  regard  1 
the  genesis  of  the  theory  in  his  own  mind  much  douh 
has    prevailed    until    recently.        Dalton    himself    tol' 
Thomas  Thomson    in  1804    that  he  had  been  led  to  tlu 
theory    from  his  work  on  marsh  gas  and  olefiant  gas. 
He  told  W.   C.    Henry  in   1824  that  his  speculations 
were  suggested  by  the  work  of  Richter.       And  yet, 
oddly  enough,  as  Sir  Henry  Roscoe  and  Dr.  Harden 
have  shown  in  their  "  New  View  of  Dalton 's  Atomic 
Theory  "  the  evidence  is  dead  against  the  accuracy  of 
these  plausible  statements.        Dalton 's  own   notebook 
shows   that  his  atomic  theory  preceded  his   work  on 
marsh  gas,  and  his  notes  for  a  lecture     delivered  in 
1810  give  a  history  of  his  ideas  which  agrees  with  all 
the  facts.  ^ 

It  was  from  Newton  that  Dalton  derived  his  belief 
in  the  atomic  hypothesis.  And  we  can  trace  the  "  solid 
massy,  hard,  impenetrable,  moveable  particles  "  of 
Newton,  through  his  friend  Boyle,  through  Gassendi, 
and  through  Bacon  (who  considered  Democritus  to  be 
the  greatest  of  Greek  philosophers)  back  to  Epicurus 
and  to  the  originators  of  the  atomic  theory,  Demo- 
critus and  Leucippus.  Dalton 's  theory  of  atoms  is 
historically  the  Greek  theory  of  atoms.  But  with  a 
difference. 

Boyle,  who  was  a  far  more  thoroughgoing  atomist 
than  is  generally  supposed,  really  rejects  the  hypothesis 
of  different  elements  which  he  himself  originated,  con- 
sidering that  differences  of  atomic  structure  and 
arrangement  of  a  single  form  of  matter  would  account 
for  all  chemical  transformations.^ 

But  Boyle's  own  definition  of  an  element,  as  a  sub- 
stance which  could  not  be  decomposed,  proved  far  more 
fruitful  than  his  atomic  beliefs,  and  the  work  of  his 
successors — of  Marggraf,  of  Black  and  Cavendish,  of 
Scheele  and  Bergman,  of  Priestley  and  Lavoisier— had 
gradually  established  in  the  minds  of  chemists  the  idea, 
rejected  by  Boyle,  that  there  existed  a  series  of  elements 
not  convertible  into  one  another.  It  was  to  that  series 
of  elements,  unknown  to  the  ancients,  that  Dalton  ap- 
plied the  atomic  hypothesis.  He  came  to  the  conclu- 
sion that  the  atoms  were  not  of  all  kinds  of  shapes  and 
forms,  as  had  been  previously  supposed,  but  that  the 
atoms  of  the  same  element  were  all  identical  in 
weight,  while  the  atoms  of  different  elements  were 
different  in  weight.  It  was  an  idea  that  might  con- 
ceivably have  occurred  to  some  chemist  fifty  years 
earlier.  But,  in  spite  of  Black's  work,  the  phlogiston 
theory  had  led  chemists  before  Lavoisier  to  lay  small 
stress  on  the  notion  of  weight.  Dalton  could  hardly 
have  come  much  earlier  than  he  did.  The  first  an- 
nouncement of  his  theory  was  made  in  a  paper  read  in 
October,  1803,  at  a  meeting  of  the  Manchester  Literary 
and  Philosophical  Society,  in  the  house  of  which  he  had 
his  laboratory;  the  paper  was  not  published  until  1805. 
Dalton 's  views  were  not  fully  placed  before  the  world 
until  the  publication  of  the  first  volume  of  his  "  New 
Systems  of  Chemical  Philosophy,"  in  the  years  1808- 
1810.^ 

Meanwhile  Dalton  had  been  carrying  out  re- 
searches which  confirmed  his  view,  and,  together  with 
certain  assumptions,  led  to  the  most  important  of 
generalisations.     Dalton  himself  never  disengaged  the 

1  Save  for  an  obvious  clerical  error  of  1805  for  1803. 

2  "I  see  not,  why  we  must  needs  believe,  that  there  are  any  primogeneal 
and  simple  bodies,  of  which,  as  of  pre-existent  elements,  nature  is  obliged 
to  compound  all  others.  Nor  do  I  see  why  we  may  not  conceive,  tbat  she 
may  produce  the  bodies  accounted  mixt  out  of  one  another  by  variously 
altering  and  contriving  their  minute  parts,  without  resolving  the  matter 
into  any  such  simple  or  homozeneous  substances,  as  are  pretended  "  ("  The 
Sceptical  Chymist,"  part  vi.,  folio  edition,  vol.  i.,  p.  369).  See  also  p.  366, 
a  reference  10  an  experiment  by  which  Boyle  thought  he  had  "  de-^troyed 
refined  gold  and  brought  it  into  a  metalline  body  of  another  colour  and 
nature  "  :  and  p.  367,  an  earlier  announcement  of  the  view  just  qu  ted. 

3  The  first  part  of  this  volume  aiipeared  in  1808,  the  second  in  1810.  The 
first  part  of  the  second  volume  only  appeared  in  1827.  The  work  was  not 
completed. 


May. 28,  1903] 


NATURE 


83 


facts  from  the  theoretical  language  in  which  he  clothed 
them.  But  we  may  say,  broadly  speaking,  that 
Dalton's  atomic  theory  led  to  the  establishment  of  three 
fundamental  laws  of  chemistry,  the  law  of  definite 
proportions,^  the  law  of  multiple  proportions  (which 
really  includes  the  law  of  definite  proportion)  and 
the  law  of  equivalents.  The  fact  that  elements  unite 
in  more  than  one  ratio  by  weight  obviously  made 
further  assumptions  necessary,  over  and  above  the 
atomic  hypothesis,  before  any  table  could  be  drawn  up 
of  relative  atomic  weights.  Dalton  seemed  to  have 
felt  no  hesitation  in  making  the  assumptions  that 
seemed  to  him  convenient  ("  New  System,"  part  i.  p. 
214).  But  Wollaston,  while  giving  Dalton's  theory 
his  powerful  support,  showed,  in  1814,  that  Dalton's 
assumptions  were  arbitrary,  and  Wollaston 's  term 
"equivalent,"  which  was  regarded  as  implying  no 
hypothesis,  soon  became  a  serious  rival  to  the  term 
"atomic  weight."  Davy,  to  whom  (with  Henry) 
Dalton  had  dedicated  part  ii.  of  the  "  New  System  "  in 
18 10,  gave  Dalton's  views  a  reception  more  than  cool.^ 
Among  the  great  chemists  of  the  day,  it  was  to  Berze- 
lius,  who  had  already  been  trying  to  extend  the  quantita- 
tive work  of  RIchter,  that  Dalton 's  views  appealed  most. 
But  Berzelius,  less  imaginative,  but  more  critical  a 
thinker  and  more  accurate  a  worker,  than  Dalton,  saw 
that  much  remained  to  be  done  before  the  theory  could 
be  placed  on  a  satisfactory  basis.  "  I  think,"  he  writes 
to  Dalton,  "  that  we  must  let  experiment  mature  the 
theor}-. "  Berzelius's  admirable  "  Essai  sur  les  Pro- 
portions chlmiques  "  of  iSig'*  gives  the  first  critical  ac- 
count of  the  atomic  theory,  while  the  experiments  re- 
corded therein  may  be  regarded  as  having  first  placed 
the  laws  of  multiple  proportions  and  of  equivalents  on 
a  sufficiently  wide  basis  to  be  regarded  as  generally 
valid. 

Nevertheless,  the  conviction  that  chemistry  could 
do  quite  well  without  the  conception  of  atoms,  and  that 
the  notion  of  "  equivalents  "  was  sufficient,  grew 
steadily;  between  1840  and  1850  Leopold  Gmelin's 
system  of  equivalents  came  to  be  accepted  almost  uni- 
versally.* It  was  the  growth  of  organic  chemistry  and 
the  confusions  in  organic  chemistry  which  the  '*  equi- 
valent "  conception  was  powerless  to  remove  that  re- 
stored the  notion  of  the  atom.  From  1842  onwards 
Laurent  and  Gerhardt,  those  two  Ishmaels  of  their 
day,  fought  Indefatlgably  for  the  establishment  of  some 
consistent  theory  of  organic  compounds ;  and  they 
reached  consistency  only  by  reviving  the  simple  mole- 
cular hypothesis  of  Avogadro  and  Ampere.*  This  hypo- 
thesis gave  them  at  once  an  experimental  method  for 
the  determination  of  the  relative  molecular  weights  of 
all  volatile  compounds  ;  and  It  gave  them  simultaneously 
a  method  for  determining  maximum  values  for 
the  atomic  weights  of  the  elements  therein  contained, 
for  obviously  each  molecule  must  contain  at  least  one 
atom.  But  neither  they,  nor  Cannizzaro  later,  were 
able  to  give  any  simple  rule  applicable  in  all  cases  to 
the  determination  of  atomic  weights.  The  atomic 
weight  of  carbon  on  which  the  reform  of  Laurent  and 
Gerhardt  pivoted  was  an  exception  to  the  rule  of 
Dulong  and  Petit  on  which  Cannizzaro,  with  general 
approval,  has  laid  so  much  stress.  But  a  hypothesis 
may  be  useful  without  being  perfect.  The  atomic 
hypothesis  in  the  hands  of  VVurtz,  Hofmann,  William- 
son, Frankland,  Kekul^,  and  Baeyer,  and  with  the 
most  brilliant  and  essentia)    but  involuntary  help  of 

J  The  present  writer  has  briefly  discussed  the  history  of  this  law    in 
Nature,  vol.  1.  1894,  p.  149.  ' 

^^■}^  'T°  unaPPreciative  lines  in  a  footnote  to  the  "Elements  of  Chemical 
Philosophy,    published  in  1812  (ste  p.  78  tf  the  edition  of  i860). 

■•  The  Swedish  edition  appe.-ired  earlier. 

■»  Gmelin  himself  in  his  "  Handbook  of  Chemistry"  inclined  to  the  atomic 
theory.     English  edition,  translated  by  H.  Watts,  vol.  i.  p.  42. 

s  "  Equal  volumes  of  all  gases  under  the  same  conditions  of  temperature 
and  pressure  contain  equal  numbers  of  molecules.' 

NO.    1752,  VOL.   68] 


Berthelot  and  of  Kolbe,  was  the  instrument  which  served 
to  build  up  modern  organic  chemistry.  It  gave 
chemists  an  unforeseen  mastery  over  the  elements ;  the 
synthesis  not  only  of  the  natural  organic  compounds, 
but  of  an  infinity  of  new  ones  seemed  to  be  brought 
within  their  reach.  In  this  development  Manchester 
had  again  played  a  part  of  first-rate  importance.  Frank- 
land's  theory  of  valency  was  based  on  his  researches  on 
the  organometalllc  bodies  carried  out  in  the  Owens 
College,  where  he  was  professor,  and  published  in 
1852.  The  exact  rdle  of  F"rankland's  work  on  valency 
(neglected  at  first  by  most  chemists)  was  this  :  it  forced 
his  friend  and  fellow  worker,  Kolbe,  to  abandon  the 
Berzelius  copula  theory,  and  led  him  to  build  up  "  con- 
stitutional "  formulae  for  the  chief  alkyl  compounds 
so  near  our  own  that  he  was  enabled  to  predict  from 
them  the  existence  of  secondary  and  tertiary  alcohols. 
The  formulae  of  Kolbe,  with  the  atomic  weights  of  Ger- 
hardt, again  led  inevitably  to  the  great  theories  of 
Kekul^  on  the  tetravalency  of  carbon  and  the  linking 
of  the  atoms,  which  are  now  regarded  as  fundamental 
in  organic  chemistry. 


In    1875, 


horizons    were    brought    into    view. 


Wollaston  predicted  of  Dalton's  atoms  in  1808  that 
"  the  arithmetical  relation  alone  will  not  be  sufticient 
to  explain  their  mutual  action,  and  that  we  shall  be 
obliged  to  acquire  a  geometrical  conception  of  their 
relative  arrangement  in  all  the  three  dimensions  of 
solid  extension."  Le  Bel  and  van  't  Hoff,  by  their 
work  on  the  "  asymmetric  "  carbon  atom,  created  a 
new  "  chemistry  in  space,"  of  which  one  Of  the  most 
striking  results  has  been  the  beautiful  synthesis  of  the 
sugars,  by  Emil  Fischer  and  his  fellow  workers. 
Prof.  Pope  has  recently  extended  these  new  ideas 
to  inorganic  chemistry  with  brilliant  results. 

But  such  exceptional  results  as  those  of  Prof. 
Pope  bring  sharply  into  view  the  fact  that  the  direct 
service  of  the  atomic  theory  to  inorganic  chemistry 
has  been  relatively  small.  What,  for  instance,  has  the 
theory  of  valency  to  tell  us  about  such  a  series  of  corn- 
pounds  as  the  tungsten  chlorides  discovered  by 
Roscoe?  But  if  the  atomic  theory  has  helped  us  com- 
paratively little  in  determining  the  constitution  of  in- 
organic compounds, 1  it  has  contributed  to  our  discovery 
of  new  inorganic  elements.  The  attribution  of  certain 
numbers,  equivalents  or  atomic  weights,  to  the  ele- 
ments led  naturally  to  speculation  on  mathematical 
relationships  between  them.  Many  of  these  specula- 
tions, like  the  original  one  of  Prout  in  1815,  and  that 
of  Dr.  Henry  Wilde,  of  Manchester,  more  recently, 
were  suggested  by  the  fascinating  question  of  the  funda- 
mental unity  of  all  matter.  Are  the  elements  really  com- 
pounds of  one  original  matter — the  protyle  of  the  Greeks 
revived  by  Prout  and  by  Sir  W.  Crookes?  If  so  the 
atomic  weights  must  have  some  common  measure.  On 
the  accurate  determination  of  atomic  weights,  made 
largely  to  settle  this  question,  infinite  pains  have  been 
spent  by  Stas,  Marignac,  Richards,  and  many  others. 
On  the  criticism  and  accurate  calculation  of  results  from 
these  experimental  determinations  infinite  pains  have 
again  been  spent,  by  Meyer  and  Seubert,  and  above  all 
by  Prof.  F.  W.  Clarke,  who  delivered  the  Wilde  lecture 
of  the  Manchester  Literary  and  Philosophical  Society 
at  the  centenary  celebrations  last  week. 

But  though  certain  numerical  relations  seem  strik- 
ing, chemists  are  certainly  as  a  body  not  inclined  to 
acknowledge  the  existence  of  any,  exact  forrhula  e.x- 
pressing  as  a  mathematical  series  the  series  of  the 
atomic  weights. 

More  immediately  fruitful  of  results  have  been 
speculations  less  'fundamentally  ambitious.  The 
schemes  of  Lothar  Meyer  and  MendeleefT,  according 

1  The  researches  of  Divers  and  of  Raschig  on  certain  sulphur  and 
nitrogen  compounds  may  be  regarded  as  examples  of  what  may  be  done  in 
this  direction.' 


84 


NATURE 


[May  28,  1903 


to  which  the  elements,  when  arranged  in  the  order  of 
their  atomic  weights,  take  their  place  on  a  kind  of 
chessboard,  elements  resembling  one  another  being  in 
the  same  row,  have  led  to  the  prediction  of  the  existence 
of  new  elements ;  and  even  unpredicted  new  elements, 
such  as  the  remarkable  series  discovered  by  Lord  Ray- 
leigh  and  by  Sir  William  Ramsay,  have  had  a  fairly 
comfortable  place  found  for  them  by  extending  the 
chessboard  on  ground  to  which  it  had  some  legitimate 
claims. 

Inorganic  chemistry  has  developed  recently  very 
largely  on  the  physical  side.  In  much  of  the  work, 
notably  in  the  applications  of  thermodynamics  (and 
especially  of  the  researches  of  Willard  Gibbs,  whose 
death  we  lament),  the  atomic  theory  plays  no  part,  or 
but  a  small  one.  In  the  great  studies  on  solutions, 
however,  originated  by  van  't  Hoff,  Arrhenius,  and 
Ostwald,  the  fruitful  ion  theory  formulated  by  these 
chemists  can  hardly  be  regarded  as  independent  of  the 
atomic  theory.  And  yet,  in  his  last  book  on  inorganic 
chemistry.  Prof.  Ostwald  employs  "  the  forms  of  the 
atomic  hypothesis  as  sparingly  as  ever  the  present  use 
of  language  will  permit."^ 

In  what  has  preceded,  the  atomic  theory  has  been  re- 
garded from  the  point  of  view  of  utility.  Of  its  utility 
to  chemistry  there  can  be  no  doubt.  It  helps  us  to 
describe  complicated  phenomena  briefly.  The  atomic 
formula  CH3.COOH  reminds  organic  chemists  at  a 
glance  of  a  very  large  number  of  properties  of  acetic 
acid.  But,  many  will  ask,  is  this  atomic  theory  some- 
thing more  than  useful  ?     Is  it  really  true  ? 

The  subject  has  been  much  discussed  of  late  both  by 
men  of  science  and  philosophers.^  One  school  regards 
the  methods  of  experimental  science  as  capable  of  yield- 
ing generalisations  that  are  absolutely  true,  and  some 
of  the  members  of  this  school  do  not  hesitate  to  say 
that  the  atomic  theory  is  absolutely  true.  Sir  Arthur 
Riicker  concluded  his  brilliant  address  to  the  British 
Association  in  1901  by  declaring  that  "  we  have  a  right 
to  insist— at  all  events  till  an  equally  intelligible  rival 
hypothesis  is  produced — that  the  main  structure  of  our 
{i.e.  the  atomic)  theory  is  true;  that  atoms  are  not 
merely  helps  to  puzzled  mathematicians,  but  physical 
realities."  Even  in  this  most  positive  assertion  of  Sir 
Arthur  Riicker  with  regard  to  the  existence  of  atoms 
there  remains  a  shade  of  doubt.  Lord  Kelvin,  in  a 
subsequent  speech,  showed  that  in  his  mind,  at  any 
rate,  there  was  none. 

There  is,  however,  another  school,  the  origins  of  which 
go  back  far,  but  which  is  identified  chiefly  with  Kirchhoff 
(the  discoverer  with  Bunsen  of  spectrum  analysis),  and 
with  his  disciples  Mach  and  Ostwald  in  Germany,  and 
Karl  Pearson  in  England.  According  to  this  school, 
the  discovery  of  "  causes  "  and  of  ultimate  truths  is  not 
the  business  of  experimental  science.  The  object  of 
science,  according  to  Kirchhoff,  is  to  describe  natural 
phenomena  in  the  simplest  way  possible.  If  a  theory  like 
the  atomic  theory  helps  us  to  describe  observed  pheno- 
mena more  simply  and  to  discover  new  ones,  let  us  use  it 
by  all  means.  But  (they  would  say)  since  the  existence 
of  atoms  cannot  be  verified  directly,^  it  is  really  useless 
for  scientific  purposes  to  discuss  whether  the  theory  is 
true  or  not.  Obviously,  science  here  abandons  those 
claims  to  finality  which  have  been  insisted  on  so  strongly 
by  the  older  and  more  orthodox  school,  for  our  simple 
descriptions  are  liable  at  any  moment  to  be  replaced  by 
descriptions  still  more  comprehensive  and  still  more 
simple.  It  would  be  hard  indeed  to  prove  that  any 
given  theory  has  attained  a  maximum  of  simplicity  in 
summarising  the  facts  with  which  it  deals. 

1  "  Principles  of  Inorganic  Chemistry."  Translated  by  A.  Findlay,  1902, 
p.  146.     (Macmillan  and  Co.,  Ltd.) 

-  See  Prof.  James  Ward's  "  Naturali'm  and  Agnosticism,"  2  vols.,  1830. 

3  "  No  physicist  or  chemist  can  produce  a  single  atom  sei  ar.Ued  from  all 
its  fellows  and  show  that  it  possesses  the  elementary  properties  he  assigns 
to  it"  (Sir  A.  Riicker,  loc.  cit.). 

NO.    1752,  VOL.  68] 


Kirchhoff 's  self-denying  ordinance  on  the  part  of 
science  leaves,  no  doubt,  a  wider  field  open  to  the  meta- 
physicians. But  qui  trap  embrasse  mal  itreint;  and 
the  limitations  of  scientific  claims  which  he  advocates- 
may  well  strengthen  science  in  her  own  proper  borders. 

The  atomic  theory  has  had  a  long  and  venerable  his- 
tory; the  "solid,  impenetrable"  particles  of  Newton 
were  originated  by  the  Ionian  philosophers  in  the  fifth 
century  B.C.  A  hundred  years  ago  the  genius  of  Dalton 
gave  the  theory  a  fresh  and  still  unfinished  career  of 
usefulness,  and  whether  we  consider  it  in  the  light  of  a 
truth  that  cannot  ever  disappear  from  science,  or  rather 
as  an  engine  serving  to  fashion  and  unite  our  ideas, 
possibly  to  be  replaced  later  by  an  intellectual 
mechanism  still  more  efficient,  our  debt  to  Dalton  re- 
mains one  of  the  greatest  that  the  world  owes  to  its- 
great  men.  P.  J.  Hartog. 


NOTES. 
A  SPECIAL  meeting  of  the  Physical  Society  will  be  held 
on  Friday,  June  5,  at  5  p.m.,  at  University  College,  when 
Prof.  Rutherford,  of  Montreal,  will  read  a  paper  on  radio- 
active processes.  A  discussion  will  follow,  in  which  it  is 
hoped  several  prominent  physicists  will  participate. 

In  reply  to  a  question  asked  in  the  House  of  Commons- 
on  Tuesday,  Mr.  Balfour  stated  that  the  Government  would 
contribute  to  the  funds  required  to  send  the  relief  ship 
Morning  to  the  Antarctic  at  the  end  of  this  year,  to  ensure 
the  safety  of  the  officers  and  men  of  the  Discovery,  now 
ice-bound  in  Antarctic  seas. 

The  ninth  quinquennial  conference  of  the  States  adhering 
to  the  International  Telegraph  Convention  was  opened  on 
Tuesday  Wy  the  Postmaster-General,  Mr.  Austen  Chamber- 
lain, M.P.  The  business  of  the  conference  will  go  on  from 
day  to  day  until  the  end  of  June.  Mr.  J.  C.  Lamb,  C.B., 
C.M.G.,  the  principal  delegate  of  Great  Britain,  was  chosen 
president  of  the  conference,  and  Mr.  John  Ardron  and  Mr. 
P.  Benton  vice-presidents. 

M.  Henri  Becquerel,  Paris,  and  Prof.  A.  Righi, 
Bologna,  were  elected  honorary  fellows  of  the  Physical 
Society  of  London  at  the  last  general  meeting. 

The  Daily  Mail  announces  that  Mr.  Andrew  Carnegie 
has  offered  to  subscribe  10,000/.  towards  the  erection  of  an 
experimental  tank  for  testing  ship  models,  as  a  memorial 
to  James  Watt. 

Mr.  Andrew  Carnegie  has  offered  to  give  200,000/.  for 
a  building  for  the  American  engineering  societies.  It  is, 
says  Science,  to  be  situated  in  New  York  City,  and  will 
provide  an  auditorium,  a  library  and  headquarters  for  five 
engineering  societies. 

The  death  is  announced  of  Prof.  C.  A.  Bjerknes,  pro- 
fessor of  pure  mathematics  at  the  University  of  Christiania, 
at  the  age  of  seventy-eight,  and  of  Dr.  G.  C.  Dibbits, 
formerly  professor  of  chemistry  at  Utrecht,  at  the  age  of 
sixty-four. 

The  death  is  announced  of  M.  F^lix  Worms  de  Romilly, 
a  former  president  of  the  French  Physical  Society,  who 
served  for  many  years  on  the  council,  and  who  in  addition 
contributed  liberally  towards  the  cost  of  certain  publica- 
tions undertaken  by  the  Society. 

The  Bulletin  de  la  Clause  des  Sciences  (Brussels) 
announces  the  death,  at  the  age  of  seventy-six,  of  M. 
Charles  de  la  Valine  Poussin,  professor  of  mineralogy  and 
geology  of  the  University  of  Louvain,  and  author  of  im- 
portant  geological   papers   published    in    the    Bulletin    itself 


May  28,  1903J 


NA  TURE 


85 


and  in  the  Annales  of  the  geological  and  scientific  societies 
of  Brussels. 

A  Reutkr  message  from  Stockholm,  dated  May  22,  states 
that  the  expedition  which  is  being  fitted  out  to  relieve  the 
Nordenskjold  Antarctic  Expedition  will  be  provided  with 
stores  for  three  years.  It  will  be  under  the  command  of 
Captain  Gylden,  of  the  Swedish  navy,  who  was  in  charge 
of  the  expedition  sent  to  Spitsbergen  in  1901  for  the 
measurement  of  an  arc  of  meridian. 

A  CORRESPONDENT  of  the  Times  states  that  an  earthquake 
was  widely  felt  in  Turkish  Armenia  on  April  29.  More 
or  less  severe  shocks  were  experienced  from  Van  to  Baiburt, 
on  the  north-west,  and  it  is  feared  that  the  loss  of  life  has 
been  extensive.  So  far  no  actual  details  as  to  the  effects 
of  the  earthquake  seem  to  have  been  received,  except  some 
relating  to  the  military  losses  at  a  town  about  100  railes 
north  of  Erzerum. 

The  annual  report  to  the  Conseil  de  I'Observatoire  de 
Paris,  which  M.  Maurice  Loewy  is  preparing  for  publica- 
tion, will  contain  an  account  of  the  recent  observations 
made  at  Greenwich  and  Paris  for  the  determination  of  the 
difference  of  longitude  between  the  two  observatories.  In 
each  observatory  a  French  and  an  English  astronomer  made 
observations  independently  in  the  spring  and  autumn  of 
last  year,  and  a  Paris  correspondent  informs  us  that  the 
discussion  of  the  two  series  shows  no  sensible  difference 
between  the  French  and  English  results.  When  the  calcu- 
lations have  been  completed,  the  results  will  be  described 
in  papers  to  be  presented  at  the  same  time  to  the  Royal 
"society  and  the  Paris  Academy  of  Sciences  by  Mr.  Christie 
md  M.  Maurice  Loewy  respectively. 

The  Australasian  Association  for  the  Advancement  of 
Science  will  hold  its  next  meeting  at  Dunedin  in  January, 
1904,  under  the  presidency  of  Prof.  T.  W.  E.  David,  of 
Sydney  University.  The  sections  and  their  presidents  will 
be  as  follows  : — A — astronomy,  mathematics,  physics,  and 
mechanics.  Prof.  W.  H.  Bragg;  B — chemistry,  Mr.  J. 
Brownlie  Henderson ;  C — geology  and  mineralogy,  Mr. 
W.  H.  Twelvetrees ;  D — biology.  Colonel  W.  V.  Legge ; 
\l — geography,  Prof.  J.  W.  Gregory,  F.R.S.  ;  F — anthro- 
pology and  philology,  Mr.  A.  W.  Howitt ;  G — (i)  social 
and  statistical  science,  president  not  yet  appointed  ;  G — (2) 
agriculture,  Mr.  J.  D.  Towar ;  H — architecture,  engineer- 
ing, and  mining,  Mr.  H.  Deane ;  I — sanitary  science  and 
hygiene,  Dr.  Frank  Tidswell ;  J — mental  science  and  educa- 
tion, Mr.  John  Shirley. 

The  annual  congress  of  the  South-eastern  Union  of 
Scientific  Societies  will  be  held  at  Dover,  June  11-13.  On 
Thursday  evening,  June  11,  the  president-elect,  Sir  Henry 
II.  Howorth,  F.R.S.,  will  deliver  the  annual  address.  The 
following  papers  will  be  read  on  June  12  : — Atmospheric 
moisture  as  a  factor  in  distribution,  by  Mr.  A.  O.  Walker  ; 
xperiences  of  leprosy  in  India,  by  Dr.  Jonathan  Hutchin- 
on,  F.R.S.  ;  the  diminution  and  disappearance  of  south- 
fastern  flora  and  fauna  within  the  memory  of  present 
observers,  by  Captain  McDakin  and  Mr.  Sydney  Webb; 
the  seedlings  of  geophilous  plants,  by  Miss  Ethel  Sargant ; 
the  white  chalk  of  Dover,  by  Dr.  Arthur  Rowe ;  a  late 
Keltic  cemetery  at  Harlyn  Bay,  by  Rev.  R.  Ashington 
i^ullen.  On  June  13  Mr.  A.  T.  Walmisley  will  lecture  on 
international  communication. 

The  first  section  of  the  London  County  Council's  electrical 

tramways,  opened  a  few  days  ago  by  the  Prince  and  Princess 

if  Wales,  is  of  special  interest  because    in  the  electrification 

•if  this  tramway  the  conduit  system   has  been   adopted    in- 

NO.    1752,  VOL.   68] 


stead  of  the  overhead  trolley  system,  which  has  been  almost 
universally  installed  elsewhere  throughout  the  country.  The 
appearance  of  the  line  is  unquestionably  very  much  superior 
to  that  of  lines  equipped  on  the  overhead  system,  but  it  re- 
mains to  be  seen  whether  it  will  work  equally  well  in  prac- 
tice ;  for  this  reason  the  working  of  the  new  lines  will  be 
watched  with  special  interest  during  the  next  few  years. 
The  cost  of  installing  the  conduit  system  has  proved  much 
greater  than  that  of  equipping  an  overhead  system,  and  it 
is  to  be  hoped  that  some  other  advantages  will  be  found  to 
result  in  working  in  addition  to  the  gain  in  appearance,  as 
the  district  can  hardly  be  said  to  be  one  of  such  great  natural 
beauty  that  overhead  lines  would  have  spoilt  it. 

The  Middlesex  Hospital  at  the  beginning  of  this  year 
established  a  complete  electrical  installation  for  electro- 
medical work.  The  equipment  includes  all  the  necessary 
apparatus  for  X-ray  work,  high-frequency,  Faradic  and 
galvanic  treatment.  There  are  two  Finsen  lamps  for  the 
treatment  of  lupus,  and  experiments  are  also  being  tried  in 
the  treatment  of  this  disease  by  the  Cooper  Hewitt  mercury 
vapour  lamp.  The  greater  part  of  the  apparatus  has  been 
set  up  in  a  special  temporary  building.  This  is  already 
being  found  somewhat  too  small  for  the  number  of  patients 
passing  through,  which  amounts  to  about  three  hundred  a 
week.  Two  trollies  fitted  with  apparatus  and  coils  for 
treatment  and  radiographic  work  have  also  been  equipped. 
It  is  stated  that  the  results  obtained  in  cases  of  lupus  have 
been  most  satisfactory,  and  that  the  X-ray  treatment  of 
cancer  is  also  giving  promising  results.  The  high-frequency 
treatment  of  cancer  has  not  been  found  as  yet  to  justify  the 
claims  made  in  its  favour,  but  further  experience  and  obser- 
vation are  required. 

A  DofZy  Mail  correspondent  at  Rome  states  that  shortly 
before  eleven  a.m.  on  May  22,  an  earthquake  shock  was  felt 
throughout  Italy. 

Robins  frequently  build  in  curious  places.  Miss  E.  M. 
Milner  sends  from  Stafford  a  photograph  of  a  robin's  nest 
built  in  a  small  leather  handbag  that  was  hung  in  an  arbor 
near  her  house.  Five  eggs  were  laid  and  hatched  in  this 
nest. 

Referring  to  the  discovery  of  a  radio-active  gas  in  water 
by  Prof.  J.  J.  Thomson  (April  30,  p.  609),  and  the  demon- 
stration by  Prof.  Rutherford  that  the  emanation  from 
radium  and  thorium  is  a  gaseous  body,  Mr.  W.  A.  D. 
Rudge  writes  to  suggest  that  some  interesting  results 
might  be  obtained  from  the  examination  of  the  gases  with- 
drawn from  deep  mines  for  the  purpose  of  ventilation.  Mr. 
Rudge  also  suggests  that  these  radio-active  gases  may  be 
of  the  nature  of  metallic  carbonyls,  "  because  they  are  the 
only  known  metallic  compounds  which  are  gaseous  to  any 
extent  at  ordinary  temperatures." 

The  Meteorological  Council  has  issued  a  notice  stating 
that  it  will,  as  before,  supply  forecasts  of  weather  during 
the  summer  months  (June  to  September  inclusive)  for  the 
benefit  of  agriculturists  and  others  as  was  arranged  last 
year.  These  forecasts  are  sent  by  telegraph  at  about 
3h.  30m.  p.m.  to  those  who  express  a  wish  to  receive  them 
regularly,  and  who  defray  the  cost  of  the  telegrams,  which 
will  be  so  worded  that  the  cost  of  each  message  will  be 
6d.  for  any  one  district,  including  an  address  of  three  words. 
This  service  of  harvest  forecasts  is,  in  addition  to  the 
ordinary  service  of  forecasts,  prepared  at  iih.  a.m.  and 
8h.  p.m.  The  harvest  forecasts  refer  to  the  weather  of  the 
next  day. 

International  scientific  balloon  ascents  were  made  on 
the  morning  of  March  5  ;  the  balloons  were  both  manned 
and  others  equipped  with  recording  instruments  only,  while 


86 


NATURE 


[May  28,  1903 


at  some  stations  kites  were  used.  We  quote  only  the  pre- 
liminary results  of  the  registering  balloons,  as  these  attained 
the  greatest  altitudes.  At  Trappes,  near  Paris,  a  tempera- 
ture of  — 49°-8  C.  was  registered  at  10,000  metres ;  the 
reading  at  starting  was  9°-6,  and  an  inversion  of  o°-2 
occurred  at  750  metres.  The  balloon  rose  to  15,700  metres, 
but  if  readings  at  higher  altitudes  than  those  quoted  are 
suspected  of  being  vitiated  by  radiation,  they  are  scrupu- 
lously rejected.  At  Strassburg,  the  temperature  at 
starting  was  6°-3,  and  the  following  readings  were  re- 
corded : Sg"-!  at  15,600  metres,  -54°o  at  10,300  metres, 

—  5i°-5  at  12,200  metres.  A  second  balloon,  on  March  6, 
recorded  — 62°-i  at  15,330  metres,  — 5i°-2  at  10,200 
metres,  and  — 48°-2  at  11,300  metres.  At  Berlin  the  follow- 
ing temperatures  were  recorded  :—  -  S7°-o  at  10,400  metres, 

—  5i°o  at  12,000  metres;  at  starting  4°-4.  The  type  of 
weather  was  cyclonic  over  the  British  Isles  and  west  of 
Scandinavia,  and  anticyclonic  over  south-west  France  and 
eastern  Russia. 

There  has  recently  been  some  discussion  in  the  columns 
of  our  contemporary  Science  as  to  who  first  made  use  of 
the  word  "barometer."  It  occurred  in  a  paper  by  Boyle 
in  the  Phil.  Trans,  of  1666,  and  also  in  an  anonymous 
article  in  the  same  journal  in  1665.  Our  valued  corre- 
spondent, Mr.  A.  L.  Rotch,  refers  to  the  use  of  the 
word  in  1665  i"  "  The  General  History  of  the  Air  .  .  . 
by  the  Honble.  Robert  Boyle,  Esq.,"  published  in 
London  in  1692.  We  have  referred  to  the  work 
and  to  the  article  in  question,  viz.  "  A  Short  Account 
of  the  Statical  Baroscope,  imparted  by  Mr.  Boyl,  March 
24,  1665.  In  a  Letter  to  Mr.  H.  Oldenburgh."  As  the 
matter  may  be  of  interest  to  our  readers,  we  quote  the 
sentence  (p.  98)  :— "  When  I  come  to  another  Place,  where 
there  is  a  Mercurial  Barometer,  as  well  freed  from  Air  as 
mine  (for  that  must  be  supposed)  if  taking  out  my  Scale- 
Instrument,  it  appears  to  weigh  precisely  a  Drachm  ;  and 
the  Mercury,  in  the  Baroscope  there,  stand  at  29^  Inches, 
we  may  conclude,  the  Gravity  of  the  Atmosphere,  not  to 
be  sensibly  unequal  in  both  those  two  Places,  though  very 
distant."  ^ 

During  the  summer  months  of  the  years  1900-1902  the 
cutter  yacht  Walwin,  belonging  to  Dr.  R.  N.  Wolfenden,'  was 
engaged,  under  the  owner's  direction,  in  taking  sea  tempera- 
ture observations  at  the  surface  and  at  various  depths, 
and  in  the  collection  of  samples  of  water  in  the  channel 
between  the  Shetland  and  Faeroe  Islands.  The  discussion 
of  the  observations  was  entrusted  to  Mr.  H.  N.  Dickson, 
who  has  communicated  the  results  in  an  interesting  paper 
to  the  Geographical  Journal  for  April.  There  are  two 
opposing  movements  of  water  in  the  channel,  from  the  south 
and  from  the  north.  The  former,  or  north-moving  currents, 
are  of  two  kinds  :— (a)  drift  currents  caused  by  the  winds '; 
these  are  strongest  during  winter ;  and  (b)  stream  currents,' 
or  the  Norwegian  branch  of  the  European  stream  ;  these  are 
strongest  during  summer.  The  south-moving  currents  are 
also  of  two  kinds  :— (c)  water  from  the  central  and  western 
parts  of  the  Norwegian  sea,  and  (d)  water  derived  from  the 
melting  of  ice  in  the  Arctic  regions.  One  of  the  conclusions 
drawn  by  the  author  is  that  the  movements  of  the  surface 
waters  of  the  sea  and  the  temperature  of  the  air  near  the 
British  Isles  do  not  stand  in  any  direct  relation  of  cause 
and  effect.  The  temperature  of  the  surface  water  influences 
the  distribution  of  atmospheric  pressure,  and  will  therefore 
affect  the  direction  of  the  prevailing  winds,  but  motion  has 
nothing  to  do  with  this  influence. 

An  exhibition  of  mounted  heads  of  the  larger  mammals 
and  other  products  of  the  chase  from  the  German  Colonies 
.      NO.    1752,   VOL    68] 


(Deutsch-Kolonial  Jagd-Austellung)  has  lately  been  opened 
at  Carlsruhe,  under  the  patronage  of  the  Grand  Duke 
Frederick  of  Baden.  More  than  fifty  persons,  who  have 
been  out  in  the  German  Colonies  as  officials  or  in  quest 
of  sport,  have  sent  their  trophies  to  it,  and  a  most  extensive 
and  instructive  series  of  specimens  is  the  result,  which  no 
one  interested  in  the  larger  game-animals  should  fail  to 
see.  The  well-known  traveller  and  naturalist,  Oscar 
Neumann,  has  contributed  the  whole  of  his  large  African 
collection.  Herr  Carl  Hagenbeck,  of  Hamburg,  who  has 
long  been  engaged  in  getting  together  a  series  of  heads 
and  horns  from  all  parts  of  the  world,  has  likewise  sent 
the  whole  of  them  to  Carlsruhe  for  exhibition.  Amongst 
the  latter  the  specimens  of  wild  sheep,  ibexes  and  deer  from 
Central  Asia  have  attracted  much  attention.  The  collec- 
tion will  be  open  to  view  all  the  summer  in  the  building 
of  the  Jubileum  Art  Exhibition,  at  Carlsruhe. 

Captain  Stanley  Flower,  the  director  of  the  Zoological 
Gardens  at  Gizeh,  near  Cairo,  is  expected  to  arrive  in 
England  about  the  end  of  this  month,  and  will  bring  with 
him  a  valuable  contribution  to  the  Zoological  Society's 
menagerie.  This  is  a  male  Gravy's  zebra,  by  far  the 
largest  and  finest  member  of  the  group  of  African  striped 
asses.  There  are  already  two  female  examples  of  this 
beautiful  animal  in  the  Zoological  Society's  Gardens,  which 
have  been  placed  under  the  Society's  care  by  H.M.  the 
King,  so  that  the  acquisition  of  a  male  of  the  same  species 
is  eminently  desirable.  The  male  in  question  was  obtained 
for  the  Society  by  Colonel  Harrington,  the  British  Resident 
at  the  capital  of  Abyssinia,  and  was  brought  down  as  far 
as  Cairo  in  December  last.  But  it  was  thought  prudent 
to  keep  the  animal  in  a  warmer  climate  during  the  winter 
season,  so  it  was  arranged  to  deposit  it  at  Gizeh  under 
Captain  Flower's  care.  It  is  hoped  that  Captain  Flower 
will  likewise  be  able  to  bring  to  England  on  the  same 
occasion  another  female  of  the  same  species  of  zebra,  also 
obtained  for  the  Zoological  Society  by  Colonel  Harrington. 

An  important  series  of  statistical  articles  dealing  with 
the  occurrence  and  incidence  of  cancer  in  various  countries 
has  been  published  in  the  British  Medical  Journal.  The 
main  conclusions  arrived  at  are  that  cancer  is  prone  to 
attack  certain  races,  especially  the  Scandinavian  and  the 
different  branches  of  the  Germanic  family,  that  it  is  more 
prevalent  in  districts  in  which  beer  is  the  staple  drink,  and 
that  it  tends  to  cause  excessive  mortality  in  regions  abound- 
ino-  in  water,  and  to  a  much  more  marked  extent  when 
these  are  covered  with  woods  or  forests. 

The  well-known  salmon  disease,  since  the  researches  of 
the  late  Prof.  Huxley,  has  always  been  regarded  as  being 
caused  by  the  attack  of  a  fungus,  the  Saprolegnia  ferax. 
Recently  Mr.  Hume  Patterson  has  conducted  a  research 
for  the  Fishery  Board  for  Scotland,  and  has  come  to  the 
conclusion  that  the  disease  is  due  to  invasion  of  the  tissues 
of  the  fish  by  a  special  bacillus  {B.  salmonis  pestis),  which 
gains  access  through  some  abrasion  or  ulceration  of  the 
skin.  When  the  skin  of  the  fish  is  in  a  healthy  state,  the 
disease  is  apparently  not  contracted.  The  bacillus  remains 
alive  in  the  dead  fish,  which  therefore  prove  a  source  of 
infection,  and  should  immediately  be  removed  and  burnt 
as  soon  as  they  are  observed. 

Various  explanations  have  been  given  of  the  cause  of 
the  phenomenon  of  agglutination,  the  aggregation  of  the 
bacteria  into  clumps,  that  occurs  when  an  immune  serum 
is  added  to  a  bacterial  culture.  A  substance  termed  agglu- 
tinin develops  in  the  serum  as  the  result  of  immunisation 
(also  frequently  during  an  attack  of  infective  disease,  e.g. 
typhoid   fever),    which   combines   with   some   constituent   in 


May  28,  1903 


NATURE 


87 


the  bacterial  cell.  Dr.  A.  E.  Wright  suggests  that  this 
combination  alters  the  electrical  relations  of  the  fluid  and 
suspended  particles  (bacteria)  so  that  these  then  offer  an 
appreciable  resistance.  The  electric  currents  generated  by 
the  ionisation  of  the  salts  in  solution  would  tend  to  drive 
these  interposed  resisting  particles  out  of  the  direct  line 
of  action,  and  the  displaced  particles  would  all  tend  to  find 
a  position  of  rest  in  the  angles  between  the  intersecting 
lines  of  force,  and  so  clumping  would  result.  {Lancet, 
May  9,  p.  1299.) 

Much  work  has  of  late  years  been  carried  out  upon  the 
nature  and  physiological  action  of  the  venoms  of  poisonous 
snakes.'  The  latest  contribution  to  the  subject  is  a  memoir 
by  Captain  Lamb  and  Mr.  Hanna  upon  the  venom  of 
Russell's  viper  {Daboia  Russellii).  They  find  that  Daboia 
venom  owes  its  toxic  property  chiefly  to  its  action  upon  the 
blood,  the  rapid  death  which  results  being  mainly  due  to 
extensive  clotting  of  the  blood  in  the  blood-vessels.  Heat- 
ing a  weak  solution  of  the  venom  (01  per  cent.)  for  half 
an  hour  to  73°  C.  completely  destroys  the  toxicity,  though 
a  more  concentrated  solution  (i  per  cent.)  may  have  its 
toxicity  only  lessened  by  this  treatment.  Daboia  venom 
and  cobra  venom  differ  in  two  respects  ;  cobra  venom  con- 
tains a  toxic  substance  of  the  nature  of  an  albumose,  which 
acts  especially  upon  the  central  nervous  system,  and  "is  the 
essential  poisonous  constituent,  whereas  it  contains  no 
substance  causing  intra-vascular  clotting.  Daboia  venom, 
on  the  other  hand,  contains  no  toxic  element  having  an 
action  similar  to  that  of  the  toxic  albumose  of  cobra  venom. 
Calmette's  anti-venin,  which  has  a  powerful  neutralising 
action  for  cobra  venom,  possesses  little  or  no  such  property 
for  Daboia  venom.  (Scientific  Memoirs  of  the  Government 
of  India,  No.  3,  Calcutta.) 

Part  i.  vol.  iv.  of  the  West  Indian  Bulletin  contains  a 
complete  record  of  the  observations  of  atmospheric  pheno- 
mena at  various  points  on  the  island  of  Barbados  during  the 
fall  of  volcanic  ash  following  the  eruption  of  the  St.  Vincent 
Soufri^re  on  March  22  last,  together  with  the  results  of  the 
chemical  analysis  of  the  ash  by  Prof,  d 'Albuquerque,  and 
of  the  mineralogical  analysis  by  Dr.  Longfield  Smith.  The 
latter  stales  that  the  minerals  present  were  the  same  as 
those  found  in  previous  falls,  but  the  relative  proportions 
differed  very  considerably,  the  most  striking  feature,  which 
at  once  distinguish  the  late  fall  from  former  ones,  being 
the  large  amount  of  magnetite  and  haematite  present. 
There  was  only  a  small  proportion  of  glass,  which  was  of 
two  kinds — a  clear,  colourless  to  brown  variety,  enclosing 
microlites  and  often  crystals  of  felspar,  and  a  translucent 
to  opaque  variety,  the  latter  often  brown,  owing  to 
numerous  haematite  inclusions. 

The  Imperial  Department  of  Agriculture  for  the  West 
Indies  is  giving  some  attention  to  the  question  of  improving 
the  corn  yield  of  the  islands  for  estate  purposes.  At  present 
enormous  quantities  of  corn  have  to  be  imported,  for  the 
islanders  grow  corn  only  as  a  catch  crop,  which  is  often 
planted  at  wide  distances  apart,  and  little  or  no  attention 
is  given  to  it.  As  a  result  the  yield  of  corn  averages  only 
about  ten  bushels  per  acre,  the  quality  grown  containing 
10  or  II  per  cent,  of  protein.  In  a  recent  number  of  the 
Agricultural  News  it  is  stated  that  much  better  results 
"  may  be  attained  without  the  aid  of  elaborate  chemical 
analyses,  and  with  no  more  apparatus  than  a  pen-knife,  an 
observant  eye,  and  the  expenditure  of  a  certain  amount  of 
care  and  time."  Based  upon  the  investigations  of  Prof. 
Hopkins,  of  the  University  of  Illinois,  simple  instructions 
are  given  for  making  a  chemical  selection  of  ears  of  seed- 
NO.    1752,  VOL.   68] 


corn  by  a  simple  mechanical  examination  of  the  kernels, 
thus  enabling  farmers  to  separate  the  high-protein  from 
the  low-protein  seeds.  It  is  hoped  by  adopting  this  method 
of  corn-breeding  to  increase  the  protein  yield  by  about  2  per 
cent.,  while  the  greater  care  devoted  to  the  cultivation  would 
necessarily  lead  to  a  substantial  increase  in  the  quantity  of 
corn  produced  per  acre. 

An  interesting  account  of  the  works  of  the  late  Sir  G.  G. 
Stokes  is  given  by  Prof.  W.  Voigt  in  the  Nachricht-'n  of 
the  Gottingen  .Academy,   1903,  part  i. 

The  Actien  Gesellschaft  fiir  Anilin  Fabrikation,  of 
Berlin,  send  their  price  list  of  dry  plates,  developers,  and 
other  requisites  for  photography,  which  they  manufacture 
under  the  registered  name  of  .'\gfa. 

Considerable  uncertainty  has  prevailed  as  to  the  exist- 
ence of  conjugation  in  the  Amoebae.  In  the  Atti  dei  Lincei, 
xii.  7,  Signora  Margherita  Traube  Mengarini  publishes  a 
paper  on  the  subject.  The  authoress  has  been  sufficiently 
fortunate  to  observe  a  process  of  true  conjugation  in 
Amoeba  undulans,  apart  from  the  process  of  fusion  observed 
by  Zaubitzer  and  Maggi.  This  process  lasts  but  a  short 
time,  and  it  ends  in  the  complete  separation  of  the  animals, 
so  it  is  difficult  to  study  the  phenomenon  in  its  entirety. 

In  connection  with  the  debated  question  of  the  magnetic 
action  of  convection  currents,  MM.  Cr^mieu  and  Pender 
have  undertaken  a  series  of  experiments  the  results  of 
which  ai-e  summed  up  in  the  Bulletin  of  the  French  Physical 
Society.  They  now  definitely  prove  that  metallic  surfaces 
turning  in  air,  either  with  or  without  the  presence  of 
parallel  armatures,  produce  magnetic  effects  agreeing  to 
within  10  per  cent,  of  the  amounts  required  by  the  convection 
theory.  A  further  mode  of  experimenting  is  described  by  M. 
Vasilesco  Karpen,  who  produces  an  alternating  convection 
current  by  rotating  an  ebonite  disc  charged  by  an  alter- 
nating current. 

M.  LfioN  GuiLLET  contributes  some  interesting  notes  to 
the  Bulletin  of  the  French  Physical  Society  on  the  metallo- 
graphy of  nickel  steel.  The  steel  was  of  three  different 
classes,  the  first  having  the  same  structure  as  carbon  steel, 
the  second  (mertensite)  having  the  structure  of  tempered 
steel,  and  the  third  a  polyhedral  structure.  It  is  found 
that  these  classes  differ  notably  in  their  behaviour  when 
subjected  to  tempering,  heating,  extreme  cold,  and  de- 
carburation,  and  M.  Guillet  finds  a  close  relation  between 
the  mechanical  properties  of  the  steel  and  its  micrographic 
structure. 

Under  the  title  of  Zeitschrift  fiir  wissenschaftliche  Photo- 
graphie,  Photophysik  und  Photochemie,  a  new  journal  has 
been  brought  out  by  Messrs.  Ambrosius  Barth,  of  Leipzig. 
The  editors  are  Dr.  E.  Englisch  (Stuttgart)  and  Prof.  K. 
Schaum  (Marburg),  with  whom  Prof.  H.  Kayser  (Bonn) 
has  cooperated.  The  first  number  contains  papers  on 
Kirchhoff's  laws,  by  F.  Richarz  and  A.  Pfliiger ;  on  the 
photochemistry  of  silver  iodide,  by  Liippo-Cramer  ;  and  on 
stereoscopic  photography  of  microscopic  objects,  by  W. 
Scheffer,  the  last  paper  being  illustrated  by  a  plate  showing 
stereoscopic  representations  of  a  fly  and  other  objects.  A 
noteworthy  feature  is  the  collection  of  abstracts  of  papers 
dealing  with  physical  and  physiological  optics,  radiography, 
photography,  and  allied  subjects,  which  are  to  include 
electricity  and  wireless  telegraphy. 

Those  who  are  engaged  in  the  teaching  of  elementary 
experimental  physics  will  find  a  mine  of  wealth  in  Prof. 
Bohn's  newly-published  illustrated  catalogue  of  instruments 


88 


NA  TURE 


[May  28,  190: 


and  models  taken  from  the  Schaflfer  Museum.  The  late 
Hermann  Schiiffer,  whose  death  was  announced  in  1900, 
and  who  held  a  chair  of  mathematics  and  physics  at  the 
University  of  Jena  from  1856  onwards,  devoted  a  large 
portion  of  his  lifetime  to  the  formation  of  this  collection, 
which  consists  of  models  and  instruments  constructed  for 
the  express  purpose  of  illustrating  in  the  clearest  and 
simplest  way  the  elementary  properties  of  matter,  light, 
heat  and  electricity.  Prof.  Bohn  describes  about  350 
apparatus  out  of  a  collection  of  many  thousands  now  housed 
in  the  Zeiss  Institution  in  Jena.  A  noteworthy  feature  of 
Schaffer's  methods  was  the  great  use  he  made  of  glass 
in  order  that  his  pupils  might  see  the  complete  working  of 
the  experiments. 

We  have  received  a  copy  of  the  second  number  of  a  new 
paper  called  the  British  Inventor.  The  new  journal  con- 
tains a  few  brief  notes  on  scientific  novelties,  but  is  chiefly 
concerned  with  popular  and  trade  aspects  of  invention. 

We  have  received  a  copy  of  a  catalogue  of  the  Romanised 
geographical  names  of  Korea,  compiled  by  Prof.  B.  Kot6 
and  Mr.  S.  Kanazawa,  of  the  Imperial  University  of  Tokyo, 
Japan.  The  catalogue  is  published  by  the  Tokyo  Uni- 
versity, and  should  prove  of  great  assistance  to  travellers  in 
the  interior  of  Korea. 

Five  more  parts  of  the  first  annual  issue  of  the  "  Inter- 
national Catalogue  of  Scientific  Literature  "  have  just  been 
published.  These  newly  issued  volumes  include  the  second 
part  of  vol.  iv.,  which  deals  with  works  on  physics  ;  vol.  x., 
mathematical  and  physical  geography;  vol.  xi.,  mineralogy, 
including  petrology  and  crystallography;  vol.  xii.,  geology; 
and  a  volume  giving  a  list  of  journals  with  the  abbrevi- 
ations used  in  the  catalogue  as  references. 

There  has  been  issued  from  the  Government  Printing 
Office,  Washington,  U.S.A.,  a  reprint  of  a  "  Bibliography 
of  Cooperative  Cataloguing  and  the  Printing  of  Catalogue 
Cards  (1850-1902),"  by  Messrs.  Torstein  Jahr  and  Adam  J. 
Strohm,  which  was  included- in  the  report  for  1902  of  the 
Librarian  of  Congress.  In  view  of  the  cooperative  plans 
of  the  Royal  Society,  the  Brussels  Institut  international  de 
bibliographie,  and  the  Concilium  bibliographicum  at 
Zurich  for  the  production  of  international  catalogues  of 
scientific  works,  the  publication  of  this  list  of  works  should 
interest  many  European  men  of  science. 

Parts  I.  and  II.  of  the  Transactions  of  the  Royal  Society 
of  Edinburgh,  dealing  with  the  work  of  the  sessions  1900- 
1902,  have  now  been  published  by  Messrs.  R.  Grant  and 
Son,  of  Edinburgh,  and  Messrs.  Williams  and  Norgate,  of 
London.  Among  the  twenty  contributions  to  the  two 
volumes,  the  following  may  be  mentioned  as  of  wide  scien- 
tific interest  :  Dr.  Masterman's  contribution  to  the  life- 
histories  of  the  cod  and  whiting ;  the  second  part  of  Sir 
W'illiam  Turner's  study  of  the  craniology  of  the  people  of 
the  Empire  of  India;  Mr.  Aitken's  notes  on  the  dynamics 
of  cyclones  and  anticyclones ;  Mr.  Marker's  paper  on  ice- 
erosion  in  the  Cuillin  Hills,  Skye  ;  and  Dr.  Scott's  investi- 
gation of  the  primary  structure  of  certain  palaeozoic  stems 
with  the  Dadoxylon  type  of  wood.  The  reports  published 
from  time  to  time  in  our  columns  of  the  meetings  of  the 
Royal  Society  of  Edinburgh  make  any  detailed  reference  to 
the  contents  of  these  volumes  unnecessary. 

Second  editions  have  been  issued  of  Mr.  M.  M.  Pattison 
Muir's  translation  of  Dr.  Robert  Liipke's  "  Elements  of 
Electro-chemistry  Treated  Experimentally  "  (Messrs.  H. 
Grevel  and  Co.),  and  of  Mr.  George  Massee's  "  Text-book 
of     Plant     Diseases    caused     by     Cryptogamic     Parasites  " 

NO.    1752,   VOL.   68] 


(Messrs.  Duckworth  and  Co.).  Mr.  Pattison  Muir  has  in- 
corporated the  important  changes  and  additions  made  by 
the  author  in  the  third  German  edition,  and  also  added 
about  a  dozen  new  illustrations.  Mr.  Massee  has  taken 
the  opportunity  to  deal  in  the  new  edition  of  his  book  with 
several  destructive  diseases  which  either  have  appeared  for 
the  first  time  or  have  developed  and  extended  to  an  alarm- 
ing extent  since  the  appearance  of  the  first  issue  of  his 
work. 

The  fifth  edition  of  the  "  Introduction  to  the  Study  of 
Metallurgy,"  by  the  late  Sir  William  Roberts-Austen,  pub- 
lished by  Messrs.  C.  Griffin  and  Co.,  Ltd.,  was  fortunately 
completed  by  its  distinguished  author  before  his  death, 
and  has  now  made  its  appearance.  The  book  has  agair> 
been  enlarged  and  improved,  and  in  its  present  form 
is  necessary  to  every  student  of  metallurgy  who  desires 
to  obtain  a  general  view  of  his  subject.  Besides  being 
one  of  the  most  readable  of  scientific  works,  it  will  provide 
Sir  William  Roberts-Austen's  many  friends  with  an  in- 
teresting memento.  The  two  presidential  addresses  de- 
livered by  the  author  before  the  members  of  the  Iron  and 
Steel  Institute  in  1899  and  1900  are  printed  in  an  appendix, 
and  the  whole  volume  is  a  token  of  the  interest  he  took  in 
the  welfare  of  his  students. 

'f"H^  latest  issue  of  the  memoirs  of  the  Soci6t6  de  Physique 
et  d'Histoire  Naturelle  de  Geneve  contains  the  president's 
report  for  the  year  1902,  together  with  a  monograph  by  the 
late  M.  Marc  Micheli  on  the  Leguminosae  collected  in  the 
Mexican  States  of  Michoacan  and  of  Guerrero  during  1898 
and  1899  by  the  late  M.  Eugene  Langlass6.  The  voyage 
of  M.  Langlass^  had  utilitarian  ends  in  view,  and  his 
attention  was  especially  directed  to  plants  of  interest  to 
the  horticulturist,  and  likely  to  prove  important  from  the 
point  of  view  of  agriculture,  rather  than  for  their  scientific 
interest.  Notwithstanding  this  fact,  the  number  of  new 
species  contained  in  his  collection  shows  conclusively  that 
many  new  forms  will  be  forthcoming  when  the  country 
visited  by  M.  Langlass^  is  systematically  explored  by  com- 
petent botanists.  Among  the  237  kinds  of  leguminous 
plants  collected,  M.  Micheli  described  twenty-six  as  new 
species,  and  he  admits  one  new  genus.  The  monograph  is 
accompanied  by  twenty-eight  beautifully  executed  plates, 
which  serve  as  an  admirable  accompaniment  to  what  proved 
to  be  the  last  piece  of  work  of  the  author. 

In  accordance  with  a  resolution  passed  at  the  Inter- 
national Geological  Congress  at  Paris  in  1900  to  establish 
a  paljeontological  publication  to  bring  together  illustrations 
and  descriptions  of  type-fossils,  an  international  committee 
was  appointed  to  prepare  a  programme  of  the  publication 
which  is  to  be  known  as  "  Palaeontologia  Universalis." 
The  commission  will  publish  each  type-fossil  on  a  separate 
plate.  It  has  been  arranged  to  reproduce  the  original 
figure  of  the  type-fossil,  to  give  a  phototypographic  figure 
of  the  type  itself,  the  original  description  without  alter- 
ations or  abbreviations,  and  additional  observations  by  the 
authors.  The  two  specimen  plates  which  have  reached  us 
are  excellent,  and  the  series,  when  complete,  should  be  of 
great  service  in  making  known  rare  and  frequently  un- 
known descriptions  and  figures  of  type-fossils.  The  assist- 
ance of  numerous  palaeontologists  has  been  secured,  and 
they  will  prepare  the  plates  of  the  type-fossils  of  the  greatest 
interest  in  the  collections  in  their  care.  Dr.  von  Zittel  is 
president  of  the  committee,  and  M.  D.  P.  Oihlert  is  the 
secretary.  The  British  members  are  Messrs.  F.  A.  Bather 
and  A.  Smith  Woodward.  The  annual  subscription  is- 
il.  I2S.,  which  should  be  sent  to  Messrs.  William  Weslejr 
and  Son,  28    Essex  Street,  W.C. 


May  28,  1903] 


NA  TURE 


89 


The  extraction  of  the  perfume  from  flowers  such  as 
jasmine,  tuberose,  violet  and  cassia  has  long  been  carried 
out  by  the  process  of  enfleurage,  the  blossoms  being  left 
in  contact  with  purified  lard  for  a  few  days,  and  then  re- 
placed by  fresh  blossoms.  The  lard  is  either  sold  as  such, 
•or  the  essential  oil  may  be  extracted  from  it  by  melting  it 
■under  strong  alcohol.  As  the  process  of  enfleurage  is 
somewhat  tedious,  attempts  have  frequently  been  made 
to  extract  the  oil  directly  from  the  flowers  by  means  of 
light  petroleum,  but  these  processes  have  not  as  a  rule 
proved  successful,  and  it  has  recently  been  found  that  a  very 
large  proportion  of  the  perfume  is  actually  produced  for 
the  first  time  in  the  blossoms  during  the  time  occupied  by 
the  enfleurage.  An  interesting  illustration  of  this  is  given 
by  Dr.  .Albert  Hesse  in  a  recent  number  of  the  Berichte,  in 
which  he  states  that  a  ton  (looo  kilos.)  of  tuberose  blossoms 
only  yielded  66  grams  of  oil  when  extracted  with  light 
petroleum,  but  during  enfleurage  yielded  8oi  grams  of 
■oil  to  the  fat  in  which  they  were  embedded,  whilst  a  further 
78  grams  remained  in  the  faded  blossoms  and  could  be 
separated  by  extraction  or  distillation.  It  thus  appears 
that  eleven  times  as  much  perfume  is  produced  during  en- 
fleurage as  is  originally  present  in  the  flowers,  and  that 
■even  after  enfleurage  the  exhausted  flowers  contain  more 
perfume  than  when  first  gathered. 

The  additions  to  the  Zoological  Society's  Gardens  during 
the  past  week  include  a  Macaque  Monkey  (Macacus 
4:ynomolgus)  from  India,  presented  by  Captain  Lambert 
Larking ;  a  Naked-footed  Owlet  {Athene  noctua)  from 
Holland,  presented  by  Mr.  R.  Souper ;  a  Common  Cormor- 
ant (Phalacrocorax  carbo),  British,  presented  by  Mr.  C.  F. 
McNiven  ;  a  Nilotic  Trionyx  {Trionyx  niloiicus)  from  West 
Africa,  presented  by  Mr.  Henry  Reeve ;  a  Common 
Chameleon  (Chamoeleon  vulgaris)  from  North  Africa,  pre- 
sented by  Mr.  M.  J.  Comyn ;  three  Suricates  (Suricata 
tetradactyla)  from  South  Africa,  ten  Black-spotted  Lizards 
{Algiroidcs  nigro-punctatus)  from  Madeira,  deposited ;  a 
Thar  {Hemilragus  jemlaica),  a  Burrhel  Wild  Sheep  {Ovis 
hurrhel),  born  in  the  Gardens. 


OUR  ASTRONOMICAL   COLUMN. 

Astronomical  Occurrences  in  June:  — 

June  3.  Predicted  perihelion  passage  of  Faye's  comet. 

,,  I5h.  Mars  in  conjunction  with  moon.     Mars  l°  49'  N. 

8.  I2h.  lom.      Minimum  of  Algol  (.3  Persei). 

15.  Venus.     Illuminated  portion  of  disc  =  o-6l3,  of   Mars 

=^0-885. 

,,  iih.     Uranus  in  opposition  to  the   Sun. 

17.  Juno  1°  N.  of /i  Serpentis  (mag.  36). 

■■,,  I4h.     Jupiter  in  conjunction  with  the  moon.     Jupiter 

3"  7'  s. 

19.  iih.  31m.  to  I4h.  55m.     Transit  of  Jupiter's  Sat.  IV. 

(Callisto). 

20.  I2h.   52m.     Transit   (egress)  of   Jupiter's    Sat.    HI. 

(Ganymede). 
22.     3.     Sun  Enters  Gemini.     Summer  commences. 
27      9h.  28m.  to    loh.  5m.     Moon  occults  a  Cancri  (mag. 
4-3)- 
,,     I3h.  36m.  to  i6h.  46m.     Transit  of  Jupiter's  Sat.  HI. 

(Ganymede). 
,,     i6h.     Mercury  at  greatest  elongation  22'"  5'  W. 

Varhbility  of  Nova  Geminorum. — A  note  from  Prof. 
E.  C.  Pickering  which  appears  in  No.  3868  of  the  Astro- 
nomischc  Xachrichten  states  that  the  light  of  Nova 
Geminorum  appears  to  be  fluctuating  in  a  manner  similar 
to  that  of  Nova  Persei,  No.  2.  During  the  twenty-four 
hours  preceding  the  evening  of  May  1,  it  had  increased  by 
half  a  magnitude. 

NO.    1752,  VOL.  68] 


The  nature  and  amount  of  these  fluctuations  will  be  seen 
from  the  following  table  of  measures  made  at  Harvard  : — 


Date. 

Magnitude. 

Date. 

Magnitude. 

April  24 

..     9-37 

April  29 

...      961 

..      25 

...      9-67 

„     30 

...      976 

..      27 

...      971 

May     I 

...      9-26 

,,      28 

...     9-«i 

Origin  ok  the  H  and  K  Lines  of  the  Solar  Spectrum. 
— In  a  paper  communicated  to  the  April  number  of  the 
American  Journal  of  Science,  Prof.  J.  Trowbridge,  of 
Harvard  University,  gives  the  results  he  has  obtained  from 
a  series  of  careful  experiments  which  he  made  in  order  to 
determine  the  constitution  of  the  H  and  K  lines  in  the 
solar  spectrum,  and  also  discusses  the  nature  of  reversed 
lines  in  gaseous  spectra. 

By  a  series  of  preliminary  experiments  he  arrived  at  the 
conclusion  that  the  lines  which  he  obtained  coincident  with 
the  calcium  lines  were  not  due  to  any  calcium  in  the  glass 
tubes  or  the  terminals  used  in  obtaining  the  spark,  and 
further  he  argues  that,  even  if  the  glass  did  contain 
calcium,  the  duration  of  the  spark  was  not  sufficiently  long 
to  raise  the  temperature  of  the  glass  high  enough  for  it 
to  produce  a  spectrum,  whilst  in  obtaining  his  spectra  he 
photographed  a  part  of  the  spark  which  was  far  enough 
removed  from  the  terminals  to  ensure  the  absence  of 
metallic  particles  ejected  by  them. 

Using  quartz  tubes  sealed  by  metallic  ends  he  obtained 
the  reversed  line  at  \  4227,  and  also  lines  coincident  with 
the  solar  lines  3968  and  3933,  quite  as  strong  as  wften  a 
glass  tube  was  used,  whilst  the  other  strong  calcium  lines 
towards  the  ultra-violet  were  conspicuously  absent. 

Prof.  Trowbridge  found  that  the  spectra  obtained  from 
a  highly  disruptive  spark  discharge  between  electrodes  of 
some  metals  do  not  show  these  lines,  whilst  those  obtained 
from  a  similar  spark  between  other  metals,  e.g.  pure 
silver,  platinum  and  iridium,  do  show  them  ;  he  suggests 
that  in  the  former  case  the  metals  are  easily  volatilised,  and 
their  vapours  conduct  the  spark,  whereas  in  the  case  of  the 
latter  class  of  metals  the  air  conducts  the  discharge  because 
no  metallic  vapours  are  produced,  and  therefore  it  is  some 
gaseous  constituent  of  the  atmosphere  which  produces  the 
lines  in  question.  For  similar  reasons  he  believes  that 
some  lines  at  present  attributed  to  silicon — another  highly 
refractive  substance — are  possibly  atmospheric. 

From  these  observations  Prof.  Trowbridge  arrives  at  the 
following  conclusions  : — "  At  the  basis  of  the  great  H.H 
lines  of  the  solar  spectrum  there  are  strong  gaseous  lines 
which  I  believe  to  be  oxygen  lines.  The  reversed  lines 
which  apparently  coincide  with  certain  calcium  lines  are 
not  due  to  calcium  but  are  gaseous."  Reproductions  of 
four  spectrograms,  which  accompany  the  article,  illustrate 
the  reasons  for  these  conclusions. 

The  Leeds  Astronomical  Society. — The  tenth  annual 
issue  of  the  Journal  and  Transactions  of  this  Society  con- 
tains a  series  of  useful  papers  which  were  communicated 
to  the  Society  by  its  members  during  1902.  Amongst  others 
there  are  papers  on  "  Parallax,"  "  Velocities,  Paths  and 
Kclipses  in  the  Solar  System  "  (illustrated  by  diagrams  of 
the  various  orbits),  "  The  Age  of  the  Earth,"  "  Brightness 
and  Definition,"  and  "  The  Year's  Observations"  (which 
were  in  the  most  part  observations  of  Jovian  phenomena), 
all  of  which  should  prove  of  value  and  interest  to  amateur 
astronomers. 

The  Journal  concludes  with  a  collection  of  the  papers  and 
letters  communicated  to  other  journals  by  the  members  of 
this  Society  during  1902. 


THE    ADVANCEMENT    OF    PHOTOGRAPHY. 

A  T  the  recent  meeting  of  the  Royal  Photographic  Society 
■^^  held  to  celebrate  its  jubilee,  the  president.  Sir  William 
.Abney,  K.C.B.,  F.R.S.,  suggested,  in  an  address  of  which 
an  abridgment  is  given  below,  that  the  Society  should 
further  mark  the  close  of  the  first  fifty  years  of  its  existence 
by  establishing  laboratories  and  suitable  accommodation  for 
the  carrying  out  of  photographic  researches.  A  donation  of 
looZ.  has  already  been  promised,  on  condition  that  900/. 
more  is  raised  for  this  purpose.  The  establishment  of  such 
facilities  is  highly  desirable,  for,  excluding  the  work  of  a 
few   whose  names   may   be  counted   on   the   fingers  of  one 


90 


NATURE 


[May^ 


1903 


hand,  and  that  done  by  our  manufacturers,  which  has,  so 
far,  succeeded  in  keeping  them  in  the  van  of  progress,  in- 
vestigations into  the  underlying  facts  of  photography  may 
be  said  to  be  non-existent  in  this  country.  A  thousand 
pounds  is  a  very  modest  sum  to  ask  for,  though  no  doubt 
it  will  serve  to  make  a  beginning.  We  hope  that  before 
very  long  this  sum  will  be  multiplied  many  times  over,  and 
that  the  science  of  photography  will  begin  to  take  its  proper 
place,  instead  of  being  regarded,  as  it  is  too  often  at 
present,  as  a  very  minor  detail  of  a  considerable  industry, 
and  an  empirical  art.  The  following  remarks  are  from 
Sir  William  Abney's  address  : — 

Looking  back  to  the  first  day  of  this  Society's  exist- 
ence, one  is  forcibly  reminded  of  the  advances  that  have 
been  made,  not  only  in  the  science,  but  in  the  art  of 
photography,  but  these  advances  I  think  might  have  been 
more  rapid.  A  very  brief  comparison  of  the  processes 
existing  now  and  fifty  years  ago  will  show  what  I  mean. 
Paper  processes,  founded  on  the  original  process  of  Fox 
Talbot,  were  well  to  the  fore  fifty  years  ago,  although  in 
185 1  Scott  Archer  had  shown  to  the  world  the  practicability 
of  taking  photographs  on  glass  by  means  of  collodion.  In 
that  same  year,  when  the  First  International  Exhibition 
was  held,  calotype,  Daguerreotype,  and  collodion  processes 
were  all  worked  commercially,  and  photographs  of  the 
mterior  of  the  Palace  by  all  three  processes  are  in  being- 
to-day.  '' 

Af  the  present  time  it  may  be  said  that  for  all  practical 
purposes  the  gelatine  process  for  taking  negatives  has  com- 
plete possession  of  the  field,  and  ousted  all  processes  which 
have  led  up  to  it.  Negatives  fifty  years  ago  were  im- 
pressions only  given  by  the  violet  and  blue  rays  existing 
in  white  light,  and  the  resulting  prints  are  such  as  would 
■be  seen  by  a  person  colour  blind  to  the  red  and  the  green, 
whilst  now  it  is  not  uncommon  for  the  photograph  to  be 
made  to  coincide  with  visual  impression  of  an  ordinary  eye 

I  here  seems  but  little  doubt  that  the  photographic  image 
remains  of  the  same  nature  now  as  it  was  then,  and  what- 
ever may  have  been  the  action  of  light  then,  so  it  is  now 
but  the  necessary  exposure  to  obtain  a  properly  developable 
image  was  at  least  sixty-fold  more  than  is  required  for  our 
present  process,  even  when  the  collodion  process  was  em- 
ployed, where  every  condition  remained  the  same  except 
the  sensitive  surfaces  themselves.  With  the  Daguerreotype 
process  perhaps  we  should  have  required  ten  times  more 
than  for  the  collodion,  though  we  know  of  instantaneous 
work  being  done  even  with  that  process.  For  open  air 
portraiture,  the  early  Daguerreotypist  required  half  an  hour 
in  bright  sunshine,  whilst  the  modern  amateur  will  be 
content  with  a  second  or  a  fraction  of  a  second  in  the 
same  circumstances.  A  question  one  naturally  asks  is 
What  causes  the  difference?  So  far  as  I  am  aware  this 
question  has  not  been  fully  answered,  and  yet  it  might 
have  been  had  serious  experiment  been  undertaken  regard- 
ing it.  ° 

From  a  theoretical  standpoint  there  are  three  things  that 
have  to  be  taken  into  account  :— ist,  the  sensitiveness  of 
the  silver  salt  itself;  2nd,  the  mediums  in  which  it  is 
placed;  and  3rd,  the  means  of-  development.  We  have 
some  clue  to  the  last  two.  Beginning  with  the  last  first 
those  who  practised  Talbotype  or  the  wet  collodion  pro- 
cesses know  that  in  both  of  them  the  developing  solution 
was  an  acid  solution  reduced  from  nitrate  of  silver    which 

^^f.^Ln  f^^"'/^f''^  °^  ^"^^  P^^*^  °''  P^P^""-  *«  ^he  metallic 
state,  and  that  there  was  some  attractive  force  which  caused 
tne  metallic  si  ver  to  adhere  to  and  crystallise  on  particles 
of  sensitive  salt  which  had  been  acted  upon  by  light  In 
the  gelatine  process  we  know  that  development  is  with 
alKal.ne  solution  and  that  the  image  is  built  up  from  the 
very  molecules  themselves  that  have  been  acted  upon  the 
sensitive  sa  t  itself  being  reduced  to  metallic  silver.  Why 
should  development  be  effected  more  easily  in  the  one  case 
than  in  the  other?  In  the  case  of  the  acid  development  the 
distance  of  the  particles  of  reduced  silver  from  the  mole- 
cules altered  by  light  are  far  greater  than  they  are  when 
the  material  of  the  plate  is  attacked,  and  consequently 
a  smaller  attractive  force,  due  to  fewer  molecules  beine 
altered  in  the  latter  case,  is  efiRcacious  in  producing  a  silver 
image  than  in  the  first  case  where  the  depositing  silver  has 
a  considerable  distance  into  which  the  attractive  force  has 


JJO     1752,    VOL.    68] 


to  be  exercised.  This  might  be  an  explanation.  Or,  again, 
it  may  be  shown  that  a  gelatine  film,  being  a  kind  of  filter 
to  the  developing  solution,  acts  as  a  regulator  in  allowing 
the  active  alkaline  solution  to  reach  the  particles  of  silver 
salt,  and  that  this  regulated  supply  would  attack  the  mole- 
cules on  which  light  had  done  part  of  the  work  of  decom- 
position, and  reached  the  remaining  part  most  readily  to- 
be  finished  and  so  on,  and  that  very  little  external  retarding 
influence  was  necessary.  But  now,  what  is  to  be  said  re- 
garding the  increased  instability  of  the  sensitive  salt? 
This  is  a  question  not  yet  investigated,  but  it  is  from  such 
an  investigation  that  increased  rapidity  is  to  be  looked  for. 

But  it  is  one  thing  to  say  what  proof  is  required,  and  it 
is  another  to  have  the  opportunity  of  making  such  proofs, 
and  I  should  urge  that  it  is  part  of  the  duty  and  functions, 
of  the  Royal  Photographic  Society  to  lead  the  way  in 
placing  such  means  at  the  disposal  of  its  members 'and 
others  as  will  enable  any  of  them  who  have  the  capacity 
to  experiment  in  this  and  in  any  other  directions  which  will 
lead  to  a  theoretical  knowledge  of  the  action  of  light.  It 
must  not  be  forgotten  that  there  are  a  great  many  more 
men  with  minds  trained  to  scientific  research  now  than 
formerly.  There  are  plenty  of  would-be  capable  workers 
who  cannot  afford  a  laboratory  of  their  own,  and  what  I 
should  wish  to  see  in  this  our  jubilee  year  is  the  commence- 
ment of  the  formation  of  a  research  laboratory  adapted  to- 
the  needs  of  the  scientific  workers. 

One  branch  of  photographic  science  is  the  optical,  and  in 
it  we  have  an  example  of  what  laboratory  and  experimental 
research  can  do  when  workers  are  trained  in  scientific 
methods.  Not  many  years  ago  the  optician  was  challenged 
to  increase  rapidity  of  exposure  by  increased  rapidity  of 
lens.  Nobly  and  rapidly  he  has  responded  ;  the  advent  of 
Jena  glass  enabled  him  to  comply  with  the  demand,  and  we 
have  been  getting  definition  of  image  with  ratio  of  aperture 
to  focal  length  which  would  have  been  deemed  impossible 
not  very  many  years  ago. 

I  do  not  believe  a  laboratory  would  be  an  expensive  matter 
to  start.  What  I  do  advocate  is  to  have  all  essentials  of 
all  instruments  of  first-class  workmanship,  and  to  leave  the 
adaptation  of  any  instrument  from  one  special  work  to  that 
of  another  to  the  worker.  Hence,  if  my  views  are  carried 
out,  the  initial  expenses  will  not  be  so  great  as  might  be 
supposed.  Space  is  the  foundation  of  all  research  in  photo- 
graphy, and  that  is  what  the  Royal  Photographic  Society 
can  supply,  and  then  comes  the  provision  of  the  apparatus 
necessary  to  use  in  such  space. 

I  have  heard  that  one  generous  man  will  give  looZ.  to 
the  laboratory  if  gooZ.  more  are  raised.  The  1000/.  would 
go  a  very  long  way  towards  what  we  want  to  start  with,  and 
I  hope  the  members  of  the  Society  will  resolve  to  give  sub- 
stantial help  in  raising  this  gooZ.  The  jubilee  of  the  Society 
should  be  marked  by  some  important  piece  of  work,  and 
no  bigger  one  and  more  requisite  is,  to  my  mind,  to  be 
found  than  starting  such  a  help  to  the  advancement  of 
photography. 


RADIO-ACTIVE  GAS  FROM  TAP-WATER.' 
■yiT'HEN  Cambridge  tap-water  is  boiled  the  air  given  off  is 
'  *•  mixed  with  a  radio-active  gas.  The  existence  of 
this  gas  is  easily  demonstrated  by  electrical  means,  for  if 
the  air  expelled  by  prolonged  boiling  from  about  10  litres  of 
water  is  introduced  into  a  closed  vessel  the  volume  of  which 
is  about  600  c.c,  the  amount  of  ionisation  in  the  vessel 
(as  measured  by  the  saturation  current)  is  increased  five 
or  six  times.  When  the  water  has  once  been  well  boiled 
the  gas  expelled  on  any  subsequent  re-boiling  is  not  appreci- 
ably radio-active.  The  gas  can  also  be  extracted  from 
water  at  the  temperature  of  the  room  by  vigorously  bubbling 
air  through  it ;  the  air  as  it  bubbles  through  the  water  gets 
niixed^  with  the  radio-active  gas  and  carries  it  along  with 
it.  When  water  which  has  been  treated  in  this  way  is 
boiled,  no  radio-active  gas  is  given  out,  nor  is  the  gas 
given  off  when  air  is  bubbled  through  water  which  has 
been  well  boiled. 

The  gas  extracted  in  this  way  from  the  water  retains  its 

i  Paper  read    before    the   Cambridge  Philosophical   Society  on   May  4. 
by  Prof.  Thomson,  F.R.S. 


May  28,  1903] 


NA  TURE 


91 


radio-active  properties  after  bubbling  through  strong 
sulphuric  acid,  or  caustic  potash  after  passing  over  red-hot 
copper,  or  through  a  narrow  platinum  tube  kept  at  a  white 
heat ;  it  does  not  seem  appreciably  affected  when  sparks  are 
passed  through  it. 

'Jhe  gas  can  diffuse  through  a  porous  plate,  and  by  com- 
paring its  rate  of  diffusion  with  that  of  CO,  through  the 
same  plate,  its  density  can  be  determined  by  Graham's  law  ; 
preliminary  measurements  of  this  kind  indicate  that  two 
different  gases  are  present,  of  which  one  has  a  density 
about  twice,  the  other  between  six  and  seven  times  that  of 
CO,.  The  gas  obtained  by  boiling  the  water  always  diffused 
faster  than  that  procured  by  bubbling  air  through  the 
water ;  it  seems  possible  that  in  the  latter  case  the  gas  may 
get  loaded  with  water-vapour  to  a  greater  extent  than  in 
the  former. 

A  negatively  electrified  surface  exposed  to  the  gas  be- 
comes radio-active,  the  induced  radio-activity  dying  away 
to  half  its  value  in  about  forty-five  minutes.  Mr.  Adams 
has  shown  that  a  positively  electrified  surface  also  becomes 
radio-active  when  exposed  to  the  gas,  though  to  a  smaller 
extent  than  if  it  had  been  negatively  electrified ;  an  un- 
electrified  surface  does  not  become  radio-active.  In  this 
respect  the  gas  differs  from  the  emanation  from  radium, 
which,  according  to  Rutherford,  produces  much  more  in- 
duced radio-activity  in  an  unelectrified  surface  than  in  a 
positively  electrified  one. 

The  rate  of  diffusion  through  a  porous  plate  of  the  gas 
obtained  by  bubbling  air  through  distilled  water  containing 
a  trace  of  radium  is  not  the  same  as  that  of  the  gas  got  by 
bubbling  through  tap-water. 

If  the  gas  is  confined  in  a  closed  space  its  radio-activity 
slowly  diminishes.  Mr.  Adams  found  that  the  gas  con- 
tained in  a  vessel  of  about  300  c.c.  capacity  lost  when  not 
e.xposed  to  an  electric  field  about  5  per  cent,  of  its  activity 
in  twenty-four  hours ;  under  a  strong  electric  field  the  rate 
of  loss  was  doubled.  Water  drawn  from  the  tap  and  left 
exposed  in  a  bucket  for  a  fortnight  gave  off  very  little  of 
(he  gas  when  subsequently  boiled.  I  have  not  found  any 
of  the  gas  in  any  of  the  numerous  samples  of  rain  and 
surface  water  which  I  have  tested. 

Prof.  Dewar  (to  whom  I  am  greatly  indebted  for  assist- 
ance and  advice)  was  kind  enough  to  subject  the  gas 
obtained  by  boiling  the  water  to  treatment  by  liquid  air. 
Two  samples  were  treated  :  one,  containing  about  80  litres 
of  gas,  obtained  from  the  coppers  of  the  Star  Brewery, 
Cambridge,  by  the  kindness  of  Mr.  Armstrong  (to  whom 
I  wish  to  express  my  thanks),  was  passed  slowly  through 
a  bath  of  liquid  air,  and  samples  of  the  emergent  gas 
collected ;  this  on  testing  was  found  to  have  no  radio- 
activity, though  it  was  strongly  radio-active  before  passing 
through  the  liquid  air ;  it  is  evident,  therefore,  that  at  the 
temperature  of  liquid  air  the  radio-active  gas  is  frozen  out. 
The  other  sample,  of  20  litres,  prepared  in  the  laboratory 
was  actually  liquefied  ;  the  liquid  was  then  allowed  to  boil 
away,  the  gas  coming  off  at  the  commencement  of  boiling 
was  collected,  and  also  that  coming  off  when  the  liquid 
had  all  but  boiled  away.  On  testing  the  samples  for  radio- 
activity the  former  was  found  to  be  slightly  radio-active,  but 
not  nearly  so  much  so  as  before  liquefaction,  while  the 
second  was  extraordinarily  radio-active,  its  activity  being 
quite  thirty  times  that  of  the  original  gas,  thus  showing, 
as  we  should  expect  from  its  great  density,  that  the  radio- 
active gas  is  much  more  easily  liquefied  than  air. 

The  liquid  obtained  in  the  preceding  experiment  had  a 
very  strong  smell  of  coal-gas.  I  must  again  express  my 
thanks  to  Prof.  Dewar  and  Mr.  Lennox  for  their  kindness 
''n  making  these  experiments. 

A  discharge  tube  was  filled  with  stronglv  radio-active 
gas  obtained  as  above,  and  the  spectrum  was  most  kindly 
investigated  by  Mr.  Newall,  who  photographed  it  and 
measured  the  lines  ;  no  new  lines  were,  however,  discovered, 
the  lines  present  being  mainly  those  due  to  hvdrocarbons. 

I  add  a  list  of  the  various  specimens  of 'water  I  have 
examined  ;  yes,  means  that  the  water  contains  the  gas  ;  no, 
that  it  does  not. 

Cambridge  tap-water  (yes).  Rain  water  (no).  Water 
from  ditch  round  Botanical  Garden  (no).  Water  from 
Trinity  College  well,  on  the  Madinglev  Road  (ves).  Water 
from  artesian  well  in  Mr.  Whetharh's  garden,  Chaucer 
Road  (yes).     Water  from  shallow  well  in  same  garden  (no). 


NO.    1752,   VOL.  68] 


Water  from  well  at  Star  Brewery  (yes).  Artesian  well  in 
Trinity  Hall  Cricket  Ground  (yes).  Artesian  well  at 
Girton  (yes).  Ely  Town's  water  (yes).  Birmingham 
Town's  water  (yes).     Ipswich  Town's  water  (yes). 

In  concluding  this  preliminary  account  I  have  much 
pleasure  in  thanking  my  assistant,  Mr.  E.  Everett,  for  his 
help  in  this  investigation. 


GEOGRAPHICAL  RESEARCH. 
T  N  the  course  of  his  presidential  address  at  the  recent  anni- 
■*■  versary  meeting  of  the  Royal  Geographical  Society  Sir 
Clements  Markham,  K.C.B.,  F.R.S.,  outlined  a  scheme, 
which  is  shortly  to  be  put  in  operation  by  the  Society,  for  the 
purpose  of  encouraging  geographical  research.  The  plan  to  be 
tried  is  the  outcome  of  the  afternoon  meetings  of  the  Society, 
started  in  1894,  for  the  reading  and  discussion  of  strictly 
scientific  or  technical  papers.  It  is  hoped  that  by  the  plan 
outlined  in  the  subjoined  extract  from  the  president's  ad- 
dress, the  value  of  the  afternoon  meetings  will  be  increased, 
and  the  scientific  side  of  geography  will  be  developed. 

A  permanent  committee  has  been  appointed  to  deal  with 
this  department  of  the  work  of  the  Society,  to  be  called 
the  "  Research  Committee."  It  will  consist  of  those  Fel- 
lows, taken  from  the  List  of  Referees  (which  includes 
Fellows  who  have  read  papers,  published  books,  or  are 
known  to  have  a  special  knowledge  of  any  department  of 
geography),  who  are  most  interested  in,  and  best  qualified 
to  deal  with,  the  subjects  which  are  embraced  in  geographi- 
cal research,  as  distinguished  from  exploration,  in  all  its 
numerous  branches.  The  committee  will  meet  for  the  dis- 
cussion of  such  results  of  investigation  as  may  be  brought 
before  it ;  and  the  Council  may  be  able  to  set  apart  a 
moderate  sum  each  year  for  the  purpose  of  encouraging  such 
researches  among  the  younger  geographical  aspirants. 

Among  the  numerous  lines  that  research  may  take,  the 
following  have  been  suggested  : — 

New  methods  of  surveying,  mapping,  or  computing. 

Discussion  of  a  definite  problem  of  geomorphology  {e.g. 
analysis  of  a  river  system  or  a  coast-line). 

Discussion  of  a  definite  problem  of  hydrography  (e.g. 
circulation  of  water  in  a  restricted  sea  area). 

Discussion  of  a  definite  problem  of  meteorology  {e.g. 
modifications  of  general  weather  conditions  by  local  features). 

Regional  studies  {e.g.  synthesis  of  the  geography  of  a 
county  or  of  a  natural  unit  such  as  the  Fens). 

Investigation  of  distribution  {e.g.  of  some  crop  in  rela- 
tion to  natural  facilities  and  access  to  markets  ;  of  former 
forests  in  relation  to  existing  boundaries ;  of  village  and 
town  sites  in  a  district). 

Mapping  of  distribution  of  plant  associations  in  a  given 
area,  or  of  a  human  disease  in  relation  to  climate  and  soil. 

History  of  the  map  of  some  country  {e.g.  the  British 
Isles). 

Investigation  of  evidence  of  physical  changes  within  his- 
torical times  {e.g.  the  British  coasts ;  the  desiccation  of 
continents). 

Discussion  of  the  relation  of  land  forms  to  military  move- 
ments in  a  selected  area,  or  a  chosen  campaign. 

Discussion  of  the  relation  of  land  forms  to  the  distribu- 
tion of  man  ;  to  the  distribution  of  animals  in  a^ny  area. 

Geographical  conditions  affecting  the  development  and 
colonisation  of  any  given  region. 

Complete  investigations  from  the  geographical  stand- 
point of  a  limited  area  of  unexplored  or  partially  explored 
territory. 

There  is  still  ample  room  for  exploration  and  expeditions 
of  discovery.  We  have  scarcely  yet  laid  down  the  great 
lines  of  the  world's  geography,  and  there  is  work  for  genera- 
tions to  come  in  filling  in  the  details,  though  future  explora- 
tion must  become  more  and  more  exact  and  scientific  in  its 
characters.  But  we  ought  also  to  encourage  research,  for 
which  exploration  furnishes  the  raw  material.  By  the  plan 
now  in  contemplation,  we  shall  develop  the  purposes  of  the 
List  of  Referees  by  constituting  the  Research  Committee ; 
and  we  shall  develop  further  the  object  of  the  afternoon  meet- 
ings by  promoting  research,  the  results  of  which  will  place 
the  meetings  on  a  more  assured  and  regular  system,  by 
creating  the  necessity  for  their  being  more  frequent  and  at 
fixed  intervals. 


92 


NATURE 


[May  28,  1903 


NATURAL  HISTORY  NOTES. 
V\J  E  learn  from  a  contemporary  that  Mrs.  Anderson  has 
**  recently  presented  to  the  British  Museum  the  whole  of 
the  zoological  collections  of  her  late  husband,  Dr.  John 
Anderson.  The  great  value  of  this  collection  is  that  it  com- 
prises all  the  original  specimens  on  which  Dr.  Anderson 
based  his  great  work  on  the  mammals  of  Egypt.  It  also  in- 
cludes a  collection  made  by  Mr.  T.  Bent  in  the  Hadramaut 
district  of  Arabia,  and  many  specimens  procured  by  Mr. 
H.  F.  Witherby  in  the  Eastern  Sudan — areas  of  which  the 
fauna  was  but  imperfectly  represented  in  the  Museum. 

Visitors  to  the  Natural  History  Museum  will  not  fail  to 
notice  the  fine  new  pair  of  giraffes  from  East  Central 
Africa  which  have  just  been  placed  on  the  top  of  the  flight 
of  steps  to  the  right  of  the  Darwin  statue.  They  replace  a 
battered  specimen  which  has  been  on  exhibition  since  1842. 
The  male  is  presented  by  Mr.  Rothschild  and  the  female 
by  Captain  Powell-Cotton  ;  both  are  mounted  bv  Rowland 
Ward. 

Bad  Latin,  as  exemplified  in  scientific  names,  is,  accord- 
ing to  Prof.  Cockerell  {Popular  Science  Monthly  for 
December,  1902),  an  evidence  of  too  much  narrowness  and 
too  little  general  culture  among  American  naturalists.  As 
regards  the  amount  of  zoological  work  done  by  the  latter, 
it  has  been  estimated  that  this  should  be  about  one-seventh 
of  that  of  the  whole  world,  and  judging  from  the  "  Zoo- 
logical Record,"  this  estimate  appears  to  be  somewhat 
exceeded  by  the  reality.  This,  however,  according  to  the 
author,  represents  only  a  fraction  of  the  work  awaiting 
to  be  done  if  only  the  number  of  labourers  were  sufficient. 
"  The  Making  of  Biologists  "  forms  the  title  of  another 
article  by  the  same  author  in  the  April  number  of  the 
aforesaid  serial,  in  which  it  is  urged  that,  although 
naturalists  are  undoubtedly  "  born  "  rather  than  "  made," 
yet  that  many  are  deterred  by  adverse  circumstances  from 
embarking  on  the  career  most  suited  to  their  abilities. 

An  English  translation,  by  Mr.  W.  H.  Clifford,  of  two 
memorials  presented  respectively  in  1895  and  1896  to  the 
Governor  and  Legislature  of  Para  by  Dr.  H.  Goeldi,  direct- 
ing attention  to  the  destruction  of  white  herons  (egrets)  and 
scarlet  ibises  on  the  Lower  Amazon,  has  been  recently  pub- 
lished at  Para.  Whether  protective  legislation  has  been 
the  result  of  these  appeals  is  not  stated,  but  from  the  details 
of  the  slaughter  it  is  quite  evident  that  such  protection  is 
urgently  needed.  In  an  appendix  the  author  directs  atten- 
tion to  the  possibilities  of  egret-farming,  and  states  that 
this  has  been  established  with  successful  results  in  Tunis. 
Egret-plumes  are  worth  more  than  their  weight  in  gold, 
and  the  profits  from  a  "  farm  "  of  this  nature,  where  the 
feathers  are  cut  from  the  birds  at  the  proper  season,  ought 
to  be  very  large. 

In  the  May  number  of  The  Field  Naturalists'  Quarterly 
the  editor  directs  attention  to  the  great  increase  in  the 
membership  of  field  clubs  and  societies,  and  the  multiplica- 
tion of  such  institutions  all  over  the  country,  as  satisfactory 
proof  of  the  awakening  of  interest  in  natural  history. 
Among  the  articles  in  this  number  are  one,  by  the  Rev. 
G.  C.  Bateman,  on  newts  in  spring,  and  a  second,  by  Mr. 
J.  R.  B.  Masefield,  on  the  white  cattle  of  Chartley,  Stafford- 
shire, both  illustrated.  In  the  latter  the  author  adopts  the 
view  that  British  white  park  cattle  are  the  descendants  of 
white  sacrificial  cattle  introduced  by  the  Romans,  ignoring 
the  close  relationship  between  the  Chillingham  herd  and 
the  old  Pembroke  breed  so  strongly  insisted  on  in  Low's 
"  British  Domesticated  Animals."  Apparently  he  has  not 
visited  the  domesticated  series  in  the  Natural  History 
Museum,  or,  at  all  events,  has  not  read  the  descriptive 
labels. 

Unusual  interest  attaches  to  an  article  by  Prof.  G.  H. 
Parker  on  the  hearing  of  fishes  in  the  March  number  of 
the  American  Naturalist.  After  mentioning  that  the 
sense  of  hearing  is  restricted  to  a  small  number  of 
animal  groups — notably  insects  and  vertebrates — and 
is  consequently  a  special  development,  the  author 
refers  to  recent  investigations  which  have  been  thought  to 
prove  that  the  ear  of  fishes  is  not  connected  with  the 
auditory_  function.  This  view  he  believes  to  be  incorrect, 
and  he  is  convinced  that  fishes  do  hear  sound-waves  com- 
municated through  water.  The  intimate  connection  between 
sound  and  touch  is  strongly  insisted  upon,  and  it  is  shown 
that    fishes — and,    to    a   certain    extent,    amphibians — exhibit 

NO.    1752,   VOL.    68] 


in  a  marked  degree  the  connection  between  the  tactile  and 
auditory  senses  by  means  of  the  lateral  line  system.  The 
three  sets  of  sense-organs  under  consideration — namely,  the 
skin,  the  lateral  line,  and  the  ear — "  may  be  regarded  as- 
having  slightly  different  kinds  of  stimuli ;  the  skin  being 
affected  by  surface-waves  and  currents ;  the  lateral  line 
organs  by  slight  inaudible  movements  of  the  whole  mass 
of  water ;  and  the  ears  by  the  still  more  delicate  vibrations- 
of  water  particles,  sound.  .  .  .  Hearing,  then,  is  a  most 
delicate  form  of  touching,  and  the  organ  of  hearing  has 
developed  late  in  the  animal  series  because  its  processes- 
are  not  original,  but  are  derived  from  those  of  the  more 
primitive  sense,  touch." 

Indian  Museum  Notes,  as  exemplified  by  vol.  v.  No.  3, 
maintains  its  high  reputation  as  a  chronicle  of  the  economic 
entomology  of  the  Indian  Empire,  this  part  containing  five 
original  communications  from  writers  who  are  not  members 
of  the  museum  staff,  and  an  important  series  of  notes  by 
the  latter.  In  the  first  category  Mr.  E.  P.  Stebbing  dis- 
cusses the  insect  pests  of  the  sugar-cane,  while  among  the 
second  reference  may  be  made  to  investigations  which  have 
been  undertaken  in  connection  with  insects  found  in  drink- 
ing water.  It  appears  that  in  December,  1900,  the  filtering 
beds  of  the  Calcutta  water-supply  were  swarming  with  a 
dipterous  larva,  which  on  examination  proved  to  belong 
to  the  midge  Chironomus  cubiculorum,  while  in  the  follow- 
ing year  the  lake  in  the  city  of  Colombo,  Ceylon,  was 
found  to  be  so  infested  with  the  larva  of  a  member  of  the 
same  genus  as  to  be  dangerous  to  health.  Special  means 
for  exterminating  this  "  lake-fly  "  are  suggested  by  the 
Government  entomologist. 

We  learn  from  the  April  number  of  its  official  organ,  the 
Emu,  that  the  Australian  Ornithologists'  Union  has 
successfully  completed  the  first  year  of  its  existence,  and 
that  its  work  is  steadily  progressing.  The  excellence  of  its 
journal  speaks  for  itself,  and  it  may  be  regarded  as  a  proof 
of  its  success  that  the  present  part  contains  a  beautiful 
coloured  plate,  by  H.  Gronvold,  of  blue  wrens  (Malurus), 
Perhaps  the  most  noteworthy  feature  of  the  work  of  the 
Australian  O.  U.  relates  to  the  protection  of  indigenous 
birds,  and  the  prevention  of  the  trade  in  so-called  "  osprey  " 
plumes.  It  is  most  satisfactory  to  learn  that  action  has 
been  taken  for  the  better  protection  of  the  colonies  of  egrets 
in  Victoria,  which  were  so  ruthlessly  attacked  for  the  sake 
of  their  plumes,  with  the  result  that  the  Government  has 
decided  to  protect  them  throughout  the  year.  Suggestions 
have  been  forwarded  to  the  Government  of  Queensland  with 
regard  to  the  advisability  of  reserving  certain  islands  for 
the  peculiar  Torres  Strait  or  nutmeg  pigeon,  and  efforts 
have  been  made  to  secure  one  of  the  Victorian  lakes  as  a 
breeding-reserve  for  wild-fowl.  The  Tasmanian  Govern- 
ment has  also  been  approached  with  a  view  of  preventing 
-the  wholesale  destruction  of  the  eggs  of  the  Cape  Barren 
geese  breeding  in  certain  islands  of  Bass  Strait,  since  it  is 
feared  that  the  species  is  in  danger  of  extermination. 
Action  has  likewise  been  taken  to  ensure  the  protection  of 
the  colonies  of  petrels,  or  "  mutton-birds,"  breeding  on 
Phillip  Island. 

"  Os  Mosquitos  no  Pard  "  forms  the  title  of  a  pamohlet 
by  Dr.  E.  Goeldi,  recently  issued  by  the  Government  Press 
of  Para. 

To  the  Journal  of  the  Asiatic  Society  of  Bengal  (vol. 
Ixxi.  No.  2)  Mr.  K.  B.  Sanyal  contributes  some  observations 
on  the  habits  of  the  orang-utan  in  captivity. 

We  have  received  the  report  of  the  Rugby  School  Natural 
History  Society  for  1902,  which  contains  a  prize  essay 
on  the  Tertiary  rocks  of  Hampshire,  by  Mr.  H.  A.  Ormerod, 
and  shows  that  the  Society  continues  to  prosper. 

In  the  Boletin  of  the  Agricultural  Commission  on  Para- 
sites of  Mexico  (vol.  i.  No.  8),  Prof.  T.  D.  A.  Cockerel! 
describes  a  new  scale-insect  (Neolecanium  herrerae)  infest- 
ing, agave ;  while  in  the  February  number  of  Psyche  the 
same  writer  records  several  new  races  of  various  species  of 
the  same  group    belonging  to  the  genus  Eulecanium. 

The  Boletim  of  the  Para  Museum  contains,  among  other 
papers,  a  list  of  the  birds  of  Amazonia,  extracted  from  the 
British  Museum  Catalogue,  and  a  descriptive  synopsis  of 
the  lizards  of  Brazil,  both  by  Dr.  E.  Goeldi.  Botanists 
will  be  interested  in  a  paper  on  the  "  rubber-trees  "  of 
Amazonia,  by  Dr.  J.  Huber,  as  well  as  in  a  fifth  instalment 
of  the  same  author's  account  of  the  Amazonian  flora. 


May 


1903] 


NATURE 


93 


A  liEW  SYNTHESIS   OF  INDIGO. 

A  N  important  new  synthesis  of  indigo  is  described  by  Dr. 
T.  Sandmeyer  in  the  April  number  of  the  Zeitschrift 
fiir  Farben-  uttd  Textil-C hemic.  The  starting  point  for  the 
synthesis  is  thiocarbanilid,  CS(NH.C8H,)j,  which  is  con- 
verted in  one  operation  by  the  simultaneous  action  of  white 
lead  and  potassium  cyanide  into  the  hvdrocyanide, 
C,H5.N:C(C\).NH.C,H5,  of  carbodiphenylim'ide.  This 
compound  is  changed  by  the  action  of  yellow  ammonium 
sulphide  into  the  thioamide, 

C,H,.N:C(CS.NH,).NH.C,H„ 

■which,    when   stirred   into  warm   sulphuric  acid,    undergoes 
condensation,  and  yields  an  a-isatinanilide, 

/NHv 


QH^^ 


\co- 


)C:NC8H5. 


The  anilide  is  converted  directly  into  indigo  when  dissolved 
in  alcohol  and  reduced  with  ammonium  sulphide,  but  the 
indigo  separates  in  glistening  crystals  which  cannot  easily 
be  reduced  by  the  ordinary  methods,  and  so  is  unsuitable 
for  commercial  use.  A  better  method,  and  one  which 
renders  it  unnecessary  to  separate  the  isatinanilide  from  the 
sulphuric  acid  used  in  its  preparation,  consists  in  allowing 
the  acid  solution  to  flow  into  ice-water  simultaneously  with 
a  solution  of  sodium  sulphide,  when  the  anilide  is  converted 
into  thioisatin, 

qh/      >cs, 

■which  is  thrown  down  as  a  bulky  precipitate.  In  order  to 
prepare  the  indigo  it  is  now  only  necessary  to  make  the 
precipitate  into  a  thin  paste  and  mix  it  with  a  little  alkali, 
when  the  thioisatin  rapidly  decomposes  into  indigo  and 
sulphur.  The  sulphur  is  removed  by  extracting  with  carbon 
disulphide,  and  the  indigo  is  left  in  the  form  of  light,  dark- 
blue  blocks,  which  readily  crumble  when  rubbed  between 
the  fingers,  and  can  be  made  into  a  uniform  paste  which 
Is  easily  reduced  to  indigo-white.  The  patents  are  held 
and  are  being  worked  by  J.  R.  Geigny,  of  Basle,  and  the 
process  may  prove  to  be  a  formidable  rival  not  only  to 
natural  indigo,  but  also  to  the  synthetical  process  employed 
bv  the  Badische  Anilin-  und  Soda-Fabrik. 


UNIVERSITY  AND   EDUCATIONAL 
INTELLIGENCE. 

Oxford. — The  249th  meeting  of  the  Junior  Scientific 
Club  was  held  on  May  20.  Mr.  H.  S.  Souttar  gave  an 
exhibit  of  an  automatic  method  of  drawing  capillary  tubes 
intended  for  use  in  the  capillary  electrometer.  Mr.  S.  A. 
lonides  read  a  paper  on  "  Mining  in  Cornwall,"  in  which 
he  gave  an  account  of  the  methods  employed  for  raising 
and  washing  the  tin  ores. 

Cambridge. — Mr.  Andrew  Graham,  who  has  for  nearly 
forty  years  held  the  office  of  chief  assistant  at  the  observ- 
atory, and  is  known  to  astronomers  as  the  discoverer  of 
Metis,  is  retiring  at  the  age  of  eighty-eight.  It  is  pro- 
posed to  assign  him  a  pension  of  200/.  a  year. 

The  use  of  the  Senate  House  has  been  granted  to  the 
local  committee  of  the  British  Association  for  the  meeting 
to  be  held  in  Cambridge  next  year. 


Lord  Kelvin  and  Lord  Lister  are  to  receive  the  honorary 
■degrees  of  doctor  of  science  from  the  University  of  Wales 
next  November. 

Mr.  W.  M.  Childs,  vice-principal  of  University  College, 
Reading,  has  been  elected  principal  of  the  College  in  suc- 
cession to  Mr.  H.  J.  Mackinder,  who  resigns  office  in 
September  next. 

It  is  stated  by  the  Electrician  that  a  donation  of  nearly 
4o,oooZ.  has  been  promised  by  Lord  Iveagh  to  Trinity 
College,  Dublin,  with  the  object  of  building  and  equipping 
scientific  laboratories. 

The  Liverpool  University  Bill  was,  on  Tuesday,  reported 
for  third  reading  by  Lord  Morley,  Chairman  of  Committees 


NO.    1752,  VOL.   68] 


of  the  House  of  Lords.  The  object  of  the  Bill  is  to  separate 
University  College,  Liverpool,  from  the  Victoria  University, 
and  to  merge  it  into  the  University  of  Liverpool. 

The  annual  report  of  the  Royal  Agricultural  Society, 
which  was  adopted  at  the  general  meeting  held  on  May  22, 
states  that  with  the  view  of  bringing  before  the  public  the 
general  characteristics  of  the  teaching  now  provided  at 
agricultural  colleges,  and  of  directing  attention  to  the 
Society's  own  share  in  this  work  as  a  national  examining 
body,  the  council  has  decided  to  organise  an  agricultural 
education  exhibition  as  a  new  feature  of  its  annual  show. 

In  his  recent  paper  read  at  a  meeting  of  the  Society  of 
Arts  Mr.  G.  T,  Morrison  gave  a  clear  and  useful  account 
of  the  modern  methods  of  construction  of  maps  and  charts. 
His  descriptions  of  orthographic,  stereographic,  Mercator's, 
gnomonic  and  elliptical  projections  should  prove  of  great 
assistance  to  teachers  who  wish  to  explain  the  methods 
employed  to  make  maps,  which  either  give  good  general 
ideas  of  the  appearance  of  the  whole  or  of  parts  of  the 
earth,  or  retain  some  one  property  of  the  sphere  at  the 
expense  of  disregarding  the  others.  Mr.  Morrison  thinks 
that  for  the  purpose  of  teaching  geography  a  projection 
based,  not  on  any  distinct  mathematical  rule,  but  on  a 
system  of  compromise,  is  on  the  whole  the  best — one,  for 
example,  on  which  the  meridians  and  parallels  are  spaced 
at  equal  distances  throughout. 

Arrangements  have  been  made  for  an  allied  colonial 
universities  dinner  and  conference  to  be  held  early  in  July. 
The  conference  will  be  held  on  July  9  at  the  rooms  of  the 
Royal  Society,  Burlington  House  (by  permission  of  the 
president),  to  discuss  the  question  of  the  coordination  of 
university  education  throughout  the  King's  dominions,  and 
the  development  of  post-graduate  courses  in  applied  science. 
It  is  expected  that  an  Imperial  council  will  be  formed  to 
deal  permanently  with  these  interests.  The  dinner  will  be 
held  on  Friday,  July  10,  at  the  Hotel  Cecil.  The  Lord 
Chancellor  and  other  statesmen,  many  high  public  officials, 
representatives  of  colleges  and  universities  in  the  United 
Kingdom  and  the  colonies,  and  several  distinguished  men 
of  science  are  expected  to  be  present.  Graduates  and  under- 
graduates of  colonial  universities  wishing  to  attend  the 
dinner,  or  to  take  part  in  the  conference,  are  requested 
to  write  as  soon  as  possible  to  Mr.  C.  Kinloch  Cooke,  hon. 
sec,  3  Mount  Street,  London,  W. 

The  annual  catalogue,  1902-3,  of  the  Massachusetts 
Institute  of  Technology  at  Boston  gives  very  full  particulars 
of  the  numerous  courses  of  instruction  in  connection  with 
the  institute,  a  clear  plan  of  the  extensive  buildings,  a 
register  of  graduates,  and  other  interesting  details.  The 
tuition  fee  for  regular  students  is  50/.  per  annum,  for  half 
a  year  or  any  shorter  period  the  fee  is  30/.  Special 
students  pay,  in  general,  the  full  fee ;  but  when  a  few 
branches  only  are  pursued  and  the  time  required  for  instruc- 
tion is  limited,  applications  for  a  reduction  in  the  fees  are 
considered.  Regular  students  whose  financial  necessities 
are  such  as  to  prevent  their  continuance  at  the  institute 
are  encouraged  to  apply  for  aid  to  the  scholarship  com- 
mittee of  the  faculty.  Students  may  conveniently  live  in 
any  of  the  nearer  cities  or  towns,  since  the  hours  of  the 
institute  are  from  9  to  5.  The  cost  of  board  and  rooms  in 
Boston  and  the  neighbouring  towns  need  not  exceed  from 
thirty  shillings  to  two  pounds  a  week.  The  cost  of  books 
and  material  varies  from  five  to  seven  pounds  a  year. 

The  second  clause  of  the  London  Education  Bill,  referring 
to  the  constitution  of  the  education  committee  was  with- 
drawn by  the  Government  on  Monday.  In  its  original  form 
the  Bill  provided  for  the  appointment  of  thirty-one  repre- 
sentatives of  the  borough  councils  upon  the  committee. 
This  number  wa£  reduced  to  twelve  in  Committee  of  the 
House  of  Commons  last  week,  but  the  compromise  pleased 
nobody,  so  the  whole  clause,  with  its  restrictions  upon  the 
local  authority  with  regard  to  the  constitution  of  the  Educa- 
tion Committee,  has  been  omitted  from  the  Bill.  By  this 
action  the  London  County  Council,  so  far  as  the  constitu- 
tion of  its  education  committee  is  concerned,  is  placed  in 
precisely  the  same  position  as  other  local  authorities 
brought  into  being  by  the  Act  of  last  year.  The  Council 
will  frame  a  scheme  for  itself,  just  as  other  county  councils 
have  done,  or  are  doing,   and  under  the  same '  conditions. 


94 


NA  TURE 


[May  28,  1903 


On  Tuesday  the  Bill  passed  through  Committee,  but  the 
third  clause  was  greatly  modified.  In  its  altered  form  the 
clause  provides  for  a  body  or  bodies  of  management  in  each 
borough,  constituted  so  as  to  include  one-fourth  members 
nominated  by  the  County  Council,  and  three-fourths  by  the 
borough  council.  The  measure,  as  passed,  does  not  include 
the  clause  giving  the  borough  councils  the  power  of  appoint- 
ing and  dismissing  teachers. 


SCIENTIFIC  SERIALS. 

Transactions  of  the  American  Mathematical  Society,  vol. 
iv.  No.  2  (April). — G.  H.  Darwin,  approximate  determin- 
ation of  the  form  of  Maclaurin's  spheroid. — H.  S.  White, 
on  twisted  cubics  that  have  a  directrix. — L.  Heffter,  line- 
integrals  in  n-dimensional  space. — E.  Kasner,  the  general- 
ised Beltrami  problem  concerning  geodesic  representation. 
— G.  A.  Miller,  on  the  holomorph  of  a  cyclic  group. — J.  L. 
Coolidge,  quadric  surfaces  in  hyperbolic  space. — A.  Loewy, 
on  the  reducibility  of  real  groups  of  linear  homogeneous 
substitutions. — W.  B.  Ford,  on  the  possibility  of  differenti- 
ating term  by  term  the  developments  of  an  arbitrary  function 
of  one  real  variable  in  terms  of  Bessel  functions. — E.  J. 
Wilczynski,  on  a  certain  congruence  associated  with  a  given 
ruled  surface. — J.  Westlund,  on  the  class-number  of  the 
cyclotomic  field  k{e-'"'l''"). 

Bulletin  of  the  American  Mathematical  Society  (2)  vol. 
ix.  No.  8  (May). — E.  H.  Moore,  presidential  address  on 
the  foundations  of  mathematics. — C.  J.  Keyser,  concerning 
the  axiom  of  infinity  and  mathematical  induction. — E.  R. 
Hedrick,  review  of  R.  Fricke's  treatise  on  the  differential 
and  integral  calculus. 


SOCIETIES  AND  ACADEMIES. 

London. 

Royal  Society,  May  7. — "  Experiments  in  Hybridisation, 
with  Special  Reference  to  the  Effect  of  Conditions  on 
Dominance."  By  L.  Doncaster,  B.A.,  King's  College, 
Cambridge.     Communicated  by  Dr.  S.  F.  Harmer,  F.R.S. 

Describes  experiments  on  hybrid  Echinoid  larvas,  made  to 
determine  whether  the  dominance  of  a  character  is  influenced 
by  the  condition  of  the  genital  cells  at  the  time  of  fertilisa- 
tion. It  is  concluded  that  there  is  no  evidence  that  this  is 
the  case,  and  that  the  seasonal  changes  observed  in  the 
larvfe  are  due  to  difTerence  in  temperature. 

May  14. — "  A  New  Class  of  Organo-Tin  Compounds 
containing  Halogens."  By  William  J.  Pope,  F.R.S.,  Pro- 
fessor of  Chemistry,  Municipal  School,  Manchester,  and 
Stanley  J.  Peachey. 

Chemical  Society,  May  7.— Prof.  H.  McLeod,  F.R.S., 
vice-president,  in  the  chair. — It  was  announced  that  the 
council  at  its  meeting  that  day  had  awarded  the  Longstaff 
medal  to  Prof.  W.  J.  Pope,  F.R.S.,  for  his  researches  on 
the  stereochemistry  of  compounds  of  elements  other  than 
carbon. — The  following  papers  were  read  : — The  action  of 
ammonia  and  organic  bases  on  ethyl  esters  of  olefine- 
dicarboxylic  and  olefine-jS-ketocarboxylic  acids,  part  ii.,  by 
S.  Ruhemann. — -Spontaneous  decomposition  of  nitro- 
camphor,  by  T.  M.  Lovvry.  A  quantity  of  nitrocamphor, 
prepared  in  1898  and  purified  by  recrystallising  once  from 
alcohol,  was  found  to  have  undergone  spontaneous  change 
into  a  sesquicamphorylhydroxylamine,  identical  with  that 
prepared  from  camphoryl  chloride  and  camphoryloxime. — 
/3-Bromo-o'-nitrocamphor-  and  j8-  and  ir-bromocamphoryl- 
oximes.  The  influence  of  impurities  in  conditioning 
isomeric  change,  by  T.  M.  Lowry.  ;8-Bromo-o'-nitro- 
camphor  exists  in  two  forms ;  the  pseudo-form, 

.CH.NO2 
CsHjjBry    I  , 

\co 

separates  from  solutions  of  the  nitro-compound  in  benzene 
or  ethyl  acetate.  The  normal  form  was  not  isolated.  A 
mixture  of  the  two  forms,  obtained  by  crystallising  from 
hot  alcohol  or  acetic  acid,  softened  at  100°,  melted  without 
decomposition  at  about  114°,  and  remelted  sharply  at  100°; 
the  latter  is  therefore  the  temperature  at   which   the  solid 

NO.    1752,  VOL.  68J 


pseudo-form  is  in  stable  equilibrium  with  the  liquid  mix- 
ture. Freshly  prepared  solutions  of  ;3-bromo-o'-nitro- 
camphor  exhibit  the  phenomenon  of  mutarotation.  A  solu- 
tion in  benzene  of  the  ^se«do-form  is  at  first  almost  inactive, 
but  in  the  course  of  two  or  three  days  the  specific  rotatory 
power  becomes  constant  and  equal  to  —80°.  The  change 
of  rotatory  power  is  not  spontaneous,  but  is  conditioned  by 
the  presence  of  traces  of  impurity.  This  fact  shows  that, 
even  when  both  isomerides  are  present  in  solution,  equi- 
librium between  them  is  only  established  in  presence  of  a 
trace  of  a  catalytic  agent,  probably  an  alkali.  These 
phenomena  are  closely  analogous  to  Baker's  observation* 
on  the  union  of  hydrogen  and  oxygen,  and  are  directly 
opposed  to  Laar's  hypothesis  of  "  tautomerism." — The 
electrolytic  reduction  of  pheno-  and  naphtho-morpholones, 
by  F.  H.  Lees  and  F.  Shedden.  Attempts  were  made  by 
electrolytically  reducing  aromatic  morpholones  in  sulphuric 
acid  solution  to  produce  aromatic  morpholines  possessing 
physiological  properties  similar  to  those  of  morphine  ;  the 
morpholone  ring,  however,  usually  undergoes  secondary  de- 
composition.— The  coloured  constituents  of  Butea  frondosa, 
by  E.  G.  Hill.  The  dried  and  fresh  flowers  of  Butea 
frondosa,  used  in  India  for  the  preoaration  of  a  somewhat 
fugitive  yellow  dye,  contain  fisetin  and  different  anhydrides 
of  a  tannic  acid. — Butein.  A  preliminary  notice  by  (the 
late)  J.  J.  Hummel  and  A.  G.  Perkin.  Butein,  the  colour- 
ing matter  of  the  flowers  of  B.  frondosa,  described  by 
Hummel  and  Cavallo  in  1894,  probably  exists  in  two 
modifications  which,  on  fusion  with  alkali,  giye  resorcinol 
and  protocatechuic  acid.  The  tinctorial  properties  of 
butein  closely  resemble  those  of  benzylideneanhydroglyco- 
gallol,  to  which  it  is  possibly  allied. — The  relative  affinities 
of  polybasic  acids,  by  H.  M.  Dawson. — The  chemical 
dynamics  of  the  reactions  between  chlorine  and  benzene 
uiider  the  influence  of  different  catalytic  agents  and  of  light, 
by  A.  Slator.  With  a  large  excess  of  the  hydrocarbon,  the 
relative  amounts  formed  of  the  two  chief  products  chloro- 
benzene  and  benzene  hexachloride  depend  on  the  conditions 
of  the  experiment.  The  velocity  of  these  reactions, 
especially  under  the  influence  of  different  catalytic  agents, 
has  been  measured  under  various  conditions.  Under  the 
influence  of  light  without  catalysts,  the  addition  reaction 
alone  occurs ;  under  conditions  of  equal  illumination,  the 
velocity  of  this  change  is  found  to  be  proportional  to  the 
square  of  the  chlorine  concentration. — The  diazo-reaction  in 
the  diphenyl  series.  Part  i.  On  dianisidine  and  3  :  3'- 
dichlorobenzidine,  by  J.  C.  Cain.  On  heating  aqueous 
solutions  of  the  diazonium  salts  prepared  from  dianisidine 
and  3  :  3'-dichlorobenzidine,  dark -coloured,  insoluble,  _  in- 
fusible compounds  which  appear  to  be  quinones  are  obtained 
instead  of  the  expected  dihydroxy-derivatives. 

Linnean  Society,  April  16.— Rev.  T.  R.  R.  Stabbing,  vice- 
president,  in  the  chair. — Dr.  G.  Henderson  exhibited  a 
coloured  sketch  of  a  withered  leaf  of  Quercus  incana. 
Roxb.,  and  of  slugs  found  amongst  the  dead  leaves.  The 
drawing  of  the  mollusc  and  leaf  was  to  show  their  strange 
resemblance  in  colour  and  outline.  These  slugs  are  common 
at  Dalhousie  in  the  Punjab,  on  ground  which  is  always 
covered  with  these  withered  leaves.  A  few  black  slugs  were 
to  be  found  with  the  light-brown  specimens,  and  whilst  the 
latter  escaped  the  notice  of  birds,  the  former  were  taken. — 
On  some  points  in  connection  with  the  ordinary  develop- 
ment of  Vaucheria  resting-spores,  by  Dr.  H.  C.  Bastian, 
F.R.S.  In  1891  the  author  had  some  spores  of  Vaucheria 
under  observation  in  a  bottle  loosely  covered  with  a  screw- 
cap,  and  after  a  few  weeks  these  spores  were  found  to  be 
germinating  and  emitting  filaments.  In  1902  the  experi- 
ments were  repeated  on  Vaucheria  racemosa  ;  material  was 
kept  in  a  shallow  dish,  and  a  few  days  later  the  spores  were 
transferred  to  a  stoppered  bottle  ;  another  portion  was  put 
into  a  tumbler,  loosely  covered  to  exclude  dust.  Within 
seven  weeks  the  bottled  specimens  germinated,  a  process 
which  did  not  take  place  in  those  in  the  tumbler  for  some 
time  later.  Special  attention  was  drawn  to  the  pigment- 
granules,  to  be  regarded  as  refuse-products  left  over  during 
the  molecular  transformation  that  the  spore  has  undergone 
in  becoming  decolorised  ;  they  are  heaps  of  fine  granules, 
without  any  bounding  membrane.  These  pigment-heaps  pass 
into  the  filament  as  spheres  with  a  sharply-defined  outline, 
or  else  press  together  in  compressed  forms.  Slight  to-and- 
fro  movements  were  detected  in  them.     One  pigment  sphere 


May  28    1Q03I 


NATURE 


95 


was  seen  to  be  encysted,  outside  the  filament  from  which  it 
had  been  liberated.  These  forms  resemble  Amoebae  or  the 
simplest  form  of  Actinophrys,  but  seem  to  be  so  heavily 
charged  with  indigestible  matter  as  to  have  but  a  slender 
chance  of  further  development. — On  the  labial  and  maxillary 
palpi  in  Diptera,  by  Mr.  Weschd.  The  author  set  out  to 
homologise  the  mouth-parts  of  Diptera  with  the  typical 
insect  mouth-part,  and  stated  that  in  the  Muscidae  the 
mandibles  are  embedded  in  the  dorsal  side  of  the  labium. 
The  maxillary  palpi,  galae,  and  laciniae  are  aborted,  but 
the  cardines  and  stipes  remain  ;  the  latter  parts  bear  minute 
,  rudiments  of  the  maxillary  palpi.  'Jhe  palpi  present  are 
\  labial.  In  the  Syrphidae  and  Empidae  the  mandibles  are 
I  similarly  placed,  but  the  maxillae  are  represented  by  the 
laciniae,  the  pailpi,  cardines,  stipes,  and  palpifers.  The 
labial  palpi  are  aborted.  The  author  formulated  a  rule,  that 
the  maxillary  palpi  when  present  in  Diptera  are  always  in 
contact  with  the  upper  part  of  the  cardines,  the  stipites. — 
Observations  on  fresh-water  rhizopods,  with  some  remarks 
on  their  classification,  by  Prof.  G.  S.  West.  The  author 
states  that  whilst  examining  material  from  the  western 
districts  of  the  British  Islands,  interesting  rhizopods  came 
under  notice,  concerning  four  of  which  he  could  find  no 
previous  mention.  Two  of  these  are  species  of  Hyalo- 
sphenia,  one  is  a  species  of  Sphenoderia  with  a  prettily 
constructed  shell,  and  another  is  a  curious  nude  form  refer- 
able to  Cienkowski's  genus  Nuclearia.  With  regard  to 
the  distribution  of  rhizopods  in  the  west  of  Scotland,  the 
noticeable  feature  is  the  relative  scarcity  of  these  animals 
in  the  Outer  Hebrides  as  compared  with  their  occurrence 
on  the  Scottish  mainland.  Full  reasons  are  given  for  the 
establishment  of  the  Vampyrellidae  as  a  distinct  order  of 
fresh-water  rhizopods,  to  include  the  genera  Vampyrella 
and  Nuclearia. 

Paris. 
Academy  of  Sciences,  May  11.— M.  Albert  Gaudry  in 
the  chair. — New  studies  on  a  law  relating  to  the  electro- 
motive forces  developed  by  the  reciprocal  action  of  saline 
solutions,  by  M.  Berthelot.  If  E  is  the  E.M.F.  developed 
by  the  action  of  an  acid  on  a  base,  and  the  E.M.F.  de- 
veloped by  the  action  of  the  corresponding  salt  on  the 
acid  be  #,  and  on  the  base  fo,  then  the  author  has  estab- 
lished experimentally  the  law  E=f, -l-e,. — On  the  traces  of 
the  Lutitian  sea  in  the  Soudan,  by  M.  de  Lapparent. 
P'ossils  found  by  French  officers  in  the  Soudan,  including 
a  new  species  of  Plesiolampas,  undoubtedly  belong  to  the 
Middle  Eocene.  It  may  thus  be  considered'  as  certain  that 
'  the  Lutitian  sea,  traces  of  which  have  been  already  made 
j  out  with  certainty  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Dakar,  spread 
out  into  the  heart  of  the  Soudan. — On  the  existence  of 
radiations  capable  of  passing  through  wood  and  certain 
metals  in  the  rays  from  an  incandescent  mantle,  by  M.  R. 
Blondlot.  The  radiations  were  detected  by  their  action 
on  very  small  sparks,  the  arrangement  of  the  apparatus 
beino-  similar  to  that  previously  described  by  the  author  in 
connection  with  the  radiation  of  an  X-ray  focus  tube,  and 
iNo  by  their  photographic  action.  They  resemble  in  some 
nspects  the  rays  of  long  wave-length  discovered  by  Rubens, 
in  that  both  are  emitted  by  an  incandescent  mantle,  and 
aro  stopped  by  water.  On  the  other  hand,  the  Rubens 
r.iys  are  stopped  by  metals,  which  are  traversed  in  thin 
lavers  by  the  radiations  now  described. — On  a  class  of 
(iit'ferential  equations  reducible  to  Bessel's  equation,  by 
M.  Alexander  S.  Chessin. — On  the  zeros  of  monodrome 
functions,  or  with  y  branches,  by  M.  Edmond  Maillet. — 
On  thermomagnetic  effects  in  bismuth-lead  alloys,  by  M. 
l-^dmond  van  Aubel. — On  the  modulus  of  traction  and  the 
( (icfFicient  of  expansion  of  vulcanised  indiarubber,  by  MM. 
Bouasse  and  Carri&re.  In  reasoning  from  the  equation 
(n.=a.dt-\-fdP,  dL  is  usually  taken  as  an  exact  differential. 
I  lii>^,  however,  is  far  from  being  the  case;  the  coefficients 
a  and  «  are  very  variable,  since  they  depend  upon  the 
I'  vious  history  of  the  specimen  under  examination.  It  is 
wn  that  the  value  of  these  coefficients  may  be  made  to 
between  wide  limits  by  varving  the  cycle  of  operations, 
!  it  is  not  possible  on  theoretical  grounds  to  give  the 
i';'l-rcnce  to  any  one  of  these. — On  the  electrolysis  of 
alkaline  sulphides,  by  MM.  Andr^  Brochet  and  Georges 
Ranson,  It  has  been  shown  in  previous  work  that  the 
final  product  of  electrolysis  is  sulphate,  with  an  intermediate 
formation  of  thiosulphate.     Working  in  concentrated   solu- 

NO.'  1752,  VOL.   68] 


tion  at  50°  to  70°,  the  process  is  entirely  different,  sulphur 
being  deposited  at  the  anode  and  sodium  at  the  kathode, 
hydrogen  and  sodium  hydroxide  appearing  in  the  latter 
case  as  the  secondary  products.  The  sulphur  formed  dis- 
solves in  the  sulphide,  giving  polysulphides. — On  benzene- 
azo-orthobenzyl  alcohol  and  on  its  transformation  into 
phenylindazol  and  azodiphenylmethane,  by  M.  P. 
Freundler.  The  alcohol  is  easily  obtained  by  the  con- 
densation of  nitrosobenzene  with  o-aminobenzyl  alcohol  in 
presence  of  alcohol  and  acetic  acid. — Organometallic 
derivatives  of  aromatic  hydrocarbons  containing  two 
halogen  atoms  in  the  nucleus,  and  their  interaction  with 
iodine,  by  M.  F.  Bodrotix.  The  dihalogen  derivative  re- 
acts with  magnesium  to  give  X.CjH^MgX,  and  this,  with 
iodine,  forms  the  mixed  halogen  compound  C.H^.XI.  The 
reaction  appears  to  be  general,  and  has  been  extended  to 
naphthalene  compounds. — On  the  methylation  of  ethyl 
glutaconate,  by  M.  E.  E.  Blaise. — The  migration  of  the 
methyl  group  in  the  camphor  molecule,  by  MM.  G.  Blanc 
and  M.  Desfontaines. — On  the  successive  action  of  acids 
and  soluble  ferments  on  polysaccharides  of  high  molecular 
weight,  by  MM.  Em.  Bourquelot  and  H.  Hdrissey. — 
The  diastatic  hydrolysis  of  salol,  by  M".  Emm.  Pozzi-Escot. 
The  hydrolysing  ferments  of  plant  seeds,  which  act  easily 
upon  the  esters  of  the  fatty  acids,  are  nearly  without  action 
upon  the  phenol  ethers. — On  the  law  of  electrical  excitation 
in  some  invertebrates,  by  M.  and  Mme.  L.  Lapicque.  It 
is  shown  that  the  law  enunciated  by  Weiss  is  only  an 
approximate  one ;  the  establishment  of  a  more  correct 
formula  is  reserved  for  a  later  communication. — Excretion 
and  phagocytosis  in  Onychophores,  by  M.  L.  Brunts. — 
On  the  absorption  of  the  tetanic  antitoxin  ;  the  immunising 
action  of  dry  antitetanic  serum,  by  M.  A.  Calmette. — 
On  the  reversibility  of  lipolytic  actions,  by  M.  Henri 
Pottevin.  If  oleic  acid  be  added  to  a  glycerol  extract  of 
the  pancreas,  partial  esterification  takes  place ;  starting 
with  mono-olein,  a  partial  hydrolysis  occurs,  and  in  both 
cases  there  is  a  final  state  of  equilibrium  produced,  charac- 
terised by  the  same  value  for  the  ratio  between  the  weights 
of  the  free  and  combined  acid. — The  influence  of  form- 
aldehyde on  the  growth  of  white  mustard,  by  MM. 
Bouilhac  and  Giustiniani.  When,  owing  to  insufficient 
light,  the  chlorophyll  assimilation  of  the  plant  is  rendered, 
difficult,  formaldehyde  may  serve  as  a  plant  food,  but  if 
the  intensity  of  the  light  is  diminished  below  a  certain 
amount,  this  assimilation  ceases,  the  formaldehyde  exerts 
a  poisonous  effect,  and  all  the  plants  die. — How  far  is  it 
possible  to  modify  the  habits  of  plants  by  grafting?  by 
M.  Lucien  Daniel. — On  the  spontaneous  combustion  of 
balloons,  by  M.  W.  de  Fonvielle.  Certain  explosions  of 
balloons  would  appear  to  be  traceable  to  electrical  effects, 
which  determine  a  spark  at  the  moment  the  aeronaut  grasps 
the  valve  rope.  As  a  precaution,  the  use  of  indiarubber 
gloves  is  suggested  in  stormy  weather. — On  the  culture  of 
the  truffie,  by  M.  Emiie  Boulang^er. 

May  18. — M.  Albert  Gaudry  in  the  chair. — The  statistics 
of  the  minor  planets.  The  distribution  of  the  elements, 
taking  the  aphelion  longitude  as  argument.  The  com 
parison  of  the  minor  planets  with  short  period  comets,  by 
M.  O.  Callandreau. — The  measurement  of  the  velocity  of 
ships  at  sea,  by  M.  E.  Guyou.  A  return  to  the  oldest 
form  of  line  log  is  suggested,  with  certain  modifications. 
The  float  is  replaced  by  a  light  calico  bag  containing  a 
little  sand,  the  resistance  of  which  is  sufficient  to  form 
a  very  satisfactory  fixed  point.  The  line  is  looped  in  coils 
and  not  on  a  reel,  and  is  fitted  with  a  simple  electrical 
indicator.  An  accuracy  of  i  per  cent,  is  obtainable  with 
this  arrangement. — On  the  distribution  of  matter  on  the 
surface  of  the  earth,  by  M.  G.  Lippmann. — The  con- 
ductivity and  residual  ionisation  of  solid  paraffin  under  the 
influence  of  the  radium  radiation,  by  M.  Henri  Becquerel. 
It  is  easily  shown  that  solid  paraffin  becomes  a  conductor 
whilst  under  the  action  of  the  radium  emanation,  and  this 
is  not  immediately  lost  on  the  removal  of  the  radium, 
but,  although  diminishing  rapidly,  is  still  appreciable  during 
about  half  an  hour. — The  preparation  and  properties  of 
cesium  ammonium  and  rubidium  ammonium,  by  M.  Henri 
Moissan.  These  substances  were  obtained  by  the  action 
of  liquid  ammonia  on  the  metals,  the  methods  employed 
helwr  similar  to  those  previously  described  for  sodium, 
potassium,    and    lithium.     Caesium    ammonium    is    crystal- 


96 


NATURE 


[May  28,  1903 


line,,  and  takes  fire  at  once  in  the  air.  Its  analysis  gave 
figures  corresponding  to  the  formula  CsNH,,  and  the 
rubidium  compound  has  an  analogous  composition.  The 
solutions  of  these  substances  in  liquefied  ammonia  have 
been  utilised  for  the  production  of  the  carbides  of  caesium 
and  rubidium. — Secular  perturbations  of  the  first  degree 
with  respect  to  the  eccentricity,  by  M.  Jean  Mascart. — 
On  the  visibility  of  the  eclipsed  lunar  disc  during  the  second 
half  of  the  eclipse  of  April  11-12,  by  M.  Amann.  The 
peculiar  and  exceptional  visibility  of  the  eclipsed  portion 
of  the  moon's  disc  was  confined  to  the  second  part  of  the 
eclipse. — On  the  decomposition  of  a  linear  substitution,  real 
and  orthogonal,  and  on  a  product  of  inversions,  by  M.  L6on 
Aiitonne. — On  the  value  of  averages  in  meteorology,  and 
on  the  variability  of  temperatures  in  France,  by  M.  Alfred 
JVngrot.  It  is  pointed  out  that  the  arithmetical  mean  of 
a  series  of  experimentally  observed  numbers  is  only  the 
most  probable  result  if  the  causes  of  error  are  purely 
accidental,  and  that  this  latter  condition  does  not  neces- 
sarily hold  in  meteorological  observations.  Observations 
taken  in  France  over  a  period  of  fifty  years  are  discussed 
with  the  view  of  determining  between  what  limits  this 
condition  is  satisfied. — On  the  electrical  conductivity  of 
selenium  in  the  presence  of  bodies  treated  with  ozone,  by 
M.  Edmond  van  Aubel.  Substances  after  treatment  with 
ozone,  and  which  are  capable  of  being  attacked  by  it,  in- 
crease the  electrical  conductivity  of  selenium,  the  rate  of 
return  to  the  original  resistance  being  extremely  slow.— 
On  the  transmission  of  photographs  by  means  of  a  tele- 
graph wire,  by  M.  Korn.  The  image  is  produced  photo- 
graphically upon  a  rotating  plate  by  means  of  the  light 
from  a  vacuum  tube,  and  the  latter  is  worked  by  high 
frequency  Tesla  currents,  governed  by  a  selenium  cell  at 
the  transmitting  end  of  the  wire.  The  rate  of  transmission 
is  slow,  owing  to  the  inertia  of  the  selenium. — On  the 
theory  of  coloured  indicators,  by  M.  P.  Vaillant.  From 
a  quantitative  study  of  the  colour  of  solutions  of  paranitro- 
phenol  and  its  salts,  the  conclusion  is  drawn  that  the 
definition  of  an  indicator  given  by  Ostwald  and  Nernst  is 
incomplete. — Electrolysis  of  the  sulphides  of  the  alkaline 
earths,  by  MM.  Andr^  Brochet  and  Georges  Ranson.  In 
concentrated  solutions,  electrolysed  at  60°,  sulphur,  baryta 
and  hydrogen  are  produced,  indicating  that  the  primary 
products  are  sulphur  and  barium.  There  is  no  evidence  of 
the  production  of  any  oxidation  products. — On  a  new 
method  for  the  estimation  of  the  halogens  in  organic  com- 
pounds, by  MM.  H.  Baubisny  and  G.  Chavanne.  The 
substances  are  oxidised  by  chromic  acid  mixture  in  presence 
of  a  silver  salt ;  chlorine  and  bromine  are  set  free,  whilst 
iodine  is  completely  converted  into  iodic  acid.  Test  analyses 
of  several  iodine  compounds  prove  the  accuracy  and  con- 
venience of  the  method. — The  action  of  ethyloxalyl  chloride 
on  mixed  organo-magnesium  compounds,  by  M.  V. 
Grigrnard. — The  action  of  the  bases  of  the  alkaline  earths 
upon  the  salts  of  pyrogallol-sulphonic  acids,  by  M.  Marcel 
Delagre. — A  new  method  for  the  estimation  of  glycerol,  by 
M.  A.  Buisine.  The  process  is  based  upon  the  production 
of  a  mixture  of  hydrogen  and  methane  by  the  interaction 
of  glycerol  and  a  mixture  of  potash-lime  and  caustic  potash 
at  350°.  It  has  the  advantage  of  requiring  a  very  small 
quantity  of  material,  and  is  very  rapid. — A  new  test  for 
lead  and  manganese,  by  M.  R.  Trillat. — On  the  com- 
parative physiology  of  the  two  kidneys,  by  M.  J.  Albarran. 
In  unit  time,  the  two  kidneys  secrete  different  quantities 
of  urine  of  different  composition.  There  is  a  partial  com- 
pensation in  that  the  kidney  producing  the  larger  quantity 
of  urine  secretes  a  less  concentrated  liquid. — On  a  point  in 
the  anatomy  of  some  Oculininae  and  Paeciloporinge,  by  M. 
Arm.  Krempf.^-On  a  cause  of  variation  in  fossil  fauna 
by  M.  H.  DouvillS. 

DIARY  OF  SOCIETIES. 

THURSDAY,  May  2S. 
Royal  Society,  at  4.30— On  the  Bending  of  Waves  round  a  Spherical 
Obstacle:  Lord  Rayleigh,  O.M.,  F.R.S.— Sur  la  Diffraction  des  Ondes 
Electriques  a  propos  d'un  Article  de  M.  Macdonald  :  Prof.  H.  Poincare' 
For.Mem.R.S.— On  the  Theory  of  Refraction  in  Gases:  G.W.Walker! 
—An  Analysis  of  the  Results  from  the  Kew  Magnetographs  on  Quiet 
Days  during  the  Eleven  Years  1890  to  1900,  with  a  Discussion  of  Certain 
Phenomena  in  the  Absolute  Observations:  Dr.  C.  Chree,  F.R.S.— On  a 
Remarkable  Effect  produced  by  the  Momentary  Relief  of  Great  Pressure  • 
J.  Y.  Buchanan,   F.R.S.— Evolution  of  the   Colour-Pattern  and  Ortho- 


NO.    1752,  VOL.  68] 


genetic  Variation  in  Certain  Mexican  Species  of  Lizards  with  Adaptation 

to    their    .Surroundings:     Dr.    H.    Gadow,    F.R.S. Researches     on 

Tetanus  :  Prof.  Hans  Meyer  and  Dr.  F.  Ransom.— The  Hydrolysis  of 
Fats  in  vitro  by  Means  of  Steapsin  :  Dr.  J.  Lewkowitsch  and  Dr. 
J.  J.  R.  Macleod. — On  the  Optical  Activity  of  the  Nucleic  Acid  of  the 
Thymus  Gland  :  Prof.  A.  Gamgee,  F.R.S.,  and  Dr.  W.  Jones. 

Royal  Institution,  at  5. — Electric  Resonance  and  Wireless  Telegraphy  : 
Prof.  J.  A.  Fleming,  F.R.S. 

Institution  of  Electrical  Engineers,  at  5.— Annual  General 
Meeting. 

FRIDAY,  May  29 

Royal  Institijtion,  at  9.— Some  Physical  Problems  of  the  Ocean  :  J.  Y. 
Buchanan,  F.R.S. 

SA  TURD  A  Y,  May  30. 

Royal  Institution,  at  3. — The  "  De  Magnete"and  its  Author :  Prof. 
S.  P.  Thompson,  F.R.S. 

TUESDA  V.  June  2. 

Royal  Institution,  at  5.— The  Work  of  Ice  as  a  Geological  Agent : 
Prof.  E:  J.  Garwood. 

Victoria  Institute,  at  4.30. — The  Living  God  of  Living  Nature:  Lionel 
S.  Beale,  F.R.S. 

WEDNESDA  Y,  June  3. 

Entomological  Society,  at  8. 

Society  of  Public  Analysts,  at  8. 

THURSDAY,  June  4. 

ChemicalSociety,  at  8.— Imino-ethers  corresponding  to  Ortho-substituted 
Benzenoid  Amines  :  G.  D.  Lander  and  F.  T.  Jewson — (i)  Formation  of 
an  Anhydride  of  Camphoryloxime  ;  (2)  The  Mutarotation  of  Glucose  as 
influenced  by  Acids.  Bases  and  Salts  ;  (3J  The  Solubility  of  Dynamic 
Isomerides :  T.  M.  Lowry.  —  (i)  Isomeric  Partially  Racemic  Salts  con- 
taining Quinquevalant  Nitrogen.  Part  X.  The  Four  Isomeric  Hydrind- 
amine  <?-Chlorocamphor3ulphonates  NRJN2H3  ;  (2)  Isom»ric  Com- 
pounds of  the  Type  NRiRoHa:  F.  S.  Kipping.— The  Hydrolysis  of 
Ethyl  Mandelate  by  the  Fat  Splitting  Enzyme,  Lipase :  H    D.  Dakin. 

Royal  In'^titution.  at  5.— Electric  Resonance  and  Wireless  Tele- 
graphy: Prof.  J.  A.  Fleming,  F.R.S. 

Rontgen  Society,  at  8.^o.— On  the  Electric  Field  surrounding  the 
X-Ray  Tube  :  Rev.  P.  Mulholland. 

LiNNEAN  Society,  at  8. — On  the  Anatomy  and  Development  of  Comys 
infclix  ;  Miss  Alice  L.  Embleton.— Scottish  Freshwater  Plankton  : 
Messrs.  W.  and  G.  S.  West. 

/-■R/nAY.  JvtiE.5. 

Royal  Institution,  at  9.— The  New  Star  in  Gemini:  Prof.  H.  H. 
Turner,  F.R.S. 

Physical  Society,  at  5.— Special  Meeting  at  University  College.— 
Radio-active  Processes  :  Prof.  Rutherford. 

SATURDAY,  June  6. 

Royal  Institution,  at  3.— The  "  De  Magnate"  and  its  Author  :  Prof. 
S.  P.  Thompson,  F.R.S. 

CONTENTS.  PAGE 

The    Eruptions    of   Mont    Pelee.     By   Dr.  John    S. 

Flelt                  73 

Experiments  on  Animals.     By  H.  M.   V 74 

Chemical     Tests    and     their    Discoverers.     By    C, 

Simmonds 75 

Our  Book  Shelf:— 

Baldwin  :   "Dictionary  of  Philosophy  and  Psychology," 

Vol.  ii 76 

Blanchan  :"  How  to  Attract  the  Birds." — R.L.    ...  76 

Owen:  "  Telephone  Lines." — M.  S 76 

Murche :     "The    Globe   Geography    Readers.     Inter- 
mediate.    Our  Island  Home  " 76 

Letters  to    the    Editor  :— 

Psychophysical    Interaction — Dr.    E.     W.    Hobson, 
F.R.S.  ;  J.  W.  Sharpe  ;  Dr.  W.  Peddle  ;  C.  T. 

Preece 77 

Extension  of  Kelvin's  Thermoelectric  Theory. — Oliver 

Heaviside,  F.R.S 78 

The  Farthest  North.     [Illustrated.)        79 

The  Restoration  of  the  Land  of  Chaldea 81 

The  Dalton  Celebrations  at  Manchester.  [Illustrated.) 

By  E.  C.  E 81 

The    Atomic     Theory     and    the    Development     of 

Modern  Chemistry.     By  P.  J.  Hartog      .....  82 

Notes       84 

Our  Astronomical  Column  : — 

Astronomical  Occurrences  in  June 89 

Variability  of  Nova  Geminorum 89 

Origin  of  the  H  and  K  Lines  of  the  Solar  Spectrum  .    .  89 

The  Leeds  Astronomical  Society 89 

The  Advancement  of  Photography 89 

Radio-active    Gas    from    Tap-water.     By  Prof.  J,  J. 

Thomson,  F.R.S -90 

Geographical  Research      91 

Natural  History  Notes 92 

A  New  Synthesis  of  Indigo        93 

University  and  Educational   Intelligence 93 

Scientific  Serials          94 

Societies  and  Academies 94 

Diary  of  Societies 96 


NATURE 


97 


THURSDAY,   JUNE   4,   1903. 


INFINITE  SERIES. 
Th^orie  t^Umentaite  des  Sdries.     Par  Maurice  Godefroy  : 

avec  une   Preface   de    L.    Sauvage.      Pp.   viii  +  268. 

(Paris:  Gauthier-Villars,  1903.)  Price  8  francs. 
TNFINITE  series  present  themselves  in  mathematics 
J-  in  diflferent  contexts,  serve  different  purposes,  and 
admit  of  different  interpretations.  The  simplest  case  is 
when,  from  a  numerical  sequence  («i,  u.^^  «3,  .  .  .),  we 
derive  the  series 

«l    +   «2  +  ^3  +   •   •   • 

which  we  may  denote  by  "Zu.  It  is  assumed  that  there 
is  a  rule  for  calculating  «„  when  n  is  assigned  ;  if  we 
write  j„  for  «i  +  «2  +  •  •  •  +  «»»  there  exists  a  sequence 
(jj,  J.2,  J3,  .  .  .)  and  we  may,  in  fact,  regard  1u  as  being, 
in  a  manner,  a  symbolical  expression  of  this  sequence. 
When  we  say  that  2«  is  convergent  and  its  sum  is  j, 
what  is  really  meant  is  that  the  sequence  (x„)  converges 
to  the  limit  .v. 

To  Cauchy  and  Abel  is  mainly  due  a  strict  theory  of 
such  arithmetical  series.  They  showed  that,  whether  its 
terms  are  real  or  complex  numbers,  a  series  of  this  sort 
may  be  divergent,  indeterminate,  or  convergent  ;  and 
that  series  which  are  absolutely  convergent  may  be  com- 
bined by  processes  which  we  may  call  addition,  subtrac- 
tion, multiplication,  and  division.  There  is  one  part  of 
this  theory  which,  even  yet,  is  not  always  made  so  clear 
as  it  might  be.  Suppose  that  we  have  two  sequences 
(«;i),  {"^'n)  of  such  a  character  that  every  element  u^  of  the 
one  occurs  as  an  element  v,^  in  the  other,  and  conversely  ; 
that  this  is  a  (i,  i)  correspondence,  that  is  to  say,  that 
each  element  of  one  sequence  is  associated  with  one,  and 
only  one,  of  the  other  ;  and,  finally,  that  when/  is  finite, 
q  is  also  finite,  and  conversely.  In  this  case  we  may  call 
(t/„)  a  permutation  of  (7/,,).  When  2«„  is  absolutely  con- 
vergent, so  is  22/„,  and  the  sums  of  these  two  series  are 
the  same  ;  it  is  this  property,  really,  that  makes  abso- 
lutely convergent  series  so  easy  to  work  with.  Properly 
speaking,  a  series  is  distinct  from  its  permutations  ;  but 
in  the  case  of  an  absolutely  converging  series  this  dis- 
tinction may  be  ignored.  It  is  a  remarkable  fact  that  a 
series  and  one  of  its  permutations  may  both  converge  and 
have  different  sums.  It  is  rather  unfortunate  that  the 
phrase  "changing  the  order  of  the  terms  in  a  series"  is 
still  used  ;  it  is  certainly  best  to  regard  a  series  as 
defined,  not  merely  by  its  terms,  but  by  the  order  in 
which  they  are  written. 

After  discussing  this  arithmetical  theory,  M.  Godefroy 
proceeds  to  the  next  simplest  case,  when  the  terms  of  the 
series  are  functions  of  a  variable  x  which  is  supposed  to 
assume  numerical  values.  Here  the  distinction  between 
uniform  and  non-uniform  convergence  appears,  a  dis- 
tinction first  emphasised  by  Stokes  and  Seidel.  In  the 
sequence  (j„)  derived  from  a  convergent  series  of  this 
kind,  the  index  n  for  which  j„  first  differs  from  the  sum 
of  the  series  by  less  than  an  assigned  quantity  h  is,  in 
general,  a  function  of  x  as  well  as  of  -*  ;  so  that  for  par- 
ticular values  of  x  and  their  immediate  neighbourhood 
n  may  be  enormously  large  even  for  values  of  h  which, 
though  small,  are  not  infinitesimal ;  accordingly  the 
NO.    1753,  VOL    68] 


series  is  no  longer  available  for  practical  calculation. 
At  such  places  the  convergence  ceases  to  be  uniform  ; 
the  convergence  is  uniform  wherever  it  is  possible  to- 
assign,  in  terms  of  h  but  not  of  .r,  a  value  of  n  for 
which  I  J„  -  -y  I  <  h. 

Of  course,  the  most  important  series  of  this  class  are 
power-series,  and  in  his  third  chapter  M.  Godefroy  deals 
with  them  at  some  length.  On  pp.  67-69  he  gives 
Dirichlet's  proof  of  Abel's  fundamental  theorem  that 
when  a  power-series  is  convergent  its  value  at  the 
boundary  of  its  circle  of  convergence  is  the  lim.it  of  its 
value  as  x  approaches  the  boundary.  To  learn  to  appre- 
ciate the  necessity  for  proving  this  theorem  is  a  good 
exercise  for  the  mathematical  student  ;  it  looks  sa 
obvious  and  is  yet  so  far  from  being  a  truism. 

The  remaining  three  chapters  are  on  the  exponential 
function,  the  circular  functions,  and  the  gamma-function 
respectively.  The  noteworthy  features  are  that  sin  Xy 
cos  X  are  defined  by  power-series,  that  the  transcendence 
of  e  is  demonstrated,  and  that  the  properties  of  the 
gamma-function  are  deduced,  after  the  manner  of  Gauss» 
from  the  product  n  («,;r).  M.  Godefroy  points  out  that 
Weierstrass's  formula 


was  explicitly  given  in  1848  by  F.  W.  Newman  {Camb^ 
and  Dubl.  Math.  Journ.^  vol.  iii.  p.  59). 

The  final  chapter  is  the  one  which  presents  most 
novelty  in  the  shape  of  actual  results  ;  thus,  besides  the 
series  of  Stirling,  we  have  various  interesting  formulae 
due  to  Prym,  Hermite  and  others.  But  M.  Godefroy's 
style  and  method  will  attract  the  reader's  attention 
throughout  ;  he  combines  simplicity  with  rigour,  and  is 
neither  dry  nor  diffuse.  His  work  is  one  which  may  be 
cordially  recommended,  especially  to  mathematical 
students  ;  not  the  least  of  its  merits  is  its  excellent 
bibliography,  which  is  just  what  a  treatise  of  this  sort 
should  contain. 

M.  Godefroy  does  not  explicitly  introduce  the  complex 
variable,  but  it  is  easy  to  complete  the  chapter  on  power- 
series  so  as  to  make  its  results  apply  when  x  is  complex. 
Thus  we  have,  on  the  whole,  a  discussion,  with  illustra- 
tions, of  numerical  series,  and  of  power-series  which 
define  functions  of  a  variable  within  a  circle  of  con- 
vergence. 

Incidentally,  we  have  examples  of  two  other  kinds  of 
series.  Stirling's  formula  is  the  classical  example  of  a 
series  which  does  not  define  a  function,  but  which,  while 
ultimately  divergent,  serves  to  calculate  the  numerical 
value  of  a  function  very  exactly  for  any  sufficiently  large 
value  oi X.  Such  asymptotic  series  have  been  recently 
studied  by  Poincard,  Borel  and  others,  and  their  properties- 
are  no  longer  a  mystery. 

Again,  Lambert's  series 

X  X^  X" 

l.X    +    l-X^+    ■•    -^    i-xn+'-- 

is  an  example  of  a  series  which  serves  for  enumeration. 
If  each  term  is  expanded  in  powers  of  x,  and  the  result 
collected,  we  get  2\//'(«).i",  where  •^(«)  is  the  number  of 
ways  of  solving  n  =  8B'  with  integral  values  of  8,  8',  the 
order  of  8,  8'  being  taken  into  account  except  when  they 
are    equal.     Thus   yj^(n)  =  2   when   n   is   prime,  but   not 

F 


98 


NATURE 


[June  4,  1903 


otherwise.     So  long  as    |a-|  <i,  Lambert's  series  de- 
nes a  function  of  ;t: ;  calling  this/(jr),  a  prime  number  t 
is  distinguished  by  the  fact  that  it  makes 

D,P(A-)  =  2p[p  !) 

when  x=o.  There  are  many  remarkable  instances  of 
arithmetical  truths  derived  by  constructing  an  enumer- 
ative  series  (purely  symbolical,  in  the  first  instance)  and 
then  investigating  its  properties  as  a  function  of  ;tr.  Ulti- 
mately, of  course,  the  results  obtained  must  depend  upon 
purely  arithmetical  considerations  ;  but  transcendental 
analysis  supplies,  in  such  cases,  a  kind  of  machine,  by 
which,  with  slight  effort,  theorems  are  verified,  or  even 
suggested,  although  the  proof  of  them  by  strictly  arith- 
metical methods  may  be  very  difficult.  Whether 
Lambert's  series  can  be  used  in  this  way  to  simplify  the 
problem  of  the  frequency  of  primes  still  remains  an  open 
question.  G.  B.  M. 


A    PLEA    FOR    INTERACTION. 

Geist  und  Korper,  Seele  und  Leib.  Von  Ludwig 
Busse.  Pp.  x  +  488.  (Leipzig  :  Verlag  der  Diirr'schen 
Buchhandlung,  1903.)     Price  8.50  marks. 

IN  this  book  the  author  aims  at  finally  establishing  a 
doctrine  of  "interaction."  Previous  expositions 
in  less  comprehensive  form  have  already  been  criticised 
by  eminent  writers ;  to  these  objections  the  author  now 
replies.  The  result  is  a  veritable  encyclopaedia  of 
views  on  this  question ;  authors  of  all  nationalities  are 
here  cited  to  defend  themselves  against  criticisms 
which  are  throughout  shrewd  and  relevant.  In  the 
mass  of  material  the  author's  particular  theory  is 
apt  to  be  obscured;  a  strictly  methodical  procedure 
has  to  some  extent  obviated  this  defect.  After  a 
refutation  of  materialism,  adequate  for  Its  purpose 
as  entrde,  we  come  to  the  piece  de  rdsistance,  entitled 
"Parallelism  or  Interaction?"  Here  parallelism  is 
discussed  under  the  heads  modality  (Is  parallelism  a 
metaphysical  doctrine  or  merely  a  hypothesis?),  quan- 
tity (must  It  be  partial  or  complete?),  and  quality 
{materialistic,  realistic-monistic,  idealistic-monistic, 
and  duallstic  forms).  From  this  catalogue  there 
finally  emerge  as  "  valid  forms  "  only  the  complete, 
the  realistic-monistic,  the  idealistic-monistic,  and  the 
duallstic  forms.  The  method  of  criticism  employed 
is  called  by  the  author  "immanent."  Internal  dis- 
sensions reduce  the  various  doctrines  to  the  vanishing 
point;  those  alone  survive  which  do  not  contain  in 
themselves  any  elements  contradictory  to  parallelism. 
The  crucial  point  comes  when  the  idealistic-monistic 
form  is  discussed.  The  author  holds  an  idealistic- 
spiritualistic  doctrine,  and  is  therefore  concerned  to 
show  that  this  does  not  necessitate  parallelism,  that 
interaction  is  not  only  possible,  but  preferable.  He 
relies  mainly  on  the  unity  of  consciousness,  and  the 
necessity  of  including  activity  as  subjectively  known 
in  our  view  of  the  Whole.  The  arguments  against 
*'  conservation  of  energy,"  "  continuity,"  and  natural- 
istic positions  in  general  are  then  brought  forward. 
The  author  is  emphatically  opposed  to  any  com- 
promises. Between  mind  and  matter  the  break  is  abso- 
NO.    1753,  VOL    68] 


lute;  activity  without  expenditure  of  energy,  the  ex- 
tension downwards  to  the  unconscious  or  to  quelque 
chose  d'analogique — In  short,  compromise  of  all  kind 
is  rejected.  Philosophy  must  here  take  its  stand  upon 
experience,  and  claim  that  interaction  alone  does  justice 
to  the  facts.  The  rejection  of  a  preestabllshed  har- 
mony makes  It  necessary  to  assert  that  ultimately  we 
must  formulate  any  given  series  of  events,  not  as  one 
or  as  two  homogeneous  series,  either  physical  (as 
a  b  c  .  .  .)  or  psychical  (0/87..),  but  as  a  com- 
pound series  of  the  form  a  P  c  S,  &c.  Similarly  the 
rejection  of  any  development  of  mind  from  lower 
elements' Is  followed  by  the  conclusion  (after  Lotze) 
that  It  supervenes  on  a  certain  development  of  "  Zellen- 
gruppe. "  It  follows  that  so  far  as  interaction  is  con- 
cerned we  must  assert  a  dualism ;  the  two  systems 
which  interact  must  be  kept  distinct;  the  ultimate 
unity  Is  not  to  be  found  In  their  nature,  but  in  the  fact 
of  their  Interaction ;  we  have  not  to  piece  together  the 
world,  but  to  accept  its  living  unity. 

Clearly  such  a  theory  claims  attention  more  for  the 
consequences  to  which  It  looks  than  for  the  advantages 
It  attains.  So  far  we  must  regard  the  Weltans- 
chauung of  the  closing  section  as  much  more  than 
a  "  dessert."  Here  there  appears  an  "  AU-Geist,"  and 
with  it  new  possibilities;  unfortunately  the  binder 
omitted  some  pages  here,  and  criticism  must  therefore 
turn  upon  him  rather  than  upon  the  author.  As  an 
exposition  of  how  experience  may  be  treated  in  the 
interests  of  a  Weltanschauung,  we  have  here  an  admir- 
able discussion.  Much  of  It  Is  common  property  among 
writers  on  the  philosophy  of  psychology.  But  refuta- 
tion has  before  now  proved  a  two-edged  sword,  and 
on  the  crucial  points,  the  subjects  of  activity  and  of 
development,  the  author  seems  to  glide  from  proof 
(o  assertion.  The  Idealistic  treatment  of  the  two 
factors  said  to  interact  presumably  forms  the  ground 
of  a  final  unity;  the  question  "  how  "  Is  more  easily 
solved  ambulando  than  cogitando.  It  seems  to  re- 
quire more  than  the  author's  theory  of  Thing-monads 
and  Soul-monads — more  even  than  the  binder  can  have 
omitted.  G.  S.  B. 


THE    NEW    ENCYCLOPEDIA. 
Encyclopaedia  Britannica.     Vol.  xxxi.     New  volumes. 
Vol.  vil.     Mos— Pre.     (London  :  A.  and  C.  Black ; 
and  the  Times  Office,  1902.) 

THE  prominence  given  to  scientific  subjects  in  the 
seventh. of  the  new  volumes  of  what  has  long  been 
regarded  as  our  national  encyclopaedia  serves  in  a 
measure  to  indicate  how  large  a  part  the  work  of  men 
of  science  has  taken  in  the  increase  of  knowledge 
during  the  last  quarter  of  a  century.  Among  articles 
of  prominent  importance  in  this  volume,  so  far  as  the 
student  of  science  is  concerned,  are  those  dealing  with 
palaeobotany,  pathology,  and  physiology,  though  there 
are  many  other  articles  of  a  less  exhaustive  kind  deal- 
ing with  problems  of  great  scientific  interest.  Techno- 
logical questions  receive  due  attention,  and  are  repre- 
sented, among  others,  by  essays  on  navies,-  ordnance, 
paper  manufacture,  petroleum,  photography,  and  elec- 


June  4,  1903] 


NATURE 


99 


trie,  hydraulic,  and  pneumatic  power  transmission. 
Students  of  geography  and  history  are  provided  with 
an  abundance  of  material,  including  the  latest  statistics 
referring  to  the  chief  countries  of  the  world  the  names 
of  which  fall  alphabetically  between  Natal  and  Portu- 
gal, besides  an  elaborate  account  of  the  polar  regions, 
and  an  able  review  of  the  present  state  of  our  know- 
ledge of  oceanography.  Mathematicians  will  find  the 
article  on  "  Number  "  both  interesting  and  original, 
and  readers  who  prefer  biographical  studies  will  meet 
with  appreciative  estimates  of  the  lives  of  such  cele- 
brities as  Owen,  Paget,  and  Pasteur,  to  name  only 
three. 

But  no  mere  mention  of  a  few  of  the  contents  can 
serve  more  than  to  give  a  vague  idea  of  the  variety  of 
valuable  material  brought  together  in  this  volume,  and 
the  space  available  makes  it  possible  to  refer  only  to 
a  few  of  the  chief  contributions. 

The  prefatory  essay  of  this  volume — and  it  must  be 
remembered  that  these  essays  are  a  distinguishing 
characteristic  of  this  new  edition — is  by  Mr.  Frederick 
Greenwood,  and  deals  with  the  influence  of  commerce 
on  international  conflict.  In  this  scholarly  presenta- 
tion of  an  important  problem,  Mr.  Greenwood  shows 
how  the  growth  of  commerce  has  given  rise  in  recent 
times  to  dreams  of  the  extinction  of  war.  He  goes  on  to 
explain,  however,  how  war  became  later  to  be  regarded 
as  a  trade  weapon  and  an  instrument  for  tne  provision 
of  new  markets ;  and  as  the  discoveries  of  men  of 
science  have  placed  resources  for  the  destruction  of  men 
at  the  disposal  of  the  armies  of  the  world  so  terrible 
in  their  efficiency  that,  to  ensure  any  chance  of  success 
in  a  war  between  great  Powers,  each  of  them  must 
have  armies  so  large  and  so  expensively  equipped  as  to 
lead  to  a  growing  likelihood  of  war  becoming  so  dread- 
ful and  so  costly  that  it  wouM  not  be  endured.  Yet 
notwithstanding  the  horror  and  brevity  of  modern 
battles,  humanity  still  seems  able  to  bear  the  excess, 
and  militarism  flourishes. 

Of  another  factor  influencing  the  industrial  com- 
petition of  the  nations  Mr.  Greenwood  takes  no  notice, 
and  that  is  the  increased  attention  being  paid  by  the 
leading  nations  to  the  higher  education  of  their  manu- 
facturers and  merchants.  The  combined  efforts  of 
armies  and  nations  are  not  enough  to  secure  commer- 
cial supremacy.  A  nation  must,  in  addition,  provide 
a  sufficient  number  of  institutions  of  higher  education 
to  secure  opportunities  for  its  citizens  to  become  con- 
versant with  modern  scientific  knowledge,  able  to  apply 
the  principles  of  science  to  modern  industrial  prob- 
lems, and  to  extend  the  bounds  of  science  into  the  un- 
known. The  volume  itself  does  not,  we  find,  ignore  the 
importance  of  higher  technical  education,  for  in  addi- 
tion to  articles  with  a  less  direct  bearing  on  the  subject, 
an  essay  on  polytechnics  by  Sir  Joshua  Fitch  is  in- 
cluded. The  subject  does  not  appear  to  have  been 
allotted  the  amount  of  space  its  importance  merited, 
and  the  consequence  is  that  metropolitan  polytechnics 
are  alone  described.  It  is  a  pity  that  the  opportunity 
could  not  have  been  taken  to  familiarise  British  readers 
with  the  complete  and  lavish  provision  of  institutions 
abroad  corresponding  to  these  polytechnics.  The  com- 
parison to  which  such  an  article  must  have  given  rise 
NO.  1753,  VOL.  68] 


would  have  shown  England's  lamentable  deficiency  and 
the  low  position  she  must  be  assigned  when  the  sacri- 
fices made  by  the  leading  peoples  for  the  establishment 
of  institutions  of  the  higher  learning  are  passed  in 
review. 


BIO-CKEMISTRY . 
The  Chemical  Changes  and  Products  Resulting  from 
Fermentations.       By  R.   H.  Aders  Plimmer.       Pp. 
vi+184.     (London:     Longmans     and     Co.,     1903.) 
Price  65.  net. 

THE  number  of  chemists  who  are  interested  in  bio- 
logical problems  is  now  gradually  on  the  in- 
crease, whilst,  on  the  other  hand,  the  biologist  realises 
the  importance  of  a  further  investigation  of  the 
chemical  changes  concomitant  with  life.  In  these 
circumstances,  the  book  of  Dr.  Aders  Plimmer  cannot 
fail  to  be  particularly  welcome,  and  the  perusal  of 
this  admirable  rdsumd  of  the  work  in  the  borderland 
between  biology  and  chemistry  will  indicate  to  the 
reader  how  much  has  been  done  and  how  much  still 
remains  to  be  done  in  this  most  difficult,  field  of  re- 
search. 

Under  his  treatment  of  polysaccharides  the  author 
gives  a  succinct  account  of  the  chemistry  of  starch,  and 
then  proceeds  to  discuss  the  changes  undergone  by 
monosaccharides  and  glucosides.  In  this  connection 
due  prominence  is  given  to  the  recent  important  ob- 
servations of  Croft  Hill,  Emmerling  and  E.  Fischer 
and  E.  F.  Armstrong  on  reversible  ferment  action. 
In  the  chapter  on  changes  in  esters  reference 
is  made  to  the  work  on  lipase,  where  Kastle 
concludes  that  ferments  do  not  act  on  substances 
which  can  be  electrolytically  dissociated.  It 
should  be  noted,  however,  that  Slimmer  has  subse- 
quently pointed  out  that  this  view  cannot  be  main- 
tained, since  glucovanillic  acid  and  other  electrolytes 
are  attacked  by  emulsin.  Other  chapters  include 
changes  in  urea  and  uric  acid,  blood,  albumins,  and 
changes  occurring  as  a  result  of  oxidation  and  reduc- 
tion. Nitrification  and  denitrification  are  also  con- 
sidered, and  the  volume  is  completed  by  an  account 
of  the  changes  occurring  as  the  result  of  putrefaction. 

It  is  pointed  out  in  connection  with  lactic  acid  pro- 
duction by  microorganisms  that  the  usual  product  is 
the  inactive  acid,  but  that  one  of  the  pure  optically 
active  forms  may  sometimes  be  obtained.  In  this 
latter  case  the  author  is  apparently  of  the  view  that 
the  inactive  acid  is  first  of  all  formed  and  then  con- 
verted into  the  one  active  form  by  the  selective  action 
of  the  organism.  Experimental  evidence,  however,, 
seems  to  show  that,  if  the  action  were  of  this  nature, 
the  resulting  product  would  not  be  the  pure  active  acid. 
but  rather  a  mixture  of  inactive  and  active  acids. 
Frankland's  resolution  of  i-glyceric  acid,  where  the  one 
active  constituent  is  attacked  by  Bacillus  ethaceticus 
and  the  other  apparently  remains  untouched,  is  alto- 
gether exceptional.  In  those  cases,  however,  where 
the  lactic  acid  obtained  is  optically  active,  but  is  mixed 
with  some  of  the  inactive  form  (as  in  Harden 's  experi- 
ments on  the  action  of  Bacillus  coli  communis  oa 
d-glucose,    &c.),    the    possibility    of    the    intermediate 


lOO 


NATURE 


[June  4.  1903 


formation  and  subsequent  partial  resolution  of  inactive 
acid  may  be  maintained.  In  the  discussion  of 
Harden 's  results  (p.  69),  it  is  not  clear  why  the  lactic 
acid  formed  should  be  optically  active  at  all ;  from  the 
description  given  it  appears  that  the  asymmetry  of 
the  molecule  must  disappear  altogether. 

Dr.  Plimmer  points  out  that  many  of  the  changes 
caused  by  living  organisms  may  possibly  be  due  to 
enzyme  action.  In  addition  to  his  experiments  with 
zymase,  Buchner  has  lately  submitted  further  experi- 
mental evidence  in  favour  of  this  conception,  since,  con- 
jointly with  Meisenheimer,  he  has  proved  that  from 
Bacillus  acidificans  longissimus  an  enzyme  may  be 
prepared  which  converts  cane  sugar  into  lactic  acid. 
The  same  investigators  have  also  shown  that  the  con- 
version of  ethyl  alcohol  into  acetic  acid  may  be  accom- 
plished by  an  enzyme  which  they  obtained  from 
vinegar  bacteria. 

Buchner's  work  on  zymase  surely  merits  more  than 
the  few  lines  which  the  author  devotes  to  it,  especially 
since  space  is  found  for  an  account  of  many  discoveries 
which  are  of  much  less  fundamental  importance. 
Reference  might  also  have  been  made  to  Bredig's  ex- 
periments on  inorganic  ferments.  Further,  one  can- 
not help  regretting  that  a  brief  account  of  Emil 
Fischer's  work  on  the  decomposition  products  of 
albuminoids  is  not  incorporated  in  the  volume.  Those 
are,  however,  minor  objections.  British  workers  in 
different  sciences  will  appreciate  Dr.  Plimmer's 
account  of  biochemistry.  A.  McK. 


OUR    BOOK    SHELF. 
Metallurgical  Laboratory  Notes.     By  Henry  M.  Howe, 
Professor    of    Metallurgy    in    Columbia    University. 
Pp.     xiv-i-140.       (Boston:     The     Boston     Testing 
Laboratories,  1902.) 

The  time  has  passed  when  practical  teaching  in  metal- 
lurgy was  a  synonym  for  little  more  than  a  course  of 
exercises  in  assaying.  No  one  recognised  this  sooner 
and  more  fully  than  Prof.  Howe,  and  his  students  now 
devote  much  of  their  time  in  the  laboratory  to  carrying 
out  experiments  illustrating  the  principles  which 
underlie  the  various  processes  of  the  treatment  of  ores 
and  metals  in  works.  This  little  volume  contains  a 
description  of  ninety-one  such  experiments  of  both 
educational  and  instructive  value,  and  constitutes  the 
first  attempt  to  embody  the  new  methods  in  book  form. 
The  author  expresses  in  the  preface  his  feeling  that  the 
series  of  experiments  now  published  is  incomplete  and 
shows  a  lack  of  balance,  and  probably  many  metal- 
lurgists will  find  themselves  constrained  to  agree  with 
him.  Those  teachers  who  are  convinced  that  ore  treat- 
ment is  still  by  far  the  most  important  branch  of  the 
subject  may  object  to  a  system  in  which  the  majority 
of  the  experiments  are  directed  to  the  study  of  the 
treatment  and  properties  of  metals.  Even  the  methods 
will  not  command  universal  approval  in  this  country, 
where  students  are  encouraged  to  learn  to  overcome 
the  difficulties  occasioned  by  the  use  of  indifferent 
implements  on  the  grounds  that  they  will  be  better 
fitted  by  such  training  to  deal  with,  the  more  serious 
difficulties  unavoidably  encountered  in  the  industries. 
The  smoothing  away  of  obstacles,  and  the  reduction 
to  a  minimum  of  the  practice  in  manipulation,  have 
been  characterised  as  "  spoonmeat  methods."  It  must 
NO.    1753,  VOL.  68] 


be  admitted,  however,  that  these  views  are  likely  to  be 
held  most  firmly  by  the  professors  who  are  least 
adequately  supplied  with  laboratory  equipment.  Prof. 
Howe  considers  that  in  proportion  as  less  time  is  de- 
voted to  details  of  maijipulation,  more  leisure  is  avail- 
able to  the  student  for*'  the  unwelcome  task  of  think- 
ing," than  which  nothing  could  be  more  important. 
Perhaps  it  might  be  argued  that  practice  in  manipula- 
tion would  make  the  best  laboratory  workers,  and  that 
practice  in  thinking  would  assist  in  turning  out  the 
best  general  managers.  The  book  is  extremely  wel- 
come, and  breaks  ground  that  must  soon  be  assiduously 
cultivated.  It  will  be  carefully  studied  by  all  who 
have  the  improvement  in  the  training  of  metallurgists 
at  heart.  T.  K.  R. 

Nature  Studies  in  Australia.  By  W.  Gillies  and  K. 
Hall.  Pp.  v  +  299.  (Melbourne  and  London  :  Vv  11- 1- 
combe  and  Tombs,  Ltd.,  n.d.)     Price  2s. 

The  recognition  of  the  importance  of  "  nature-study," 
if  we  are  to  know  anything  really  worth  knowing  about 
animals  and  plants,  in  Australia  is  a  satisfactory  sign  of 
the  times,  and  an  indication  that  throughout  the  world 
the  old-fashioned  ways  of  teaching  are  to  be  abolished, 
and  also  that  the  days  of  mere  section-cutting  and  skin- 
describing  are  numbered.  The  greater  part  of  the  pre- 
sent little  volume  is  devoted  to  birds  (mammals  oeing 
left  out),  of  the  life-histories  of  which  Mr.  R.  Hall  has 
for  many  years  been  an  enthusiastic  student,  and  we 
must  congratulate  both  authors  on  the  mass  of  interest- 
ing information  they  have  concentrated  into  such  a 
small  space  with  regard  to  a  number  of  characteristic 
Australian  species.  The  majority  of  the  numerous 
illustrations  are  the  results  of  the  authors'  own  cameras, 
and,  although  necessarily  on  a  small  scale,  they  are,  for 
the  most  part,  excellent  examples  of  bird-photography. 
One  great  advantage  possessed  by  the  authors  is  that 
their  subject  has  a  freshness  which  cannot  be  claimed 
for  descriptions  of  British  bird-life,  and  this  gives  a 
charm  to  their  work  which  stay-at-home  writers  must 
find  it  difficult  to  equal.  We  must  confess,  however, 
to  a  feeling  of  dissatisfaction  at  the  use  of  names  like 
"  lunulated  honey-eaters  "  for  certain  of  the  species, 
which  are  certainly  not  examples  of  "  nature-teach- 
ing," and  we  are  by  no  means  sure  that  we  quite  like 
the  "  pupil  and  teacher  "  style  on  which  the  work  is 
planned — it  savours  a  little  too  much  of  "  Sandford  and 
Merton." 

One  fact  appears  of  more  than  usual  interest.  It  is 
commonly  stated  in  ornithological  works  that  every 
species  of  migratory  bird  breeds  in  the  most  northern 
portion  of  its  range.  According,  however,  to  the 
authors,  at  least  one  Australian  bird — the  double- 
banded  or  sand  dotterel-^goes  south  to  breed,  travel- 
ling to  the  south  of  New  Zealand,  "  that  is  to  say,  as 
far  towards  Antarctica  as  it  can  now  get." 

Space,  we  regret  to  say,  prevents  our  going  deeper 
into  the  contents  of  the  work  before  us,  the  latter 
portion  of  which  is  devoted  to  the  lower  vertebrates 
and  invertebrates.  We  can,  however,  safelv  recom- 
mend it  to  the  best  attention  of  teachers  of  nature- 
study,  if  only  for  the  fact  that  a  book  written  on  the 
spot  is  worth  a  dozen  compilations  made  elsewhere. 
The  price  renders  it  within  the  reach  of  all.        R.  L. 

Considerazioni  agrarie  sul  Piano  di  Capitanata.     By 

Dr.  Nestore  Petrilli.  Pp.  87.  (Naples,  1902.) 
This  work  consists  of  a  monograph  upon  the  agri- 
cultural conditions  which  prevail  in  the  great  plain  of 
the  Capitanata,  constituting  the  northern  part  of 
Apulia.  Such  monographs,  which  are  regularly  pro- 
duced upon  "the  Continent,   and  provide  great  assist- 


June  4,  1903] 


NATURE 


lOI 


ance  to  the  statesman  wishing  to  get  a  sound  idea  of 
the  state  of  an  industry  subject  to  such  local  variations 
as  agriculture,  seem  to  have  dropped  out  of  favour 
in  this  country ;  to  parallel  them  we  must  go  back  fifty 
years  to  the  prize  reports  on  the  farming  of  the  various 
counties  which  used  to  be  a  feature  of  the  earlier 
numbers  of  the  Journal  of  1^  Royal  Agricultural 
Society. 

The  Tavoliere  di  Capitanata  is  a  dry  flat  plain  with 
an  annual  rainfall  of  only  eighteen  inches,  and  a  mean 
temperature  of  more  than  60°  F.  ;  the  prevailing  cal- 
careous subsoil  results  in  there  being  but  little  surface 
water,  while  the  few  rivers  descending  from  the 
Apennines  are  torrential  in  their  nature,  and  in  con- 
sequence have  formed  a  considerable  area  of  marsh. 
The  agriculture  of  the  district  is  of  a  primitive 
character,  much  of  it  is  pastoral,  this  being  one  of  the 
sheep-producing  districts  of  Italy;  the  cultivated  land 
is  farmed  on  a  kind  of  four-course  rotation  of  hard 
wheat  (macaroni  wheat),  wheat,  oats  and  fallow,  and 
on  the  poorer  land  an  even  simpler  rotation  of  wheat 
or  oats  and  fallow  alternately  is  practised.  A  certain 
acreage  is  also  occupied  by  vines  and  olives. 

The  author,  after  a  preliminary  discussion  of  the 
meteorological  conditions,  geology,  &c.,  of  the  dis- 
trict, proceeds  to  describe  the  system  of  management 
which  prevails,  and  sets  out  in' detail  the  cost  of  the 
various  operations,  rates  of  wages,  and  gross  returns 
as  regards  sheep,  wheat  and  vines.  As  a  means  of 
improving  the  condition  of  agriculture  he  lays  stress 
on  the  introduction  of  forage  crops,  such  as  temporary 
pastures,  sainfoin  and  lucerne,  instead  of  the  present 
primitive  and  exhausting  alternation  of  cereals  and 
fallow. 


The  Stellar  Heavens.  By  Ellard  Gore.  Pp.  xxxii  + 
128.  (London  :  Chatto  and  Windus,  1903.)  Price 
25.  net. 

The  author  has  brought  together  in  a  small  compass  a 
list  of  the  more  prominent  objects  in  the  heavens  for 
the  use  of  possessors  of  small  telescopes.  The  list  is 
accompanied  also  by  brief  historical  and  introductory 
information  applicable  to  each  class  of  object  treated. 
There  are  five  chapters  in  all,  and  these  are  devoted  to 
the  following  subjects  :— Stars,  double,  multiple  and 
binary  stars,  variable  stars,  star-clusters  and  nebulae, 
and  the  stellar  universe.  In  the  first  of  these  a  brief 
account,  among  other  topics,  is  given  of  the  classifica- 
tions of  stellar  spectra,  but  unfortunately  the  reader 
is  not  told  that  Vogel's  classification  is  based  on  the 
assumption  that  all  stars  are  decreasing  in  tempera- 
ture, while  a  natural  and  more  recent  classification, 
dividing  the  stars  into  groups  in  which  they  are  in- 
creasing or  decreasing  their  temperature,  is  altogether 
omitted. 

The  paragraph  devoted  to  the  explanation  of  tem- 
porary or  new  stars  is  needlessly  brief  considering  the 
number  of  views  expressed  on  this  important  subject. 
On  the  other  hand,  an  excellent  account  is  given  of 
the  methods  of  observing  the  brighter  variable  stars 
which  are  in  the  reach  of  amateurs,  and  it  is  hoped 
that  this  interesting  branch  of  astronomy,  one  specially 
suitable  for  those  who  have  only  opera  glasses  at  their 
service,   will  be  taken   up  more  generally. 

The  volume  will,  however,  be  a  very  useful  help 
for  directing  the  observer's  attention  to  the  various 
more  conspicuous  objects  in  the  sky,  and  although  it 
does  not  pretend  to  take  the  place  of  that  well-known 
friend  of  amateurs,  namely,  Webb's  "  Celestial  Objects 
for  Common  Telescopes,"  it  will  prove  a  serviceable 
guide.  The  only  erratum  found  was  the  misspelling 
of  the  name  of  Klinkerfues  on  p.  23,  although  the 
name  is  indexed  correctlv. 


Departmental  Notes  on  Insects  that  Affect  Forestry. 
By  E.  P  Stebbing,  F.L.S.,  F.E.S.,  Forest  Ento- 
mologist under  the  Government  ot  India.  No.  2. 
Pp.  vii+ 151-334;  plates  vii-xix.  (Calcutta,  1903.) 
The  importance  of  economic  entomology  is  now  fully 
recognised  by  the  Indian  Government,  and  the  publica- 
tion before  us  is  devoted  chiefly  to  Scolytidae  and  other 
beetles  injurious  to  the  bark  and  leaves  of  trees,  and 
to  their,  parasites;  a  few  moths  and  scale-insects  are 
also  noticed.  Each  species  occupies  several  pages,  and 
is  fully  dealt  with  under  various  headings,  the  most 
important  being  description,  life-history,  relations  to 
the  forest,  points  in  the  life-history  requiring  further 
observation  (an  extremely  important  matter),  protection 
and  remedies,  localities,  parasites,  fungi,  &c.  Several 
species  are  referred  to  under  their  generic  names  only, 
but  this  will  not  render  their  identification  a  matter  of 
any  great  difficulty.  The  illustrations  are  fairly  good, 
and  many  of  them  are  devoted  to  galleries  of  Scoly- 
tidae and'  to  different  portions  of  trees  attacked  by 
insects.  The  illustrations  of  the  Coccid,  Monophlebus 
Stehbingi,  Green,  on  plate  14  are  very  interesting. 
We  are  sorry  that  Mr.  Stebbing  has  overlooked  the 
necessity  for  adding  the  author's  name  to  every  de- 
scribed species  mentioned  ;  it  is  done  in  some  cases,  but 
is  frequently  omitted,  and  many  of  the  species  described 
have  "  M.S."  appended  to  their  names.  We  presume 
that  these  are  names  published  for  the  first  time  by  Mr. 
Stebbing  himself,  in  which  case  he  should  either  have 
added  his  own  name   or  else  "  n.  sp." 

We  are  glad  to  notice  the  increase  of  well-illustrated 
publications  on  economic  entomology,  for  their  value 
is  considerable,  both  from  a  practical  and  from  a 
scientific  point  of  view. 

Analytical    Chemistry.     By    F.    P.    Treadvi-ell,    Ph.D. 

Translated    from    the    second    German    Edition    by 

W.     T.     Hall,     S.B.     Pp.     xi  +  466.     (New     York: 

Wiley  and  Sons;  London  :  Chapman  and  Hall,  Ltd., 

1903.)  Price  3  dollars. 
The  text-book  is  compiled  from  lectures  delivered  by 
the  author  at  the  Polytechnic  Institute  at  Zurich.  The 
matter  is,  as  one  might  expect,  very  largely  explan- 
atory of  the  various  reactions,  that  is  to  say,  it  is  a 
book  to  be  studied  rather  outside  than  in  the  labor- 
atory. From  this  point  of  view  it  doubtless  serves 
a  useful  purpose,  for  every  reaction  is  clearly  described 
and  illustrated  by  an  appropriate  equation. 

One  may  doubt  sometimes  the  expediency  of  simpli- 
fying all  analytical  operations  on  paper  in  this  way, 
but,  provided  practical  experience  is  added  as  a 
corrective,  the  value  of  an  equation  as  a  general  guide 
to  a  reaction  can  do  no  harm. 

The  book  is  written  in  a  thoroughly  scientific  spirit 
— not  a  common  characteristic  of  books  on  this  subject 
— and  the  author  is  conversant  with  the  modern  theory 
of  analytical  chemistry,  to  which  reference  is  frequently 
made. 

Seeing  that  prominence  is  given  to  minerals  in 
which  the  different  elements  occur,  one  misses  the 
refinements  of  blowpipe  analysis  which  Plattner  and 
Richter  did  so  much  to  develop.  Possibly  this  might 
have  made  the  voluiVie  too  bulky.  As  it  is,  the  in- 
formation seems  .  accurate  and  complete.  There  are 
plenty  of  tables  of  separation,  and  there  is  a  section  at 
the  end  devoted  to  the  rarer  elements.  The  book  is 
printed  on  good  paper  in  clear  type,  and  is  bound  in 
a  substantial  cover.  Altogether  the  external  appear- 
ance, for  a  work  on  qualitative  analysis,  produces  a 
very  favourable  impression.  The  translator  has  done 
his  work  well.  Whether  this  justifies  the  prominence 
given  to  his  name  on  the  back  can  scarcely  be  decided 
bv  the  reviewer.  J.  B.  C 


NO-    '753.  VOL.  68] 


[02 


NATURE 


[June  4,  1903 


LETTERS    TO    THE    EDITOR. 

[The  Editor  does  not  hold  himself  responsible  for  opinions 
expressed  by  his  correspondents.  Neither  can  he  undertake 
to  return,  or  to  correspond  with  the  writers  of,  rejected 
manuscripts  intended  for  this  or  any  other  part  of  Nature. 
No  notice  is  taken  of  anonymous  communications.] 

Coleridge's  Theory  of  Life. 

The  old  subject  of  the  nature  of  the  vital  force  or  vitality 
having  lately  been  under  discussion,  allow  me  to  remind 
some  of  your  readers  that  Coleridge  did  not  hesitate  to 
enforce  his  opinion  that  it  came  into  the  domain  of  the 
scientific  inquirer,  and  appertained  to  the  other  forces  in 
nature.  I  cannot  express  an  opinion  on  his  theories  of  the 
nature  of  life,  but  his  holding  them  in  any  tangible  form 
has  had  great  weight  with  some  persons,  in  consequence 
of  his  being  an  orthodox  Christian,  belonging  to  what  is 
called  the  religious  world,  yet  he  considered  that  the  nature 
of  life  was  open  to  investigation  like  any  other  natural 
phenomenon. 

I  may  be  allowed  to  quote  a  few  passages  for  the  inform- 
ation of  those  who  are  not  familiar  with  his  essay  on  the 
"Theory  of  Life."  Coleridge's  idea  was  that  physical 
life  is  a  process  or  mode  of  operation,  as  we  recognise  under 
such  names  as  magnetism  chemical  affinity,  for  these,  he 
says,  by  their  own  properties  affect  all  the  results  observed 
in  liiFe.  "  Life  supposes  a  universal  principle  in  nature  with 
a  limiting  power  in  every  particular  animal,  constantly  act- 
ing to  individualize  and  as  it  were  figure  the  former. 
Thus  then  life  is  not  a  thing — a  subsistent  hypostasis — but 
an  act  and  process."  "  To  account  for  Life  is  one  thing,  to 
explain  Life  another.  To  a  reflecting  mind  indeed,  the  very 
fact  that  the  powers  peculiar  to  life  in  living  animals  include 
cohesion,  elasticity,  &c.  (or,  in  the  words  of  a  late  publica- 
tion) '  that  living  matter  exhibits  these  physical  properties  ' 
would  demonstrate  that  in  the  truth  of  things,  they  are 
homogeneous  and  that  both  the  classes  are  but  degrees  and 
different  dignities  of  one  and  the  same  tendency.  Unless 
therefore  a  thing  can  exhibit  properties  which  do  not 
belong  to  it,  the  very  admission  that  living  matter  exhibits 
physical  properties,  includes  the  further  admission  that 
those  physical  or  dead  properties  are  themselves  vital  in 
essence,  really  distinct  but  in  appearance  only  different ; 
or  in  absolute  contrast  with  each  other."  "  If  I  were 
asked  for  what  purpose  we  should  generalise  the  idea  of 
Life  thus  broadly,  I  should  not  hesitate  to  reply  that  were 
ihere  no  other  use  there  would  be  some  advantage  in  merely 
destroying  an  arbitrary  assumption  in  natural  philosophy 
and  in  reminding  the  physiologists  that  they  could  not  hear 
the  life  of  metals  asserted  with  a  more  contemptuous  sur- 
prise than  they  themselves  incur  from  the  vulgar  when  they 
speak  of  the  life  in  mould  or  mucor.  But  this  is  not  the 
case.  This  wider  view  fills  up  the  arbitrary  chasm  between 
physics  and  physiology  and  justifies  us  in  using  the  former 
as  means  of  insight  into  the  latter." 

The  author  then  proceeds  to  discuss  his  argument  through 
the  lowest  creatures  in  animal  life    until  he  reaches  man. 

"  The  arborescent  forms  on  a  frosty  morning  to  Re  seen 
on  a  window  or  pavement  must  have  some  relation  to  the 
more  perfect  forms  developed  in  the  vegetable  world."  He 
then  alludes  to  the  different  classes  of  animals,  and  says, 
"  as  the  individuals  run  into  each  other  so  do  the  different 
genera.  They  likewise  pass  into  each  other  so  indis- 
tinguishably  that  the  whole  order  forms  a  very  network. 
Man  forms  the  apex  of  the  living  pyramid.  He  has  the 
whole  world  in  counterpoint  to  him  but  he  contains  an 
entire  world  within  himself." 

It  is  clear,  therefore,  that  Coleridge  (and  others  may  do 
the  same),  whilst  holding  strictly  to  the  belief  in  a  spiritual 
existence,  yet  regarded  vitality  from  quite  a  different  point 
of  view,  resulting,  indeed,  from  a  combination  of  forces  as 
we  see  in  other  phenomena  of  nature.  Samuel  Wilks. 


Psychophysical  Interaction. 
Sir  Oliver  Lodge  says  (p.  53)  that  he  would  "  interfere 
with  the  course  of  nature,"  regarded  as  a  mechanically 
determinate  problem,  even  by  lifting  a  log.  Why  so?  The 
course  of  nature  is  exactly  what  happens,  is  it  not?  It  is 
the   business   of   scientific    men    to    find   out    the    course   of 

NO.  1753,  '^OL.  68] 


nature,  and  the  various  connections  which  give  it  coherence 
and  consistency  and  determinancy.  This  has  been  largely 
done,  even  in  vital  processes  ;  and  in  the  obscurer  regions 
of  psychics  it  seems  probable  that  the  course  would  be 
determinate  if  we  knew  all  the  circumstances.  In  any  case 
we  have  nothing  else  but  the  course  of  nature  to  go  by,  in 
the  determination  of  ita^ws,  and  that  psychic  phenomena 
are  natural  phenomena  re,  it  seems  to  me,  the  only  rational 
view  to  take.  Oliver  Heaviside. 

May  21. 


May  I  contribute  a  pictorial  illustration  to  the  controversy 
raised  by  Sir  Oliver  Lodge? 


P  Q,  part  of  a  circular  path  described  by  a  body  of  mass 
m  round  a  fixed  centre  C,  under  the  influence  of  a  con- 
stant centripetal  force  of  magnitude  F.  Whether  this  is 
supplied  by  a  string  with  a  tension  F  or  by  an  attraction 
which  will  be  constant  if  the  path  is  circular  does  not  seem 
to  matter  in  the  least. 

Now  let  P  T  be  the  tangential  distance  which  would  be 
traversed  in  a  time  t  if  the  centripetal  force  were  absent. 

When  that  force  is  introduced,  P  will  come  to  Q  instead 
of  to  T,  and  the  work  done  by  the  force  consists  of  pulling 
the  mass  from  T  to  Q  in  the  time  t.  The  energy  required 
to  do  this  is  FxT  Q,  and  the  same  amount  is  required  and 
absorbed  in  each  successive  interval  of  t.  This  result  is 
not  affected  by  calling  F  a  guiding  force,  which  it  is.  If 
instead  of  a  body  describing  a  circle  we  had  dealt  with  a 
body  at  rest  in  the  position  T,  the  energy  required  to  bring 
it  to  Q  would  be  exactly  the  same. 

If  Newton  had  had  to  express  himself  (modern  fashion) 
in  terms  of  energy,  can  we  imagine  him  dealing  with  the 
problem  except  in  some  such  way  as  my  drawing  indicates? 

Atheneeum.  G.  W.  Hemming. 


ATMOSPHERIC    ELECTRICITY. 

UNTIL  within  the  last  two  or  three  years,  the 
advances  made  in  our  knowledge  of  atmospheric 
electricity  were  mainly  due  to  the  investigation  of  the 
electric  field  of  the  earth.  An  interesting  summary  of 
the  facts  brought  to  light  by  such  investigations  will 
be  found  in  a  paper  by  Exner  in  "  Terrestrial  Mag- 
netism and  Atmospheric  Electricity  "  (vols,  v.,  p.  167, 
and  vi.,  p.  1). 

Except  at  or  near  places  where  rain  (or  other  form 
of  precipitate)  is  falling,  there  is  in  the  free  atmosphere 
an  electric  field  tending  to  drive  positive  electricity 
downwards;  the  earth's  surface  is  thus  in  fine  weather 
regions  negatively  charged.  The  strength  of  the 
electric  field  and  the  magnitude  of  the_  charge  per 
square  centimetre  on  level  ground  at  a  distance  from 
trees  or  buildings  may  be  found  by  observing  the 
potential  at  a  measured  height.  According  to  Exner, 
the  normal  (fine  weather)  potential  gradient  in  Euro- 
pean latitudes  varies  from  about  80  volts  per  metre 
in  summer  to  400  or  500  volts  per  metre  in  winter. 

It  has  now  been  established  by  means  of  balloon 
observations  that  the  intensity  of  the  electric  field  in 
fine  weather  begins  to  diminish  when  a  comparatively 
small  altitude  is  reached,  and  at  a  height  of  5000  metres 
has  only  a  small  fraction  of  the  intensity  at  the  earth's 
surface.  This  shows  that  the  lower  layers  of  the  atmo- 
spliere  possess  a  positive  electrification  very  nearly 
equivalent  to  the  negative  charge  on  the  ground. 


June  4,  1903] 


NATURE 


i03 


For  the  study  of  the  variations  of  the  electric  field 
at  a  given  place  a  large  mass  of  material  is  furnished 
by  the  electrograph  curves  obtained  at  various  observ- 
atories. There  is  a  well-marked  annual  variation  in 
the  intensity  of  the  electric  field ;  the  maximum  occurs 
in  winter  and  the  minimum  in  summer,  the  midwinter 
values  being  five  or  six  times  as  high  as  those  of  mid- 
summer. The  daily  variation  is  less  regular,  and  its 
character  depends  on  the  place  of  observation  and  on 
the  season  of  the  year.  Three  types  are  recognisable 
according  to  Exner.  Most  commonly  there  are 
maxima  about  8  a.m.  and  8  p.m.,  with  night  and  noon 
minima  between  them.  There  may,  secondly,  as  on 
the  Eiffel  Tower  ^  and  in  winter  at  many  low  level 
stations  also,  be  a  minimum  in  the  early  morning 
hours,  and  a  flattened  maximum  over  the  day  hours. 
Finally,  as  in  Ceylon  and  on  the  Indian  Ocean,  there 
may  be  no  daily  variation. 

A  great  advance  was  made  in  1899  by  Elster  and 
Geitel.  They  proved,  in  agreement  with  previous  ex- 
periments of  Linss,  that  an  electrified  body  exposed 
in  the  open  air  loses  its  charge  comparatively  rapidly 
by  leakage  through  the  air ;  the  leakage  is  more  rapid 
the  clearer  and  more  free  from  dust  the  air  may  be. 
They  showed  that  the  phenomena  were  entirely  in 
agreement  with  the  supposition  that  the  atmosphere 
contains  positively  and  negatively  charged  ions  free 
to  move  under  the  action  of  the  electric  field.  An 
interesting  account  of  the  application  of  our  know- 
ledge of  gaseous  ions  to  the  explanation  of  many  of  the 
phenomena  of  atmospheric  electricity  has  been  given 
by  Geitel. - 

Charged  conductors  exposed  in  the  open  air  are 
found  to  lose  i  or  2  per  cent,  of  their  charge  or  more 
per  minute;  the  leakage  from  negatively  charged 
bodies  is  often  somewhat  greater  than  that  from  posi- 
tively charged  bodies ;  this  difference  is  especially 
great  on  mountain  peaks,  where  a  negative  charge 
may  be  neutralised  many  times  as  fast  as  a  positive 
one,  indicating  an  excess  of  positive  ions.  Ebert ' 
found  in  balloon  ascents  an  increased  rate  of  neutralisa- 
tion in  the  upper  atmosphere  as  on  mountain  peaks, 
but  without  any  marked  difference  between  positive 
and  negative  leaks.  Many  observers,  especially  in 
Germany,  have  lately  been  carrying  out  measurements 
of  this  "  Elektricitatszerstreuung. " 

There  have,  however,  been  very  few  absolute 
measurements  from  which  the  number  of  ions  present 
per  c.c.  in  the  open  air  could  be  determined.  Measure- 
ments of  this  kind  have  been  made  by  Ebert  and  by 
Rutherford  and  Allen.  The  latter  observers  found 
{Phil.  Mag.,  December,  1902)  for  the  number  of  Ions 
per  c.c.  of  air  drawn  in  from  outside  their  laboratory 
values  which  on  certain  occasions  were  as  low  as  30 
per  c.c,  the  charge  carried  by  each  ion  being 
about  3x10"*'  electrostatic  units,  according  to  recent 
determinations  by  J.  J.  Thomson  {Finl.  Mas;.,  March) 
and  by  H.  A.  Wilson  {Phil.  Mag.,  April).  Rutherford 
and  Allen  also  showed  that  the  velocity  of  the  ions  of 
the  free  atmosphere  under  a  given  strength  of  field 
was  approximately  the  same  as  that  of  the  ions  pro- 
duced by  Rontgen  and  Becquerel  rays,  being  about  1.4 
cm.  per  second  for  a  potential  gradient  of  a  volt  per 
cm.  ;  we  are  probably  therefore  justified  in  assuming 
an  identity  in  other  properties  also.  With  the  above 
values  for  the  number  of  ions  and  their  velocity,  the 
charge  on  the  ground  should  be  neutralised  at  the  rate 
of  about  a  half  per  cent,  per  minute. 

In  connection  with  the  question  of  the  origin  of  the 
ions  in  the  atmosphere,  some  remarkable  phenomena 


1  ChativeaUj  CR.,  vol.  cxvii.  p.  1069(1893). 

2  *'  Ueber  die  Anwendung  der  Lehre  von  den  Gasionen  auf  die  Erschein- 
ungen  der  aimospharischen  Elektricitat."    (Braunschweig,  1901.) 

^  "  Terrestrial  Magnetism,"  vol.  vi.  p.  97  (1901). 


NO.  1753,  VOL.  68] 


have  to  be  considered.  Even  in  dust-free  air  in  a 
closed  vessel  in  the  dark  there  is  a  continuous  produc- 
tion of  ions,  generally  at  rates  not  differing  greatly 
from  40  per  c.c.  per  second,  if  we  interpret  the  measure- 
ments in  the  light  of  the  most  recent  determinations 
of  the  ionic  charge.  It  has,  however,  been  shown  by 
McLennan  and  Burton,'  and  by  Strutt  (Nature, 
February  19),  that  the  greater  part  of  the  effect 
is  due  to  the  walls  of  the  vessel,  that  ordinary 
substances  in  varying  degrees  resemble  radium 
in  being  radio-active  and  producing  radio-active 
emanations,  the  effects,  however,  being  of  incomparably 
smaller  intensity.  The  two  first-named  experi- 
menters also  found  that  a  part  of  the  ionisation 
is  due  to  an  extremely  penetrating  radiation  from 
sources  outside  the  vessel.  Rutherford  and  Cooke 
(Nature,  April  2)  have  obtained  a  similar  result. 
Elster  and  Geitel  found  that  negatively  charged  bodies 
exposed  in  the  open  air  become  temporarily  radio- 
active, just  as  they  do  when  exposed  to  the  emanations 
from  radium  or  thorium.  '  Vessels  in  which  freshly 
fallen  rain  or  snow  have  been  evaporated  to  dryness 
show  a  similar  temporary  radio-activity.^  The  atmo- 
sphere apparently  contains  an  emanation  like  that  from 
radium.  Air  pumped  out  of  the  ground  shows  these 
effects  to  an  abnormally  marked  degree,  as  Elster  and 
Geitel  have  proved.  The  surface  of  the  ground,  and 
to  a  still  greater  extent  the  exposed  portions  of  trees, 
must,  it  will  be  observed,  under  normal  fine  weather 
conditions  become  radio-active  in  virtue  of  their  nega- 
tive charge,  and  produce,  therefore,  an  abnormal 
amount  of  ionisation  in  the  air  near  them. 

It  is  probable,  in  the  light  of  Lenard's  experiments, 
that  sunlight  ionises  the  air  which  it  traverses, 
especially  in  the  upper  atmosphere,  while  it  is  still 
strong  in  ultra-violet  rays. 

The  conductivity  of  the  air  increases  in  a  sense  the 
difficulty  of  the  problem  of  the  origin  of  the  earth's 
electric  field.  For  it  would  seem  that  the  electric  field 
in  fine  weather  regions  should  rapidly  diminish,  and  in 
a  few  hours  disappear;  t}ipj:/>  rpnst  be  some  process- 
by  which  the  electric  field  is  continuallv  bein^  re- 
genecatetU  i^eavmg  aside,  however,  the  consideration 
of  the  origin  of  the  electric  field,  we  may  atternpt  to 
explain  its  variations  as  due  to  the  variations  in  the 
conditions  determining  its  rate  of  destruction.  What- 
ever increases  the  conductivity  of  the  air  will  diminish 
the  electric  field,  and  vice  versd.  Examples  of  the 
application  of  this  principle  will  be  found  in  the  paper 
by  Geitel  already  mentioned.  To  take  only  one,  the 
increase  in  the  electric  field  accompanying  fogs  (a 
phenomenon  well  shown  in  the  Kew  electrograph 
curves)  may  be  explained  as  due  to  the  entangfing  of 
the  ions  by  the  fog  particles ;  the  leakage  of  electricity 
under  such  conditions  has  been  found  by  Elster  and 
Geitel  to  be  very  slight. 

In  regions  enjoying  fine  weather,  if  we  assume  the 
existence  of  a  flow  of  electricity  in  the  direction  of 
the  electric  field,  there  will  be  a  downward  earth-air 
current ;  there  must  then  be  a  compensating  current 
accompanying  precipitation,  negative  electricity  being 
brought  down  in  the  rain,  and  the  positive  charge 
being  left  behind  in  the  atmosphere  and  carried  by 
upper  air  currents  to  other  regions.  There  is,  as  we 
shall  see  later,  reason  to  believe  that  an  excess  of 
negative  electricity  is  brought  down  to  the  earth's  sur- 
face by  rain.  It  is,  however,  doubtful  whether  we  can 
explain  in  this  way  the  existence  of  the  normal  electric 
field  at  a  distance  from  regions  where  rain  is  falling; 
for  the  positively  charged  upper  air  currents  would 
continually  be  losing  their  charges,  and  we  should 
expect  a  rapid  falling  off  in  the  intensity  of  the  field 

1  In  a  paper  read  before  the  American  Physical  Society,  December,  1902. 

2  C.  T.  R.  Wilson.  Camb.  Phil.  Proc,  vol.  xi.  p.  428;  vol.  xii.  pp.  17 
and  85  ;  M'Lennan,  P/ii7.  Mag.,  April. 


I04 


NATURE 


[June  4,  1903 


with  increasing-  distance  from  the  region  of  precipita- 
tion. 

We  may,  on  the  other  hand,  suppose  that  there  are 
everywhere  other  influences  opposing  or  neutraHsing 
the  ion  of  electricity  in  the  direction  of  the  electric 
field;  so  that  no  earth-air  current  rrsults.  Geitel  has 
offered  an  explanation  of  the  maintenance  of  the  electric 
field  in  fine  weather  based  on  a  difference  between 
positive  and  negative  ions  which  was  discovered  by 
Zeleny.  Negative  ions  are  more  mobile  than  positive, 
they  travel  with  greater  velocity  in  an  electric  field 
and  diffuse  more  rapidly.  In  consequence  a  body  ex- 
posed to  a  current  of  ionised  air  becomes  negatively 
charged;  Geitel  suggests  that  the  surface  of  the  earth 
may  acquire  its  negative  charge  in  a  similar  way. 
The  difference  in  the  velocities  of  diffusion  of  the  posi- 
tive and  negative  ions  could  not,  however,  maintain 
an  electric  field  except  close  to  the  ground,  unless  air 
currents  were  present  to  carry  up  the  positively  charged 
layers  produced  at  the  earth's  surface. 
.  It  is  quite  conceivable  that  we  may  be  driven  to 
seek  an  extra-terrestrial  source  for  the  negative  charge 
Oi  the  earth's  surface.  The  study  of  the  aurora 
borealis  has  led  several  observers  to  the  conclusion 
that  the  sun  emits  kathode  rays,  which  are  deflected 
by  the  earth's  magnetic  field,  and  travel  in  helical 
paths  round  the  magnetic  lines  of  force  towards  the 
poles.  It  is  conceivable  that  very  penetrating  rays 
Of  this  type  {i.e.  negatively  charged  electrons)  may 
traverse  our  atmosphere  unabsorbed,  and  be  stopped 
in  the  solid  mass  of  the  earth,  giving  to  it  their  nega- 
tive charge. 

We  have  now  to  consider  the  electrical  phenomena 
accompanying  precipitation.  As  already  Indicated,  pre- 
cipitation is  nearly  always  associated  with  the  occur- 
rence of  negative  values  of  the  potential  gradient. 
Heavy  showers  of  rain,  snow,  or  hail  are  accompanied 
by  rapid  alternations  of  high  positive  and  high  nega- 
tive values  of  the  electric  field,  generally  too  high  to 
be_  measured  by  electrograph  apparatus  arranged  to 
suit  fine  weather  conditions.  In  extreme  cases  we 
have  thunderstorms.  There  are  cases  of  rain  not 
associated  with  negative  potential  gradients ;  these  are 
practically  all  cases  of  slight  rain,  generally  mere  wet 
mist  or  drizzle.  Clouds  from  which  rain  is  not  falling 
rarely  show  marked  electrical  effects.  To  find  by 
direct  observation  whether  rain  is  charged  with  elec- 
tricity is  a  matter  of  extreme  difficulty.  Elster  and 
Geitel 's  observations  appear  to  show  that  raindrops 
are  charged,  and  that  the  sign  of  the  charge  frequently 
changes  during  a  shower,  negative  values,  however, 
on  the  whole  prevailing. 

The  following  are  possible  factors  in  the  production 
of  the  intense  electrical  fields  which  accompany  heavy 
showers. 

A  less  degree  of  supersaturation  Is  required  to  make 
water  condense  on  the  negative  than  on  the  positive 
ions  (C.  T.  R.  Wilson,  Phil.  Trans.,  vol.  cxclil.  p. 
289).  Thus,  if  condensation  takes  place  from  the 
supersaturated  condition,  the  drops  formed  are  likely 
to  be  negatively  charged;  that  the  drops,  formed  in 
ionised  air  by  expansions  slightly  exceeding  that  re- 
quired to  cause  condensation  on  negative  ions,  are 
actually  negatively  charged  has  been  proved  by  H.  A. 
W'ilson  (Phil.  Mag.,  April).  Since,  however,  each  drop 
will  only  carry  the  very  small  ionic  charge,  the  elec- 
trical effect  will  be  small  If  only  a  few  large  drops  are 
formed;  If  a  large  number  of  negative  Ions  serve  as 
nuclei  of  condensation,  the  drops  will  be  small,  and 
will  only  fall  slowly  relatively  to  the  air;  the  resulting 
electric  field  cannot  exceed  that  which  drives  positive 
ions  downwards  as  fast  as  the  negatlvelv  charged 
drops  fall  under  the  action  of  gravity.  'The  field 
initially   produced   may,    however,    be   strong   enough 

NO.  1753.  VOL.  68] 


to  induce  coalescence  of  drops  which  come  in  contact 
(Lord  Rayleigh,  Roy.  Soc.  Proc.  xxvill.  p.  406),  and  we 
may  thus  get  drops  carrying  many  times  the  charge  of 
one  Ion,  and  large  enough  to  fall  rapidly.  Strong  fields 
may  then  result. 

Again,  we  should  expect  (Nature,  vol.  Ixil.  p.  149) 
drops  falling  through  Ionised  air  to  become  negatively 
charged  as  a  result  of  the  difference  In  the  mobility  of 
the  positive  and  negative  Ions.  This  effect  has,  in 
(act,  been  experimentally  demonstrated  by  Schmauss 
(Ann.  d.  Physik,  vol.  Ix.  p.  224). 

If  collisions  resulting  In  splashing  occur  between 
raindrops  (and  they  are  likely  to  be  frequent  In  the  up- 
rush  of  air  in  thunderstorms),  positively  charged  rain 
may  be  formed.  For,  as  Lenard  has  shown,  when 
splashing  of  pure  water  occurs,  as,  for  example,  in 
waterfalls,  the  air  In  tlie  neighbourhood  acquires  a 
negative,  the  water  a  positive,  charge. 

Apart  from  the  Lenard  effect,  the  splashing  result- 
ing from  the  collision  of  drops  in  an  electric  field  may 
have  large  effects,  either  in  Intensifying  or  diminish- 
ing the  electric  field  already  existing,  the  action  being 
like  that  of  an  electrostatic  influence  machine.  The 
result  would  be  to  increase  the  intensity  01  the  field  it 
the  splashes  were  thrown  out  from  the  lower  portion 
of  the  combined  drop.  If,  for  example,  the  field  were 
such  as  to  produce  positive  electrification  on  the  lower 
surface  of  a  neutral  drop,  a  droplet  leaving  the  lower 
surface  would  be  positively  charged,  and  being  carried 
upwards  by  the  air  relatively  to  the  large  drop,  would 
add  to  the  intensity  of  the  primarv  field. 

C.  T.  R.  Wilson. 


RAINFALL  AND  RIVER  FLOW  IN  THE 
THAMES  BASIN.' 
'T'HE  Water  Committee  of  the  London  County 
■*-  Council  in  December,  1902,  called  upon  their 
chief  engineer  for  a  report  on  the  diminution  of  the 
volume  of  water  in  the  Thames  and  Lea,  and  his  re- 
port was  submitted  to  the  Council  in  February. 
It  deals  briefly  with  the  geology  of  the  Thames  and 
Lea  basins  so  far  as  geology  affects  waterworks 
engineering,  and  in  greater  detail  with  the  rainfall 
and  the  flow  of  the  streams.  The  general  result  of 
the  Inquiry  is  thus  stated  :— 

"  For  the  past  twenty  years  there  has  been  a  decline 
over  the  Thames  watershed  of  an  annual  average  of 
nearly  2i  Inches  below  the  mean  rainfall  of  28.50 
Inches,  as  computed  by  the  late  Mr.  Symons  for  the 
forty  years  1850-89;  and  I  may  add  that  this  diminu- 
tion has  become  more  accentuated  during  the  last  five 
years.  This  decline  is  reflected  In  the  diminished 
flow  of  the  river  as  gauged  at  Teddington  Weir,  the 
natural  flow  having  fallen  to  an  average  of  11105 
million  gallons  daily  at  the  Intakes  for  the  20  years 
compared  with  1350  million  gallons  over  the  i85o-»9 
period,  showing  a  loss  to  the  river  of  239^  million 
gallons  per  day.  As  the  diminished  rainfall  of  2^ 
inches  equals  105  million  gallons  per  day  (after  making 
an  allowance  for  evaporation,  &c.,  of  roughly  70  per 
cent.),  and  the  above  diminished  flow  of  2392  million 
gallons  shows  a  difference  from  this  of  134^  million 
gallons  daily,  it  would  appear  as  though  the  condition 
of  the  river  was  becoming  more  acute,  inasmuch  as 
more  rainfall  would  be  required  year  by  year  to  pro- 
duce the  long-period  average  rate  of  flow  ;  in  fact,  what 
this  means  is  that  the  percentage  of  total  rainfall 
which  reaches  the  river  is  diminishing  as  well  as  the 
total  rainfall  itself.  Of  course,  against  these  facts  we 
have  the  possibility  of  a  long  series  of  wet  years,  which 

1  London  County  Council.  Shrinkage  of  the  Thames  and  Lea  Report 
by  Maurice  Fitzmaurice,  C.M.G-,  Chief  Engineer.  Pp.  18;  plates. 
(London  :  P.  S.  King  and  Co.,  1903.) 


June  4,  1903] 


NATURE 


105 


|y  bring  back  the  state  of  affairs  which  existed  on 

average  during-  the  long  period  mentioned," 
^The  fact  that  we  are  at  present  in  a  period  of  re- 
lively  low  rainfall  is,  of  course,  well  known,  and  as 

jards    the   Thames    Basin,    the    following    table   is 
loted,  giving  the  average  annual  fall  deduced  from 

;nty-four  well-distributed  stations  : — 


m' 

Inches 

Year 

Inches 

Year 

Inches 

Year 

Inches 

^^  • 

.    28-41 

1888    . 

•    28-45 

1893    . 

.    22  08 

1898 

22-07 

'^^  ■ 

.    22  90 

1889    . 

•    25  65 

1S94    . 

•    32-33 

1899    . 

.    24-78 

18S5  • 

29-15 

1890    . 

.    22  81 

i«95  . 

•    26-32 

1900   . 

.    27-88 

1886 . 

•  31  "o; 

1891    . 

•    33-31 

1896    . 

.    25-82 

I901    . 

•    23-47 

1887 . 

21   32 

1892    . 

.    23-02 

i«97  . 

•    2779 

1902    . 

.    21-91 

The  report  points  out  that  the  mean  rainfall  for  the 
ten  years  1883-92  was  26.60,  and  for  the  ten  years 
1893-1902  it  was  25.44,  or  more  than  an  inch  less. 
But  it  is  not  clearly  pointed  out  that  the  means  of  the 
four  consecutive  periods  of  five  years  give  the  respective 
values  26.57  in-.  -^-65  in.,  26.87  i"-.  and  24-02  in., 
in  other  words,  that  on  the  whole  the  rainfall  was 
increasing  slightly  for  fifteen  years,  and  fell  sharply 
in  the  last  five.  Nor  is  attention  called  to  the  fact 
that  the  average  rainfall  of  28.50  inches  for  the  Thames 
Basin  was  arrived  at  by  Mr.  Symons  in  1893  from  the 
consideration  of  a  much  larger  number  of  stations 
than  the  twenty-four  on  which  the  subsequent  values 
are  based,  for  the  ten  years  1880-89,  which  period  Mr, 
Symons  showed  probably  gave  the  same  mean  value  as 
the  long  period  1850-89.  It  is  probable  that  the  latter 
figures  represent  the  average  rainfall  of  the  basin  as 
accurately  as  so  small  a  number  of  stations  can,  and 
they  are  at  least  comparable  inter  sc,  but  it  is  by  no 
means  so  sure  that  they  can  fairly  be  compared  with 
the  earlier  mean  value  obtained  by  the  consideration  of 
a  much  larger  number  of  stations.  In  fact,  we  are  not 
Inclined  to  look  upon  the  decline  in  the  rainfall  as  quite 
so  serious  as  it  appears  to  be  from  the  report,  and  we 
are  confident  that  in  the  course  of  time,  and  probably  in 
a  comparatively  short  time,  the  fall  will  again  reach 
the  average. 

The  report  shows  plainly  that  the  diminution  in  the 
flow  of  the  Thames  (and  the  same  holds  good  of  the 
Lea)  is  greater  than  the  diminution  of  the  rainfall. 
Theoretical  considerations  suggest  that  this  is  what 
should  occur,  for  the  amount  of  water  absorbed  by 
vegetation  must  be  approximately  constant,  and  in  a 
dry  year  evaporation  is  usually  more  active  than  in  a 
wet  one,  while,  when  the  water-level  in  the  pervious 
rocks  is  lowered,  the  flow  of  springs  cannot  respond 
to  the  rainfall  with  the  promptitude  usual  when  the 
rocks  are  saturated. 

It  is  a  matter  of  regret  that  hydrology,  as  applied  to 
the  rivers  of  the  whole  British  Isles,  has  not  been  taken 
up  by  any  Government  department.  This  report  of 
the  County  Council  shows  the  interest  of  the  problems 
involved,  and  it  may  be  that  a  more  systematic  treat- 
ment of  statistics  of  rainfall  and  river-flow  would 
answer  the  questions  which  is  suggests. 

Hugh  Robert  Mill. 


ARCTIC     GEOLOGY. 

A  S  the  report  on  the  geological  observations  made 
-^*-  during  the  recent  Polar  expedition  of  the  Fram, 
recently  read  before  the  Royal  Geographical  Society  by 
Mr.  P.  Schel,  of  which  we  have  received  a  separate 
copy,  is  only  a  preliminary  one,  and  the  geological 
terms  employed  require  some  revision  to  make  them 
intelligible  to  an  English  reader,  a  brief  notice  may 
suffice,  though  evidently  the  results  will  be  very 
valuable.       Under     Captain      Sverdrup's     leadership, 

>^'o.  1753.  '^'01--  68] 


EUesmere  Land  was  crossed,  part  of  its  southern 
and  its  western  coast  was  traced,  with  the  corre- 
sponding side  of  Grinnell  Land,  and  journeys  were 
made  round  Axel  Heiberg  and  Ringnes  Islands.  Ihe 
collections  obtained,  which  were  often  considerable, 
show  that  the  region  explored,  with  the  newly  dis- 
covered islands,  consists  of  formations  which  were 
known  to  occur  on  the  two  sides  of  Smith  Sound 
and  on  the  long  chain  of  islands  extending  on  or  near 
the  seventy-fifth  parallel  from  North  Devon  to  Prince 
Patrick  Island,  viz.  a  foundation  of  crystalline 
Archaean  rocks,  largely  granitoid,  followed  by  sedi- 
imentaries  the  oldest  of  which  are  of  Cambrian  age, 
the  part  immediately  following  the  Archaean  being 
occasionally,  as  might  be  expected,  an  arkoso.  In 
some  places  representatives  of  the  Ordovician  and 
Silurian  occur,  and,  as  in  the  other  islands,  Devonian 
and  Carboniferous,  including  the  representative  lime- 
stone, are  extensively  developed.  Mesozoic  formations 
are  represented,  but  apparently  on  no  great  scale,  and 
large  masses  of  sandstone,  with  lignites  and  shales,  are 
identified  by  their  plant  fossils  as  Tertiary  (Miocene  or 
perhaps  rather  earlier),  as  in  Greenland.  In  parts  of 
EUesmere  Land  and  Heiberg  Island  are  various 
eruptive  rocks,  porphyrites  and  diabases,  cutting  the 
Archaean  and  the  older  sedimentaries.  Basalts  and 
dolerites  occur  in  Grinnell  Land  intrusive  in  Mesozoic 
strata,  and  Surface  lavas  and  somewhat  similar 
rocks  overlie  Carboniferous  rocks  in  Heiberg  Island. 
They  are  older  than  the  Tertiary  shale  mentioned  above. 
The  region  has  occasionally  been  much  faulted,  and 
locally  crushed  up  against  a  "  horst  "  of  Archaean  rock. 
It  has  also  been  affected  by  earth  movements  of  late 
date,  indicated  by  raised  beaches  and  marine  terraces, 
which  are  at  various  elevations  up  to  nearly  600  feetj 
and  so  prove  that  the  land  has  risen.  There  are  no 
large  masses  of  inland  ice  or  signs  of  glaciers  having 
formerly  been  on  a  much  more  extensive  scale  than  at 
present.  This  is  probably  due,  at  any  rate  partly,  to  a 
rather  small  precipitation. 


/.   V.  LABORDE  (1830-1903). 

DR.  LABORDE  (Jean  Baptiste  Vincent),  who  died 
recently  at  the  age  of  seventy-two,  was  born  at 
Buzet  (Lot  et  Garonne),  and  received  a  good  education 
at  the  Lycee  of  Cahors,  after  spending  some  time  in  a 
boarding-school  at  Casteljaloux.  To  satisfy  his 
natural  bent  for  medical  studies  he  went  to  Paris, 
without  any  resources,  and,  in  order  to  provide  for  his 
livelihood  and  his  studies,  he  was  obliged  to  give 
private  lessons.  However,  he  managed  to  be  appointed 
externe  des  hopitaux  in  1854,  in  the  same  promotion  as 
Lancereaux,  now  president  of  the  Academic  de  M^de- 
cine.  Four  years  later,  he  obtained  the  internat,  in 
which  capacity  he  spent  four  years  more  in  the  hospitals 
of  Paris,  after  which  he  was  graduated  doctor  m^dic. 
for  his  thesis  on  "  La  Paralysie  Infantile  "  (1864). 
Meanwhile  he  had  obtained  the  gold  medal  of  the 
hospitals,  the  Corvisart  prize,  and  another  prize  from 
the  Soci^t^  M^dicale  des  Hopitaux,  and,  lastly,  in  the 
very  year  in  which  he  got  his  doctor's  degree,  the 
Godard  prize,  awarded  by  the  Soci^t^  Anatomique  de 
Paris. 

In  1872  Laborde  gave  up  pure  medicine  to  devote 
himself  to  scientific  works,  particularly  to  physiology, 
giving  to  his  researches  a  solid  and  safe  basis,  by 
means  of  the  experimental  method.  At  first  only  an 
assistant  to  Prof.  B^clard,  he  was  soon  appointed  chef 
des  travaux  de  physiologic  at  the  Faculty  de  Medecine, 
and  for  many  years  the  demonstrations  he  gave  in  his 
laboratory  were  attended  by  numerous  pupils.  It  was 
in   the   course   of   this   period   that   he   published   the 


io6 


NATURE 


[June  4,  1903 


greater  part  of  his  works,  always  seeking  in  physiology 
pathological  deductions  for  the  use  of  practitioners. 

As  regards  pure  physiology,  he  studied  the  acid  of 
the  gastric  juice,  trying  to  show  that  it  never  existed 
uncombined  (1874-77),  '^he  rhythmical  function  of  the 
heart  and  its  development  in  the  embryo  (1876),  and 
more  especially  the  function  of  the  central  nervous 
system,  and  of  the  bulb  in  particular  (1877-1880).  In 
this  way  he  showed  the  existence  of  two  bulbar 
centres,  one  acting  upon  breathing  (it  was  the  centre 
of  Le  Gallois  and  Flourens),  the  other  upon  the 
cardiac  muscle,  which  clearly  explained  the  two  pos- 
sible causes  of  death,  either  a  stop  of  the  respiratory 
movements  with  persistence  of  the  beating  of  the  heart 
or  vice  versd.  He  showed  also  the  functional  associa- 
tion of  the  eyes  in  the  binocular  vision,  owing  to  the 
narrow  connections  between  their  motor  nerves.  As 
regards  the  physiology  of  the  nerves,  again,  he  re- 
vealed the  existence  of  the  tractus  of  crossed  hemi- 
anaesthesy,  published  a  few  notes  on  the  excitability  of 
the  nervous  centres,  the  reflex  movements,  the  func- 
tions of  the  semicircular  canals  (1881),  and,  lastly,  a 
refutation  of  the  theory  which  made  the  cerebellum  the 
seat  of  muscular  strength. 

Not  less  numerous  are  the  works  that  he  published 
upon  experimental  and  comparative  pathology. 

But  his  special  study  was  experimental  physiology 
applied  to  therapeutics  and  toxicology;  he  published 
works  on  the  properties  of  many  substances,  such  as  the 
narceine  (1866),  which  he  considered  as  the  best 
sedative  of  the  nervous  system ;  the  bromides,  the 
soothing  influence  of  which  he  investigated  (1867- 
1869) ;  the  eserine  or  alkaloid  of  the  Calabar  bean 
(i86g);  propylamine  (1873);  aconitine,  the  advantages 
of  which  he  showed  as  a  sedative  of  sensibility  (1875); 
colchicine,  sparteine,  boldo,  salts  of  strontium,  &c. ; 
lastly,  in  1877,  he  published  a  study  on  the  alkaloids 
of  cinchona,  which  he  named  in  the  following  order, 
according  to  their  poisonous  qualities  :  Cinchonine, 
cinchonidine,  quinidine.  In  fact,  he  made  a  special 
study  of  poisons  in  general,  animal  as  well  as  mineral, 
natural  as  well  as  artificial. 

In  concluding  this  cursory  view  of  Laborde's  works, 
we  cannot  do  better  than  mention  his  ingenious  method 
of  the  rhythmical  tractions  of  the  tongue,  which  was 
sufficient  to  make  the  name  of  its  inventor  known 
throughout  all  the  world.  There  is  no  need  to  ex- 
patiate on  this  most  simple  and  efficient  process  of 
setting  the  respiratory  reflex  to  work.  It  is  known  and 
used  everywhere,  and  it  has  called  back  to  life  numbers 
of  apparently  drowned  or  suffocated  people. 

In  fact,  Laborde  was  not  only  a  savant,  but  a  great 
philanthropist,  and  this  quality,  together  with  his  pro- 
found knowledge  of  toxicology,  brought  him  to  the 
front  as  one  of  the  best  qualified  in  the  controversy 
raised  recently  on  the  question  of  alcoholism. 

For  this  reason,  Laborde,  who  had  been  a  member 
of  the  Acad^mie  de  M^decine  since  1887,  was  trusted 
by  this  learned  body  with  the  report  on  the  essences 
to  be  forbidden  as  noxious,  which  the  Government  had 
required  from  them.  In  this  work  he  exhausted  what 
strength  was  left  to  him.  He  strenuously  defended 
every  one  of  his  arguments  against  the  objections  of 
his  colleagues,  and  at  last  succeeded  in  making  them 
adopt  every  Item  of  his  report.  But  the  work  proved 
too  much  for  him,  and  he  died  on  April  5.  He 
was  vice-president  of  the  Society  of  Biology,  director  of 
the  Laboratory  of  Anthropology  at  the  fecole  des  Hautes 
ifetudes  since  1893,  and  professor  at  the  School  of 
Anthropology.  He  was  besides  one  of  the  oldest  and 
ablest  scientific  journalists.  He  started  La  Tribune 
MMicale,  a  periodical  open  to  all  young  medical  men, 
which  he  edited  to  the  last. 

He  was  one  of  the  few  French  savants  who  did  not 

^^'    '753.  VOL.  68] 


belong  to  the  Legion  of  Honour.  Of  course,  the  decora- 
tion was  several  times  offered  to  him,  but  he  thought 
it  a  distinction  which  should  be  exclusively  military, 
and  he  never  allowed  his  actions  to  contradict  his 
opinions.  J.  Deniker. 


NOTES. 
A  MEETING  of  the  council  of  the  International  Association 
of  .Academies  is  being  held  this  week  at  the  rooms  of  the 
Royal  Society,  that  society  being  the  directing  academy  of 
the  association  for  the  three  years'  period  ending  with  1904. 
The  meeting  will  be  attended  by  delegates  from  nearly  all 
the  principal  learned  academies  of  Europe,  and  will  discuss 
several  matters  of  importance  to  international  science  and 
philosophy,  preparatory  to  the  meeting  of  the  general 
assembly  which  is  to  be  held  in  London  next  year.  Re- 
presentatives of  both  sections  of  the  association,  the  natural 
science  section,  and  the  history  and  philosophy  section,  will 
attend  the  council.  In  connection  with  the  meeting  of  the 
council  there  will  be  on  Friday  a  meeting  of  a  special  com- 
mittee appointed  to  deal  with  a  proposal  for  the  establish- 
ment of  an  international  organisation  for  the  investigation 
of  the  anatomy  of  the  brain.  The  foreign  delegates  were 
to  be  received  by  the  president  and  fellows  of  the  Royal 
Society  at  Burlington  House  on  Wednesday  evening  as  we 
went  to  press. 

The  reply  given  by  Mr.  Balfour  in  the  House  of  Commons 
on  May  26,  in  answer  to  a  question  as  to  what  the  Govern- 
ment proposed  to  do  to  ensure  the  safety  of  the  National 
Antarctic  Expedition,  was  a  rebuke  which  should  not  be 
received  in  silence  by  the  joint  Antarctic  Committee.  Mr. 
Balfour  said  : — "  The  Government  are  prepared  to  con- 
tribute to  the  relief  of  the  officers  and  men  on  board  the 
Discovery,  which  is  now  ice-bound  in  the  Antarctic  seas. 
The  course  taken  by  the  two  learned  societies  responsible 
for  the  expedition  in  respect  to  the  contribution  of  money 
and  men  made  by  the  Government  is  greatly  to  be  regretted. 
I  have  always  leaned  towards  the  principle  of  extending  the 
very  limited  aid  which  the  British  Government  have  been 
accustomed  to  give  towards  the  furtherance  of  purely  scien- 
tific research  ;  but  such  action  can  only  be  justified  so  long 
as  the  Government  are  able  to  feel  absolute  confidence  that 
the  scientific  bodies  approaching  them  have  placed  before 
them  all  the  information  in  their  possession  as  to  the  estim- 
ated cost  of  their  proposed  action,  and  the  limits  within 
which  they  intend  to  confine  it.  That  confidence  has  been 
rudely  shaken  by  the  present  case."  This  statement  has 
naturally  received  much  attention,  and  the  Antarctic  Com- 
mittee cannot  permit  the  charges  it  contains  to  pass  without 
reply.  The  two  learned  societies  referred  to  are  the  Royal 
Society  and  the  Royal  Geographical  Society,  and  the 
management  of  the  expedition  is  in  the  hands  of  a  joint 
committee  of  these  bodies.  From  the  beginning,  however, 
the  Royal  Geographical  Society  has  exerted  a  preponderant 
influence  in  the  organisation  of  the  expedition,  and  the 
Royal  Society  has  yielded  to  it  against  the  advice  of  its 
own  representatives.  When  vital  matters  connected  with 
the  conduct  of  the  expedition  were  in  dispute  in  1901,  we 
on  several  occasions  criticised  the  methods  adopted,  and 
regretted  that  the  Royal  Society  had  not  taken  a  firmer 
position.  Because  the  council  of  the  Royal  Geographical 
Society  would  not  accept  the  recommendations  of  the  joint 
committee,  the  Royal  Society  allowed  itself  to  be  overruled, 
though  Sir  Archibald  Geikie,  Prof.  E.  B.  Poulton  and  Mr. 
J.  Y.  Buchanan  objected  to  the  surrender.  The  whole 
story  was  told  in  a  letter  sent  by  Prof.  Poulton  to  fellows 
of  the  Royal  Society,  and  published  in  Nature  of  May  23, 


June  4,  1903] 


NATURE 


[07 


/oi.  This  protest  was,  however,  disregarded,  with  the 
lesult  that  the  Society  now  finds  itself  held  responsible  for 
management  which  has  really  been  left  to  the  geographers. 
The  T)aily  Mail  has  published  several  articles  in  which  the 
joint  committee  is  severely  handled,  and  the  facts  disclosed 
as  to  the  estimated  and  actual  costs  of  the  expedition  are, 
to  say  the  least,  such  as  will  not  encourage  the  public  to 
believe  in  the  foresight  and  business  capacity  of  men  of 
science. 

The  condition  of  the  German  Antarctic  Expedition  which, 
under  the  command  of  Dr.  von  Drygalski,  left  Germany  in 
August,  1901,  is  causing  great  anxiety,  and  hurried  prepar- 
ations are  being  made  for  the  dispatch  of  a  relief  expedition 
tliis  summer.  It  will  be  remembered,  a  correspondent  of 
the  Pall  Mall  remarks,  that  a  station  was  erected  on 
Kerguelen  Island  in  January,  1902,  which  was  intended  to 
serve  as  a  place  of  observation  and  as  a  base  for  the  ex- 
pedition ship  Gauss,  which  was  to  penetrate  much  farther 
south.  Those  who  were  at  the  station,  however,  suffered 
terribly  from  the  climate,  and  then  were  attacked  by  beri- 
beri, which  appears  to  be  endemic  in  that  part  of  the  world. 
This  malady  carried  off  the  greater  number  of  those  who 
were  afflicted  with  it,  among  them  being  Dr.  Enzensperger, 
the  meteorologist.  The  Gatiss  sailed  south,  but  as  nothing 
has  been  heard  of  her  for  a  long  time  it  is  feared  that  she 
is  lost,  and  doubts  have  been  expressed  that  any  of  her 
present  officers  and  crew  will  ever  be  heard  of  again.  An 
attempt  is,  however,  to  be  made  to  find  them.  The  matter 
was  discussed  in  the  Reichstag  a  few  days  ago,  and  about 
25,000/.  was  unanimously  voted  for  a  relief  expedition. 
Preparations  for  departure  will  not  be  begun  until  the 
middle  of  next  month — the  latest  time,  according  to  scientific 
opinion,  that  the  Gauss  could  by  any  chance  make  her  way 
out  of  the  vast  fields  of  ice  over  which  the  terrible  severity 
of  an  Antarctic  winter  is  now  spreading. 

The  fifth  International  Congress  for  Applied  Chemistry 
is  being  held  in  the  Imperial  Diet  Building  at  Berlin,  under 
the  presidency  of  Prof.  Dr.  Otto  N.  Witt.  About  2200 
members,  accompanied  by  more  than  300  ladies,  are  attend- 
ing the  Congress,  at  which  the  European  States  and  several 
other  States  are  represented  by  official  delegates.  The 
chief  British  societies,  that  is,  in  addition  to  the  Chemical 
Society,  the  Institute  of  Chemistry,  the  Society  of  Chemical 
Industry,  the  Society  of  Public  Analysts,  the  Federated 
Institute  of  Brewing,  the  Royal  Societies  of  London  and 
Edinburgh,  the  Iron  and  Steel  Institute,  the  Royal  Institu- 
tion, the  British  Association  and  other  bodies,  nominated 
delegates  for  the  organising  committee.  The  Congress  will 
deliberate  in  eleven  sections  and  three  subsections.  The 
German  Electrochemical  Societv,  which  last  year  adopted 
the  name  of  German  Bunsen  Society  for  Applied  Physical 
Chemistry,  will  also  hold  its  annual  meeting  at  Berlin 
<Juring  this  week,  and  will  take  charge  of  the  tenth  electro- 
chemical section.  This  section,  however,  will  meet  in  the 
Physical  Institute  of  the  University  of  Berlin.  The  con- 
gress offices,  so  far  at  31  March  Str.,  Charlottenburg,  will 
be  removed  to  the  Imperial  Diet  Building  (Reichstags- 
Oebaiide)  on  June  2,  and  a  post  office  has  been  opened  in 
tiis  building  for  the  convenience  of  members.  There  are 
350  papers  and  reports  to  be  read.  The  great  electrical 
works  of  Berlin  and  some  other  works  will  be  thrown  opep 
to  members,  but  no  chemical  works  apparently.  The  city 
of  Berlin  will  entertain  the  Congress,  and  an  excursion  to 
ihe  Havel  Lakes  has  been  arranged  for  Sunday,  June  7. 

The  proceedings  of  the  International  Telegraph  Con- 
ference, at  which  nearly  fifty  different  States  are  represented, 
commenced  last  week,  and  will  continue  day  by  day  during 

^'O-  '753.  ^'OL.  68] 


this  month.  The  proceedings  are  private.  Mr.  J.  C.  Lamb, 
the  principal  delegate  of  Great  Britain,  has  been  elected 
president  of  the  conference,  and  Messrs.  J.  Ardron  and 
P.  Benton  vice-presidents.  This  is  the  ninth  conference 
which  has  been  held ;  at  the  last  the  cable  companies  have 
been  represented  as  well  as  the  various  States.  In  addition 
to  the  business  of  the  conference,  dinners  and  other  enter- 
tainments have  been  arranged  in  connection  with  it;  a 
dinner  was  given  last  week  by  the  Submarine  Telegraph 
Companies  at  the  Hotel  Cecil,  Sir  J.  Wolfe-Barry  pre- 
siding, and  nearly  500  guests  being  present.  The  president 
of  the  Institution  of  Electrical  Engineers  entertains  the 
delegates  and  the  Institution  at  a  concert  at  the  Albert  Hall 
on  June  11,  and  the  conversazione  of  the  Institution  will 
also  be  held  during  the  sitting  of  the  conference. 

Mr.  Marconi  is  reported  to  have  said  on  his  return  to 
England  last  week  that  it  will  be  another  six  weeks  before 
Transatlantic  communication  will  be  resumed.  The  precise 
nature  of  the  breakdown  has  not  been  published.  The 
American  company  proposes  to  extend  greatly  the  system 
in  America  by  establishing  new  stations  in  New  York  and 
on  the  great  lakes.  It  is  also  stated  that  the  report  that 
Mr.  Marconi  was  suffering  from  nervous  breakdown  and 
would  have  to  take  a  prolonged  rest    is  unfounded. 

The  council  of  the  Institution  of  Electrical  Engineers  has 
received  and  accepted  an  invitation  from  the  American 
Institute  of  Electrical  Engineers  to  visit  the  United  States 
in  1904.  The  McGill  University,  of  Montreal,  has  invited 
the  two  Institutions  to  hold  a  joint  meeting  in  their  build- 
ing at  this  time.  The  invitations,  both  from  the  American 
Institute  and  the  McGill  University,  are  couched  in  the 
most  cordial  terms,  and  the  council  hopes  that  it  may  be 
possible  to  arrange  not  only  for  a  visit  to  the  eastern  States 
of  America  and  to  the  St.  Louis  Exhibition,  but  also  for 
the  proposed  joint  meeting  in  Canada. 

The  report  of  the  council  of  the  Institution  of  Electrical 
Engineers,  adopted  at  the  annual  general  meeting  held  on 
May  28,  is  a  record  of  real  scientific  activity  and  progress. 
The  Institution  is  exerting  the  best  of  influences  upon 
electrical  science,  and  its  work  and  scope  are  rapidly  ex- 
tending. Mr.  Robert  Kaye  Gray  has  been  elected  president 
in  succession  to  Mr.  Swinburne.  A  new  local  section  has 
been  formed  with  its  centre  at  Leeds,  embracing  the  whole 
of  Yorkshire  with  the  exception  of  Middlesbrough  and  the 
Cleveland  district,  which  were  already  included  in  the  area 
of  the  Newcastle  local  section.  The  council  has  awarded 
the  following  premiums  for  papers  and  communications  : — 
the  Institution  premium,  value  25/.,  to  Dr.  J.  A.  Fleming, 
F.R.S.,  for  "Photometry  of  Electric  Lamps";  the  Paris 
Electrical  Exhibition  premium,  value  10/.,  to  Mr.  M.  B. 
Field,  for  "A  Study  of  the  Phenomenon  of  Resonance  in 
Electric  Circuits  by  the  Aid  of  Oscillograms";  two  extra 
premiums,  value  lol.  each,  one  to  Messrs.  A.  D.  Constable 
and  E.  Fawssett  jointly,  for  "  Distribution  Losses  in  Electric 
Supply  Systems  ";  and  the  other  to  Dr.  W.  M.  Thornton, 
for  "Experiments  on  Synchronous  Converters";  an 
original  communication  premium,  value  lol.,  to  Messrs.  A. 
Russell  and  C.  C.  Paterson,  for  "  Sparking  in  Switches." 
Students'  premiums  have  been  awarded  to  Messrs.  J.  Griffin, 
F.  J.  Hiss,  E.  Fisher,  A.  G.  Ellis,  and  T.  H.  Vigor. 
Salomons  scholarships,  value  50Z.  each,  have  been  awarded 
to  Mr.  G.  B.  Dyke,  of  University  College,  London,  and  to 
Mr.  H.  W.  KefTord,  of  the  Central  Technical  College. 
The  award  of  the  David  Hughes  scholarship,  value  50/.,  has 
been  made  to  Mr.  W.  H.  Wilson,  of  King's  College, 
London. 


io8 


NATURE 


[June  4,  1903 


It  has  been  decided  to  christen  the  new  society  of  electro- 
chtmiks  "  The  Faraday  Society,  "the  object  of  the  Society, 
as  stated  in  a  subtitle,  being  to  promote  the  study  o^f  electro- 
chemistry, electrometallurgy,  chemical  physics;  metallo- 
graphy, and  kindred  subjects.  It  is  proposed  to  start  work 
at  once  by  beginning  a  half-session  on  July  i,  the 
first  ordinary  meeting  being  fixed  for  June  30;  the  papers 
to  be  read  will  be  announced  in  due  course.  Arrangements 
have  been  made  to  publish  the  proceedings  in  the  Electro- 
chemist  and  Metallurgist,  which  will  be  issued  free  to 
members ;  the  papers  will  be  circulated  before  being  read,  a 
plan  which  it  is  hoped  will  improve  the  discussion  upon 
them.  It  is  also  hoped  that  it  will  be  possible  to  supply 
members  with  the  Transactions  of  the  American  Electro- 
chemical Society,  either  free  or  at  a  very  small  cost.  The 
first  president  is  Mr.  J.  W.  Swan,  F.R.S.,  and  the  vice- 
presidents  are  Prof.  Crum  Brown,  Lord  Kelvin,  Sir  O. 
Lodge,  Dr.  Ludwig  Mond,  Lord  Rayleigh,  Mr.  A.  Siemens 
and  Mr.  J.  Swinburne.  A  set  of  rules  has  been  drawn  up 
by  the  council ;  these  and  any  other  particulars  can  be 
obtained  from  the  secretary,  Mr.  F.  S.  Spiers,  82  Victoria 
Street,  S.W.     We  wish  the  Society  all  success. 

We  regret  to  have  to  announce  that  Dr.  A.  A.  Common, 
of  Ealing,  died  very  suddenly  on  Wednesday  morning  last. 

Sir  William  Ramsay,  K.C.B.,  F.R.S.,  has  been  elected 
a  corresponding  member  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences  of 
Vienna. 

The  presentation  of  the  Hofmann  medals  to  M.  Henri 
Moissan  and  Sir  William  Ramsay  is  to  take  place  at  the 
Hofmann-Haus,  Berlin,  to-day,  June  4. 

The  annual  conversazione  of  the  Society  of  Arts  will  take 
place  at  the  Royal  Botanic  Gardens,  Regent's  Park,  on 
Tuesday,  June  30. 

It  is  e-xpected,  says  Science,  that  the  International  Elec- 
trical Congress  will  be  held  at  St.  Louis,  during  the  week 
beginning  September  12,  1904.  It  will  immediately  precede 
the  International  Congress  of  Arts  and  Sciences. 

At  the  anniversary  meeting  of  the  Linnean  Society  on 
May  25,  Prof.  S.  H.  Vines,  F.R.S.,  was  elected  president 
for  the  ensuing  year.  The  Linnean  medal  was  presented  to 
Dr.  M.  C.  Cooke. 

According  to  a  Reuter  message  from  Paris  on  May  30,  a 
telegram  from  Fort  de  France,  dated  May  28,  states  that 
the  volcano  of  Mont  Pel6e  is  again  showing  activity,  and 
that  the  Council-General  of  Martinique  is  urging  the  evacu- 
ation of  the  whole  of  the  north  side  of  the  island. 

According  to  a  Press  despatch  from  Washington,  dated 
May  13,  the  executive  committee  of  the  Carnegie  Institu- 
tion reports  that  the  entire  sum  of  40,000/.  allotted  to  grants 
for  original  research  has  been  distributed,  and  that  of  the 
8000Z.  set  aside  for  publications  to  be  made  this  year,  4000Z. 
has  been  assigned  to  special  publications.  No  more  grants 
for  researches  will  be  made  until  after  the  next  meeting  of 
the  board  of  trustees,  which  will  be  held  in  December. 

A  TERRIFIC  tornado  passed  over  the  southern  portion  of 
Gainsville,  Georgia,  at  noon  on  Monday,  June  i,  destroying 
several  large  buildings  and  killing  sixty-four  persons.  The 
track  of  the  tornado  was  about  one  hundred  yards  wide,  and 
the  damage  done  was  confined  to  it.  The  storm  came  with 
great  suddenness,  and  within  a  couple  of  minutes  the  two 
upper  stories  of  a  four-story  brick-built  factory  were  carried 
away  to  distances  of  hundreds  of  feet.  During  the  tornado 
deep  darkness  prevailed,  and  the  air  was  hot  and  oppressive. 
Five  minutes  later  the  sun  was  shining. 


Extraordinary  rains  in  parts  of  the  United  States  have 
caused  great  damage  and  loss  of  life  by  floods  in  the  Indian 
Territory,  Oklahoma,  Kansas,  Missouri,  Nebraska,  and 
Iowa.  -At  North  Topeka,  Kansas,  seven  thousand  out  of  the 
ten  thousand  inhabitants  left  the  city  on  May  30  to  escape 
the  deluge.  One  hundred  and  fifty  persons  are  known  to 
have  been  drowned.  The  rescued  say  that  the  whole  of 
North  Topeka  was  flooded  on  Friday  faster  than  the  people 
could  get  away.  On  May  30  the  level  of  the  Kansas  River 
rose  at  the.  rate  of  three  inches  an  hour.  On  June  1  the 
Missouri  River  was  thirty  feet  above  low-water ,  mark  at 
Kansas  City,'  and  was  rising  rapidly. 

On  Saturday  afternoon,  May  30,  and  following  night 
London  was  visited  by  two  violent  thunderstorms.  Storms 
of  a  destructive  character,  resulting  in  loss  of  life,  also 
occurred  over  a  great  part  of  England,  especially  in  the 
Thames  Valley,  and  were  apparently  due  to  the  passage  of 
small  cyclonic  depressions  moving  slowly  from  south-east 
to  north-west.  Heavy  downpours  of  rain  accompanied  or 
followed  both  storms,  but  its  intensity  varied  considerably ; 
about  an  inch  and  a  half  fell  during  the  first  storm  in  one 
of  the  southern  suburbs  of  London,  while  at  a  distance  of 
a  very  few  miles,  where  the  thunder  and  lightning  appeared 
to  be  equally  violent,  the  fall  only  amounted  to  a  few  tenths 
of  an  inch.  The  heat  was  oppressive  ;  near  London  on  Whit 
Monday  the  thermometer  in  the  screen  rose  to  83°,  and  the 
weather  was  exceptionally  brilliant  in  the  south  and  east 
of  England  generally,  but  dull  and  cool  in  the  north  and 
west. 

The  Times  states  that  the  master  of  the  trawler  City  of 
Lincoln,  which  arrived  at  Kirkwall  on  June  i  from  Iceland, 
reported  thaf  on,  the  night  of  May  27,  off  the  south-east 
coast  of  Iceland,  a  volcanic  eruption  was  observed  a  con* 
siderable  distance  to  the  eastward,  probably  at  Mount 
Hekla.  Dust  fell  on  the  deck  of  the  trawler,  and  the  sea 
was  discoloured  to  a  distance  of  about  thirty  miles  from  the 
island. 

A  Reuter  message  from  Constantinople  on  May  26  states 
that  belated,  reports  have  been  received  of  the  earthquake  at 
Van  on  April  29,  by  which  the  town  of  Melazgerd  was 
totally  .  destroyed,  with  its  entire  population,  numbering 
about  2000  persons.  More  than  400  houses  in  neighbouring 
villages  collapsed.  A  somewhat  severe  shock  of  earthquake 
was  felt  in  Constantinople  on  the  morning  of  May  26,  but 
no  damage  was  done.  Further  particulars  of  the  earth- 
quake .  at  Van  are  contained  in  a  despatch  from  His 
Majesty's  Consul  at  Erzerum.  The  villages  of  Patnotz, 
Hadjili,  Mollah  Ibrahim,  Zoussicko  and  MoHa  Mustapha 
were  completely  destroyed  with  the  exception  of  the 
mosque,  school  and  two  houses.'  Seventeen  other  villeges 
have  been  partially  destroyed.  In  Sipoki  the  villages 
of  Mollah  Hassan,  Berdav,  Mirzeh,  Kara  Khelil  Alia  have 
been  completely  destroyed,  and  eight  other  villages  partial^ 
destroyed.  It  would  appear  that  the  centre  of  the  seismic 
disturbance  was  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Mount  Sipan,  and 
the  area  of  its  greatest  violence  extended  along  the  vallqf 
of  the  Eastern  Euphrates,  covering  the  Kazas  of  Boulanyit 
and  Melazgerd,  and  the  Patnotz  district. 

As  already  announced,  the  autumn  meeting  of  the  Iron 
and  Steel  Institute  will  be  held  at  Barrow-in-Furness  on 
September  1-4,  under  the  presidency  of  Mr.  Andrew 
Carnegie.  The  programme  will  embrace  visits  to  works, 
docks,  and  iron  ore  mines,  and  excursions  will  be  arranged 
to  the  Lake  ■  District  and  to  Blackpool.  A  detailed  pro- 
gramme will  be  issued  when  the  local  arrangements  are 
further  advanced.  This  programme  will  contain  a  list  oJ 
the  papers  that  are  expected  to  be  read. 


NO.    1753,  VOL.   68] 


June  4,  1903] 


NATURE 


109 


The  twenty-first  congress  of  the  Sanitary  Institute  will 
be  held  at  Bradford  on  July  6-11.  The  inaugural  address 
10  the  congress  will  be  delivered  by  the  president,  the  Right 
Hon.  the  Earl  Stamford.  Numerous  sectional  meetings  will 
be  held,  the  sections  with  their  presidents  being  as  follows  :— 
(i)  Sanitary  science  and  preventive  medicine,  Prof.  T. 
Clifford  Allbutt,  F.R.S.  ;  (2)  engineering  and  architecture, 
Mr.  Maurice  Fitzmaurice,  C.M.G.  ;  (3)  physics,  chemistry 
and  biology.  Prof.  C.  Hunter  Stewart.  On  July  8  there 
will  be  conferences  of  those  engaged  in  the  various  branches 
of  practical  sanitary  science,  and  in  the  evening  a  con- 
versazione and  reception  by  the  Mayor  of  Bradford.  The 
>ncluding  day  will  be  devoted  to  excursions. 

f*  The  Physical  Society  has  for  several  years  held  its  meet- 
'ings  at  Burlington  House,  but  the  fellows  have  been  given 
notice  that  a  change  is  contemplated.  It  is  proposed  to 
hold  meetings  on  the  second  and  fourth  Fridays  of  the 
month  alternately  in  the  afternoon  and  the  evening  at  the 
Royal  College  of  Science,  South  Kensington.  The  council 
trusts  that  convenience  and  equipment  available  when  the 
Society  meets  in  a  physical  laboratory  will  encourage  fellows 
10  illustrate  their  papers  by  experiments,  and  thus  add  to 
the  interest  of  the  meetings.  The  council  has  also  under 
consideration  the  formation  of  a  student  class  in  the  Society. 
This  matter  will  shortly  be  brought  forward  at  a  special 
j,^eneral  meeting.. 

Mr.  R.  S.  Earp  writes  from  Buckfastleigh,  South  Devon, 
to  say  that  on  comparing  the  results  of  Prof.  Thorpe's 
;malysis  of  the  dust  of  "  red  rain  "  (p.  53)  with  his  own, 
the  chief  dissimilarity  was  found  in  the  amount  of  organic 
matter.  This  may  be  explained  by  the  fact  of  Prof.  Thorpe's 
analysis  being  of  the  sediment  only  of  the  rain,  whereas 
Mr.  Earp's  was  of  the  rain  itself,  or  rather  of  the  solid 
constituents  of  the  rain.  The  rain  collected  did  not  clear 
itself  even  on  long  standing,  the  supernatant  liquid  being 
emulsion-liiie  in  appearance.  Mr.  Earp  concludes  "  that 
the  greater  portion  of  the  organic  matter  would  exist 
suspended  in  the  fallen  rain,  and  so  would  not  appear  in 
the  result  of  Prof.  Thorpe's  analysis." 

The  scientific  balloon  ascents  on  April  2  were  participated 
in  by  Prance,  Germany,  Austria,  Russia,  and  Blue  Hill, 
L  .S.,  and  were  made  by  means  of  manned  and  registering 
balloons,  and  kites.  At  Trappes  the  registering  balloon 
burst  at  8550  metres;  minimum  temperature  — 47°o  C.  (at 
starting  6°-8).  At  Itteville  (Paris)  the  ascent  was  made  in 
the  evening;  temperature  — 54°o  at  9560  metres  (at  start- 
ing 8°o) ;  an  altitude  of  12,760  metres  was  reached.  At 
Strassburg  a  height  of  10,000  metres  was  attained  ;  mini- 
mum temperature  —  44°-4,  at  starting  (sh.  a.m.)  5°-7.  At 
Berlin  one  of  the  several  balloons  dispatched  reached  10,400 
niptres ;  at  8380  metres  the  temperature  was  — 42°o  (at 
starting  2°o),  while  another,  started  two  hours  earlier 
(4h.  57m.  a.m.),  recorded  —  47°-8  at  8670  metres.  At  Blue 
Hill  a  kite  reached  3067  metres,  temperature  —  6°-2  ;  at  the 
--ame  time  the  temperature  at  the  observatory  was  8°-i 
(height  159  metres).  Atmospheric  pressure  was  fairly 
uniform  over  Europe  on  the  day  of  the  ascents,  and  the  type 
of  weather  was  generally  cyclonic  in  character. 

In  a  paper  read  before  the  R.  Accademia  delle  Scienze 
(leir  Istituto  di  Bologna  on  January  11,  Prof.  A.  Righi 
describes  experiments  on  the  ionisation  of  air  by  an  elec- 
trified point.  Some  striking  results  depending  on  the 
motion  of  the  ions  along  the  electric  lines  of  force  were 
obtained.  A  sheet  of  ebonite  backed  by  a  metal  plate  was 
fixed  in  front  of  a  point  discharge,  and  between  them  was 
placed  a  wire  gauze  screen,  which  closed  an  aperture  in  a 

NO.    1753,  VOL.   681 


metal  case  surrounding  the  discharge.  A  spark  from  a 
Leyden  jar  to  the  metal  plate  produced  for  a  short  time 
a  powerful  electric  field  traversing  the  ebonite  plate  and 
the  air  space  between  it  and  the  gauze.  A  well-defined 
image  of  the  wire  gauze  was  then  developed  upon  the 
ebonite  by  treating  it  with  a  mixture  of  powdered  sulphur 
and  red  lead,  which  made  visible  the  portions  of  the  ebonite 
to  which  the  ions  had  imparted  a  charge.  The  "  electric 
shadow  "  of  the  wire  remains  free  from  charge. 

A  NEW  form  of  stereoscope  for  X-ray  work  is  described 
by  M.  T.  Guilloz  in  a  recent  number  of  the  Journal  de 
Physique.  A  single  X-ray  tube  is  used,  being  so  mounted 
that  it  can  be  rapidly  oscillated  between  two  positions.  A 
cam  rotating  at  a  speed  of  about  300  revolutions  per  minute 
is  used  to  oscillate  the  tube  ;  this  cam  is  cut  so  that  the  time 
taken  in  moving  from  one  position  of  rest  to  the  other  is 
about  i/ioth  of  the  time  of  rotation.  Two  radiographic 
images  of  the  object  under  examination  are  thus  formed  on 
the  screen  which  are  displaced  by  an  amount  varying  as 
the  amplitude  of  oscillation  of  the  tube  and  its  distance 
from  the  screen.  Two  shutters,  controlled  electromagnetic- 
ally  by  the  oscillating  apparatus,  allow  the  right  eye  to 
view  one  image  and  the  left  the  other,  vision  being  entirely 
cut  off  during  the  time  the  tube  is  changing  its  positipn. 
There  results,  naturally,  from  the  combination  of  these 
images  an  apparently  solid  reproduction  of  the  object.  It 
is  claimed  that  the  method  is  superior  to  those  employing 
two  tubes,  or  a  tube  with  two  anti-kathodes,  as  in  these 
cases  it  is  always  difficult  to  obtain  equal  effects  from  both 
lubes  or  anti-kathodes.  It  is  also  stated  that  the  tubes 
used  by  the  author  were  not  injuriously  affected  by  the 
vibration. 

The  Canadian  Department  of  the  Interior  has  issued  a 
clearly  printed  map  of  Manitoba  on  the  scale  of  an  inch  to 
12^  miles.  It  will  be  useful  to  those  desirous  of  taking  up 
land  in  the  country. 

P.4RTICULARS  of  the  mode  of  occurrence  and  removal  of  a 
carcase  of  the  mammoth  which  had  been  discovered 
in  1901  in  the  province  of  lakousk,  in  Siberia,  are  con- 
tributed with  illustrations  by  M.  L.  Elb^e  {La  Nature,  May 
23).  The  remains  were  half  embedded  in  the  snow  and 
ice,  and  there  were  still  preserved  the  eyes,  the  mouth,  and 
even  the  stomach.  Measurements  showed  that  the  animal 
was  about  3  metres  in  length  and  2  metres  in  height,  and 
must  have  weighed  about  1000  kg.  The  specimen  has  not 
yet  been  exhibited  in  public  owing  to  the  great  difficulties 
experienced  in  preserving  the  skin. 

In  the  annual  report  for  1902  of  the  State  Geologist  of 
New  Jersey,  Mr.  H.  B.  Kummel,  there  is  an  account  of  the 
copper  deposits  of  the  State,  by  Mr.  W.  H.  Weed.  Copper 
minerals  occur  at  many  localities  in  the  crystalline  rocks 
and  in  the  Triassic  Red  Sandstones,  but  only  in  the  Red 
Sandstones  are  they  of  economic  value.  In  these  rocks  the 
ores  are  almost  always  associated  with  basalt,  dolerite,  and 
diabase  of  very  uniform  chemical  composition,  and  from 
these  basic  igneous  rocks,  in  the  opinion  of  Mr.  Weed,  the 
copper  ores  have  been  derived. 

In  the  account  of  the  embryogeny  of  Zamia  which  Profs. 
Coulter  and  Chamberlain  present  in  the  Botanical  Gazette. 
they  show  that  during  this  stage  of  development  the  features 
of  Zamia  are  intermediate  between  those  presented  by  Cycas 
and  the  Conifers. 

In  the  Philippine  Islands  Government  laboratories  were 
organised  by  the  United  States  authorities  in  1901,  and  Dr. 
R.  P.  Strong  was  appointed  director.  The  first  annual 
report  gives  evidence  of  much  work  carried  out  under  uo- 


no 


NATURE 


[June  4,  1903 


favourable  conditions  in  temporary  laboratories.  The  work 
of  the  biological  department  is  mainly  pathological,  and  is 
concerned  with  the  study  of  Asiatic  cholera  and  other 
tropical  diseases.  New  laboratory  buildings  are  announced, 
in  which  special  facilities  will  be  offered  to  foreign  men  of 
science  who  wish  to  undertake  research  work. 

The  Californian  red  wood,  Sequoia  sempervireus,  forms 
the  subject  of  a  Bulletin  issued  by  the  U.S.  Department 
of  Agriculture.  Natural  reproduction  by  seedlings  is  rare, 
as  these  require  plenty  of  light,  but  the  writer,  Mr.  Fisher, 
shows  that  effective  second-growth  is  produced  by  sucker 
shoots.  A  brown  rot  disease  affecting  the  standing  tree 
is  described  by  Prof,  von  Schrenck,  but  the  cause  of  the 
disease  which  is  said  to  arise  in  the  heart  wood  has  not 
been  determined.  Another  Bulletin,  by  Mr.  Foley,  affords 
good  proof  of  the  value  of  careful  lumbering  as  adopted  on 
the  Sewanee  University  Estate,  Tennessee. 

In  addition  to  some  half-dozen  short  excursions  to  places 
of  interest  of  easy  access,  and  one  long  excursion  to  the 
north  Donegal  coast,  beginning  on  July  lo,  which  it 
has  arranged,  the  Belfast  Naturalists'  Field  Club  is 
offering  for  competition  during  the  session  ending  March 
31,  1904,  nineteen  prizes,  generally  of  the  value  of  one 
pound,  and  in  other  cases  of  ten  shillings,  for  collections 
of  different  botanical,  geological  and  zoological  objects. 
The  prizes  are  to  be  in  books  or  suitable  scientific  objects. 
Among  the  collections  asked  for  may  be  mentioned  the  best 
herbarium  of  local  flowering  plants,  representing  not  less 
than  150  species,  with  notes  on  variations  adapting  the 
plants  to  special  environments ;  the  algae  of  Larne  Lough, 
with  an  account  of  distribution  ;  the  algae  of  Belfast  Lough  ; 
fossils  from  the  Rhcetic  and  Lias  of  Ulster ;  and  the  best 
set  of  tv/elve  photographs  illustrative  of  any  one  branch 
of  Irish  archaeology.  A  prize  is  also  offered  for  the  best 
original  account  of  the  habits  of  any  marine  annelid. 

An  interesting  interim  report  upon  Cape  horse-sickness 
has  been  published  by  Dr.  Watkins  Pitchford,  the  Govern- 
ment bacteriologist  of  Natal.  In  some  respects  this  disease 
resembles  human  malaria,  for  it  especially  attacks  horses 
kept  on  low-lying  marshy  ground,  and  those  animals  left 
to  graze  all  night.  In  affected  districts  horses  may  be 
moved  during  the  day  without  contracting  the  disease. 
Dr.  Pitchford  now  suggests  that  a  mosquito,  probably  of 
the  genus  Anopheles,  is  responsible  for  the  conveyance  of 
the  infection.  He  has  stalled  horses  by  night  in  stables 
protected  by  wire  gauze,  or  by  a  smoky  atmosphere,  in  an 
infected  district,  with  the  result  that  they  all  remained 
perfectly  well,  whereas  horses  kept  around  and  similarly 
treated,  with  the  exception  of  the  protection  afforded  by 
the  wire  gauze  or  smoke,  succumbed.  He  therefore  believes 
that  it  is  established  that  horses  protected  from  the  attacks 
of  winged  insects  enjoy  immunity  from  horse-sickness. 

The  January  issue  of  the  Proceedings  of  the  Philadelphia 
Academy  contains  a  list  of  the  polycistid  gregarines  of  the 
United  States,  by  Mr.  H.  Crawley,  and  an  account  of  the 
habits  of  spiders,  by  Dr.  T.  H.  Montgomery. 

We  have  received  three  parts  (Nos.  10-12)  of  Manchester 
Museum  Notes,  in  two  of  which  Prof.  W.  B.  Dawkins 
deals  with  the  older  rocks  of  the  Isle  of  Man,  while  in  the 
third  he  describes  certain  iron  implements  found  in  the  old 
"  camp  "  in  Bigbury  Wood,  near  Canterbury.  These  im- 
plements prove  that  the  camp  belonged  to  the  prehistoric 
period,  and  from  this  it  is  inferred  that  the  well-known 
"  Pilgrims'  Way,"  which  traverses  such  a  large  extent  of 
country  in  the  south  of  England,  likewise  dates  from  that 
epoch. 

NO.    1753,  VOL.  68] 


The  greater  portion  of  the  May  number  of  the  Quarterly 
Journal  of  Microscopical  Science  is  occupied  by  an  important 
paper  from  the  pen  of  Mr.  H.  J.  Hansen,  of  Copenhagen, 
on  the  genera  and  species  of  the  myriopod  order  Symphyla. 
The  first  known  species  was  described  138  years  ago,  and  the 
order  is  now  known  to  contain  at  least  100  species.  The  other 
contents  of  this  part  include  an  account  of  the  body-cavity 
and  nephridia  of  the  Actinotrocha  larva,  by  Mr.  E.  S. 
Goodrich ;  a  description  of  various  acorn-worms  (Entero- 
pneusta)  from  Madras,  by  Mr.  R.  K.  Menon  ;  and  a  notice 
of  the  radiolarian  Planktonetta  atlantica,  by  Dr.  G.  H. 
Fowler.  The  latter  organism  is  distinguished  from  all 
other  members  of  its  group  by  the  possession  of  a  float,  a 
diaphragm,  and  a  single  bundle  of  tubes  of  communication. 

The  Times  of  May  19  contains  a  notice  of  the  results  of 
the  survey  of  the  fishes  of  the  Nile,  undertaken  by  the 
Egyptian  Government,  in  cooperation  with  the  trustees  of 
the  British  Museum,  which  has  just  been  brought  to  a  con- 
clusion, after  three  and  a  half  years'  hard  work  by  Mr. 
W.  S.  Loat,  who  has  had  charge  of  the  operations.  The 
scheme  was  due  to  the  initiation  of  the  late  Dr.  John 
Anderson,  and  although,  so  far  as  the  discovery  of  new 
species  is  concerned,  its  results  have  been  disappointing,  it 
has  yielded  important  information  with  regard  to  distribu- 
tion. Previous  to  the  survey,  the  number  of  species  of  fish 
known  to  inhabit  the  Nile  was  about  90 ;  it  is  now  more 
than  100,  Mr.  G.  A.  Boulenger  having  described  14  new 
species  from  among  a  collection  of  between  9000  and  10,000 
specimens.  Mr.  Loat  carried  his  survey  far  up  both  the 
Blue  and  the  White  Niles,  and  thus  completed  the  work 
begun  in  the  early  "  sixties  "  by  Consul  Petherick.  It  is 
satisfactory  to  learn  that  Mrs.  Anderson  has  made  arrange- 
ments for  the  publication  of  a  volume  on  the  fishes  of  Egypt 
in  the  same  style  as  those  on  the  mammals  and  reptiles. 

A  USEFUL  manual  for  practical  photographers,  by  Mr. 
Alfred  Watkins,  entitled  "  The  Watkins  Manual  of  Ex- 
posure and  Development,"  has  reached  a  second  edition. 
The  text-book  is  published  by  the  Watkins  Meter  Company, 
of  Hereford,  and  contains  much  information  likely  to  prove 
of  service  to  photographers  who  already  have  some  acquaint- 
ance with  the  subject,  as  well  as  to  beginners. 

The  fourth  edition  of  the  "  Official  Guide  "  to  the  Belfast 
and  Northern  Counties  Railway,  which  has  reached  us,  will 
provide  the  visitor  to  the  north  of  Ireland  with  just  the 
information  he  will  want.  The  guide  is  liberally  sup- 
plied with  maps  and  illustrations,  and  there  are  notes  on 
places  and  objects  of  scientific  interest.  The  book  is  pub- 
lished by  Messrs.  R.  Carswell  and  Son,  of  Belfast,  and  costs 
sixpence. 

A  NUMBER  of  attempts  have  been  made  at  various  times 
to  introduce  standard  points  on  the  temperature  scale  other 
than  the  freezing  point  and  boiling  point  of  water,  and  for 
high  temperature  work,  especially  the  standardisation  of 
platinum  resistance  thermometers,  Messrs.  Heycock  and 
Neville  have  recommended  the  use,  as  a  third  standard 
temperature,  of  the  boiling  point  of  sulphur.  The  Zeit- 
schrift  fiir  physikalische  Chemie  for  April  23  contains  an 
account  of  a  very  careful  determination,  by  Messrs.  T.  W. 
Richards  and  R.  C.  Wells,  of  the  position  on  the  inter- 
national hydrogen  scale  of  a  standard  temperature  inter- 
mediate between  the  freezing  point  and  boiling  point  of 
water.  As  the  mean  result  of  twenty-two  determinations 
made  with  four  different  thermometers,  it  was  found  that 
the  transition  temperature  at  which  the  monohydrate  and 
the  dekahydrate  of  sodium  sulphate  were  both  in  equilibrium 
with  an  aqueous  solution  of  the  salt  lay  at  32-383° +  0001. 


June  4,  1903] 


NA  TURE 


II I 


The  water  used  was  purified  by  distilling  twice  and  freezing 
in  a  platinum  vessel,  and  the  sodium  sulphate  was  crystal- 
lised until  it  gave  a  constant  transition  temperature. 

The  additions  to  the  Zoological  Society's  Gardens  during 
the  past  week  include  a  Serval  {Felis  serval)  from  South 
Africa,  presented  by  Mr.  C.  H.  Firmin  ;  a  Harlequin  Elaps 
(Flaps  fulvius)  from  Central  America,  presented  by  Captain 
J.  B.  Gilliat ;  a  Greater  Sulphur-crested  Cockatoo  (Cacatua 
galerita)  from  Australia,  deposited  ;  a  Chinchilla  (Chinchilla 
lanigera)  from  Chili,  purchased  ;  a  Japanese  Deer  (Cervus 
sika),  a  Sambur  Deer  (Cervus  aristotelis),  a  Red  Deer 
(Cervus  elaphus),  a  Thar  (Hemitragus  jemlaicus),  an 
American  Bison  (Bison  americanus),  born  in  the  Gardens. 


OUR  ASTRONOMICAL   COLUMN. 

A  Reported  Projection  on  Mars. — A  Reuter's  correspon- 
dent at  Cambridge,  U.S.A.,  states  that  the  Harvard  College 
Observatory  at  Flagstaff  reports  the  discovery  of  a  large 
projection  on  Mars  at  3.35  a.m.  (G.M.T.)  on  May  26.  The 
position  angle  of  the  projection  is  given  as  200°. 

Report  of  the  Oxford  University  Observatory. — From 
the  report  of  this  observatory  for  the  period  May  i,  1902, 
to  April  30,  1903,  just  issued  by  Prof.  H.  H.  Turner,  we 
learn  that  of  the  1180  plates  which  had  to  be  measured  and 
reduced  for  the  Astrographic  Chart,  iioo  are  now  com- 
pleted, 170  of  them  having  been  finished  during  the  period 
with  which  the  report  deals. 

When  these  measurements  are  completed  it  is  proposed 
to  undertake  the  measures  of  the  plates,  obtained  during 
the  opposition  of  1900-190 1,  of  the  planet  Eros,  for  the 
purpose  of  obtaining  a  more  trustworthy  value  for  the 
solar  parallax,  this  work  having  been  undertaken  as  a 
supplementary  labour  by  the  International  Astrographic 
Committee. 

Paragraph  vi.  of  the  report  gives  an  account  of  the 
fortuitous  discovery  of  Nova  Geminorum,  which  possibly 
would  not  have  been  discovered  at  Oxford  but  for  the  fact 
that  the  first  batch  of  plates  used  in  photographing  the 
Nova's  region  for  the  Chart  proved  faulty,  and  thereby 
rendered  it  necessary  that  this  zone  should  be  rephoto- 
graphed.  It  was  whilst  photographing  the  zone  the  second 
time  that  Mr.  Bellamy  used  the  Nova  as  a  "  setting  "  star, 
thereby  causing  the  inquiry  to  be  set  on  foot,  when  the 
plate  came  to  be  measured,  which  led  to  the  happy  discovery 
that  the  bright  star  he  had  used  in  setting  his  instrument 
was  a  hitherto  unknown  object. 

Periodicities  of  the  Tidal  Forces  and  Earthquakes. — 
In  a  paper  communicated  to  No.  3,  part  ii.,  vol.  Ixxi.  of  the 
Journal  of  the  Asiatic  Society  of  Bengal,  Mr.  R.  D.  Oldham, 
of  the  Geological  Survey  of  India,  discusses  the  rela- 
tions between  the  periodicity  of  the  earthquake  shocks  re- 
corded by  a  seismograph  set  up  at  Shillong,  Assam,  during 
the  period  August,  1897,  to  December,  1901,  and  the 
periodicity  of  the  tidal  forces  obtaining  at  that  place  during 
the  various  relative  positions  of  the  sun  and  moon. 

After  deducing  the  reasons  for  expecting  the  shocks  to 
appear  at  certain  times  during  the  day  and  night  when  the 
tidal  force  is  at  a  maximum  at  the  place  of  observation,  Mr. 
Oldham  sets  out  the  recorded  shocks  in  a  series  of  tables 
and  curves.  On  examining  these  it  is  clearly  seen  that  there 
was  a  real  and  a  very  large  variation  in  the  diurnal  dis- 
tribution of  shocks  in  Assam  during  1897-1901,  their  greatest 
frequencies  occurring  at  lo-ii  p.m.  and  6-7  a.m.,  and  super- 
imposed on  this  regular  but  unexplained  variation  there  was 
a  smaller  one,  which  appears  to  have  been  due  to  the  tidal 
stresses  set  up  by  the  attraction  of  the  sun.  If  this  latter 
variation  is  really  due  to  tidal  stress,  it  then  appears  that 
the  horizontal  component  of  the  stress  is  much  more  effective 
than  the  vertical  component,  whilst  the  effects  are  more 
dependent  on  the  rate  and  range  of  the  stress  than  on  its 
amount. 

Mr.  Oldham  points  out  that  these  results  are  purely  pro- 
visional,   dealing   as   they   do   with   only   a   short   period   of 


^o.  1753,  VOL.  68] 


observation  in  one  particular  locality,  but  urges  that  they 
are  definite  enough  to  warrant  the  obtaining  of  a  longer 
record  at  a  place,  situated  within  or  near  the  tropics,  where 
earthquakes  are  of  frequent  occurrence. 


MISHONGNO VI    ANTELOPE-SNAKE 
CEREMONIES.' 

T  N  each  of  five  of  the  seven  Hopi  pueblos  of  Arizona  are 
■*■  performed  during  each  year  from  eight  to  twelve  cere- 
monies of  nine  days'  duration.  The  rites  of  the  first  eight 
days  are  secret,  and  have  certain  elements  in  common  ;  all 
terminate  on  the  ninth  day  in  a  public  performance,  which 
has  many  elements  of  a  gorgeous  pageant. 

Of  the  summer  ceremonies,  those  held  by  the  Antelope 
and  Snake  societies,  which  cooperate,  are  the  most 
spectacular  and  best  known.  They  alternate  in  each 
village  annually,  with  the  ceremonies  performed  by  the 
Drab-  and  Blue-Flute  societies.  Thus,  in  even  years,  the 
Snake  and  Antelope  societies  perform  in  Oraibi,  Shumo- 
povi  and  Shipaulovi,  and  all  Flute  societies  in  Mishongnovi 
and  Oraibi ;  in  odd  years,  the  reverse  is  true. 

The  time  of  the  Snake-Antelope  ceremonies  is  determined 
by  the  date  of  the  last  day  of  the  Niman  ceremony,  which 
occurs  in  July,  and  at  which  time  the  Katcinas  and  masked 
gods  disappear  until  the  following  winter. 

Four  days  from  this  time,  certain  priests  of  the  Snake- 
Antelope  societies  meet  in  a  room,  make  certain  bahos  or 
prayer  sticks,  which  are  deposited  in  a  shrine  on  the  follow- 
ing morning,  at  which  time  the  village  Crier  announces 
from  the  house-top  the  date  of  the  first  day  of  the  Snake- 
Antelope  performance,  four  days  hence. 

At  that  time,  the  chief  priests  of  the  Snake-Antelope 
fraternities  meet  in  their  respective  kivas  or  underground 
chambers.  During  the  next  four  days,  the  Antelope  priests 
gather  in  constantly  increasing  numbers  in  their  kivas, 
make  bahos,  indulge  in  fraternal  smoking,  and  on  the  fifth 
day,  prepare  on  the  floor  of  their  kiva  a  sand  picture  and 
erect  their  altar. 

During  this  time  the  Snake  priests  have  been  engaged 
in  a  ceremonial  hunt  for  snakes,  scouring  the  country  to 
the  north  on  the  first  day,  on  the  west  on  the  second,  &c. 

Very  early  on  the  sixth,  seventh,  eighth  and  ninth  days 
the  Antelope  priests  gather  about  their  altar,  and,  re- 
inforced by  the  chief  priest  of  the  Snake  society  and  two 
personages  representing  the  Snake  Youth  and  Antelope 
Maiden  of  the  legend,  sing  eight  traditional  songs.  These 
performances  are  the  most  beautiful  and  sacred  of  the  entire 
ceremony.  On  the  eighth  and  ninth  days  of  this  singing 
ceremony  there  is  the  added  element  of  two  Snake  men, 
dressed  as  Kalehtaka  or  Warriors,  who  perform  with  the 
bull-roarer  and  lightning-shooter,  after  which  they,  with 
an  Antelope  priest  and  fifty  or  sixty  young  men  of  the 
village,  repair  to  a  spot  in  a  plain  far  below  the  mesa, 
where,  after  the  deposition  of  bahos  and  the  laying  of  cloud 
symbols  by  the  Antelope  priest,  there  begins  a  spirited  and 
exciting  race  on  the  part  of  the  young  men  to  the  summit 
of  the  mesa.  The  winner  of  the  race  on  each  morning  re- 
ceives from  the  hands  of  the  chief  o^the  Antelope  priests  a 
small  netted  gourd  containing  water  from  the  medicine 
bowl,  which  has  been  fertilised  by  smoke,  which  he  later 
deposits  in  his  field. 

On  the  afternoon  of  the  eighth  day  occurs  a  public  per- 
formance in  the  plaza,  participated  in  by  all  the  Antelope 
and  Snake  priests,  properly  costumed,  at  which  time  the 
Antelope  men  in  turn  carry  in  iheir  mouths  a  corn-husk 
packet,  receiving  it  from  the  kisi  or  booth  of  cottonwood 
especially  erected  in  the  plaza  for  this  purpose. 

On  the  ninth  day  occurs  the  most  sacredly  guarded  event 
in  the  Snake  kiva.  At  noon  the  snakes,  numbering  from 
sixty  to  eighty,  one-third  or  one-fourth  being  rattlesnakes, 
which  have  been  guarded  in  this  kiva  in  earthenware  jars, 
are  placed  in  one  large  bag.  The  Snake  priests  gather 
along  one  side  of  the  kiva  in  line,  seated  upon  stones.  In 
front  of  the  chief  priest  is  a  bowl  containing  medicine  water. 

1  "  The  Mishongnovi  Ceremonies  of  the  Snake  and  Antelope  Fraternities." 
By  George  A.  Dorsey  and  H.  R.  Voth.  Field  Columbian  Museum  Publi- 
cation 66,  Anthropological  Series,  vol.  iii.  N».  3. 


112 


NATURE 


[June  4,  1903 


The  Snake  priests  begin  shaking  their  snake  whips,  beat- 
ing time  to  the  set  of  traditional  songs  which  they  now 
sing  ;  the  chief  priest  now  plunges  his  hands  into  the  sack 
and  grabs  as  many  snakes  as  possible,  and  thrusts  them 
into  the  medicine  bowl  in  front  of  him,  then  violently  casts 
fhem  upon  the  floor  of  the  kxva  immediately  in  front  of  the 
priests,  the  floor  having  been  covered  with  a  two-inch  layer 
of    sand.     This   continues   until    all    the    snakes    have    been 


I'lo.  I.— Antt-lope  Priests  leaving 

washed,   the  priests  herding  the  snakes  with   their   whips, 
hands  and  bare  feet. 

The  remainder  of  the  afternoon  is  spent  by  the  priests  of 
both  fraternities  in  properly  costuming  themselves  for  the 
final  and  public  performance,  which  begins  as  the  sun  is 
about  to  sink  behind  the  San  Francisco  Mountains  in  the 
west. 

In  the  meantime  three  or  four  naked 
boys  have  been  herding  the  snakes  in 
a  corner  of  the  kiva  and  playing  with 
them,  tossing  them,  one  to  another, 
with  a  reckless  abandon  which  at  first 
is  startling  and  finally  commonplace. 

The  hour  having  arrived  for  the 
dance,  the  snakes  are  again  gathered 
up,  thrust  into  a  sack,  and  carried  by 
one  of  the  priests  to  the  hisi  in  the 
plaza,  within  which  he  secretes  himself. 
The  Antelope  priests  are  first  to  leave 
their  kiva,  and  proceed  in  single  file, 
led  by  their  chief  priest,  to  the  plaza, 
which  they  circle  four  times  and  halt 
in  line  in  front  of  the  hisi.  They  are 
closely  followed  by  the  Snake  priests, 
who  perform  similar  solutions,  halting 
also  in  front  of  the  hisi,  but  facing  the 
Antelope  priests.  The  appearance  of  the 
men  at  this  time,  as  they  proceed  to  the 
plaza,  is  very  striking  and  beautiful, 
forming  a  sight  not  to  be  forgotten. 
In  this  attitude  they  sing  several  songs, 
the  time  to  which  is  kept  by  the  snake 
men  with  their  snake  whips  and  long 
black  bahos,  and  by  the  antelope  men 
with  their  peculiar  Antelope  rattles.  As 
the  singing  proceeds  the  positions  of  the 
bodies  of  the  men  are  changed  from  time 
to  time,  in  accordance,  presumably,  with  the  movement  of 
the  drama.  As  the  end  of  a  certain  song  is  reached  the 
man  at  the  head  of  the  line  of  the  Snake  priests  leaves  his 
position,  passes  down  to  the  centre  of  the  line  of  the  Ante- 
lope priests  and  in  front  of  the  feist,  where  he  stops,  passes 
his  hand  in  between  the  Antelope  priests,  and  receives  from 
the  priest  within  the  kisi  a  snake,  which  he  grasps  with  his 

NO.    1753.  VOL.  68] 


lips,  at  a  position  about  four  inches  from  the  snake's  head. 

He   is  called   the  "  carrier."     He   is  followed   by   a  second 

Snake   priest   called    the   "  hugger,"    who    passes   his   arm 

over  the  first  priest's  shoulder  and,   with  his  snake  whip, 

guards  the  "  carrier's  "  face  from  the  snake's  head.     The 

"  hugger,"  in  turn,   is  followed  by  the  third  Snake  priest, 

known  as  the  "  gatherer,"  whose  duty  it  is  to  pick  up  the 

snake  should  it  wriggle  from  the  "  carrier's  "  mouthy  and 

so  the  entire  line  of  Snake  priests  files 

by  the  kisi,  every  third  man  receiving. a 

live  snake,  which  he  places  in  his  mouth. 

Thus     they     proceed     in     an     elongated 

^^  ( ircuit,    each    "  carrier  "    dropping    his 

snake  as  he. again  approaches  the  kisi, 

where    he    receives   a    fresh    snake.     By 

the  time  all  the  snakes  have  been  passed 

out,    the    hands   of    the   "  carriers  "   are 

well  filled  with  the  wriggling  snakes. 

A  circle  of  white  meal  is  now  spread 
iijion  the  ground  in  front  of  the  Ante- 
ii  pe  priests,  into  which  the  "  carriers  " 
1  ast  the  snakes  in  one  heap.  The  Snake 
priests  now  i:un.  by  the  snakes,  and  each 
man  plunges  both  hands  into  the  mass, 
and,  grasping  as  many  as  he  can,  starts 
'  (f  down  the  mesa-side,  the  first  man  to 
I  he  north,  the  second  to  the  west,  and 
-■)  on,  until  all  the  snakes  have  been 
I'lnoved,  each  priest  depositing  his 
nakes  together  with  a  baho  half-way 
'  *      ■•  'own  the  side  of  the  mesa. 

The  antelope  priests,  in  the  meantime, 
».-    c^^,,:.L'.-  have  again  circled  the  plaza  four  times, 

and  have  returned  to  the  roof  of  the 
Snake  kiva,  where  they  and  the  now 
returning  Snake  priests  drink  freely 
from  the  great  bowls  of  emetic  which  produces  violent 
vomiting.  The  priests  now  repair  to  their  respective  kivas, 
where  they  disrobe.  In  the  Snake  kiva  there  is  an  addi- 
tional discharming  ceremony,  followed  by  a  feast,  this 
being  the  first  food  the  chief  priests  have  taken  for  four 
days,  and  the  other  priests  since  the  preceding  day. 


aviiig  ilie  Ki 


The  four  days  following  this  public  performance  are  de- 
voted largely  to  sports  and  games  of  children,  in  which 
struggles  for  prizes  of  corn,  melons,  &c.,  together  with 
rabbit  hunts,  play  an  important  part. 

The  performances  just  described  in  outline  only  dramatise 
the  legend  of  the  Snake  clan.  The  entire  movement  of  the 
ceremony   has   for    its    immediate    and    ultimate   object  the 


June  4,  1903] 


NATURE 


II 


preparation  of  a  medicine  or  magic  which  will  be  so 
efficacious  as  to  overcome  the  magic  of  the  rain  clouds,  and 
cause  them  to  give  up  their  stores  of  water  ;  for  the  August 
suns  in  the  south-west  are  rapidly  drying  up  the  corn, 
which,  without  rain  at  this  period  of  the  year,  would  be  a 
failure.  But  when  it  is  remembered  that  the  Hopi  live 
almost  entirely  upon  vegetable  products,  of  which  corn 
forms  almost  80  per  cent.,  it  will  readily  be  understood  that, 
should  the  combined  efforts  of  the  two  .sets  of  priests  be 
not  successful,  famine  must  be  the  result.  As  each  snake 
is  released  with  a  haho,  it  bears  with  it  prayers  which  it 
is  supposed  to  transmit  to  the  great  plumed  serpent,  who 
has  influence  with  the  rain  gods  of  the  four  world  quarters. 
It  may  be  added  that  the  fundamental  element  of  nearly 
all  Hopi  ceremonies  is  the  production  of  a  magic  which 
will  overcome  the  magic  of  the  rain  clouds. 

So  far  as  the  writer  is  aware,  no  Hopi  has  ever  died  as 
a  result  of  a  snake-bite  during  these  ceremonies.  Nor  has 
he  ever  seen  a  priest  bitten  by  a  snake.  He  is  positive 
that  nothing  is  done  to  render  the  snakes  harmless.  Nor 
do  the  Hopi  have  any  antidote  for  the  poison  of  the  rattle- 


tion  of  not  a  few  shows  a  marked  approach  to  that  charac- 
teristic of  the  Cycads,   the  most  primitive  of  existing  seed 
plants.     These  plants,    therefore,    whilst   retaining  the  out- 
ward form  of  ferns,  are  in  reality  transitional  types.     For 
convenience,     these     plants,      which     include     the     genera 
Heterangium,  Lyginodendron,  MeduUosa,  and  many  others, 
'   have  been  placed   in  a  special  group,   the  Cycadofilices  or 
Fern-Cycads.     The  recognition  of  this  group  is  one  of  the 
more  interesting  results  that  has  accrued  in  recent  years  in 
fossil  botany,   and  the  view  that  the  Cycadofilices  are  the 
j   remains  of  a  natural  bridge  connecting  the  ferns  and  the 
j   Gymnosperms  has  received  wide  support. 
,       In  no  case,  however,  had  the  fructification  of  any  Fern- 
i   Cycad    been    definitely    recognised,    hence    it    remained    an 
!   open   question   whether   the   Cycadean   advance    which    was 
j   so   marked   a   feature  of  the  vegetative   organs     found   its 
;    counterpart  in  the  reproductive  process. 

In  the  paper  under  notice  the  authors  bring  forward  what 
i  they  regard  as  adequate  evidence  for  assigning  a  seed  to 
j  Lyginodendron,  perhaps  the  best  known  of  all  Cycadofilices, 
1   owing    to    its    admirable    preservation    and    very    common 


KiG.  3. — Priest  using  the  Snake  Whip  preparator>  to  picking  up  a  Snake. 


snake.  The  Hopi  seems  thoroughly  to  understand  the  rattle- 
snake, and  is  cautious  never  to  attempt  to  piclc  him  up 
when  in  a  coiled  position.  The  Snake  priest  always  carries 
with  him  his  snake  whip,  which  he  shakes  over  the  snake 
when  coiled,  as  he  is  about  to  pick  it  up  in  the  fields  during 
the  hunt,  or  in  the  hiva  as  he  transfers  it  from  the  snake 
bag  to  the  receptacle,  or  as  he  herds  the  snakes  in  the  kiva, 
or  picks  them  up  on  the  plaza.  Rarely  is  a  snake  seen 
coiled,  its  ambition  being  to  escape. 

George  A.  Dorsey. 


WERE    THE   FERN-CYCADS   SEED-BEARING 
PLANTS? 

"T*  HIS  was  the  burden  of  a  preliminary  paper  read  at 
-^  the  Royal  Society  on  May  7  by  Prof.  F.  W.  Oliver 
and  Dr.  D.  H.  Scott,  F.R.S.,  entitled  "  Lagenostoma 
Lomaxi,  the  seed  of  Lyginodendron." 

During  recent  years  the  petrified  remains  of  many  fern- 
like plants  from  the  Carboniferous  rocks  have  received  close 
attention,  with  the  striking  result  that  the  internal  organisa- 


NO.    1753.  VOL.   68] 


occurrence  in  xhe  calcareous  nodules  of  the  Lower  Coal- 
measures. 

Numerous  detached  seeds  are  known  from  the  Palaeozoic 
rocks,  but  in  no  case  has  it  been  ascertained  by  what  plants 
these  seeds  were  borne,  with  the  exception  of  certain  forms 
which  have  been  traced  to  the  extinct  family  of  the 
Cordaiteas,  and  the  curious  seed-like  fructifications  of  two 
Lycopods,  Lepidocarpon  and  Miadesmia.  The  rest,  although 
of  great  interest  in  the  details  of  their  organisation,  have 
remained  unassigned,  being  without  traces  of  their  origin, 
like  fallen  acorns  in  a  forest. 

In  the  case,  however,  of  the  seeds  placed  by  Williamson 
in  his  genus  Lagenostoma,  a  re-examination  has  revealed 
unexpected  points  of  agreement  between  the  structure  of 
the  envelopes  of  certain  of  these  seeds,  on  the  one  hand,  and 
the  vegetative  organs  of  Lyginodendron  on  the  other.  It 
appears  that  the  seed  named  Lagenostoma  Lomaxi  after 
its  discoverer,  and  occurring  chiefly  at  Dulesgate,  in 
Lancashire,  is  sometimes  still  attached  to  its  pedicel,  and 
is  found  enclosed  in  an  envelope  or  cupule  springing  from 
the  stalk  just  below  the  base  of  the  seed,  and  extending 
above  the  micropyle,  at  least  in  young  specimens.  The 
cupule,    in   its  relation   to   the   seed,    which    is  quite   small. 


114 


NATURE 


[June  4,  1903 


not  larger  than  a  pea,  may  be  compared  to  the  husk  of  a 
hazel-nut  in  miniature. 

Both  cupula  and  stalk  bear  numerous  capitate  glands, 
some  stalked,  others  sessile,  which  present  the  closest  agree- 
ment in  size,  form  and  structure  with  the  glands  which 
occur  on  the  vegetative  organs  of  Lyginodendron.  It  is 
the  agreement  between  these  glands,  so  close  as  to  amount 
to  identity,  that  forms  the  basis  of  the  attribution  of  the 
seed  to  Lyginodendron.  There  is  no  other  known  plant 
from  the  Coal-measures  with  glands  at  all  similar,  nor  is 
it  likely  that  any  unknown  Gymnosperm  should  exactly  re- 
semble Lyginodendron  in  these  characters.  The  vascular 
strands  which  traverse  stalk  and  cupule  present  the  closest 
agreement  with  those  of  Lyginodendron,  and  these  and 
other  characters  go  to  strengthen  the  conclusion  drawn 
from  a  comparison  of  the  glands,  and  further  support  the 
attribution.  The  evidence  will,  of  course,  be  weighed  by 
botanists.  Should  it  find  acceptation,  we  have  the  follow- 
ing position.  Lyginodendron,  a  fern-like  plant  with  certain 
Cycadean  characters,  possessed  seeds  (on  its  leaves,  so  it 
may  be  inferred  from  the  structure  of  the  stalk  and  cupule) 
as  fully  characterised  as  those  of  any  known  Palaeozoic 
gymnosperm.  It  retains,  so  far  as  its  vegetative  structure 
is  concerned,  the  intermediate  position  already  assigned  to 
it,  but  whereas  the  fern-like  characters  have  hitherto  seemed 
to  preponderate,  the  discovery  of  the  seed  inclines  the 
balance  strongly  on  the  Gymnospermous  side.  The  germ 
of  the  present  discovery  dates  from  the  time  when  it  became 
apparent  on  anatomical  grounds  that  Lyginodendron  was 
a  transitional  type.  Dr.  Scott  in  his  published  writings 
had  already  prepared  the  way,  and  the  position  now  gained 
is  the  logical  sequel.  Nor  is  it  likely  that  Lyginodendron 
stood  alone ;  we  must  be  prepared  to  find,  what  has  long 
been  recognised  as  a  possibility,  that  many  of  the  plants 
grouped  under  Cycadofilices  already  possessed  seeds,  and 
thus  that  a  considerable  proportion  of  the  so-called  "fern- 
fronds  "  of  the  Palaeobotanist  really  belonged  to  seed-bear- 
ing plants.  The  status  of  these  "  ferns  "  may  be  expected 
to_  take  many  years  to  unravel,  owing  to  the  difficulties  that 
will  be  encountered  in  discriminating  between  such  as  bear 
true  fern-sporangia  and  those  the  sporangia  of  which  are 
really  the  pollen-sacs  of  Gymnospermous  plants,  and  in  allo- 
cating the  numerous  impressions  which  are  quite  sterile.  It 
is  premature  to  speculate  how  far  back  in  the  fern-series  a 
seed  habit  obtained,  but  the  results  of  further  investigations 
in  this  field  will  be  awaited  with  interest. 


"TABLOID"  PREPARATIONS  FOR 
PHOTOGRAPHY. 

TTHERE  is  probably  no  one  who  has  reason  occasionally 
to  take_  a  photograph,  whether  for  simple  pleasure 
or  for  scientific  or  business  purposes,  without  having  at 
command  a  well-equipped  photographic  laboratory,  who 
does  not  consider  the  preparation  of  the  various  solutions 
required  as  a  messy,  troublesome  and  tedious  performance. 
And  the  getting  of  some  of  the  chemical  substances  in  a 
fit  state  for  use  is  a  very  real  difficulty,  only  to  be  got  over 
in  some  cases  by  procuring  the  original  packages  or  bottles 
as  issued  by  the  manufacturer,  and  containing  perhaps 
twenty  times  as  much  as  is  required.  We  have  known 
several  cases  where  so  common  a  substance  as  sodium 
sulphite  has  been  obtained  only  after  seeking  for  it  at 
several  druggists,  and  other  cases  where  the  work  was 
spoilt  by  reason  of  the  gross  impurity  of  the  material. 

These  and  similar  difficulties  are  now  matters  of  the  past 
for  those  who  use  the  "  tabloid  "  preparations  of  Messrs. 
Burroughs,  Wellcome  and  Co.  Instead  of  a  large  bottle 
of  stuff  awkward  to  manipulate  because  either  the  sub- 
stance is  in  hard  lumps  or  light  feathery  crystals,  one  has 
a  little  bottle  of  little  pills  that  need  no  weighing,  because 
the  contents  of  each  are  indicated  on  the  label.  In  the 
majority  of  cases  each  tabloid  has  in  it  the  quantity  of 
material  needed  for  one  ounce  of  solution,  so  that  any  bulk 
can  be  made  up  without  the  possibility  of  error  in  calcula- 
tion. The  tabloids  required  are  put  into  the  measure  glass, 
water  added,  stirred  a  little  or  crushed  with  a  glass  rod, 
and  the  solution  is  ready  for  use,  with  the  advantage  that 
it  is  fresh,  and  made  with  materials  that  can  be  relied  on. 

NO.  1753,  VOL.  68] 


In  many  cases  the  requisite  chemicals  are  mixed  in  the 
one  tabloid,  sulphite,  alkali,  and  bromide,  for  example  in 
developers,  but  there  are  no  secret  formulae,  as  the  contents 
of  every  tabloid  are  clearly  set  forth  on  the  label.  The 
formula,  if  necessary,  can  be  modified  to  any  extent  by 
adding  to  it  a  tabloid  of  one  or  the  other  ingredients ;  or, 
if  preferred,  tabloids  of  simple  unmixed  substances  may  be 
used  throughout. 

So  far  as  variety  goes,  practically  everything  that  is  re- 
quired in  photographic  practice  is  supplied,  including  even 
such  rarely  used  chemicals  as  potassium  percarbonate  and 
ammonium  persulphate.  There  is  a  large  selection  for 
making  gold  baths  for  the  toning  of  prints,  and  potassium 
ammonium  chromate  is  supplied  in  24-grain  tabloids  for 
sensitising  carbon  tissue.  Ferrous  oxalate  and  mercuric 
chloride  are  the  only  two  omissions  that  we  note ;  perhaps 
there  is  some  difficulty  with  regard  to  these. 

It  appeared  not  unlikely  that  some  of  the  chemicals 
might  show  signs  of  deterioration  from  their  manipulation 
in  the  preparation  of  the  tabloids,  but  those  that  we  have 
tested  have  proved  unexceptionable  in  quality.  These  prepar- 
ations are  worthy  the  attention  of  even  the  best  equipped 
photographer  working  at  home  in  his  own  laboratory, 
particularly  with  regard  to  the  chemicals  that  are  rarely 
required. 


A  NEW  INDEX  OF  APPLIED  SCIENCE. 

WE  have  received  a  copy  of  the  first  issue  of  a  new 
monthly  periodical  '  published  at  Brussels.  The 
title.  Index  of  the  Technical  Press,  appears  on  it  in  the 
three  languages  French,  English  and  German.  The 
object  of  the  publication  is  to  supply  a  monthly  index  of 
articles  of  general  interest  appearing  in  the  technical  Press 
throughout  the  world,  and  giving  the  title  with  a  brief 
explanation,  the  name  of  the  author,  the  origin,  the  date 
of  publication,  and  the  length.  In  the  case  of  articles 
appearing  in  the  English,  French,  and  German  papers,  these 
details  are  given  in  the  languages  in  which  they  originally 
appeared.  In  the  case  of  articles  printed  in  other  languages 
they  are  translated  into  French. 

One  very  good  characteristic  of  the  publication  is  that  it 
is  printed  on  one  side  of  the  paper  only,  and  in  a  convenient 
form  for  cutting  out  and  pasting  on  cards  for  use  in  con- 
nection with  card  indices. 

The  publishers  undertake  to  supply  cuttings  from  the 
original  papers  of  most  of  the  articles  indexed,  at  prices 
indicated  by  a  letter  affixed  to  each  entry.  Translations  can 
also  be  obtained  on  a  fixed  scale.  Such  a  publication  should" 
be  of  considerable  value  if  the  scheme  is  carried  out  with 
completeness,  and  the  subscription  price  of  five  francs  per 
annum  is  not  a  heavy  one.  Much,  however,  will  depend  on 
the  interpretation  given  to  the  expression  "  general 
interest." 

The  greater  part  of  the  issue  is  taken  up  with  entries  of 
engineering  articles  under  various  headings ;  some  of  these 
cover  rather  a  wide  field — electrical  engineering,  for  ex- 
ample, forms  one  of  the  sections,  without  any  subdivisions. 

Besides  engineering  articles,  there  are  sections  devoted  to 
statistics,  political  science,  political  economy,  law,  legisla- 
tion and  jurisprudence,  administration,  constabulary,  in- 
surance and  partnership,  commerce,  communication  and 
transport,  mathematics,  astronomy,  physics,  chemistry, 
geology,  medicine.  Various  trades  and  manufactures  are 
also  included. 

The  "  brief  explanation  "  promised  is  confined  to  very 
slight  extensions  of  the  title  in  some  cases,  so  that  the 
only  guide  to  the  value  of  an  article  is  the  name  of  the 
author  and  that  of  the  paper  from  which  it  is  taken.  This, 
however,  if  the  indexing  is  really  comprehensive,  should  be 
of  considerable  value,  more  especially  with  regard  to  subjects 
in  which  systematic  abstracts  are  not  obtainable. 

Rather  numerous  errors  are  made  in  printing  the  English 
and  German  entries,  especially  in  the  former.  They  are  not' 
of  a  character  to  cause  any  inconvenience  to  those  familiar 
with  the  languages,  but  they  are  unsightly,  and  their 
occurrence  might  easily  be  obviated  by  the  employment  of 
a  proof  reader  familiar  with  the  languages. 

G.  W.  DE  T. 

1  /ntie.r  of  the  Technical  Press.     (20  Rue  de  la  Chancellerie,  Brussels.) 


June  4,  1903] 


NATURE 


15 


|LL  who  are  interested  in  the  invertebrata  of  the  Trias 
►  will  be  pleased  to  see  the  supplement  recently  issued 
Die  Cephalopoden  der  Hallstatter  Kalke,"  by  Dr. 
mund  Mojsisovics  {Ahhanilungen  der  k.k.  Geologischen 
Reichsanstalt,  Band  vi.,  1902).  The  first  volume  of  this 
detailed  and  beautifully  illustrated  memoir,  published  in 
1873  and  1875,  contained  174  pages  of  text  and  70  finely 
executed  lithographic  plates.  The  second  volume  appeared 
in  1893,  and  extended  to  835  pages  and  130  plates.  The 
part  now  published  is  a  supplement  to  the  first  volume,  and 
continues  the  paging  from  175  to  356,  while  the  plates  are 
numbered  from  i  to  23  as  supplementary.  It  is  somewhat 
difficult  for  geologists  familiar  only  with  the  English  Trias 
to  realise  the  richness  of  the  fauna  described  in  this  memoir, 
which,  for  the  sufficient  illustration  of  the  Cephalopoda 
alone,  needs  223  large  quarto  plates.  The  author  speaks 
in  the  preface  of  the  somewhat  primitive  nomenclature  of 
the  earlier  parts  of  the  first  volume,  but  the  most  forward 
student  will  have  nothing  to  complain  of  in  this  direction 
in  the  present  supplement,  unless  it  be  the  use  of  such  im- 
possible names  as  Pompeckjites.  Some  interesting  remarks 
are  made  on  the  subdivisions  now  adopted  for  the  "  Hall- 
statter Kalke,"  and  a  table  of  these  is  given  on  p.  34;;. 
Among  the  forms  of  Cephalopods  here  described,  none 
perhaps  arc  more  remarkable  than  the  primitive  types  in- 
cluded in  the  Belemnitidae.  In  transitional  deposits  such 
as  the  Trias  one  expects  to  find  the  lingering  of  antique 
forms  and  the  foreshadowing  of  types  yet  to  come  ;  but  it 
is  a  little  startling  to  find  the  Carboniferous  genus  Pleuro- 
nautilus  so  nearly  associated  with  such  forms  as  Rhaco- 
phyllites,  which  so  strongly  reminds  us  of  the  Liassic 
Phylloceras  hcterophyllus.  The  author  is  to  be  congratu- 
lated on  the  successful  completion  of  this  monumental 
work,  which  has  engaged  his  attention  for  so  many  years, 
and,  by  this  supplement,  is  brought  fully  abreast  of  the 
present  time. 


UNIVERSITY  AND  EDUCATIONAL 
INTELLIGENCE. 

Oxford. — The  Romanes  lecture  will  be  delivered  by  Sir 
Oliver  J.  Lodge,  P'.R.S.,  in  the  Sheldonian  Theatre  on 
Friday,  June  12,  at  5  p.m.  The  subject  of  the  lecture  is 
"  Modern  Views  on  Matter." 

On  Saturday  last  Prof.  Tylor,  F.R.S.,  was  elected  an 
honorary  fellow  of  Balliol  College,  of  which  he  has  been 
a  member  since  his  appointment  as  Keeper  of  the  University 
Museum  and  reader  in  anthropology  in  1883. 

Last  week's  Gazette  contained  the  report  of  the  museum 
delegates  for  1902.  Considerable  additions  have  been  made, 
particularly  to  the  Pitt  Rivers  and  Hope  collections.  An 
important  change  in  administration  took  place  after  Prof. 
Tylor  resigned  the  keepership,  this  office  being  abolished 
and  replaced  by  a  secretary  to  the  museum  delegates.  Prof. 
Miers,  F.R.S.,  was  appointed  to  the  new  position.  During 
the  past  vf-ar  three  new  laboratories  have  been  added  to  the 
chemical  department,  and  an  electric  installation  has  been 
put  into  the  museum 

The  Junior  Scientific  Club  held  a  conversazione  in  the 
museum  on  the  evening  of  Tuesday,  May  26.  Lectures  were 
given  by  Sir  David  Salomons,  Bart.,  on  "  Motor  Cars," 
by  Prof.  Arthur  Thomson  on  "  Man's  Cranial  Form,"  and 
by  Prof.  Miers  on  "  Klondyke."  Among  the  exhibits  were 
an  excellent  demonstration  of  the  properties  of  radium  by 
Mr.  F.  Soddy,  a  show  of  collotype  and  three-colour  printing 
from  the  Clarendon  Press,  an  improved  form  of  capillary 
electrometer  by  Mr.  H.  S.  Souttar,  photographs  of  the  new 
star  in  Gemini  by  Prof.  Turner,  a  collection  of  living 
British  fresh-water  fish  by  Mr.  Morison,  a  demonstration 
of  the  principles  of  wireless  telegraphy  by  Mr.  Littlehailes 
and  Mr.  Lattey,  and  a  collection  of  apparatus  from  the 
Cambridge  Scientific  Instrument  Company  and  the  Mag- 
dalen College  Laboratory. 

Cambridge. — Dr.  Chase,  president  of  Queens'  College, 
lias  been  re-elected  Vice-Chancellor  for  the  ensuing 
.irademical  year. 

Mr.  F.  W.  \V.  Griffin,  King's,  has  been  appointed  to  the 

^c).  1753,  VOL.  68] 


university  table  in  the  Plymouth  Marine  Biological 
Laboratory. 

In  the  mathematical  tripos,  part  i.,  sixty -five  men  and 
eighteen  women  have  acquitted  themselves  so  as  to  deserve 
mathematical  honours. 

The  memoirs  of  Mr.  J.  Parkinson,  advanced  student  of 
St.  John's  College,  on  the  geology  of  Tintagel  and  David- 
stow,  and  on  the  rocks  of  Guernsey,  have  been  adjudged 
to  be  "  of  distinction  as  a  record  of  original  research." 


Dr.  Thomas  Slater  Price  has  been  nominated  to  succeed 
Mr.  Woodward  as  director  of  chemical  studies  at  the 
Birmingham  Municipal  Technical  School. 

An  exhibition  of  practical  work  executed  by  candidates 
at  the  technological  and  manual  training  examinations  of 
the  City  and  Guilds  Institute  will  be  opened  at  the  Imperial 
Institute  on  Thursday,  June  11,  at  3  p.m.,  by  the  Marquess 
of  Londonderry,  K.G. 

Science  announces  that  Prof.  William  H.  Brewer  has 
resigned  the  professorship  of  agriculture  at  Yale  University 
and  has  been  appointed  professor  emeritus.  At  Cornell 
University  Prof.  T.  F.  Hunt,  dean  of  the  Agricultural 
College,  of  the  Ohio  State  University,  has  been  appointed 
professor  of  agronomy,  and  Dr.  B.  F.  Kingsbury  has  been 
appointed  assistant  professor  of  embryology. 

On  the  occasion  of  the  commemoration  day  proceedings 
at  Livingstone  College,  Leyton,  on  June  10,  the  Bishop  of 
St.  Albans  will  preside.  Livingstone  College  has  rendered 
valuable  services,  not  only  to  missionaries,  but  also  to 
many  travellers  in  unhealthy  regions,  and  it  is  hoped  that 
the  present  opportunity  will  lead  to  much  greater  interest 
being  taken  in  the  work  carried  on  under  its  auspices. 

It  is  worthy  of  note  that  in  connection  with  a  short 
course  of  popular  lectures  on  nature-study  just  given  by  Mr. 
C.  Carus-Wilson  at  Ramsgate  and  Margate,  excursions 
were  arranged  to  places  of  geological  interest  in  the  neigh- 
bourhood. Field-work  and  personal  observation  of  natural 
objects  and  phenomena  are  essential  in  the  study  of  nature, 
and  it  is  to  be  hoped  that  wherever  popular  lectures  are 
given  on  natural  science  subjects,  outdoor  work  will  be 
arranged  in  connection  with  them. 

The  draft  charters  incorporating  universities  in  Man- 
chester and  Liverpool  have,  the  Times  reports,  been 
approved  by  the  Privy  Council  and  laid  before  Parliament. 
In  the  case  of  Manchester,  the  charter  provides  that  the 
University  shall  be  called  "  the  Victoria  University  of  Man- 
chester." A  description  is  given  of  the  powers  conferred 
upon  the  University  relating  to  such  matters  as  the  grant- 
ing and  conferring  of  degrees,  the  granting  of  diplomas, 
the  provision  of  instruction  in  such  branches  of  learning  as 
the  University  may  think  fit,  the  examination  and  inspec- 
tion of  schools,  and  the  affiliation  of  other  institutions.  The 
authorities  of  the  University  will  be  the  Chancellor,  the 
Vice-Chancellor,  two  Pro-Vice-Chancellors,  the  Court,  the 
Council,  the  Senate,  the  Board  of  Faculties,  and  the  Con- 
vocation, besides  a  treasurer  and  other  proper  officers.  In 
the  case  of  Liverpool,  the  charter  provides  that  the  Uni- 
versity shall  be  known  as  "  the  University  of  Liverpool." 
It  is  provided  that  Lord  Derby  shall  be  the  first  Chancellor 
of  the  University,  and  Mr.  A.  W.  W.  Dale,  now  principal 
of  University  College,  Liverpool,  the  first  Vice-Chancellor. 
The  supreme  governing  body  of  the  University  is  to  be  the 
Court,  and  the  governing  body  and  executive  of  the 
University  is  to  be  the  council ;  and  the  Senate,  consisting 
of  the  Vice-Chancellor,  the  deans  of  all  the  faculties,  all  the 
professors  of  the  University,  and  the  librarian,  will,  subject 
to  the  statutes  of  the  University  and  the  control  and 
approval  of  the  council,  regulate  and  superintend  the  educa- 
tion and  discipline  of  the  University. 

It  is  announced  in  the  Times  of  May  28  that  the  council 
of  the  Yorkshire  College  has  agreed  upon  the  principles 
upon  which  the  charter  for  the  proposed  new  Yorkshire 
University  should  be  based.  These  are  that  the  Yorkshire 
College  be  merged  in  the  University  ;  that  the  University 
be  founded  on  a  non-federal  basis,  but  that  it  be  empowered 
to  affiliate  other  institutions ;  and  that  the  University  be 
governed    by    a   court   of   governors    and    by    an    executive 


Ii6 


NATURE 


[June  4,  1903 


council.  Substantial  agreement  has  been  arrived  at  between 
the  three  colleges,  which  have  constituted  Victoria  Uni- 
versity, as  to  a  common  matriculation  examination  for  all 
the  three  Universities  of  Yorkshire,  Manchester,  and  Liver- 
pool, and  provision  has  been  made  for  a  joint  board  to  be 
constituted  from  the  three  Universities  to  deal  with  the 
question.  The  additions  to  the  staff  and  equipment  of  the 
college  essential  to  the  proper  carrying  on  of  an  independent 
University  will,  it  is  thought,  require  a  minimum  additional 
expenditure  of  about  7000/.  a  year,  while  extensive  additions 
will  also  be  required  to  the  college  buildings.  The  coal- 
owners  of  Yorkshire  have  decided  to  erect  a  separate  build- 
ing for  the  mining  department,  an^  have  collected  a  sum 
of  5500Z.  for  the  purpose.  The  council  of  the  college  is 
desirous  also  of  completing  the  main  block  of  the  college, 
and  it  is  estimated  that  this  would  cost  about  60,000/. 
Three  friends  of  the  college  have  each  promised  5000L,  while 
a  fourth  has  promised  2000Z.  The  Clothworkers'  Company 
of  London  offers  to  transfer  to  the  new  University  as  its 
absolute  property  the  whole  of  the  buildings  and  equipment 
of  the  textile  industries,  dyeing  and  art  departments,  which 
are  at  present  held  in  trust  by  the  college  for  the  Cloth- 
workers'  Company.  Attached  to  the  offer  is  a  condition 
that  these  departments  shall  be  recognised  as  integral  parts 
of  the  University.  The  Company  has  also  promised  to 
grant  in  perpetuity  to  the  University  for  the  maintenance 
of  these  departments  an  annual  sum  of  not  less  than  4000/. 
This  means  a  gift  to  the  University  of  a  capitalised  sum 
of  upwards  of  2oo,oooZ. 

We  learn  from  the  Pioneer  Mail  that  the  Government  of 
India  has  addressed  to  the  Bombay  Government  a  long 
letter  on  the  subject  of  the  proposed  Tata  endowment  of 
a  research  institute  for  India.  It  is  in  the  main  an  explan- 
ation of  the  delay  of  four  years  vyhich  has  occurred  in 
giving  effect  to  the  scheme.  As  has  been  already  explained 
in  these  columns,  the  scheme  owes  its  origin  to  the 
munificent  intentions  of  Mr.  J.  N.  Tata,  who  in  1896  pro- 
posed to  vest  in  trustees  properties  in  Bombay,  representing 
a  capital  of  thirty  lakhs  of  rupees,  in  order  that  the  net  in- 
come, amounting  to  some  8000L,  might  be  applied  towards 
the  endowment  of  a  research  institute  for  India.  The  pro- 
posal soon  assumed  the  form  of  an  Imperial  teaching  uni- 
versity, intended  to  train  Indian  graduates  in  scientific 
research,  to  confer  degrees,  and  to  select  the  best  students 
for  further  training  in  Europe  and  America.  Mr.  Tata  was 
later  asked  to  consider  whether  the  original  scheme  was  not 
too  ambitious,  and  whether  it  might  not  be  proceeded  with, 
so  far  as  funds  permitted,  leaving  the  further  development  to 
come  with  the  growth  of  income.  Mr.  Tata  met  a  small 
conference  of  educational  experts,  and  with  them  defined 
the  general  principles  to  be  kept  in  view  in  launching  the 
scheme.  Sir  William  Ramsay  was  invited  to  visit  India 
to  advise,  and  the  help  of  other  experts  was  obtained. 
Much  delay  has  been  caused  by  a  consideration  of  numerous 
recommendations  received,  but  we  are  glad  to  know  that 
financial  difficulties  appear  to  have  been  overcome,  and 
that  legislation  will  probably  soon  follow  with  a  view  to 
provide  India  with  an  institution  for  higher  scientific 
instruction.  The  institute  is  to  be  located  at  Bangalore, 
and  the  Mysore  durbar,  in  addition  to  making  a  free  grant 
of  land,  has  undertaken  to  contribute  3333/.  per  annum 
for  a  period  of  ten  years.  The  Government  of  India  is 
prepared  to  make  a  similar  annual  subsidy.  This  will  raise 
the  income  to  15,000/.  per  annum,  which  exceeds  by  1000/. 
the  highest  estimate  of  necessary  expenditure  framed  by  Sir 
\yilliam  Ramsay.  The  Government  also  proposes  to  con- 
tribute one  lakh  of  rupees  towards  the  cost  of  the  construc- 
tion and  equipment  of  the  necessary  buildings.  The  insti- 
tute is  to  comprise  a  department  of  chemistry,  a  department 
of  experimental  physics,  and  a  department  "of  experimental 
biology. 


SOCIETIES  AND  ACADEMIES. 
London. 
Royal  Society,  May  14.  — "The  Comhinatiun  of  Hydrogen 
and   Chlorine   under   the    Influence   of   Light."     By    P.    V. 
Bevan.     Communicated  by  Prof.  J.  J.  Thomson,  F.R.S. 

The  first  point  studied  in  this  investigation  was  the  initial 
expansion,  or  Dra:per  effect,  when  light  is  allowed  to  fall 
on   a   mixture   of   hydrogen   and   chlorine.     This   expansion 

NO.  1753,  VOL.  68] 


was  shown  to  be  due  to  heat  developed  by  the  combination 
of  the  hydrogen  and  chlorine  to  form  hydrochloric  acid. 
The  heat  effect  was  measured  by  the  change  in  resistance 
observed  in  a  fine  platinum  wire  sealed  through  the  bulb 
in  which  the  gas  mixture  was  exposed  to  light.  The  in- 
vestigation then  considers  the  period  of  induction  of 
Bunsen  and  Roscoe,  and  the  effects  of  various  intensities 
of  light  on  the  rate  of  combination.  Experiments  were  alsO' 
made  on  the  effect  of  illuminating  chlorine  before  mixing 
with  hydrogen,  and  the  original  observation  of  Draper — 
that  the  combination  takes  place  more  readily  after  this 
preillumination — was  confirmed.  If,  however,  the  gases  be 
bubbled  through  water  after  preillumination  of  chlorine, 
this  effect  is  destroyed,  and  the  gases  behave  like  the 
ordinary  mixture.  To  obtain  evidence  of  an  intermediate 
compound,  the  gases  were  submitted  to  sudden  expansion 
producing  supersaturation.  When  the  gases  were  dust  free 
a  nucleus-forming  substance  occurred  after  illumination,  so. 
that  on  the  expansion  a  cloud  was  formed  when  the  super- 
saturation  reached  a  certain  amount.  In  the  non-illumin- 
ated gas  mixture  no  cloud-producing  substance  could  be 
observed  with  yellow  light.  This  cloud  is  produced  in 
chlorine  alone.  In  the  mixture  of  hydrogen  and  chlorine 
the  cloud  appears  before  any  hydrochloric  acid  is  formed. 
The  theoretical  part  of  the  paper  considers  the  action  as 
taking  place  in  three  stages,  combination  to  form  complex 
molecules  containing  hydrogen  chlorine  and  water  mole- 
cules occurring,  and  then  a  break  down  of  this  complex 
system  giving  hydrochloric  acid  and  water.  The  view  thus 
taken  explains  the  chief  features  of  the  induction  period,  and 
can  be  extended  to  apply  to  other  similar  actions  where  a 
catalyser  is  necessary  for  the  progress  of  the  action. 

"  On  the  Photo-electric  Discharge  from  Metallic  Surfaces 
in  Different  Gases."  By  W.  Mansergh  Varley,  M.Sc.,. 
Ph.D.     Communicated  by  Prof.  J.  J.  Thomson,  F.R.S. 

The  object  of  the  experiments  was  to  study  the  effect  of 
the  pressure  and  nature  of  the  gas  with  which  a  metal 
surface  is  surrounded  upon  the  magnitude  of  the  photo- 
electric current  from  that  surface,  the  method  used  being 
to  draw  the  complete  curves  connecting  the  current  and 
the  potential  difference  at  each  pressure  or  In  each  gas 
examined,  keeping  the  intensity  of  the  ultra-violet  illumin- 
ation and  the  other  conditions  unaltered. 

A  suitable  source  of  ultra-violet  light  which  would  remain 
constant  in  intensity  while  long  series  of  observations  were 
being  taken  was  ultimately  found  in  the  spark  between 
iron  terminals  in  an  atmosphere  of  pure  dry  hydrogen.  The 
spark  gap  was  in  parallel  with  three  Leyden  jars  in  the 
secondary  circuit  of  an  induction  coil  used  as  a  transformer. 
The  photo-electric  currents  were  measured  from  a  metal 
surface  placed  a  few  millimetres  behind  a  fine  gauze, 
through  which  the  light  passed,  and  which  served  as  the 
positive  electrode.  A  brass  vessel,  with  a  quartz  window- 
to  admit  the  light,  served  to  contain  the  electrodes. 

Series  of  curves  were  obtained  showing  the  relation 
between  the  photo-electric  current  and  the  potential  at 
pressures  ranging  from  760  mm.  to  0-0014  mm.  They 
show  that  down  to  pressures  of  about  i  mm.  no  true 
saturation  currents  exist,  the  currents  always  increasing- 
with  the  potential,  but  less  rapidly  for  a  certain  range  of 
potential  gradients  than  for  lower  or  higher  potential 
gradients,  while  at  pressures  below  the  critical  pressure 
true  saturation  currents  exist. 

Curves  connecting  the  potentials  and  corresponding  photo- 
electric currents  in  air,  carbon  dioxide,  hydrogen  and 
carbon  monoxide  at  various  pressures  were  also  obtained, 
and  it  was  shown  that  the  curves  could  all  be  explained 
on  the  ionic  theory  of  conduction,  both  qualitatively  and 
quantitatively.  Zinc,  platinum  and  aluminium  electrodes 
were  employed. 

"  On  the  Discovery  of  a  Species  of  Trypanosoma  in  the 
Cerebro-spinal  Fluid  of  Cases  of  Sleeping  Sickness."  By 
Aldo  Casteilani,  M.D.  Communicated  by  the  Malaria 
Committee  of  the  Royal  Society. 

The  author  states  that  he  has  found  trypanosomes  to  be 
present  in  the  cerebro-spinal  fluid  in  twenty  out  of  thirty- 
four  cases  of  sleeping  sickness  examined ;  in  two  of  the 
cases  trypanosomes  were  also  found  in  the  lateral  ventricles, 
and  in  one  in  the  blood  taken  from  the  finger.  The 
cerebro-spinal  fluid  was  obtained  by  lumbar  puncture,  and 
as  the  trypanosomes  are  not  numerous,   it  was  first  centri- 


June  4,  1903] 


NATURE 


17 


fugalised  and  the  deposit  examined  microscopically.  This 
spe.-ies  of  trypanosoma  seems  to  differ  from  that  found  in  j 
human  trypanosomiasis  (7".  Gamhiense,  Dutton)  by  being 
less  motile,  by  the  micro-nucleus  being  situated  nearer  the 
extremity,  and  by  the  vacuole  being  larger.  Should  it  prove 
to  be  a  new  species,  the  author  suggests  that  it  should  be 
named  the  Trypanosoma  Ugandense.  The  author  had 
previously  isolated  a  streptococcus  in  this  disease  ;  he  now 
suggests  as  a  working  hypothesis  that  sleeping  sickness  | 
is  due  to  a  trypanosoma,  and  that  in  the  last  stages  there  is 
a  concomitant  streptococci  infection. 

In  a  note  to  this  communication  the  secretary  of  the 
Royal  Society  (Sir  M.  Foster)  states  that  a  telegram  has 
been  received  from  Colonel  Bruce,  who  is  continuing  Dr. 
Castellani's  investigations  in  Uganda,  announcing  that  he 
has  found  trypanosomes  in  the  cerebro-spinal  fluid  in  every 
one  of  thirty-eight  cases  examined,  and  in  the  blood  in 
twelve  out  of  thirteen  cases. 

Physical  Society,  May  22. — Dr.  R.  T.  Glazebrook, 
F.R.S.,  president,  in  the  chair. — Mr.  J.  Stttttner  gave  an 
exhibition  of  Nernst  lamps,  showing  their  development  from 
the  experimental  form  up  to  the  most  recent  types.  The 
oxides  used  for  the  glowers  are  thoria,  zirconia,  and  other 
rare  earths  thereto  related,  such  as  oxides  of  yttrium  and 
cerium.  A  paste  of  these  is  formed,  and  small  rods  or  tubes 
are  pressed  through  a  suitable  nozzle.  These  are  hardened 
and  cut  into  small  lengths,  and  practically  the  principal 
part  of  the  lamp  is  finished.  The  chief  difficulty  in  the 
practical  lamp  is  in  the  design  of  a  durable  automatic  heater 
to  heat  the  filament  up  to  conducting  point.  A  number 
of  automatic  arrangements  which  have  been  designed  for 
disconnecting  the  heater  were  shown.  Another  important 
part  of  a  Nernst  lamp  is  the  bolstering  resistance,  which 
in  its  final  development  consists  of  a  thin  iron  wire  sealed 
in  a  glass  bulb  filled  with  hydrogen  gas.  If  a  lamp  is  used 
without  a  bolstering  resistance,  as  soon  as  a  certain  critical 
potential  is  reached  the  current  increases,  at  first  slowly  and 
then  quicker  and  quicker,  the  potential  remaining  constant, 
until  the  lamp  burns  itself  out. — Mr.  T.  H.  Blakesley 
gave  an  exhibition  of  a  diagram  for  single-piece  lenses. 
The  properties  of  a  single-piece  lens  are  determined  by  four 
factors  : — the  two  radii  of  curvature,  the  thickness  of  the 
lens,  and  the  value  of  the  refractive  index  of  the  material  of 
which  it  is  composed.  In  the  case  of  a  lens  of  a  particular 
thickness  made  of  a  material  of  definite  refractive  index, 
the  variables  reduce  to  two,  namely,  the  ratios  of  the  radii 
of  curvature  to  the  thickness  of  the  lens.  Any  property  of 
the  lens  requires  a  relation  between  these  quantities.  It  is 
therefore  possible,  for  any  property,  to  draw  a  curve,  with 
r,/d  as  ordinates  and  r^/d  as  abscissae,  such  that  any  point 
on  the  curve  represents  a  lens  having  that  property.  Mr. 
Blakesley  has  drawn  curves  representing  several  properties. 
Where  two  curves  cut  there  is  a  point  which  gives  a  lens 
having  the  properties  due  to  both  curves.  By  means  of 
such  a  diagram  various  lenses  have  been  constructed,  and 
three  of  them  were  shown  at  the  meeting.  Of  these,  one 
was  equivalent  to  a  Huyghens  eye-piece  and  another  to  a 
collimator. — A  paper  on  an  instrument  for  measuring  the 
lateral  contraction  of  tie-bars,  and  on  the  determination  of 
Poisson's  ratio,  was  read  by  Mr.  J.  Morrow.  Practical 
methods  for  the  determination  of  the  ratio  of  lateral  to 
linear  strain  in  a  tie-bar  may  be  divided  into  three  classes. 
First,  those  in  which  two  coefficients  of  elasticity  are  deter- 
mined and  Poisson's  ratio  calculated;  second,  those  depend- 
ing on  the  deformation  of  the  section  of  a  beam  ;  and  lastly, 
methods  by  which  the  two  strains  are  actually  measured. 
The  experiments  described  in  the  paper  belong  to  the  third. 
From  a  table  of  results,  it  appears  that  the  average  values 
of  <r  are  for  mild  steel  0275,  Sheffield  spindle  steel  0276, 
wrought  iron  0277,  Muntz  metal  0341,  and  drawn  copoer 
I.  ,27.  The  specimens  were  not  annealed,  and  were  mostly 
about  one  inch  in  diameter.  For  the  experiments  on  cast 
iron,  two  series  of  specimens  were  carefully  cast  of  material 
of  good  average  quality.  These  were  loaded  several  times 
in  order  to  eliminate  permanent  set.  The  first  series  gave 
an  average  value  <r  =0246  and  the  second  <r  =0-252. 

Chemical  Society,  May  20 —Prof.  W,  A.  Tilden,  F.R.S.,  i 
pif'sident.  in  the  chair.— The  following  papers  were  read  :— 
riio  conditions  of  decomposition  of  ammonium   nitrite,   by 
\'.  II.  Veley.     The  decomposition  of  ammonium  nitrite  into 

NO.     1753,   VOL.   68] 


nitrogen  and  water  proceeds  according  to  the  general  law 
log.  A/A  —  x  —  afi,  whether  the  reaction  follows  its  normal 
course  or  is  accelerated  by  the  addition  of  another  sub- 
stance. The  decomposition  is  either  impeded  or  stopped 
by  ammonia,  aliphatic,  benzenoid  or  pyridine  amines  and 
aromatic  hydrazines,  and  to  a  less  degree  by  oximes,  but 
is  accelerated  by  aliphatic  amides. — Freezing  point  curves 
for  some  binary  mixtures  of  organic  substances,  chiefly 
phenols  and  amines,  by  Dr.  J.  C.  Philip.  When  freezing 
point  curves  for  mixtures  of  two  substances  are  constructed 
two  types  are  obtained  : — (a)  a  curve  consisting  of  two 
branches,  starting  from  the  freezing  points  of  the  con- 
stituents and  cutting  each  "other  at  a  eutectic  point;  (6)  the 
two  branches  are  cut  by  a  third  intermediate  curve,  which 
may  sometimes  have  a  summit.  Examples  of  the  latter 
type  have  been  found  for  the  systems  phenol — urea,  p-cresol 
— aniline,  phenol — a-naphthylaniine ,  phenol — p-toluidine, 
a-naphthol — p-toluidine,  phenol — picric  acid. — Isomeric 
partially  racemic  salts  containing  quinquevalent 
nitrogen.  Part  xi.  Derivatives  of  ti/-methylhydrindamine 
and  d/-neo-methylhydrindamine.  Isomeric  salts  of  the  type 
NR,R2H3,  by  G.  Tattersali  and  F.  S.  Kippinar.  A  de- 
scription of  these  compounds  was  given. — The  action  of 
liquefied  ammonia  on  chromic  chloride,  by  W.  R.  Lang^  and 
C.  M.  Carson.  In  this  reaction  a  salmon-coloured  powder 
is  produced  from  which  water  extracts  two  unstable,  crystal- 
line compounds  with  the  formulae  Cr2Cl5,i2NH3,2HjO  and 
Cr^Clj.ioNH,. — ^Note  on  the  action  of  methylamine  on 
chromic  chloride,  by  W.  R.  Lang  and  E.  H.  Jolliffe.  The 
reaction  is  similar  to  the  foregoing,  the  product  being  a 
pink  substance  of  the  composition  Cr2Clj,ioCH3.NH,. — 
Cholesterol,  by  R.  H.  Pickard  and  J.  Yates.  The  oxida- 
tion and  hydrolytic  products  of  cholesterol  obtained  from 
gall  stones  have  been  studied  ;  among  the  former  is  arachidic 
acid. — Sulphocampholenecarboxylic  acid,  by  Messrs.  Hardy 
and  Lap^orth. — Optically  active  esters  of  ;8-ketonic  and 
)3-aldehydic  acids.  iii.  Azo-derivatives  of  menthyl  aceto- 
acetate,  by  A.  Lapworth. — Hydrogen  cyanide  in  fodder 
plants,  by  J.  C.  Briinnich.  The  observation  of  Dunstan 
and  Henry  that  the  amount  of  prussic  acid  producible  from 
the  Sorghum  plant  increases  as  the  plant  matures  and  de- 
creases after  the  production  of  seed  has  been  confirmed  by 
a,  series  of  determinations  of  the  prussic  acid  obtainable  from 
manured  and  unmanured  plants  at  all  stages  of  growth. — 
The  chemical  reactions  involved  in  the  rusting  of  iron,  by 
Prof.  W.  R.  DMnstan,  F.R.S.  It  is  shown  that  the 
presence  of  liquid  water  and  oxygen  is  necessary  for  the 
formation  of  iron  rust ;  this  action  is  merely  accelerated,  not 
conditioned  by  the  presence  of  carbon  dioxide.  No  rusting 
occurs  when  pure  iron  is  kept  in  presence  of  oxygen  and 
water  vapour  at  constant  temperature  ;  the  rusting  of  iron 
is  prevented  by  the  presence  of  solutions  of  such  salts  as 
decompose  hydrogen  pero.xide,  whilst  its  formation  is  not 
inhibited  in  solutions  of  salts  in  presence  of  which  hydrogen 
peroxide  is  stable.  The  deduction  is  therefore  drawn  that 
hydrogen  peroxide  is  the  active  agent  in  the  production  of 
iron  rust. 

Geological  Society,  April  29.— Mr.  J,  J.  H.  Teall,  F.R.S., 
vice-president,  in  the  chair. — The  age  of  the  principal  lake- 
basins  between  the  Jura  and  the  Alps,  by  Dr.  Charles  S. 
Du  Riche  Preller.  The  author  deals  with  the  question 
reserved  from  a  preceding  paper,  that  is,  to  which  subse- 
quent period  the  formation  of  Swiss  lake-basins  should  be 
assigned.  By  the  light  of  further  recent  investigations  in 
the  different  localities,  he  first  considers  the  conditions  of 
the  Zurich  lake-valley,  and  then  applies  his  conclusions  to 
the  other  principal  lake-basins  lying  in  the  same  zone  along 
the  edge  of  the  Alps.  Evidence  is  adduced  to  show  that  the 
deep-level  gravel-beds  in  the  Limmat  Valley  near  and  below 
Zurich  are  essentially  fluviatile,  composed  of  the  charac- 
teristic Alpine  material  of  the  Rhine  and  Linth  drainage- 
areas,  and  similar  to  the  gravel  now  carried  by  the  River 
Sihl.  Ihese  gravel-beds  rest  upon  Glacial  clay  of  the  second 
glaciation,  which  fills  the  Molasse-bed  "of  the  valley  to  a 
great  depth,  and  are  overlain  by  the  moraine-bars  of  the 
third  glaciation,  the  latter  being  overlain  by  the  post-Glacial 
alluvia  of  the  Sihl.  On  mechanical  grounds,  it  is  difficult 
to  conceive  how  glaciers  could  either  bridge  or  completely 
fill  with  ice  such  extensive  basins  as  those  of  the  principal 
.\Ipine    lakes.       .'\s    regards    the    more    recently    enunciated , 


ii8 


NA  TURE 


[June  4,  1903 


argument  of  the  Deckenschotter  and  overlying  gravel-ex- 
posure in  the  Lorze  Valley,  apart  from  the  difficulty  of 
differentiating  the  second  and  third  glaciation  materials  in 
that  locality,  it  is  hazardous  to  deduce  from  a  local 
phenomenon,  and  more  especially  from  any  dip  of  loose 
gravel,  the  date  of  the  zonal  bending  extending  over  mora 
than  200  miles  along  the  edge  of  the  Alps.  The  author 
suggests  that  the  deep-level  Limmat  gravel  beds  were  de- 
posited by  a  river  during  the  second  inter-Glacial  period  ; 
that  the  lowering  of  the  valley  floor  was  initiated  in  the 
course  of  the  third  glaciation  ;  that  the  zonal  subsidence  con- 
tinued throughout  the  retreat  of  the  ice  ;  and  that  the  simul- 
taneous formation  of  the  lake-basin  should  be  assigned  to 
the  end  of  the  Glacial  period.  The  same  arguments  aonly 
also  to  the  origin  and  age  of  the  other  principal  zonal  lake- 
basins.  In  his  view,  the  position  and  depth  of  these 
basins,  as  well  as  the  intervening  ground,  point  to  the 
probability  that  the  bending  took  place  not  only  along  one 
line,  but  along  several,  that  the  bending  was  by  no  means 
of  uniform  depth,  and  that  therefore  the  Alps  did  not  sub- 
side as  a  rigid  mass,  but  that  the  zonal  bending  along  their 
edge  merely  extended  locally  for  some  distance  from  the 
deepest  points  of  the  lake-basins  along  the  floors  of  the 
principal  Alpine  river  valleys. — On  a  shelly  Boulder-clay 
in  the  so-called  palagonite  formation  of  Iceland,  by  Helgi 
Pjetursson.  There  is  no  equivalent  in  the  Tertiary 
basalt  plateaux  of  Britain  of  the  great  palagonite  form- 
ation of  Iceland.  The  basement  layer  of  the  breccia  form- 
ation, resting  directly  upon  the  basalts,  contains  glaciated 
blocks  of  all  sizes.  These  ground  moraines  are  followed  by 
tufaceous  sandstones,  conglomerate,  columnar  basalts,  other 
ground  moraines,  and  volcanic  tuffs  and  breccias.  At 
Birlandshofdi  a  shelly  Boulder-clay,  70  to  80  feet  thick, 
rests  upon  the  fundamental  basalt,  which  here  shows  a 
glaciated  surface.  Unbroken  shells  are  very  rare.  Astarte 
borealis  is  the  most  common  shell,  and  Saxicava  arctica 
and  Mya  truncata  are  less  common,  indicating  that  some 
of  the  older  moraines  are  of  Pleistocene  age.  The  author 
concludes  that  volcanic  activity  did  not  pause  in  Iceland 
during  the  Glacial  period,  but  that  it'  was  especially  active 
at  the  beginning  and  the  close  of  glaciation. 

An'hropological   Institute,  May   5. — Mr.    H.    Balfour, 

the  president,  exhibited  a  stone  celt,  worn  as  an  amulet, 
from  Benin  ;  some  silver  ex  voto  offerings  from  Malabar,  and 
a  dagger  from  Siam,  on  the  sheath  of  which  were  natural' 
markings,  interpreted  by  the  natives  to  represent  the  name 
of  Allah.— Mr.  A.  L.  Lewis  read  a  paper  on  some  stone 
circles  in  Derbyshire.  Mr.  Lewis  first  dealt  with  the  Arbor- 
low  circle,  which  has  recently  been  excavated  by  Mr.  Gray 
under  the  auspices  of  the  British  Association.  Like  the 
Avebury  circle,  Arborlow  is  surrounded  by  an  embankment 
outside  a  ditch,  the  latter,  therefore,  obviously  not  intended 
for  defensive  purposes.  All  the  stones  are  now  flat,  with 
the  exception  of  one  which  is  leaning,  and  in  consequence 
of  this  it  is  extremely  difficult  to  fix  the  circumferential 
line  or  diameter.  The  general  plan,  however,  is  oval.  Mr. 
Lewis  was  of  opinion  that  in  the  centre  there  was  a  group 
of  three  upright  stones  opening  to  a  point  somewhat  north 
of  east,  and  facing  probably  to  the  Beltane  sunrise.  A 
skeleton — apparently  a  late  interment — was  found  in  the 
centre,  but  part  of  the  embankment  on  the  south-east  has 
been  formed  into  a  tumulus,  which  was  found  to  contain 
an  interment  of  the  Bronze  age.  Mr.  Lewis  was  of  opinion 
that  sepulture  was  no  part  of  the  original  purpose  of  the 
monument.  Mr.  Lewis  also  referred  to  other  Derbyshire 
circles,  including  the  "  Wet  Withins  "  and  the  "  Nine 
Ladies."  With  regard  to  the  latter,  he  was  of  opinion  that 
the  term  "  nine  "  as  applied  to  standing  stones  simply  meant 
"  holy,"  and  in  support  of  this  view  he  cited  several  in- 
stances of  the  sacred  or  mystic  significance  of  the  number. 
— Mr.  Lewris  also  read  a  paper  on  some  notes  on  orientation. 
He  began  by  referring  to  the  association — pointed  out  by 
Dr.  Rivers — between  south  and  right  in  Welsh  and  other 
languages,  and  considered  that  the  reason  was  that,  when 
the  connection  first  arose,  the  people,  for  some  ceremonial 
purpose,  were  accustomed  to  turn  to  the  east  on  certain 
occasions,  when  their  right  sides  would  become  their  south 
sides,  and  he  incidentally  referred  to  the  almost  universal 
practice  of  church-goers  of  turning  to  the  east  at  the  recita- 
tion of  the  Creeds.     He  felt,  therefore,  that  it  was  possible 


that  the  connection  went  no  further  back  than  the  origin 
of  this  present-day  custom,  but  still  it  might  have  origin- 
ated in  far  remoter  periods.  The  Greeks  looked  upon  the 
right  side  as  prosperous,  while  the  Romans  looked  upon  it 
as  unlucky  ;  but  this  was  due  to  the  fact  that,  while  both 
peoples  looked  upon  the  north-east. as  the  favourable  quarter, 
the  Greeks  in  their  auguries  turned  to  the  north,  while  the 
Romans  turned  to  the  south.  Mr.  Lewis  mentioned  many 
instances  showing  how  the  north  was  looked  upon  as  un- 
lucky and  the  south  as  lucky,  but  this  belief  is  by  no  means 
universal,  and  on  the  whole  the  north-east  seems  to  be  con- 
sidered the  most  favourable  quarter,  and  then  the  east. 
Summarising,  Mr.  Lewis  was  of  opinion  that  on  the  whole 
the  quarter  from  which  the  sunlight  came  was  considered 
most  favourable,  and  that  the  question  of  the  favourableness 
of  the  right  or  left  sides  depended  on  the  position  taken  up 
at  the  ceremonies.  In  conclusion,  Mr.  Lewis  referred  to  a 
sort  of  symbolism  of  three  and  one  which  he  had  noticed 
in  several  stone  circles.  In  a  small  circle  in  the  Isle  of 
Man  there  was  a  combination  of  one  and  three  stones,  but 
in  many  instances  natural  objects — especially  the  peaks  of 
hills — have  been  used  to  suggest  the  symbolism.  This  is 
particularly  noticeable  at  the  circle  at  Penmaenmawr,  where 
the  Great  Orme  and  two  other  hills  make  a  trinity  to  the 
north-east,  and  at  the  circle  on  Bodmin  Moor,  where  the 
three  tips  of  Brown  Willy  are  visible,  due  east  of  the  circle, 
over  a  low  intervening  ridge. 

Entomological  Society,  May  6.— Prof.  E.  B.  Poulton,. 
F.R.S.,  president,  in  the  chair. — Mr.  Willoughby  Gardner 
exhibited  nest  cells  of  Osmia  xanthomelana  from  Conway, 
North  Wales.  He  said  the  species,  one  of  our  rarer  mason 
bees,  places  its  beautifully  constructed  pitcher-shaped  cells 
at  the  roots  of  grass,  usually  four  or  five  together.  There 
is  no  previous  record  of  the  nest  having  been  found  since 
Mr.  Waterhouse  discovered  and  described  it  from  Liverpool 
about  sixty-five  years  ago. — Mr.  M.  Jacoby  exhibited 
Arsoa  longimana,  Fairm.,  and  A.  aranea,  from  Madagascar, 
the  only  other  specimens  of  these  species  he  knew  of  being 
in  the  British  Museum  collection.  He  also  exhibited  Mega- 
lopus  melipona,  Bates,  and  M.  pilipes  from  the  Amazon, 
which  bore  a  remarkable  resemblance  to  a  bee. — Mr.  A.  J. 
Chitty  exhibited  Hydroporus  bilineatus,  Sturm.,  a  water- 
beetle  new  to  Britain,  discovered  by  Mr.  Edward  Water- 
house  among  some  specimens  of  Hydroporus  from  Deal, 
given  by  Mr.  Chitty  to  him  as  H.  granularis.  He  also  ex- 
hibited a  specimen  of  the  rare  Ttechus  rivularis  (incilis  of 
Dawson),  taken  at  Wicken  Fen  in  August,  1900. — Mr.  O.  E. 
Janson  exhibited  specimens  of  Neophaedimus  melaleitcus, 
Fairm.,  a  goliath  beetle  from  Upper  Tonkin,  and  remarked 
that  the  white  colouring  was  derived  from  a  dense  clothing 
of  peculiar  semi-transparent  coarse  scales  which  were 
apparently  easily  removed  by  abrasion,  and  seemed  to  par- 
take of  the  nature  of  the  "  fugitive  "  scales  found  upon 
freshly-emerged  specimens  of  Hemaris  and  other  Lepi- 
doptera. — The  president  read  a  communication  from  Mr. 
G.  F.  Leigh  on  protective  resemblance  and  other  modes 
of  defence  adopted  by  the  larvae  and  pupee  of  Natal  Lepi- 
doptera.  He  also  exhibited  the  cocoons  of  Eublemmistis 
■  chlorozonea  to  illustrate  the  paper.  Prof.  Poulton  also 
showed  a  specimen  of  Polygonia  C-album  in  the  attitude  of 
prolonged  repose,  together  with  specimens  of  Anaea  moeris 
set  in  different  ways  to  illustrate  its  probable  resting  posi- 
tion. He  said  that  probably  the  "  C  "  or  "  comma  "  on 
the  under  surface  of  the  hind-wings  in  butterflies  belonging 
to  the  genus  Polygonia  (Grapta)  represented  in  bright, 
strongly-reflecting  "  body-colour  "  the  light  shining  through 
a  semi-circular  rent  in  a  fragment  of  dead  leaf.— Mr. 
G.  A.  J.  Rothney  communicated  descriptions  of  twelve  new 
genera  and  species  of  Ichneumonidae,  and  three  new  species 
of  Ampulex  from  India,  by  Peter  Cameron. 

Linnean  Society,  May  7.— Prof.  S.  H.  Vines,  F.R.S., 
president,  in  the  chair. — The  Ingolfiellidae,  fam.  n.  ;  a  new 
type  of  Amphipoda,  by  Dr.  H.  J.  Hansen.  The  greatest 
depth  explored  by  the  Danish  Ingolf  expedition  in  the 
summers  of  1895  and  1896  was  that  of  1870  fathoms,  a  little 
south  of  the  entrance  to  Davis  Strait.  A  small  quantity  of 
bottom  material  showed  several  forms  new  to  science, 
amongst  which  was  a  single  specimen,  having  a  likeness 
to  the  Caprellidae,  but  with  pleopods  markedly  differing 
from  those  of  any  known  Amphipod.     Some  years  later  the 


^O-  i753>  VOL.  68] 


June  4,  1903] 


NATURE 


119 


author  examined  a  specimen  of  an  allied  species  obtained 
by  Dr.  Th.  Mortensen  from  an  island  in  the  Gulf  of  Siam. 
These  two  new  species,  Ingolfiella  ahyssi  and  Ingolfiella 
littoralis,  one  abyssal  from  the  North  Atlantic,  the  other 
from  shallow  water  in  the  Pacific,  agree  in  being  extremely 
minute. — On  the  evolution  of  the  Australian  Marsupialia  ; 
with  remarlts  on  the  relationships  of  the  marsupials  in 
general,  by  Mr.  B.  Arthur  Bensley.  The  paper  contains 
a  minute  description  of  the  dentition  of  more  than  forty 
genera,  and  treats  also  of  the  structure  of  the  hind  foot. 
Mr.  Bensley  considers  that  the  primary  division  of  the 
Marsupialia  should  be  based  on  the  condition  (syndactylous 
or  eleutherodactylous)  of  the  second  and  third  digits  of  the 
hind  foot,  rather  than  on  the  condition  (polyprotodont  or 
diprotodont)  of  the  incisor  teeth ;  and  he  is  disposed  on 
this  account  to  associate  the  Peramelidae  more  closely  with 
the  Phalangeridae  than  has  hitherto  been  customary.  The 
author  regards  the  Australian  marsupials  as  probably 
monophyletic,  and  considers,  with  Winge,  that  the  ancestral 
forms  were  primitive  members  of  the  Didelphidae,  a  family 
which  must  have  had  a  wide  geographical  distribution  in 
past  times.  A  study  of  the  dentition  impels  him  to  the 
conclusion  that  the  primitive  types  were  all  insectivorous, 
but  that  the  subsequent  radiation,  or  divergent  evolution, 
proceeded  along  two  primary  lines,  one  carnivorous,  culmin- 
ating in  Sarcophilus,  the  other  omnivorous  and  finally 
herbivorous.  In  the  second  line  all  of  the  advanced  forms 
are  diprotodont,  and  all  of  the  typical  terminal  forms  are 
highly  specialised  herbivora. — Copepoda  Calanoida,  chiefly 
abyssal,  from  the  Faroe  Channel  and  other  parts  of  the 
North  Atlantic,  by  Canon  A.  M.  Norman,  F.R.S.  Most 
of  the  Copepoda  mentioned  were  procured  by  Sir  John 
Murray  in  the  Triton  expedition  of  1882,  at  various  depths 
to  600  fathoms  ;  a  few  were  from  the  Valorous  expedition 
of  1875 ;  the  remainder  from  a  gathering  sent  by  Prof. 
Haddon  from  200  fathoms  forty  miles  N.N.W.  of  Achill 
Head.  Some  of  the  specimens  have  been  examined  and 
named  by  Prof.  G.  O.  Sars,  and  the  great  interest  of  the 
observations  now  laid  before  the  Society  consists  in  the 
record  of  the  geographical  distribution  of  these  small  but 
•ever  active  crustaceans.  Thus,  some  of  the  Faroe  Channel 
•species  found  at  considerable  depths  were  taken  by 
F.  Nansen  near  the  surface  at  the  point  reached  by  him 
nearest  the  Pole ;  the  varying  depths  at  which  these 
organisms  occur  constitute  isothermal  lines,  which  largely 
determine  their  dispersion. 

Dublin. 

Royal  Irish  Academy,  May  11. — Prof.  Atkinson,  presi- 
<ient,  in  the  chair. — Captain  G.  E.  H.  Barrett-Hamilton 
read  an  abstract  of  some  results  of  his  researches  into  the 
meaning  of  winter  whitening  in  mammals  and  birds  in- 
habiting snowy  countries,  and  the  occurrence  of  white 
markings  in  Vertebrates  generally.  He  finds  that  the  first- 
named  coloal--change  is  not  a  merely  external  factor  having 
as  its  purpose  the  adaptation  of  the  animal  to  its  environ- 
ment, but  a  peripheral  atrophy  symptomic  of  deep  physio- 
logical changes  occurring  in  species  possessing  a  meta- 
"bolism  which  varies  with  the  season.  Thus  the  white 
colour  affects  the  different  parts  of  the  body  in  the  same 
-order  as  that  in  which  subcutaneous  fat  is  accumulated  in 
the  panniculus  adiposus.  The  author  further  finds  a  con- 
nection between  much  of  the  permanently  white  parts  of 
Vertebrates  and  the  accumulation  of  subcutaneous  fat. 
Such  white  colour  is  then  due  to  peripheral  atrophy.  This 
atrophy  may  manifest  itself  either  in  deficiency  of  pigment 
or  in  complete  absence  of  hair. — Captain  Barrett-Hamil- 
ton also  read  a  description  of  a  remarkable  addition  to  the 
list  of  British  mammals  of  boreal  type.  This  is  a  bank 
vole  (Evotomys)  inhabiting  the  small  island  of  Skomer,  off 
the  coast  of  Pembrokeshire. — Mr.  G.  H.  Carpenter  read 
a  paper  on  the  relationships  between  the  classes  of  the 
Arthropoda.  In  opposition  to  certain  recent  speculations  as 
to  the  independent  origin  of  insects,  arachnids,  and  crus- 
taceans from  annelid  worms,  the  author  advocates  a 
common  .\rthropod  ancestry  for  the  various  classes.  The 
conclusion  drawn  from  the  numerical  agreement  in  seg- 
mentation between  typical  members  of  the  three  great 
Arthropod  classes  is  that  the  ancestral  arthropods  pos- 
-3essed  such  a  definite  and  limited  number  of  segments,  and 

NO.    1753,  VOL.  68] 


that  those  groups  with  a  large  number  of  segments,  such 
as  most  centipedes  and  millipedes,  and  many  branchiopoda 
and  trilobites,  represent  abnormal  developments. 

Paris. 
Academy  of  Sciences,    May  25. — M.  Albert   Gaudry  in 
the  chair. — The  action  of  acetylene  upon  caesium-ammonium 
and  rubidium-ammonium.     The  preparation  and  properties 
of  the  acetylenic  acetylides  Cj.Csj.CjHj,  C^Rbj.CjH,,    and 
the    carbides    of    caesium    and    rubidium,     by     M.     Henri 
Moissan.     By   the   action   of   acetylene   upon    solutions   of 
ciEsium    and   rubidium-ammonium    compounds    of    the    type 
CjRj.CoHj  are  formed,  from  which  the  carbides  CjRj  can 
be  obtained  by  heating  in  vacuo.     These  carbides  react  with 
water,   giving  the  alkali  and  pure  acetylene  ;  they  are  ex- 
tremely   energetic    reducing    agents,    acting   upon    the    per- 
oxides of   lead   and   manganese   with   explosive   violence. — 
The  influence  exerted  on  the  rotatory  power  of  cyclic  mole- 
cules by  the  introduction  of  double  linkages  into  the  nuclei 
containing  the  asymmetric  carbon  atom,  by  M.  A.  Haller. 
The  condensation  products  obtained  by  acting  upon  methyl- 
hexanone  with  aldehydes  in  presence  of  sodium  methylate 
have  been   examined  for   their  rotatory  power.     The  effect 
of  the  double  linkage  is  in  every  case  to  increase  the  rota- 
tion.— On   new  sources  of  radiations  capable  of  traversing 
metals,  wood  and  other  substances,  and  on  the  new  actions 
produced    by    these    radiations,    by    M.    R.    Blondlot.     By 
applying  the  method   described   in   an   earlier  paper,    using 
the  electric  spark  as  a  detector,  radiations  similar  to  those 
detected    in    the    light    from    an    incandescent    mantle    have 
now  been    found   to   be   emitted   from   an   ordinary  Argand 
burner,  and  from  a  sheet  of  incandescent  silver.     The  effects 
are  observed  after  the  radiations  have  passed  through  03 
mm.   of  aluminium,   black  paper,   &c.,    and   in  the  case  of 
the  polished  silver  sheet  are  polarised,  but  the  polarisation 
disappears    when    the    silver    is    covered    with    lamp    black. 
The   name   n-rays   is   suggested   for   these   radiations.     The 
n-rays  are  incapable  of  exciting  phogphorescence  in  bodies 
which  acquire  this  property  under  the  action  of  light,   but 
sulphide  of  calcium,  already  slightly  phosphorescent,  shows 
an    increase    in    lustre    when    exposed    to    these    rays. — M. 
Munier-Chalmas   was  elected   a  member   in   the   section   of 
mineralogy   in  the  place  of  the  late   M.    Hautefeuille. — On 
the  development  of  a  given  function  in  series  by  means  of 
Jacobi  polynomials,  by  M.  W.   SteklolT. — On  the  integra- 
bility  of  a  differential  expression,  by  M.  P.  Montel. — On  a 
theorem  of  Lejeune-Dirichlet,  by  M.  A.  Pellet. — On  double 
cylindrical  networks,  by  M.  L.  Raffy. — On  the  deformation 
of  surfaces,  by  M.  Maurice  Servant. — The  law  of  displace- 
ment   of   thermodynamic    equilibrium,    by    M.    E.    Arids.— 
On  the  simultaneous  variation  of  solar  spots  and  terrestrial 
temperatures,  by  M.  Alfred  Angrot.     If  at  any  given  station 
the  mean  annual  temperatures,  t,  present  a  variation  parallel 
to   the  number  of  sun-spots,   r,   the  relation   t  =  t„  +  ar   will 
hold  approximately,  t„  and  a  being  constants  characteristic 
of  the  station.     This  formula  is  applied  to  ten  years'  observ- 
ations from  Guadeloupe. — The  thermal  conductivity  of  crystal- 
lised  bismuth,   by   M.    F.   Louis   Perrot.     The  conductivity 
is  greatest  perpendicular  to  the  axis,   and  in   the  direction 
of  the  line  of  easiest  cleavage. — On  Hertzian  waves  in  wire- 
less telegraphy,  by  M.   G.  Ferrid. — On  the  polarised  light 
diffused  by  refraction,  by  M.  A.  Lafay. — On  the  combined 
hydrogen    contained    in    reduced    copper,    by    M.     Anatole 
Leduc.     Five  litres  of  air  passed  over  a  column  of  red-hot 
copper,  in  such  a  manner  as  to  ensure  superficial  oxidation 
along  its  whole  length,  still  leaves  a  weighable  amount  of 
hydrogen  in  the  copper. — On  the  decomposition  of  lithium 
carbonate    by    heat,    by    M.    P.    Lebeau.     Dissociation    of 
lithium   carbonate  commences  at  about  600°,    the  dissocia- 
tion   pressure    increasing    to    91    mm.    at    1000°    C,    and 
approaching  300  mm.  at   1200°  C.     An  attempt  to  prepare 
lithium    oxide   by   healing   the   carbonate    in    a    vacuum    at 
1000°    was   unsuccessful,    as   the   oxide   is    itself   volatile   at 
this  temperature,  in  which  respect  lithia  is  sharply  differen- 
tiated from  the  alkalies  and  alkaline  earths. — The  electro- 
lysis of  barium  sulphide  with  a  diaphragm,  by  MM.  Andr^ 
Brochet  and   Georges   Ranson.     Polysulphides  of  barium 
are  formed  at  the  anode,  and  baryta  at  the  kathode.     The 
latter  being  placed  in  a  porous  pot,  the  baryta  is  obtained 
in   a  pure  state, — On   the  mode  of  splitting  up  of   mixed 
organo-magnesium    compounds ;     the    action     of    ethylene 


I20 


NA  TURE 


[June  4,  1903 


oxide,  by  M.  V.  Grigrnard.  The  experiments  of  M.  Blaise 
have  been  repeated  under  slightly  different  conditions,  the 
ether  being-  distilled  off  before  water  is  added.  Good  yields 
of  primary  alcohols  are  thus  obtained,  ethyl  magnesium 
bromide  and  ethylene  oxide  giving  b2  per  cent,  of  the 
theoretical  yield  of  normal  butyl  alcohol. — On  acetones 
containing  acetylene  linkages.  A  new  synthesis  of  the 
pyrazols,  by  MM.  Ch.  Moureu  and  M.  Brachin.  Ketones 
of  the  type  R — C=C— Co — R',  which  can  be  prepared  by 
the  action  of  acid  chlorides  or  anhydrides  upon  the  sodium 
derivatives  of  substituted  acetylenes,  react  with  hydrazines 
to  form  pyrazols.  The  constitution  of  pyrazols  prepared 
from  unsymmetrical  ;8-diketones  can  thus  be  fixed  with 
certainty. — On  some  addition  products  of  vinyl-acetic  acid, 
by  M.  R.  Lespieau. — The  electrolytic  separation  of 
manganese  and  iron,  of  aluminium  from  iron  or  nickel, 
and  of  zinc  from  iron,  by  MM.  Hollard  and  Bertiaux. 
The  separations  are  simplified  by  the  reduction  of  'the  iron 
to  the  ferrous  state  by  means  of  sulphur  dioxide  before 
proceeding  to  the  electrolysis. — On  a  reaction  of  methyl 
violet  in  presence  of  sulphurous  acid,  by  M.  H.  Causse. 
— On  the  determination  of  the  respiratory  exchanges  in 
aquatic  media,  by  MM.  J.  P.  Bounhiol  and  A.  Foix. 
— The  mandibular  glands  of  the  larvae  of  the  Lepidoptera, 
by  M.  L.  Bordas. — On  Degeeria  funebris,  a  parasite  of 
Haltica  atnpelophaga,  by  MM.  C.  Vaney  and  A.  Conte. — 
On  the  browning  of  the  vine,  by  MM.  L.  Ravaz  and 
L.  Sicard. — On  the  start  of  a  lateral  branch  inserted  on 
the  axis  after  the  division  of  the  embryo,  by  M.  P.  Ledoux. 
— On  the  specialisation  of  parasitism  in  Erysiphe  graminis, 
by  M.  Em.  Marchal. — Sexuality  in  the  genus  Monascus, 
by  M.  P.  A.  Dang^eard. — Contribution  to  the  cytological 
study  of  chlorphyllian  bodies  containing  metachromatic 
corpuscles,  by  M.  Jules  Villard. — On  the  presence  of 
cadaverine  in  the  products  of  the  hydrolysis  of  muscle,  by 
MM.  A.  Etard  and  A.  Vila.  Cadaverine  was  isolated  in 
notable  quantities  from  the  products  of  the  hydrolysis  of 
muscle  in  a  slightly  decomposed  state.  The  occurrence  of 
(■onsiderable  quantities  of  this  alkaloid  in  slightly  -decom- 
posed meat  would  appear  to  exclude  the  hypothesis  of  micro- 
bial formation. — The  arrangement  of  the  scales  in  Meso- 
saurus  tenuidens,  by  M.  L^on  Vaillant. — Retinal  inertia 
relating  to  the  sense  of  form  ;  its  variation  according  to  the 
criterium  adopted.  The  formation  of  a  wave  of  sensibility 
on  the  retina,  by  MM.  Andr^  Broca  and  D.  Sulxer.— The 
destruction  of  termites,  by  M.  A.  Loir.  The  ravages  of 
these  ants  at  Bulawayo  were  so  great  that  special  attempts 
were  made  to  destroy  them  on  the  large  scale.  The  use 
of  gaseous  sulphur  dioxide  proved  very  effectual. — On  the 
artificial  culture  of  the  truffle,  by  M.  Raphael  Dubois. 


DIARY  OF  SOCIETIES. 

THURSDAY,  June  4. 
Royal    Institution,    ai    5.— Electric   Resonance   and    Wireless  Tele- 
graphy :  Prof.  J.  A.  Fleming,  F.R.S. 
Chemical  Society,  at  8.— Imino-ethers  corresponding  to  Orthosubstituted 
Benzenoid  Amines  :   G.  D.  Lander  and  F.  T.  Jewson.— (i)   Formation  of 
an  Anhydride  of  Camphoryloxime  ;  (2)  The  Mutarolation  of  Glucose  as 
influenced  by  Acids,   Bases  and  Salts  ;  (3J  The  Solubility  of  Dynamic 
Isomerides  :    T.   M.   Lowry. -(i)  Isomeric  Partially  Racemic   Salts  con- 
taining Quinquevalent  Nitrogen.    Part  X.    The  Four  Isomeric  Hydrind- 
amine     ^-Chlorocamphorsulphonates    NR]N2H3  ;     (2)    Isomeric    Com- 
pounds of  the  Type  NRjR.oHg:    F.   S.   Kipping.— The    Hydrolysis   of 
Ethyl  Mandelate  by  the  Fat  Splitting  Enzyme,  Lipase  :  H.  D.  Dakin. 
RoNTGEN    Society,   at    8.^0.— On   the   Electric   Field   surrounding  the 

X-Ray  Tube  :  Rev.  P.  Mulholland. 
LiNNEAN  Society,  at  8. — Anatomy  and  Development  of  Comys  in/e/ix, 
Embleton,  a  Hymenopterous  Parasite  of  Lecaniutn  hejnisj>>iaericnm  : 
Miss  Alice  L.  Embleton. — Notes  on  the  Transition  of  Opposite  Leaves 
into  the  Alternate  Arrangement  ;  a  New  Factor  in  Morphologic  Observa- 
tion :  Percy  Groom. 

/^i?//>y<I'.  Junes. 
Royal   Institution,    at  9.— The   New  Star  in  Gemini:    Prof.  H.  H. 

Turner,  F.R.S. 
Physical    Society,    at    5.— Special   Meeting    at    University    College.— 

Radio-active  Processes  :  Prof.  Rutherford. 
Gf.ologists'  AssociATion,  at  8. — The  Geology  of  Lower  Tweedside,  with 
Special  Reference  to  the  Long  Excursion  :  J.  G.  Goodchild. 
SATURDAY,  June  6. 
Royal  Institution,  at  3.— The  "  De  Magnete  "  and  its  Author  :   Prof. 
S.  P.  Thompson,  F.R.S. 

MONDAY,  June  8. 
Royal  Geographical  Society,  at  8.30.— Journeys  in  Mongolia  :  C.  W. 

Campbell. 
Institute  of  Actuaries,  at  5. — Annual  General  Meeting. 


WEDNESDAY,  June  10. 
Royal  Geographical  Society,  at  8.30.— The  First  Year's  Work  of  the 
National  Antarctic  Expedition  :  The  President. 

THURSDAY,  June  ii. 

Royal  Society,  at  4. — Election  of  Fellows.— At  4.30. — Probable  papers  : 
The  Bending  of  Electric  Waves  round  a  Conducting  Obstacle  ;  Amended 
Result :  H.  M.  Macdonald,  F.R  S. — On  the  Propagation  of  Tremors 
along  the  Surface  of  an  Elastic  Solid  :  Prof.  H.  Lamb,  F.R.S.— The 
Diffusion  of  Salts  in  Aqueous  Solutions  :  J  C.  Graham. — On  the  Structure 
of  Gold  Leaf,  and  the  Absorption  Spectrum  of  Gold  :  Prof.  J.  W.  Mallet, 
F.R.S. — On  Reptilian  Remains  from  the  Trias  of  Elgin  :  G.  A.  Boulenger, 
F.R.S. — A  Method  for  the  Investigation  of  Fossils  by  Serial  Sections: 
Prof.  W.  J.  .Sollas,  F.R.S.— An  Account  of  the  Devonian  Fish,  Palaeo- 
spoiidylus  Gunni,  Traquair  :  Prof.  W.  J.  Sollas,  r'.R.S.,  and  Miss  Igerna 
B.  J.  Sollas. — The  Measurements  of  Tissue  Fluid  in  Man  ;  Preliminary 
Note  :  Dr.  G.  Oliver. 

Mathematical  Society,  at  5.30. — Quaternions  :  Major  P.  A.  MaclMahon. 
— Automorphic  Functions  and  the  General  Theory  of  Algebraic  Curves  : 
Mr.  H.  W.  Richmond  — Jacobi's  Construction  for  Quadric  Surfaces  : 
Prof.  G.  B.  Mathews. 

FRIDAY,  June  12. 

Physical  Society,  at  s- — Some  Experiments  on  Shadows  in  an  Astigmatic 
Beam  of  Light  :  Prof.  S.  P.  Thompson. — The  Positive  lonisation  produced 
by  Hot  Platinum  in  Air  at  Low  Pressures  :  O.  W.  Richardson  — On  a 
Method  of  Determining  the  Viscosity  of  Pitch-like  Solids :  Prof.  F.  T. 
Trouton  and  E.  S   Andrews. 

Royal  Astronomical  Society,  at  5. 

Malacological  Society,  at  8.— A  List  of  Species  of  Molluscafrom  South 
Africa,  forming  an  Appendix  to  G.  B.  Sowerby's  "  Marine  Shells  of  South 
Africa":  E.  A.  Smith.  — On  a  New  Genus,  Planorbia,  Moore,  from  the 
Albert  Edward  and  Albert  Nyanzas :  J.  E.  S.  Moore.— Notes  on  Some 
Jurassic  Shells  from  Borneo,  including  a  New  Species  of  Trigonia : 
R.  Bullen  Newton.— Description  o^  Marginella  lateritia,  n.sp.,  from  the 
Andaman  Islands:  J.  C.  Melvill  and  E.  R.  Sykes.— New  Mollusca  fron\ 
New  Zealand  :  Rev.  W.  H.  Web.ster. 


NO.    1753,   VOL.    68] 


CONTENTS.  PAGE 

Infinite  Series.     By  G.  B.  M 97 

A  Plea  for  Interaction.     By  G.  S.  B 9g 

The  New  Encyclopaedia 9 

Bio-Chemistry.     By  A.  McK 99 

Our  Book  Shelf:— 

Howe:       "Metallurgical       Laboratory      Notes." — 

T.  K.  R. 100 

Gillies  and  Hall  :   '*  Nature  Studies  in   Australia." — 

r!  L.   ..... .       ...  100 

Petrilli :  '*  ConsideVazioni  agrarie  sul   Piano  di  Capi- 

tanata" 100 

Gore  :  "  The  Stellar  Heavens  " 101 

Stebbing :   "  Departmental    Notes    on     Insects    that 

Affect  Forestry " 101 

Treadwell:  "Analytical  Chemistry."— J.  B.  C.  .    .    .  101 
Letters  to   the   Editor  : — 

Coleridge's   Theory  of  Life.  — Sir    Samuel   Wilks, 

Bart.,  F.R.S 102 

Psychophysical      Interaction.— Oliver      Heaviside, 

F.R.S.;    {With  Diagram.)  G.  W.   Hemming.  102 
Atmospheric   Electricity.     By    C.    T.   R.    Wilson, 

F.R.S 102 

Rainfall  and  River  Flow  in  the  Thames  Basin.     By 

Dr.  Hugh  Robert  Mill 104 

J.  V.  Laborde  (1830-1903).     By  Dr.  J.  Deniker  .    .  io> 

Notes         106 

Our  Astronomical  Column  :— 

A  Reported  Projection  on  Mars      ...  1 1 1 

Report  of  The  Oxford  University  Observatory     .    .    .  in 

Periodicities  of  the  Tidal  Forces  and  Earthquake.'-^  .    .  1 1  f 
Mishongnovi  Antelope-Snake  Ceremonies.     (/////.- 

trated.)     By  George  A.  Dorsey  m 

Were  the  Fern-Cycads  Seed-bearing  Plants?    .        .  113 
"Tabloid"  Preparations  for  Photography      .    .    .    .114 

A  New  Index  of  Applied  Science.     By  G.  W.  de  T.  114 

Triassic  Cephalopods 115 

University  and  Educational  Intelligence 115 

Societies  and  Academies 116 

Diary  of  Societies 120. 


NATURE 


THURSDAY,    JUNE    ii,  ,1903. 


DIFFERENTIAL   E(2UATI0NS. 
A   Treatise  on  Differential  Eqiiaiions.     By  Prof.  A.  R. 
Forsyth,  Sc.D.,   LL.D.,  Math.D.,  F.R.S.      Pp.   xvi  + 
511.     Third   Edition.     (London:  Macmillan  and  Co., 
Ltd.,   1903.)     Price  \\s. 

THE  value  of  this  useful  text-book  has  been  increased 
by  the  inclusion  in  the  third  edition  of  important 
additional  matter. 

The  principal  additions  are  an  account  of  Runge's 
method  for  the  approximate  numerical  solution  of  or- 
dinary differential  equations,  of  Frobenius's  method  for 
the  integration  of  linear  equations  in  series,  and  of 
Jacobi's  theory  of  multipliers. 

The  chief  modifications  of  the  matter  treated  in  the 
earlier  editions  occur  in  the  treatment  of  Lagrange's 
linear  partial  differential  equation  of  the  first  order, 
in  the  discussion  of  the  condition  of  integrability  of  a 
total  differential  equation,  and  in  the  treatment  of 
Riccati's  equation. 

Of  the  above-mentioned  subjects  the  one  of  greatest 
theoretic  interest  is  probably  the  treatment  of  Lagrange's 
equation,  whilst  the  most  useful  is  Frobenius's  method  of 
integrating  linear  equations  in  series. 

The  theoretic  interest  of  the  treatment  of  Lagrange  s 
equation  arises  from  the  fact  that  until  Goursat  published 
his  "  Legons  sur  I'lntegration  des  Equations  aux  derivees 
partielles  du  premier  ordre"  in  1891,  the  widely  used  rule 
for  the  solution  of  Lagrange's  eq  uation  had  not  received 
adequate  demonstration. ^ 

If  u  —  a,  V  =  b  furnish  values  of  z  in  terms  of  x,  v 
which  satisfy  the  equation 

Vdzjdx  +  Qdzldy  =  R, 

where   P,    Q,    R  are  any  functions  of  x,  y,  z  ;   and  if 
■^{x.yy  s')  =  o  be  any  other  integral,  then   the  condition 

r  — — --1  =  o  must  be  satisfied,  7tot  necessarily  identi- 
ially^  but  in  virtue  of  the  relation  beticeen  x,  y,  z  given 
^J^^i^^y^^)  =  o-  It  is  only  when  the  above  condition 
is  satisfied  identically  that  \|/- is  a  function  of  u,v.  In 
this  case  \//-  is  certainly  included  in  the  general  integral. 
But  it  is  possible  to  take  a  case  of  the  general  integral, 
and  put  it  into  a  form  in  which  the  Jacobian  does  not 
vanish  identically  ;  e.^i^.  if  xdz/dx  +  ydz/dy  —  z,  we  may 
take  u  =  y'x,  v  =  x/z,  >//•  =:y/x  -  x/z  and  the  Jacobian 
vanishes  identically;  but  if  we  put  \lr=yz  -  .v^,  then 
the  Jacobian  =  -  2\j/  (xz-),  which  vanishes  only  when  the 
relation  between  the  variables  is  such  as  to  make  yjr  =  o. 
Finally,  it  is  possible  to  have  singular  integrals,  which 
cannot  be  expressed  in  the  form  of  the  general  integral 
at  all.  In  this  case,  let  u  =  a,  v  =  b  be  two  integrals, 
and  let  /{x,y,  z)  =  o  be  any  other  integral,  then  by 
elimination   o(  y,  z  express  /(x,y,z)  =  o   in   the   form 

hen  if  D  denote  partial  differentiation  when  x,  u,  v 
the   independent  variables,    it   can   be   shown  that 

-  e     Chrystal,     Transactions  of   the   Royal   Society    of  Edinburgh, 
\xxvi.  part  ii.,  p.  551  (i8gi). 

ir  by  eliminating  s,  x  in  the  form   ^(y,  ji,  v)  =  o,  or  by  eliminating 
ill  the  form  x{z,  «,  t»)  —  o. 


NO.    1754,  VOL.  6^'] 


PD0(.i-,  u,  v)!'Dx  must  vanish,  not  identically,  but  in 
virtue  of  the  relation  between  .r, 7,  z  given  hy f{x,y,  z)  =  o. 
Prof.  Forsyth  proves  that  if  P,  Q,  R  are  regular  for  values 
o(  x,y,z\n  the  vicinity  of  any  point  on  the  integral 
f{x,y,z)^-o,  then  this  integral  is  included  in  the 
general  mtegral.     Taking  as  an  example  the  equation 

(1+  s':-.v-^)  dzldx  +  d^ldy=^2, 
we  may  take 

u  =  2y-z,v=y  +  2^Jz-x-y; 
and  z=x+y  is  an  integral  not  included  in  the  general 
integral.     In  this  case 

<f>{x,  M,  &)  =  (I  -  x'l  -!  r-ii-  .\ )-, 
and    PD0(.r, /^,  7/)/D.v  =  -    ^/^-.i-i',     which    vanishes 
when  z  =  X  +  y.     In  this  case  it  is  at  once  seen  that  the 
coefficient     V  ^  i  +  >Jz  -  x  -  y  \s  not  regular    in    the 
vicinity  of  points  on  the  integral  z=x->ry. 

A  similar  point,  arising  out  of  the  conditional  vanish- 
ing of  a  Jacobian,  comes  up  in  connection  with  Art.  12. 
It  is  there  proved  that  an  ordinary  differential  equation 
of  the  first  order  and  degree,  with  coefficients  which  are 
one-valued  functions  of  the  variables,  has  only  one  in- 
dependent primitive. 

As  soon  as  the  reader  reaches  the  subject  of 
singular  solutions,  he  is  forced  to  ask  himself  why  the 
reasoning  in  Art.  12  is  inapplicable.  He  wishes  to  have 
an  explanation  of  the  fact  that  the  many-valuedness  of 
the  coefficients  causes  the  reasoning  to  fail. 

Suppose  the  equation  is  idyldx  -f  .r  -I-  \/.r-  +  4  y  =  o. 
Two  primitives  of  this  are  f2  -\-cx-y  ^oand;*:^  -}- 4j  =  o. 
Their  Jacobian  is  ^{x  -f-  2^),  which  does  not  vanish 
identically,  but  conditionally,  viz.,  at  the  point  of  con- 
tact of  the  envelope  .r^  -|-  4/  =  o  by  the  complete  primi- 
tive c^  4-  ex  -  y  =  o. 

The  method  of  Frobenius  for  integrating  linear  dif- 
ferential equations  in  series  is  explained  on  pp.  235- 
249,  and  is  applied  to  the  solution  of  Bessel's  equation. 
It  is  of  a  more  general  character  than  the  special  method 
applied  to  the  same  equation  in  chapter  v.  ;  and  it  ex- 
hibits the  connection  between  the  two  solutions  found  by 
it.  The  connection  between  the  two  solutions  obtained 
in  chapter  v.  is  difficult  to  perceive;  and  Frobenius's 
method  has  the  advantage  both  in  directness  and 
simplicity.     It  is  a  valuable  addition  to  the  book. 

Runge's  method  for  the  numerical  solution  of  dif- 
ferential equations  has  suffered  somewhat  in  the  com- 
pression which  the  author  has  found  necessary. 
Nevertheless,  one  cannot  help  regretting  the  omission  to 
state  the  geometrical  meaning  of  the  expressions 
employed,  and  the  connection  of  the  method  with 
Simpson's  rule  for  the  approximate  evaluation  of  an 
integral.  The  student  will  probably  be  greatly  perplexed 
as  to  the  origin  of  the  various  quantities  introduced  and 
used  in  the  investigation. 

There  are  several  difficulties  in  the  discussion  of  the 
differential  equation  which  is  satisfied  by  the  hyper- 
geometric  series  in  chapter  vi.  Although  the  subject 
cannot  be  properly  dealt  with  without  assuming  a  know- 
ledge of  the  theory  of  functions,  which  is  not  to  be 
expected  of  the  majority  of  the  readers  of  the  book,  yet 
there  are  some  very  obvious  difficulties  which  could  be 
removed  by  short  explanations. 


NATURE 


[June 


1903 


It  is  stated  (Art.  122)  that  there  is  a  linear  relation 
between  any  three  of  the  twenty-four  integrals  of  the 
equation.  The  limitation  that  it  is  essential  to  consider 
only  such  groups  of  three  integrals  as  have  a  common 
domain  does  not  appear  until  we  reach  Art.  124,  where 
it  seems  to  contradict  the  statement  in  Art.  122. 

The  twenty-four  integrals  are  divided  into  six  groups 
of  four  each,  and  the  members  of  each  group  of  four  are 
described  as  being  equal.  It  should  be  pointed  out  that 
the  members  of  each  group  of  four  fall  into  two  pairs, 
that  the  members  of  one  of  these  pairs  are  equivalent  to 
one  another,  as  they  have  the  same  domain  ;  but  they  do 
not  have  the  same  domain  as  the  members  of  the  other 
pair  (which  are  equivalent  to  one  another).  The  four 
members  of  a  group  of  four  are  equivalent  to  one  another 
only  in  the  domain  common  to  them  all.  The  integrals 
of  one  pair  are  to  be  regarded  as  continuations  of  the 
integrals  of  the  other  pair.  From  this  it  follows  that  in 
any  lineu.i  lelation  between  three  of  the  integrals,  it  is 
not  possible  to  replace  any  integral  by  another  member  of 
the  group  of  four  to  which  it  belongs  without  examining 
whether  the  integrals  appearing  in  the  ,final  relation  have 
a  common  domain. 

For  example,  relation  No.  (vi.),  p.  219,  viz. : — 

Yi  =  M5Y5  +  NgYe 
is  intelligible  if  we  take 
_  Yj  =  F(a,  &,  7,  x) 
Yg  =  (I    -  x)"^  rfa,  7-/3,   a  -  /3  4-  I,    _i_  "\ 

Ye  =  (I  -  ^)  ~^  r(|^i3,  7  -  «,  /3  -  o  +  I,  -J-_  \ 

because  these  integrals  have  a  common  domain.  But  it 
becomes  meaningless  if  we  replace 

Y5  by  x"^  Y(a,  0-7-1-  I,a-i3-|-i,  }\ 

ngs  to  the  same   group  of  four   inte 
»usly  taken  for  Y5  ;  and  if  we  replace 

Ygby  ^"^Ffj3,  /8  -  7  -t-  I,  3  -  a  +  I,  i^  ; 

for  Yi,  Y5,  Yg  have  now  no  common  domain,  except 
possibly  points  on  the  unit  circle.  This  peculiarity 
had  been  noticed  by  Kummer  in  his  memoir  on  the 
hypergeometric  series.  He  held  that  even  supposing 
we  make  the  changes  described  above  for  Y5  and 
Yg,  the  equation  should  not  be  rejected  as  meaningless  ; 
for  the  two  sides  are  now  the  expansions  of  the  same 
function  of  ,r,  one  proceeding  according  to  powers  of  ;r, 
and  convergent  inside  the  unit  circle,  the  other  proceeding 

according   to  powers  of  —  and  convergent  outside  the 

unit  circle  ;  and  he  illustrated  the  subject  by  deducing 
from  one  side  of  one  of  the  equations  the  expansion  of 
tan  X  in  powers  of  .r,  and  from  the  other  side  of  the 

equation  its  expansion  in  powers  of  — . 

The  whole   subject   received  a    thorough  revision  by 

Goursat  (in  the  Annales  de  I'Ecole  Normale  Sup^rieure, 

Ser.  ii.  t.  x.   1881),  who  shows  that  in  some  cases  the 

linear  relations  between  the  three  integrals  do  not  possess 

NO.   1754,  VOL.  68] 


which  belongs  to  the  same   group  of  four   integrals  as 
that  previously  taken  for  Y5  ;  and  if  we  replace 


the  same  form  throughout  the  whole  of  the  plane  of  the 
complex  variable.  There  still  remains,  however,  for 
future  researchers  the  discovery  of  an  algebraic  demon- 
stration of  such  equations  as  the  linear  relation  between 

F(a,  &,  7,  x),  x^-y  F(a-7+l, /8-7+I,   2-7,  x), 
and 

F(a,   j8,   a-f-/3-7-(-l,    \  -  x), 

series  proceeding  respectively  according  to  integra 
powers  of  .r,  non-integral  powers  of  r,  and  integra 
powers  of  (i  -  x),  where,  however,  the  last  series  cannot 
be  expanded  in  integral  powers  of  x. 

The  following  details  may  be  noticed  : — 

I.  There  is  some  obscurity  in  the  explanation  given  in 
the  note  to  Art.  25.1 

If  the  system  of  curves /(;ir,/,  c)  —  ohave  a  node-locus 
let  the  node  on  the  curve  f{x,y,  a)  =  o  be  given  by 
I  =  0  (a),  r,  =  r/.  (a). 

The  node-locus  will  be  found  by  eliminating  a  between 
the  last  two  equations.  The  point  to  be  explained  is  the 
reason  for  the  appearance  of  this  locus  as  a  factor  in  the 
equation  Disct^  fkx->yi  c)  =  o. 

The  coordinates  of  the  node  on  the  curve  f{x^  j,  a-|-da 
=  o     may    be    called     |  -I-  6|,     »/  -f  ^.        Then,    the 

following  equations  hold :—/(!, »?,  a)  =0,  .L  =0,  -^   =0  ; 

O^  Or) 

and  the  equations  which  can  be  obtained  from  them  by 
changing  |,  »;,  a  into  ^  -i-  8^,  »;  -H  S^j  «  +  S«  respectively. 
Of  this  last  set  of  three  only  the  first  is  required,  viz. 
/(^  -f  8^,  >?  -f  ht],  a  -t-  Sa)  =  o.  Neglecting  quantities  of 
the  second  order,  and  using  the  preceding  equations,  it 


Hence    the    values    |  =  ^(a). 


follows  that  ~^ha  =0. 
oa 

Y]  =  Ma)  satisfy  ^  =  o,  as    well  as/=  o,  and  therefore 
Oa 

the  node-locus  is  a  factor  of  Disct^  f{x,y,c)  =  o. 

II.  The  properties  of  the  Schwarzian  derivative  (Art.  62) 
may  be  thrown  into  a  more  symmetric  form,  viz  :— 

\s,x\  (dxf  =  -  {x,  s}  (dsf 

{s,x\  (dxf  ={s,y)  {dyf  +  {y,  xj  {dxf 

III.  In  Art.  192,  the  argument  may  be  stated  thus  : — 
It  is  given  that 

~aF   aF 


raF    aFi 
Lar  arjJ 


a  [1,7,]     -"• 

From  this  it  follows  that 

-  r  ,aF        ap      T.  aF  1 

a  [  f ,  r,  ]  -°- 

Hence  the  equation  of  the  tangent  plane  to  the  surface 

i7f     ^     •  9F   ,    aF    /.aF^    aF    p\ 

.■^Y{x,y),  VIZ.  .=  .g^-  +^-a,-(^aT^Vr   / 

can,    by    putting  —    =   X,  be   expressed    in     the    form 

a^ 

z  =  '\x  +y(f>(^)  +  '>//■  (X),  so  that  it  is  expressible  in  terms 
of  a  single  arbitrary  parameter  X.     The  quantities 

^. '?)  ^)    ^  are  not  all  functions  of  a  single  parameter, 
a^       dr] 

IV.  The  solutions  of  Laplace's  equation,  which  have 

1  The    word    "discriminant-equation'     in    the    fourth    line    should    be 
"  diflferential  equation.' 


June  i  i,  1903] 


NA  TURE 


12 


been  discovered  since  the  second  edition  of  this  book 
was  printed,  and  in  which  the  author  has  himself  borne 
an  honourable  part,  are,  if  we  except  an  example  very 
mar  to  the  end  of  the  book,  not  mentioned. 


THE    MAGMTIDE    OF    THE    PROTEINIC 
MOLECULE. 
Die  Grosse  dcs  Envoi ssmolekiils.     By  Dr.  F.  N.  Schulz. 
Pp.  viii+106.     (Jena:  Gustav  Fischer,  1903.)     Price 
2.50  marks. 

i'^HIS    work    is    the    second    part    of    the    author's 
'  "  Studien  zur  Chemie  der  Eiweissstoffe  ";   the 
tiist  part  is  entitled  "  Die  Krystallisation  von  Eiweiss- 
•'  ffen  und  ihre  Bedeutung  fiir  die  Eiweisschemie,"  and 
ilso  published  by  Gustav  Fischer. 

The  book  is  composed  of  five  chapters.  The  first 
deals  with  elementary  composition  as  a  measure  of  the 
magnitude  of  the  proteinic  molecule,  and  fills  twenty- 
four  pages.  In  it  the  author  discusses  firstly  the  ash 
of  proteins.  This  he  divides  into  essential  and  non- 
essential parts,  without  predicating  chemical  essen- 
tiality of  the  former.  He  concludes  that  the  ash  is  of 
no  value  for  the  purpose  under  consideration.  He  deals 
next  with  the  sulphur,  and  shows  that  it  can  be  used  to 
give  minimal  values.  It  is  pointed  out  how  the  differ- 
t  nee  in  the  ease  of  its  elimination  affects  the  results,  and 
the  methods  of  its  determination  are  discussed. 

In  the  second  chapter  the  products  of  substitution 
are  considered.  This  chapter  contains  fifty-three  pages. 
Of  the  natural  bodies  oxyhaemoglobin  and  casein  are 
the  only  ones  lending  themselves  to  calculation.  Con- 
sideration of  artificial  products  yields  no  figures  of  value 
at  present.  The  substances  resulting  from  association 
of  acids  and  bases  with  proteins  are  not  as  yet  avail- 
able for  purposes  of  calculation.  The  same  may  be 
said  of  those  of  metals  with  proteins,  with  the  possible 
exception  of  Harnack's  copper-albuminates.  The 
author  points  out,  however,  that  these  substances  need 
closer  study. 

In  connection  with  these  bodies  the  author  diverges 

into  a  consideration  of  certain  properties  of  colloids, 

and  indicates  that  associations  of  colloids  may  simulate 

'     chemical  compounds.     He  states  emphatically  that  use 

•    of  such  words  as  comhination  and  compound,   in  the 

I    case  of  certain  proteins  and  proteinic  derivatives,  may 


be  unwarranted 


"  Eine  Hauptaufgabe  dieser  Abhandlung  war  es 
i^'  rade,  dass  gezeigt  wird,  dass  bisher  keine  zwingenden 
(ininde  vorliegen,  um  z.  B.  bei  den  Metallalbuminaten, 
oder  spater  bei  den  Halogenalbuminaten,  Verbind- 
ungen  der  Eiweissstoffe  nach  stcichiometrischen 
Gcsetzen  annehmen  zu  miissen." 

The  products  of  interaction  of  proteins  and  halogens 
pecially  iodine)  are  dealt  with  at  some  length.     The 
<  nee  of  harmony  in  the  results  of  different  observers 
-hown,  and  the  complexity  of  the  process  is  pointed 
The  conclusion  is  reached  that  th(  sr  ^u!>'>tances 
not  yet  trustworthy  for  computation;il  jniipe^cs. 
1  he  subject  is  regarded  in  the  third  chapter  from  the 
aspect  of  the  products  of  hydrolysis,  and  it  is  found  that 
no  single  compound  is  of  use  for  the  required  calcula- 
tion.    The  chapter  contains  nine  pages 
NO.    1754,  VOL.   68] 


1  he  fourth  chapter,  which  consists  of  six  pages, 
deals  with  physical  methods,  and  chiefly  with  the  cryo- 
scopic  one.  The  author  has  again  to  regard  the  results 
with  suspicion,  owing  to  the  ash  and  the  undefined 
nature  of  the  substances.  There  is  apparently  an  in- 
dication that  the  molecular  masses  of  peptones,  pro- 
teoses, and  more  complex  proteins  stand  to  one  another 
in  a  series  of  increasing  magnitudes.  The  numbers  at- 
tached to  the  two  former  classes  may  be  of  the  right 
order;  those  connected  with  the  latter  are,  however, 
valueless. 

The  final  chapter,  containing  four  pages,  is  devoted 
to  conclusions.  The  author  considers  that  the  present 
state  of  the  subject  is  very  unsatisfactory,  and  that  the 
molecular  magnitudes  of  the  more  complex  proteins 
cannot  be  even  given  with  approximate  certainty. 
Selected  minimal  values,  as  those  of  Vaubel,  lying  for 
the  more  complex  proteins  between  5000  and  15,000, 
can  be  made  to  give  apparent  harmony.  But,  if  selec- 
tion is  not  made,  the  result  is  very  different. 

The  necessity  of  starting  with  crystalline  bodies,  and 
of  improved  methods  is  emphasised.  The  author  also 
lays  stress  on  the  necessity  of  studying  proteins  in  their 
colloidal  aspect,  saying  : — 

"  Ich  bin  der  Meinung,  dass  eine  griindliche  Erfor- 
schung  der  colloidalen  Eigenschaften  der  Eiweisskor- 
per,  das  Rathsel  der  Eiweisschemie  eher  aufklaren 
wird,  als  eine  detaillirte  Untersuchung  der  Krystal- 
linischen  Eiweissspaltungsproducte. " 

He  adopts  throughout  a  position  of  impartial 
criticism,  which  is  eminently  sound.  The  results 
hitherto  obtained  have  for  him  no  great  positive  value 
at  present;  this  he  attributes  to  insufficient  precision  in 
the  modes  of  investigation,  although  admitting  that 
the  cause  may  be  inherent  in  the  proteinic  nature. 

Some  might  urge  that  publication  is  in  these  con- 
ditions premature.  But  in  the  present  state  of  pro- 
teinic chemistry  such  a  pamphlet  as  this,  permeated 
with  sane  criticism,  and  summarising  what  is  known 
in  a  clear  and  agreeable  manner,  can  only  be  of  value. 
The  just  appreciation  of  the  extreme  importance  of  a 
study  of  the  colloidal  nature  of  proteins  is  a  main 
feature  of  the  work. 

It  is  a  regrettable  fact  that  no  index  of  subject-matter 
is  appended,  although  there  is  one  of  authors,  and  a 
table  of  contents.  F.  Esco.mbe. 


PHYSIOLOGICAL    REPORTS. 

Reports  from  the  Laboratory  of  the  Royal  College  of 
Physicians,  Edinburgh.  Edited  by  Sir  John  Batty 
Tuke.  M.D.,  and  D.  Noel  Paton,  M.D.  Vol.  viii. 
(hxliiil)urgli  :  Oliver  and  Boyd,  1903.) 

THIS  volume  represents  the  work  done  in  the  labor- 
atory in  1900  and  190 1,  and  though  a  year  late 
in  its  appearance  is  none  the  less  welcome  for  that. 
Apart  from  one  paper  on  the  pollution  of  the  Tyne 
Estuary,  it  is  devoted  to  pathology  and  physiol6gy. 

Throughout  there  are  records  of  the  energy  and  help- 
fulness of  the  superintendent.  Dr.  Noel  Paton,  and  no 
less  than  one-third  of  the  articles  are  by  him,  either 
alone    or    in    conjunction    with    others.       Indeed,    his 


124 


NATURE 


[June  ii,  1903 


interests  are  perhaps  too  multifarious,  for  one  or  two 
of  his  papers  seem  to  have  come  into  print  before  the 
observations  they  contain  were  ripe  for  publication. 

Nothing,  however,  could  be  more  elaborate  or  pains- 
taking than  the  opening  article,  a  study  of  the  dietary 
of  the  labouring  classes  of  Edinburgh,  of  which  the 
expenses  were  partly  defrayed  by  the  progressive  Town 
Council.  The  details  were  procured  by  a  band  of  lady 
students,  and  are  often  amusing  if  not  always  essential. 
Thus  we  are  glad  to  learn  that  a  lady  who  dresses  "  in 
the  Canongate  fashion  of  a  loose  blouse  "  gets  on  well 
with  her  neighbours,  but  tragic  possibilities  follow  on 
our  introduction  to  the  husband;  "  Mr.  T.  is  not  a 
teetotaler  and  he  smokes." 

The  most  interesting  result  of  the  study  is  the  start- 
ling discovery  that  porridge  is  rapidly  disappearing  as 
a  staple  article  of  diet  with  these  people.  In  fact,  the 
investigation  might  have  been  entitled  "  A  Plea  for 
Porridge,"  for  the  authors  rightly  insist  upon  its 
economic  value. 

Of  the  other  articles,  the  longest  is  a  contribution 
to  the  histology  and  metabolism  of  the  foetus  and 
placenta  of  the  rabbit,  by  Dr.  Chipman.  With  so 
difficult  a  subject,  and  so  confused  a  terminology,  the 
author's  lucidity  of  style  is  very  welcome,  and  the 
illustrative  microphotographs,  numbering  no  less  than 
186,  are  eloquent  of  his  sincerity.  He  throws  light  on 
inany  controversial  points,  e.g.  the  manner  of  first 
contact  of  the  embryonic  and  maternal  tissues,  the 
■"  unequivocal  differentiation  "  of  these  two  tissues,  and 
ithe  relations  of  placental  and  foetal  glycogen.  It  is  a 
pity  that  he  says  nothing  of  the  glycogen  in  the  foetal 
muscles,  where  it  is  said  to  exist  sometimes  to  the  ex- 
tent of  40  per  cent,  of  the  dried  tissue.  There  is  much 
about  the  formation  of  "  fibrinous  tissue  "  from  extra- 
vasations of  blood,  but  he  ligatured  the  vessels  at  the 
•outset  to  ensure,  as  he  explains,  an  injection  of  the 
placentae,  and  we  would  suggest  that  these  extravasa- 
tions may  have  been,  in  part,  an  artefact. 

Dr.  Rainy 's  paper  on  the  action  of  diphtheria  toxin 
on  nerve  cells  is  so  excellent,  so  far  as  it  goes,  that  we 
look  forward  to  a  further  instalment  next  year.  He 
obtains  very  definite  intracellular  effects,  and  avoids 
error  by  a  most  thorough  series  of  controls.  Also  he 
gives  an  admirable  history  of  the  subject. 

There  are  many  other  minor  articles  of  varying 
value.  Dr.  Carmichael,  working  at  the  infections  of 
the  gall-bladder,  injected  microorganisms  into  a 
mesenteric  vein  in  five  rabbits,  and  since  he  gets,  but 
one  positive  result,  he  concludes  that  infection  can 
occur  only  by  direct  extension  or  by  the  cystic  artery ; 
K3f  such  factors  as  the  virulence  of  the  organism,  the 
nature  of  the  animal,  and  the  condition  of  the  gall- 
bladder he  takes  no  account. 

We  are  glad  to  see  that  Miss  Huie  is  continuing  her 
observations  on  the  histology  of  cell-metabolism  which 
she  began  so  successfully  in  Oxford.  Dr.  Dunlop,  in 
some  observations  on  prison  diets,  confirms  Atwater's 
finding  that  Voit's  classical  standard  of  diet  is  too  low. 
Finally,  we  would  mention  a  curious  study  by  Dr. 
Berry  in  comparative  morphology,  in  which  he  con- 
cludes that  the  vermiform  appendix  is  not  vestigial 
but  the  summation  of  a  long  development. 
NO.    1754,  VOL.  68] 


OUR    BOOK    SHELF. 

An       Elementary       Treatise     on     the     Mechanics     of 

Machinery,  with  Special  Reference  to  the  Mechanics 

of  the  Steam   Engine.       By  Joseph   N.    Le  Conte. 

Pp.  xi  +  311  ;  with  15  plates.     (New  York  :  The  Mac- 

millan    Company;    London:     Macmillan    and    Co., 

Ltd.,  1902.)     Price  los.  6d.  net. 
The  author  states  that  this  book  is  the  outcome  of  a 
series  of  lectures  given  to  engineering  students  in  the 
University  of  Califprnia. 

In  an  introductory  chapter  relating  to  uniplanar 
motion,  some  properties  of  instantaneous  centres  and 
centrodes  are  given,  and  methods  are  set  out  of  deter- 
mining relative  velocities,  both  linear  and  angular. 

The  next  part  is  devoted  to  machinery  of  trans- 
mission, comprising  rigid  and  flexible  couplings,  fric- 
tion gearing,  belt  and  rope  gearing,  and  toothed  gear- 
ing, the  shafts  being  parallel,  intersecting,  or  crossing, 
respectively.  This  part  also  includes  chapters  on 
parallel  motions  and  cams. 

The  author  has  a  leaning  towards  analytical  rather 
than  graphical  treatment,  and  prefers  accurate  and 
complete  investigations  to  simplified  appro.ximations. 
This  is  apt  to  result  in  formulae  which  convey  little 
meaning,  and  which  repel  by  their  complexity,  requir- 
ing the  subject-matter  to  be  of  great  importance  to 
justify  their  use.  Thus  in  the  discussion  on  wheel 
teeth  there  is  an  investigation  into  the  equation  to  the 
profile  which  shall  correspond  with  any  given  curve  of 
action  ;  and  formidable  expressions  are  given  for  cal- 
culating the  angles  of  action  in  cycloidal  and  involute 
teeth.  We  should  like  to  have  seen  these  supplemented 
by  graphical  methods,  using  tracing  paper  and  a 
pricker,  after  Mr.  Last,  whereby  wheel  teeth  can  be 
set  out  with  perfect  accuracy,  with  the  minimum  of 
trouble,  and  in  such  a  way  as  to  bring  very  prominently 
into  notice  the  nature  of  the  action  between  a  pair  of 
teeth. 

Part  iii.  deals  with  the  steam  engine,  the  first  chapter 
relating  to  the  kinetics  of  the  "piston-crank  chain." 
Accurate  formulae  are  established  giving  the  position, 
velocity  and  acceleration  of  any  point  moving  with 
the  connecting  rod  referred  to  the  crank  position,  from 
which  are  deduced  the  special  values  for  the  centre  of 
mass,  the  crosshead  and  crank  pin.  Formulae  tor 
angular  motions  of  the  connecting  rod  are  also  given. 
In  this  chapter  the  simple  and  gridiron  slide  valves 
are  considered,  and  also  the  Meyer  and  Thompson 
gears,  Zeuner's  valve  diagram  being  used  along  with 
the  formulae. 

Chapter  ii.  of  this  part  is  taken  up  with  the  dynamics 
of  the  steam  engine,  and  investigates  piston  and  crank 
efforts,  inertia  effects,  counterbalancing,  and  the 
actions  of  the  fly-wheel  and  governor.  The  formulae 
of  the  preceding  chapter  are  used  to  calculate  the  force 
actions  in  a  small  horizontal  engine  due  to  acceler- 
ation of  the  connecting  rod  for  a  number  of  points  in 
the  cycle;  these  are  tabulated,  and  the  results  plotted 
in  plates  at  the  end  of  the  volume. 

In  the  mechanics  of  the  steam  engine,  the  use  of 
the  Fourier  development,  with  the  conception  of  rota- 
ting vectors,  is  preferable  to  the  method  adopted 
by  the  author.  The  series  converges  so  rapidly  that 
it  is  seldom  necessary  to  go  beyond  the  second  or 
octave  term,  and  a  very  clear  view  is  obtained  of  the 
secondary  actions  due  to  obliquities  of  the  connecting 
and  eccentric  rods. 

The  principle  of  balancing  the  forces  on  the  crank- 
shaft of  an  engine,  ignoring  those  on  the  frame,  is 
novel,  and  leads  to  curious  results  in  the  case  of  the 
Southern  Pacific  locomotive  selected  by  the  author  as 
an  example. 

The  investigation  of  the  action  of  fly-wheel  governors 
seems  very  complete,  and  is  worth  study. 


June  i  r,  1903J 


NATURE 


125 


lAementary   Chemistry.     By   R.    H.    Bradbury,   A.M., 

Ph.D.    Pp.  xii+157.    (New  York:   .Appleton,   1903.) 

The  volume,  according^  to  the  author,  is  for  beginners 

in  secondary  schools  and  colleges.     Whether  this  im- 

l)iies  any  previous  knowledge  of  chemistry  on  their  part 

-  not  stated,  but,  to  judge  from  the  character  of  the 

intents,  the  book  may  be  placed  in  the  hands  of  any 

ginner.     The  author  has  evidently  taken  great  pains 

i  arrange  his  subject-matter,  and  to  present  it  in  a 

inple  and  logical   form — not  by  any  means  an  easy 

i-k — and  the  result  is  decidedly  good. 

It  is  always  possible  to  find  points  in  the  arrange- 

it-nt  of  a  text-book  which  do  not  accord  entirely  with 

uiie's  own   views.       For  example,    the   first   chemical 

experiment    which   is   described    is    the   electrolysis   of 

vater  to  demonstrate  its  composition.       It  is  difficult 

I    present    this    process    honestly    to    the   beginner. 

lie  author  does  his  best  by  stating  that  "it  is  im- 

issible  to  e.Kplain  the  role  of  the  sulphuric  acid  in  an 

I  mentary   work,    further   than    to   say   that   while   it 

inducts  the  current    it  is  found  unaltered  after  the 

I  xperiment,     and    onh^    the    water    is    decomposed." 

After   all    this    is   only   dodging    the   difficulty,    which 

might  be  so  easily  avoided  by  reserving  the  experiment 

for  a  later  stage,  when  the  author  could  take  the  reader 

into  his  confidence. 

The  author  in  his  preface  acknowledges  his  in- 
btedness  to  Bancroft's  work  on  the  phase  rule  and 
'  the  work  of  another  modern  writer  on  physical 
rncmistry,  but  the  elementary  student  will  be  relifeved 
to  tind  that  no  reference  to  the  phase  rule,  and  very 
little  to  "  physical  chemistry,"  is  embodied  in  the  text. 
Arrhenius's  theory  of  electrolysis  is,  however,  intro- 
duced, and  there  can  be  little  objection  to  this,  seeing 
tliat  a  student  may  just  as  well  begin  to  exert  his 
imagination  on  the  atoms  in  solution  as  in  the  gaseous 
form.  It  is  just  as  difficult  to  form  a  mental  picture 
of  charcoal  as  a  constituent  of  carbon  dioxide  as  of 
the  ion  CO,.  The  only  difference  between  the  two 
conceptions  is  that  one  is  a  demonstrable  fact  and  the 
dthcr  a  very  useful  fiction. 

.\n  important  feature  of  the  book  is  the  experimental 
part  which  is  to  be  used  as  a  laboratory  guide,  and 
contains  a  series  of  simple  and  useful'  experiments 
plentifully  sprinkled  with  questions  and  notes  of  in- 
terrogation. The  volume  is,  in  reality,  two  distinct 
books  .with  separate  indexes.  Might  onie  suggest  their 
future  publication  in  sejxirate  parts;  for  not  only  is  it 
diflicult  to  remember  that  the  index  to  the  first  part  is 
in  the  middle  of  the  volume,  but  as  the  second  part  is 
for  use  in  the  laboratory,  the  whole  book,  which  looks 
very  nice  in  its  olive-green  cover,  is  bound  to  suffer 
from  the  proximity  of  reagents? 

The  book  is  well  illustrated,  and  is  further  em- 
bellished with  the  portraits  of  ten  distinguished 
chemists,  among  whom  Moissan  has  the  place  of 
honour  in  the  frontispiece.  J.  B.  C. 

Hampshire  Days.  By  W.  H.  Hudson.  Pp.  xvi  +  344; 
illustrated.  (London  :  Longmans,  Green  and  Co., 
1903.)  Price  los.  6d. 
The  author  of  "  The  Naturalist  in  La  Plata  "  has  found 
a  thoroughly  congenial  subject  in  Gilbert  White's 
country,  and  discourses,  in  the  work  before  us,  in  a 
delightfully  gossipy  way  of  the  scenerv,  people,  birds, 
insects,  rmd  plants  of  one  of  the  most"  beautiful  of  all 
English  counties.  .\s  usual,  Mr.  Hudson  introduces, 
when  occasion  arises,  earnest  trains  of  thought,  which 
raise  his  work  far  above  the  average  of  writings  of  this 
nature. 

The  greater  part  of  the  contents  of  this  volume,  we 
are  told  in  the  preface,  is  new,  although  nearlv  the 
whole  scope  of  the  work  is  based  on  certain  articles 
which  have  appeared  in  Longman's  Magazine. 
Although  devoted  as  a  whole  to  Hampshire,  the  book, 


NO.    1754,  VOL.  68] 


I  as  might  be  expected,  mentions  many  episodes  which 
might  perfectly  well  have  happened  in  any  other  Eng- 
lish county.  Notable  among  these  is  the  account  of 
the  manner  in  which  a  young  cuckoo  ejected  the  right- 
ful occupant — a  robin — of  the  nest  in  which  the  in- 
truder was  hatched,  an  action  of  which  the  author  was 
fortunate  enough  to  have  been  an  eye-witness.  Perhaps 
the  most  curious  feature  in  this  drama  was  the  utter 
neglect  of  the  ejected  and  dying  robin  by  its  parents. 
In  another  part  of  the  same  chapter  the  author  directs 
attention  to  the  prevalence  of  red  in  the  coats  of  forest 
animals  at  the  time  that  the  autumn  russet  prevails  in 
their  surroundings.  He  has,  however,  omitted  to  men- 
tion that  it  is  just  before  this  season  the  red  deer  and 
the  roe  change  their  summer  russet  for  their  winter 
blue. 

The  account  of  .Selborne  itself  is  continued  in  the 
latter  half  of  the  book.  Over  the  natural  beauties  of 
the  village  and  its  surroundings,  the  author,  needless 
to  say,  waxes  eloquent,  although  he  is  far  from  com- 
plimentary to  the  personal  appearance  of  its  inhabitants. 
After  writing  the  sentence  that  "  if  you  want  to  see,  I 
will  not  say  a  handsome,  nor  a  pretty,  but  a  passably 
fresh  and  pleasant  face  among  the  cottagers,  you  must 
go  out  of  Selborne  to  some  neighbouring  village  to  look 
for  it,"  will  the  author,  we  wonder,  venture  to  pay 
another  visit?  We  cannot,  perhaps,  bestow  greater 
praise  on  Mr.  Hudson's  "  Hampshire  "  than  by  say- 
ing it  is  fully  equal  to  the  best  of  his  earlier  efforts. 

R.  L. 

Wortcrbuch  der  philosophischen   Grundbegriffe.     Von 
Dr.  Friedr.  Kirchner.    Vierte  neubearbeitete  Auflage 
von  Dr.  Michaelis.   Pp.  vi  +  587.  (Leipzig  :  Verlag  der 
Durr'schen  Buchhandlung,  1903.)    Price  5.60  marks. 
It  is  always  difficult  to  indicate  exactly  the  value  of 
a    dictionary,    and    that    difficulty    is    increased    when 
for  the  vices  of  omission  it  pleads  the  virtues  of  brevity. 
.\  dictionary  0/  philosophy  is  hardest  of  all  to  judge 
because  of  a  certain  inner  conflict  between  the  spirit 
of  philosophy  and  the  nature  of  dictionaries.     If  the 
publishers  feel  justified   in   saying  that  this  book   re- 
sponds to  a  widely  felt  need,   we  must  admit  that  a 
fourth  edition   seems  good  evidence.     To  judge   from 
I  the  book,  that  need  is  for  brief  epitomes  of  great  doc- 
j  trines  and  concise  definitions  of  terms.     Terms  of  art 
I  are  a  fit  subject  for  the  lexicographer,  more  especiallv 
i  such    remnants   of   constructive    ingenuitv    as    "  Hac- 
j  ccitat,"  ".Aseitat,"  and  the  like.       But  philosophical 
I  concepts  and  theories  are  not  so  tractable ;  here  brevitv 
'  is  an  ambiguous  virtue,  and  the  more  ambitious  articles 
I  seem  to  be  so  planned  as  to  have  full  significance  only 
'   for  the  more  advanced  student  who,  on  the  other  hand, 
would  bring  to  the  book  all  he  found  there.       "  Kan- 
tianismus,"  for  example,  occupies  two-thirds  of  a  page. 
Of   ''  Hedonismus  "   in   modern   times   we   learn   onlv 
that  it  is  more  modest  than  of  yore ;  where  the  term  ex- 
plained is  one  in  common  use,  the  strictly  philosophical 
significance  is  omitted  ;  e.g.  under  "  Liebe     (epwy),"    the 
Platonic  and  Neo-Platonic  significance  is  unmentioned  : 
the  direction  "  Vgl.  Dualismus  "  seems  purely  illusory. 
Biography  does  not  come  within  the  scope  of  this  book, 
but  the  references  are  usually  given   with  dates.     .At 
the  end  there  is  a  "  Zeittafef  "  which  might  well  be 
useful.     It  seems  a  matter  for  regret  that  the  terms  of 
the  "  new  psychology    "  have  not  been  included;  they 
might  at  least  outrival  "  Buridans  Escl  "  or  "  Kroko- 
dilschluss  "  as  Grundbegriffe.     Yet  allowing  for  these 
limitations,    the   book   is   a   praiseworthy   effort;    it   is 
generally  accurate,   sensibly  printed,   and  of  a*  useful 
size.     Such  eccentricities  as  "  Hutcheson    1609-1747  '* 
(p.  14)  can  be  corrected  by  the  reader  from  the  "  Zeit- 
tafel."    The  bibliography  attempted  in  some  articles 
is  a  good  feature  worthv  of  more  development. 

G.  S.  B. 


126 


NATURE 


[June  ii,  1903 


LETTERS    TO    THE    EDITOR. 

[The  Editor  does  not  hold  himself  responsible  for  opinions 
expressed  by  his  correspondents.  Neither  can  he  undertake 
to  return,  or  to  correspond  with  the  writers  of,  rejected 
manuscripts  intended  for  this  or  any  other  part  of  Nature. 
No  notice  is  taken  of  anonymous  communications.] 

Psychophysical  Interaction. 

Since  Nature  is  read  by  many  people  beside  physicists 
and  mathematicians,  it  may  be  useful  to  state  explicitly 
that  a  letter  with  a  diagram,  on  p.  102,  is  erroneous  and 
misleading. 

For  the  same  reason  it  may  be  desirable  to  remark  dis- 
tinctly, in  opposition  to  a  notion  apparently  suggested  by 
several  previous  writers,  that  guidance  or  deflection  of 
motion  is  not  in  the  least  contradictory  of  the  principle  of 
the  conservation  of  momentum.  For  the  rest,  all  the  letters 
of  importance  which  have  recently  appeared  are  in  accord- 
ance with  my  views.  " 


Oliver  Lodge. 


I  HAVE  followed  with  much  interest  the  discussion  opened 
in  your  columns  by  Sir  Oliver  Lodge's  recent  contention 
that  mind  directs  but  does  not  create  energy.  What  is 
aimed  at,  as  I  understand  it,  by  this  distinction  is  the 
reconciliation  of  the  activity  and  efficiency  of  mind  with 
the  mechanical  laws  of  the  conservation  of  energy  and 
momentum.  The  distinction  itself  is,  as  is  well  known, 
as  old  as  Descartes,  being  designed  by  him  to  meet  the 
■same  problem  as  it  presented  itself  to  the  thinkers  of  the 
seventeenth  century.  As  is  also  well  known,  it  was 
immediately  disowned  by  his  successors  on  the  ground  that 
guidance  or  direction  of  energy  by  the  mind  is  an  inter- 
ference with  the  operation  of  material  forces  as  the  physicist 
is  bound  to  conceive  of  them  not  less  than  the  creation  of 
it.  Why  is  it  more  inconceivable  that  mind  should  alter 
•energy  or  momentum  than  that  it  should  interfere  in  any 
way  whatever  with  the  material  world  as  a  closed 
mechanical  system  ?  While  to  Sir  Oliver  Lodge  it  seems 
axiomatic  that  mind  cannot  produce  energy,  to  others  it 
has  seemed  equally  axiomatic  that  it  cannot  resist  or  control 
it.  It  remains,  therefore,  for  those  who  propose  to  revive 
the  above  distinction  as  a  way  of  making  the  relation  of 
mind  to  matter  comprehensible  to  show  by  an  analysis  of 
the  conception  of  control  that  the  direction  of  physical 
energy  by  the  mind  is  any  more  intelligible  than  its  creation. 
Failing  this,  the  problem  they  have  sought  to  solve  by 
means  of  this  formula  only  returns  in  a  deeper  form.  How 
is  mental  efficiency  in  any  shape  to  be  reconciled  with 
fundamental  mechanical  principles?  The  purpose  of  this 
letter  is  to  suggest  a  form  of  solution,  somewhat  different 
from  that  of  Prof.  Ward's  in  his  "  Naturalism  and 
Agnosticism,"  which  makes  recourse  to  so  ambiguous  a 
■distinction  unnecessary. 

Stated  in  its  most  general  form,  the  problem  is  that  of 
the  operation  of  mind  upon  matter.  Three  answers  have 
•stood  out  owing  to  the  authority  of  those  who  at  different 
times  have  advocated  them  : — 

(i)  It  has  been  held  that  mind  and  matter  are  each  in 
its  own  sphere  effectively  operative,  but  that  these  spheres 
.are  wholly  different.  They  never  touch  or  intersect. 
Where  there  appears  to  be  coincidence,  as  in  knowledge  or 
in  the  action  of  one  upon  the  other,  this  is  to  be  explained 
(if  an  explanation  is  insisted  on)  as  the  result  of  pre- 
arrangement.  Except  in  the  form  of  the  working  hypo- 
thesis of  parallelism,  no  responsible  thinker  would  probably 
.accept  this  "  dualistic  "  theory  at  the  present  time,  and  it 
need  not  further  be  considered. 

(2)  The  second  answer  is  that  which  explains  mental 
activity  as  merely  apparent.  The  really  active  forces  are 
material.  Consciousness  is  merely  a  by-product,  standing 
to  material  forces  as  the  steam  which  is  dissipated  in  the 

-air  stands  to  the  steam-engine — a  sign  of  its  operation, 
but  itself  contributing  nothing  to  its  efficiency.  This 
""  materialistic  "  theory  is  surrounded  by  difficulties  which 
this  is  not  the  place  to  discuss,  but  which  the  present 
generation  seems  to  be  in  the  main  agreed  are  insuperable. 

(3)  A  third  view  remains  which  takes  up  the  problem  at 
..an  earlier  point,   and  asks  whether  our  difficulty  is  not  a 

self-made  one.     If  we  set  out  from  the  existence  of  mind 

NO.    1754,  VOL.   68] 


and  matter  as  two  entirely  separate  substances,  there  is,  if 
must  be  admitted,  no  way  in  which  we  can  establish  any 
continuity  or  causality  between  them.  On  the  other  hand, 
if  we  reverse  this  assumption,  and  regard  the  conception  of 
two  worlds,  a  physical  and  a  mental,  as  one  that  grows  up 
within  (it  is  not  said  created  by)  our  experience,  a  way 
seems  opened  up  out  of  the  difficulty.  The  conservation 
of  energy  and  momentum,  and  the  determination  of  their 
direction  by  physical  antecedents,  are  from  this  point  of 
view  conceptions  which  are  forced  upon  us  in  our  endeavour 
to  interpret  to  ourselves  one  side  or  aspect  of  our  ex- 
perience— that  which  we  call  the  mechanical.  Within  the 
area  so  describable  they  are  universal,  ultimate,  admitting 
of  no  exception.  But  the  mechanical  is  only  one  side  of 
our  experience.  Besides  mechanical  energy  there  is  life. 
The  phenomena  of  life  violate  no  mechanical  law,  yet  open 
up  to  us  a  new  aspect  of  our  world,  a  new  form  of 
"  energy."  We  may,  indeed,  try  to  "  explain  "  life  as 
only  a  more  complex  mechanism,  and  this  has  been  a 
common  device  since  the  time  of  Descartes.  But  the  pre- 
sent day  tendency  to  recognise  here  a  transitio  in  aliud 
genus,  and  to  reject  (as  leading  to  confusion)  the  attempt 
to  explain  the  fuller,  more  concrete  reality  by  formulaj 
applicable  only  to  the  more  abstract,  seems  to  be  founded 
on  a  truer  insight.  What  holds  of  the  relation  of  life  to 
mechanism  holds  also  of  the  relation  of  mind  to  life  in 
general.  Here  also  a  new  world  opens  up  with  laws  of 
its  own,  no  more  identifiable  with  those  of  matter  or 
organism  than  the  system  of  mechanical  forces  which  make 
up  the  movement  of  the  billiard  ball  upon  the  table  or  the 
contraction  of  the  muscles  in  the  player's  arm  is  identifiable 
with  his  acquired  dexterity  or  his  gaming  ambition. 

"  But  how,"  it  may  be  asked,  "does  ail  this  help  us? 
Granted  the  world  of  Nature  has  these  different  '  sides,'  we 
are  no  nearer  understanding  how  any  one  side  is  connected 
with  another,  least  of  all  how  the  '  world  as  will  and  idea  ' 
is  connected  with  the  world  as  matter  and  energy."  It 
is  just  here  that  I  wish  to  invite  the  physicist  who  may  not 
have  considered  the  question  in  this  light  to  make  an  ex- 
periment with  his  ideas  which  may  not  hitherto  have 
suggested  itself,  and  when  suggested  may  appear  to  him 
as  ridiculous  as  an  invitation  to  vary  his  outlook  upon  the 
universe  in  the  interest  of  science  by  standing  upon  his 
head.  The  suggestion  is  that  instead  of  starting,  as  prob- 
ably he  has  been  accustomed  to  do,  from  the  presupposition 
that  the  entirely  real  and  concrete  is  what  is  known  as  the 
physical  world,  and  that  everything  else  must  fall  into  line 
as  in  some  sense  a  product  or  reflection  of  it,  he  should  start 
from  his  own  experience  as  a  whole — his  mind  and  will  as 
it  exercises  itself  in  the  world  of  reality  in  general,  in- 
cluding, of  course,  other  minds  and  wills — as  though  this 
were  the  primary,  most  entirely  real  and  concrete  fact  that 
he  knows,  and  regard  all  else  as  comparatively  abstract 
and  secondary.  The  former  view  I  invite  him  to  consider 
for  the  time  being  as  analogous  to  the  old  Ptolemaic 
astronomy,  the  latter  as  the  Copernican.  When  he  has 
done  so  I  ask  him  further  to  consider  whether  the  operation 
of  mind  on  matter  need  any  longer  constitute  the  insoluble 
problem  the  older  hypothesis  made  of  it.  Putting  aside 
the  question  of  the  relation  of  our  individual  minds  to  the 
mind  of  the  Creator,  the  single  "  real  "  activity  is  from  this 
point  of  view  that  of  a  conscious  will  in  presence  of  a 
universe  which  it  is  its  one  supreme  interest  to  understand 
and  adapt  to  its  own  ends  of  life  and  well-being.  The 
condition  of  such  understanding  and  adaptation  is  selection 
and  abstraction  ;  its  one  supreme  law  divide  et  impera.  A 
fundamental  division  at  which  developing  experience  early 
arrives  is  that  of  an  inner  and  an  outer — a  self  and  other. 
A  subdivision  of  the  latter,  which  it  is  not  long  in 
achieving,  is  into  the  material  other  and  the  mental  other— 
the  physical  and  the  social  world.  In  this  way  the  division 
proceeds,  but  always  into  parts  of  a  whole  of  which  we 
must  keep  a  hold  and  to  which  we  must  ever  return 
wherever  the  danger  threatens  of  becoming  the  victim  of 
our  own  abstractions.  Treated  as  an  articulate  part  of  the 
whole,  each  field  falls  into  its  place  in  the  organism  of 
experience — general  philosophy  being  the  attempt  to  state 
what  that  place  is  ;  when  hypostatised  into  an  independent 
reality,  still  more  when  mistaken  for  the  whole  it  leads 
only  to  confusion.  From  the  beginning  of  speculation  the 
front  of  the  offending  has  here  lain   with   Matter.     Philo- 


June  ii,  1903 j 


NATURE 


127 


^(.pliy  from  the  time  of  Plato  has  had  its  own  way  of  meet- 

ini,r   it  on  its  own  ground,    and   disposing  of   its  exclusive 

(laims.       I    do    not    write    here    in    the    interests   of    trans- 

( .ndentalism,     but     merely     to     invite     the     attention     of 

jihvsicists    to    a    point    of    view    which    students    of    modern 

;.-vchology  have  borrowed  from  it,   and  are  now  generally 

king   to   apply   to   the   problem   of   the   relation   between 

ntal  and  physical  energy.  J.   H.   Muirhead. 

liirmingham,  June  9. 


Seismometry  and  Geite. 
Had  Dr.  Chree  (Nature,  May  21,  p.  55)  referred  to  the 
various    papers    about    earthquakes    in    the    reports    of    the 
''ritish     Association      commencing     in     1847      by     William 
pkins,    in    the    now    somewhat    antiquated    Transactions 
the  Seismological   Society  of  Japan,   and   in  very   many 
ocner  publications  relating  to  earthquakes,   he  would  have 
seen  that  his  instructive  remarks  relating  to  the  propaga- 
tion of  waves  in  an  isotropic  medium  were  but  repetitions 
information    with    which    seismologists   have   at   least    a 
:_;ht  acquaintance,  whilst  the  suggestion  that  the  velocities 
-uch  waves  have  been  regarded  as  having  a  direct  con- 
[  •ition  with  Young's  modulus  is  incorrect. 

In  connection  with  Bessemer  steel.  Young's  modulus 
was  mentioned,  but  I  do  not  see  that  it  was  referred  to 
repeatedly  (Nature,  April  9,  p.  538).  In  1897  Dr.  Chree 
made  an  attempt  to  calculate  Young's  modulus  and  the 
bulk  modulus  for  the  earth,  but  the  grist  he  used  was  so 
doubtful  in  character  that  his  results  are  not  convincing. 
From  some  source  or  other  he  discovered  that  wave  veloci- 
ties of  125  and  25  km.  per  second  had  been  determined, 
and  these  were  assumed  to  be  \\  and  \\  for  compressional 
and  distortional  waves  passing  through  the  world.  One, 
if  not  both  of  these,  are  based  upon  arcual  measurements  ; 
they  are  incorrect  at  that,  and  the  latter  seems  more  likely 
to  represent  the  velocity  of  a  surface  undulation  rather 
than  a  quantity  corresponding  to  \\. 

What  I  pointed  out  was  that  recent  determinations  of 
a  quantity  probably  corresponding  to  V,  find  a  simple 
explanation  by  the  assumption  of  a  core  that  is  fairly 
homogeneous  and  of  fairly  definite  dimensions,  which  is 
not  the  solution  of  the  seismological  problems  attempted 
by  Dr.  Chree.  The  reference  to  elastic  moduli  was  in- 
cidental. 

The   chief  objection   raised    to   the   iron   core   is   not   that 
iron,    as    we    know    it,    will    not    convey    vibrations    at    the 
observed  speeds,  but  that  if  we  take  such  a  core,   gravita- 
tional and  astronomical  requirements  appear  to  be  such  that 
!it   must   have   dimensions    which   do   not   altogether   accord 
with  the  interpretation  given  to  seismometrical  observations. 
What   Dr.   Chree  tells  us  about  the  possible  relationship 
between  seismic  disturbances  and   the  movements  of  mag- 
netic needles  is  as  well  known  to  seismologists  as  what  he 
has  to  say  about  wave  velocities.       Many  of  the  chief  mag- 
netic   observatories    of    the     world     have    compared     their 
magnetograms  with  long  lists  of  world-shaking  and  other 
earthquakes,  and  the  results  are  to  be  found  in  the  British 
Association    Reports,    1888   and    1889.       From    Dr.    Chree's 
own  comparisons  at  Kew  (British  Association  Report,   1888, 
pp.  229  and  231,  &c.),  the  movements  he  discovered  were, 
'       with    two   possible    exreptions,    of   "  the    ordinary    magnetic 
I       small  wave  type,"  which  "  go  on  for  hours  if  not  for  days." 
My    conclusion    is    that    at    Kew,    Greenwich,    &c.,    needles 
seem  not  to  be  disturbed  at  the  time  of  large  earthquakes 
in  the  manner  in  which  they  are  disturbed  at  Bombay  and 
other  places.     At  these  latter  places,   where  the  movement 
of    needles    apparently    accompanying    the    passage    of    the 
large    waves     indicates    a    possible    magnetic    disturbance 
directly  due   to   seismic  causes,    the   inference   I    made   was 
!       that   at    such    places    H.F.    and    (g  —  y)    may    be    abnormal. 
I      As  an   illustration  of  the  coexistence     of  the  three  pheno- 
I      mena  we  may  take  the  following  : — 


H.F.(c.g.s.) 

Kew  0-18451   (1901) 

Bitavia     0-36752  (1898) 


Earthquake 
(.t>  — y/cm.  effect  on 

magnetic  needlps 
+  40  (igoo)  Undisturbed. 
+  136(1894)     Disturbed. 


T 


Whether    these    coincidences     are     accidental     or     general, 
'  liservations  are  yet  required.  John   Milne. 

NO.    1754,   VOL     (38] 


THE  VITALITY  OF  THE  TYPHOID  BACILLUS."- 
HE  object  of  hygiene  is  to  prevent  disease.  It  is 
therefore  necessary  that  the  factors  in  the  causa- 
tion and  dissemination  of  disease  should  be  understood 
in  order  that  adequate  preventive  measures  may  be 
adopted.  The  living  agents  responsible  for  the  pro- 
duction of  infectious  diseases  when  they  are  dis- 
charged from  affected  individuals  may  find  their  way 
bacli  to  the  human  body  by  a  number  of  indirect 
channels.  The  water,  the  soil,  or  the  food  may  at 
times  harbour  and  transmit  the  germs  of  disease.  The 
conditions  under  which  these  morbid  agents  exist  in 
the  outside  world  constitute  one  of  the  most  important 
subjects  of  hygienic  inquiry.  It  cannot  be  said  with 
regard  to  this  phase  in  the  life-history  of  pathogenic 
organisms  that  our  knowledge  is  as  accurate  or  ex- 
tensive as  it  is  in  other  directions.  This  is  due  to 
the  difficulties  that  stand  in  the  way  of  such  investiga- 
tions. The  germs  of  disease  undergo  an  enormous 
dilution  in  the  air,  water  and  soil,  whilst  they  tend 
to  become  lost  in  the  crowd  of  similar  forms  already- 
existing  in  nature.  The  facts  so  far  support  the  view 
that  the  parasitic  microorganisms  possess  a  consider- 
able amount  of  resistance  to  external  influences,  and 
that  the  links  which  ensure  their  conservation  and  re- 
transference  to  man  are  numerous  and  varied.  A 
typical  example  is  the  bacillus  of  typhoid  fever.  This 
organism  may  become  widely  distributed  through  the 
dejecta.  It  may  contaminate  a  water  supply  and 
directly,  or  by  the  agency  of  milk,  produce  a  fresh 
outbreak  of  typhoid  fever.  It  may  infect  the  soil,  and 
through  it  a  number  of  raw  vegetable  foods.  Its  pre- 
sence has  been  detected  in  the  sewage-fed  oyster, 
whilst  tainted  dust  and  flies  aid  in  the  distribution  of 
the  organism. 

In  studying  the  distribution  of  enteric  fever,  a  phys- 
ical factor  which  has  to  be  considered  is  the  influence 
of  cold  on  the  vitality  of  the  specific  organism.  The 
effect  of  low  temperatures  upon  microorganisms 
generally  has  formed  a  subject  of  inquiry  from  time  to 
time.  The  latest  experimental  work  has  conclusively 
shown  that  bacteria  retain  their  vitality  under  the 
most  adverse  conditions  of  cold  that  it  is  possible  to 
devise.  Prof.  Sedgwick  and  Mr.  Winslow,  approach- 
ing the  subject  from  the  hygienic  point  of  view,  have 
carefully  studied  the  influence  of  natural  and  normal 
conditions  of  cold  upon  the  typhoid  bacillus  in  par- 
ticular. Their  experiments  were  carried  out  with 
special  reference  to  the  danger  of  conveyance  of  the 
disease  in  question  by  polluted  ice,  and  with  reference 
to  the  seasonal  distribution  of  the  disease.  The  matter 
was  undoubtedly  one  that  called  for  investigation,  and 
notably  in  a  country  where  ice  and  iced  drinks  are  in 
such  universal  demand.  The  authors  were  unable  to 
find  any  recorded  evidence  of  a  conclusive  character  as 
to  the  spread  of  typhoid  fever  by  a  polluted  ice  supply,, 
although  it  has  been  a  common  opinion  that  ice  might 
be  an  important  source  of  infection  for  typhoid  fever 
and  other  intestinal  diseases. 

The  apparent  purity  of  ice  is  deceptive.  It  is  true 
that  water  in  freezing  undergoes  a  certain  amount  of 
purification.  It  loses,  on  conversion  into  ice,  saline 
constituents,  contained  air,  and  a  certain  proportion  of 
organic  suspended  matter.  At  the  same  time,  it  is 
not  entirely  freed  from  microbes.  The  figures  quoted  by 
Prof.  Sedgwick  and  Mr.  Winslow  show  that  snow-ice 
may  contain  an  a\(>rage  of  more  than  600  bacteria  per 
cub.  cm.      lii^Lir.  V  are  also  given  to  indicate  the  enor- 

1  Experiments  on  the  Effect  of  Freezing  and  other  Low  Temperatures, 
upon  the  Viahility  of  the  Bacillus  of  Typhoid  Fever,  with  Considerations 
regarding  Ice  as  a  Vehicle  of  Infectious  Disease  "  By  William  T.  Sedgwick, 
Ph.D.,  Professor  of  Biology,  and  Charles-Edward  A.  Winslow,  b.M. 
Instructor  in  Biology  in  the  Massachusetts  Institute  of  Technology 
(Memoirs  of  the  American  Academy  of  Arts  and  Sciences,  vol.  xii.  No.  5, 
1902.) 


I2S 


NA  TURE 


[June  ii,  1903 


mous  number  of  bacteria  present  at  times  in  ice-creams 
— one  of  the  highest  records  being  seven  millions  in 
one  cub.  cm.  The  sources  of  danger  in  ice-creams  are 
obvious,  as  they  come  from  the  spoons  and  vessels,  and 
the  persons  and  dwellings  of  the  street  vendors. 

Laboratory  experiments  have  confirmed  the  conclu- 
sion that  a  freezing  process  is  not  necessarily  fatal 
to  bacterial  life.  We  have  instances  of  bacteria  multi- 
pl^'ing  at  zero,  and  of  their  survival  after  a  six  months' 
exposure  to  the  temperature  of  liquid  air.  It  is  not 
therefore  surprising  that  the  American  observers  were 
unable  to  secure  a  complete  sterilisation  of  bacterial 
cultures  by  the  freezing  methods  they  employed.  The 
question  became  therefore  a  relative  one.  What  u'as 
the  probability  or  likelihood  of  infection  through  ice 
in  the  case  of  typhoid  fever?  It  would  appear  that 
abolit  90  per  cent,  of  the  Ordinary  water  bacteria  are 
eliminated  by  the  process  of  freezing.  The  authors 
find  that,  in  the  case  of  a  specific  pathogenic  organism 
such  as  the  Bacillus  typhosus,  less  than  one  per  cent, 
survive  simple  freezing  for  a  period  of  fourteen  days. 
Complete  sterility  did  hot  occur  even  at  the  end  of 
three  months,  whilst  a  process  of  alternate  thawing 
and  freezing,  if  on  the  whole  more  fatal  to  the  typhoid 
germs  than  a  simple  freezing,  was  equally  unsuccess- 
ful in  effecting  an  absolute  sterilisation  of  the  infected 
water.  The  reduction  in  the  number  of  typhoid  bacilli 
in  chilled  water  was  approximately  as  great  as  occurred 
in  ice.  The  process  of  destruction  proved  to  be  a  con- 
tinuous one,  whether  it  occurred  above  or  below  the 
freezing-point,  and  whether  the  experiments  were  made 
in  water  or  in  soil.  A  progressive  reduction  in  the 
number  of  organisms  occurred  to  the  extent  of  about 
99  per  cent.,  and  proceeded  pari  passu  with  the  dura- 
tion of  the  experiment.  Cold  exercises  a  disinfecting 
action  as  regards  the  typhoid  bacillus,  and  in  natural 
ice  there  is  a  supplementary  purifying  influence  to  be 
taken  into  account,  as,  at  the  time  of  freezing,  90  per 
cent,  of  the  germs  are  thrown  out  by  a  process  of 
physical  exclusion.  These  are  the  main  conclusions 
arrived  at,  and  the  authors  find  that  they  are  in  ac- 
cord with  the  general  result  of  experience,  namely, 
that  natural  ice  can  very  rarely  be  a  vehicle  of  typhoid 
fever. 

The  research  may  perhaps  fairly  be  described  as  a 
study  of  the  death-rate  of  typhoid  bacilli  under  adverse 
conditions,  as  furnished  by  cold.  The  percentage 
mortality,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  is  such  as  might  occur 
under  the  influence  of  light,  a  poor  food  supply, 
and  disinfectant  agents  generally.  It  is  therefore  per- 
missible to  think  that  the  danger  of  infection  in  the 
case  of  ice,  if  it  is  minimised,  is  not  by  any  means 
abolished.  A  certain  number  of  typhoid  bacilli,  as  the 
experiments  show,  do  remain  alive,  and  these  may,  on 
rethawing,  undergo  a  rapid  multiplication  outside  as 
well  as  inside  the  human  body.  And  it  has  likewise  to 
be  remembered  that  it  is  notoriously  difficult  to  trace 
the  exact  channels  of  infection  in  sporadic  cases  of 
typhoid  fever.  The  infection  has  at  times  occurred 
from  the  most  unexpected  quarters. 

Prof.  Sedgwick  and  Mr.  Winslow  have  rightly  drawn 
attention  to  the  unfavourable  conditions  furnished  by 
natural  ice  for  the  propagation  of  the  typhoid 
organism.  It  is  at  the  same  time  feasible  to  assume 
that  ice  may  likewise  act  as  a  conserving  agent,  inas- 
muchas  the  cold,  whilst  inhibiting  the  growth  of  the 
typhoid  bacillus,  will  equally  prevent  the  multiplica- 
tion of  other  competitive ,  forms  of  life. 

The  experiments  do  not  affect  the  general  question 
of  the  persistence  of  life  at  low  temperatures.  If  the 
temperature  be  sufficiently  low  to  produce  a  complete 
anaesthesia  of  the  cells,  cold  tends  to  act  as  a  conserving 
agent  on  the  typhoid  bacillus  and  allied  forms. 

It  only  remains  to  commend  the  memoir  of  Prof. 
NO.    1754,  VOL.  68] 


Sedgwick  and  Mr.  Winslow  to  the  attention  of  all 
who  are  interested  in  the  epidemiological  questions 
involved.  Allan   Macfadyen. 


NOTE   ON   THE   PROBABLE   OCCASIONAL 
INSTABILITY    OF   ALL    MATTER. 

A  S  a  summary  of  my  remarks  at  the  discussion  on 
^*-  Prof.  Rutherford's  most  Interesting  communica- 
tion on  the  subject  of  radio-activity  to  the  Physical 
Society  of  London  on  Friday  last,  June  5,  I  beg  U) 
communicate  the  following  : — 

Consider  an  electron  or  other  particle,  of  mass  »; 
and  of  negative  charge  e,  revolving  at  speed  u  round 
the  much  more  massive  rest  of  an  atom  possessing  an 
equal  positive  charge.  The  centripetal  force  between 
them  Is 

mit!^  _   e"^ 
r         Kr- 

where  the  first  r  strictly  Is  measured  to  the  centre 
of  gravity  of  the  two  bodies,  and  the  second  r  is  the 
distance  between  their  centres ;  but  taking  these  as 
usual  practically  equal  for  the  lighter  body,  we  get 
Kepler's  law  for  the  case 


Kw 


(I) 


Larmor  has  shown  ("  /Ether  and  Matter,"  p.  227) 
that  an  electric  charge  subject  to  acceleration  radlate> 
some  of  its  kinetic  energy,  though  the  radiation  be- 
comes of  prominent  amount  only  when  the  acceler- 
ation is  great;  as,  for  instance,  when  kathode  ray> 
are  suddenly  stopped  by  a  target.  The  "  power  "  of 
the  radiation,  or  the  energy  lost  per  unit  time,  is 

R  =  '^^' (2) 

where  u  is  the  acceleration  of  the  electric  charge  e,  and 
-c  Is  the  velocity  of  light. 

In  the  case  of  steady  circular  motion,  the  only 
acceleration  is  normal  or  centripetal,  viz. 


(3- 


but  that  Is  just  as  effective  for  radiation  purposes  as 
the  tangential  variety. 

Hence,  combining  the  three  equations,  we  get,  for 
the  radiating  power, 

2           /W\2      «8 
^=>-(^)-^' ^^' 

that  Is,  a  constant  multiplied  by  the  eighth  power  ot 
the  velocity  of  the  rapidly  moving  particle  :  an  ex- 
pression which  corresponds  with  what  for  ordinary 
molecular  motions  Is  known  as  Stefan's  law,  connect- 
ing radiation  with  temperature,  i.e.  with  square  0/ 
molecular  velocity. 

Now  the  radiation  loss  is  equivalent  to  a  resisting 
medium,  and  accordingly  the  revolving  particle  tends 
to  move  inwards  towards  its  centre,  and  its  speed  to 
increase  in  accordance  with  equation  (i).  A  slight 
increase  In  speed  brings  about  a  great  increase  in 
radiating  power,  as  Is  shown  by  equation  (4) ;  where- 
fore the  change,  once  appreciably  begun,  may  be  ex- 
pected to  go  on  rapidly,  until  presently  the  speed 
approaches  the  velocity'  of  light.  On  the  electric 
theory  of  matter,  radiation  or  loss  of  energy  must  occur 
from  every  atom,  and  therefore  it  is  only  a  question  of 
time  how  long  an  atom  shall  last  before  it  reaches  this 
stage. 

Directly  this  stage  is  reached  another  effect  super- 
venes ;  the  rapidlv  moving  portion  of  the  mass  begins 
rapidly  to  rise  In  value,  according  to  a  complicated 
expression  not  yet  quite  fully  worked  out.     This  effect 


June  ii,  1903] 


NATURE 


129 


■-  unimportant  until  the  speed  conies  very  near  to  the 
!;^ht  velocity,  but  the  mass  becomes  suddenly  infinite 
r  very  great  when  the  light  velocity  is  attained. 
I  find  it  difficult  to  realise  the  full  effect  of  this  kind 
of  increase  of  mass,  that  is  to  say,  of  mass  intrinsically 
iui>sessed  by  the  moving  body,  and  not  accreted  on  it 
10m  outside  stationary  matter.       The  latter  effect  is 
amiliar  in  raindrops  and  in  viscosity  of  gases,  and  it 
tends  to  reduce  relative  motion  ;  but  no  previous  in- 
stance is  known  where  the  mass  of  the  moving  body 
rises  because  it  is   itself  a   function   of  velocity.       It 
would  seem  that  the  momentum  must  increase,   and 
must  disturb  the  balance  of  forces  holding  the  parts 
of  the  system  together.     In  an  extreme  case  it  might 
happen  that  the  lighter  body  would  suddenly  become 
the  heavier,  would  behave  as  if  it  had  encountered  an 
bstacle,  and  would  jerk  the  rest  of  the  atom  off;  or, 
ii    the   other   hand,    it   might   happen    that   the   most 
apidly  moving  portion  itself,  by  reason  of  its  sudden 
'.cess  of  momentum,  would  break   loose  and  proceed 
mgentially.       In  any  case  it  appears  likely  that  an 
-loni    at    this    stage    would    begin    to    break    up,    as 
observed  experimentally  by  Rutherford  and  Soddy;  in 
other  words,  the  fact  of  electronic  radiation  seems  to 
carry  with  it  the  liability  to  change  or  decay  of  all 
matter  possessing  an  electric  constitution ;  the  change 
trom  one  form  to  another  being  accompanied,  as  they 
demonstrate     in     many     cases,     by     radio-activity — a 
phenomenon  which  Strutt  finds  widely  diffused. 

It  is  hardly  necessary  to  direct  attention  to  a  sort  of 
astronomical  analogy  to  this,  though  governed  by 
different  forces,  in  the  contracting  or  gradual  collap- 
sing of  a  nebula,  with  the  occasional  shrinking  off  of 
peripheral  material  as  an  unstable  stage  is  periodically 
reached,  in  accordance  with  the  rough  approximation 
known  as  Bode's  law,  together  with  the  strong  radio- 
activity of  the  central  mass,  and  the  conversion  of  con- 
stitutional potential  energy  into  heat, 

A  few  more  words  on  the  increase  of  mass  at  the 
critical  velocity  : — The  only  expression  for  mass  as 
depending  on  velocity  which  has  met  with  any  attempt 
at  experimental  verification,  is  the  expression  of 
Abraham  supposed  to  be  verified  by  Kaufmann  by 
direct  experiment  on  curvature  of  kathode  rays. 
Taking  this  as  a  simple  example  of  the  kind  of  effect 
to  be  expected,  viz. 


?o       43'  V     2/3        ^  I  - 


•   .(5) 


\Vhere   /8   is   the   ratio   ujv,   the   speed   of   an   electric 

particle  to  that  of  light,  and  m^  its  ordinary  purely 

electric  mass  for  slow  motions,  we  find  that  when  an 

I       electron   is   moving  with   hal\  the  speed  of  light,   its 

«       mass  is  only  1.12  times  what  it  was  when  stationarj-. 

I       At  three-quarters  of  the  speed  of  light  the  mass  ratio 

f       becomes  1.37,  or  little  more  than  a  third  greater  than 

its  normal  value.     At  nine-tenths  of  the  light  velocity 

the  mass  is  still  not  doubled,  being  only  1.8  times  m„. 

When  within  i  per  cent,  of  the  light  speed  the  mass 
is  trebled,  or,  more  exactly,  multiplied  by  3.28,  and 
when  within  one  part  in  a  thousand  of  its  limiting 
velocity,  the  mass  is  almost  exactly  quintupled. 

For  higher  speeds,  say  within  i/nth  of  the  speed  of 
light,  or  u  =  {i-  i/n)v,  n  being  great,  the  expression 
for  the  electric  mass  ratio  simplifies  to 


3 (log  {2ft  -  I) 
4  '- 


ijwo 


(6) 


which  ultimately  is  truly  infinite,  but  for  even  excessive 
values  of  n  is  only  moderately  great. 

It  is  notable  how  close  to  the  velocity  of  light  it  is 
necessary  to  get  before  this  effect  becornes  prominent ; 
NO.    1754,  VOL.  68] 


the  instability  must  be  expected  to  arrive  sharply  when- 
ever the  velocity  of  light  is  from  any  cause,  e.g.  per- 
turbation or  collision,  attained  by  any  moving  elec- 
trically charged  part  of  an  atom.  Assuming  a  Max- 
well distribution  of  velocities  and  an  average  speed, 
for  the  internal  atomic  motions,  it  may  be  possible  (as 
J.  J.  Thomson  suggested  in  Nature  of  April  30,  p. 
601)  to  calculate  what  percentage  of  a  given  number  of 
atoms  reach  the  unstable  stage  by  this  means,  and  so 
to  make  a  theoretical  estimate  of  the  amount  of  radio- 
activity to  be  expected,  and  of  the  life  of  an  atom. 
But  the  slight  constant  radiation-loss  seems  competent 
to  bring  about  instability  and  decay  irrespective  of 
collisions,  and  therefore  independently  of  any  Maxwell- 
Boltzmann  law.  Oliver  J.  Lodge. 


PHOTOGRAPHS    OF    SNOW    CRYSTALS. 

AT  the  beginning  of  last  year  (vol.  Ixv.  p.  234)  we 
summarised  a  paper  contributed  by  Mr.  W.  A. 
Bentley  to  the  U.S.  Monthly  Weather  Review  upon  his 
photomicrographs  of  snow  crystals.  Mr.  Bentley  has 
made  a  study  of  the  forms  of  snow  crystals  for  more 
than  twenty  years,  and  has  obtained  a  most  valuable 
collection  of  photomicrographs  taken  with  the  object 
of  discovering  the  connection  between  characteristic 
forms  and  particular  meteorological  conditions. 
During  the  winter  of  1901-1902  a  systematic  record 
was  secured  by  Mr.  Bentley  of  a  number  of  snow 
storms,  and  several  good  photomicrographs  from 
each  storm  were  obtained  by  him,  more  than  two 
hundred  pictures  being  added  to  his  collection.  The 
annual  summary  of  the  Monthly  Weather  Review  for 
1902  (vol.  XXX.  No.  13),  which  has  just  been  re- 
ceived, contains  reproductions  of  these  photomicro- 
graphs and  a  paper  by  Mr.  Bentley  describing  the 
various  types  of  structure  and  the  meteorological  con- 
ditions prevailing  at  the  time  when  they  were  produced. 
The  paper  contains  an  instructive  account  of  snow 
crystals,  and  an  analysis  of  the  results  of  the  studies 
carried  on  during  the  winter  of  1901-1902.  The 
interest  of  the  pictures  lies  not  merely  in  the  fact  that 
many  of  the  forms  photographed  are  very  remarkable, 
but  that  they  also  represent,  so  far  as  possible,  stages 
in  the  life-history  of  snowstorms,  several  pictures 
having  been  obtained  of  each  storm,  while  at  the 
same  time  a  record  was  kept  of  the  conditions  of 
temperature,  pressure,  wind,  cloud  and  position  of 
storm  from  which  the  snow  fell. 

We  print  a  few  extracts  from  the  contribution 
and  reproduce  several  photomicrographs  of  exceptional 
interest  from  those  given  in  the  Monthly  Weather 
Review. 

In  general  the  data  tend  to  confirm  further  the  con- 
clusions of  all  observers,  that  a  more  or  less  intimate 
connection  exists  between  form  and  size  of  nuclei,  and  the 
altitude  and  temperature  of  the  air  in  which  the  crystals 
form.  There  can  be  no  longer  any  doubt  that  there  is  a 
general  law  of  distribution  of  the  various  types  of  crystals 
throughout  the  different  portions  of  a  great  storm.  On 
this  point  the  data  secured,  both  by  direct  observation  and 
by  a  study  of  the  weather  maps,  are  much  more  complete 
and  satisfactory  than  has  hitherto  been  published.  Ihis 
aspect  of  our  study  received  special  consideration,  because 
it  was  thought  to  be  most  important. 

Snowstorms  often  cover  a  region  of  vast  extent ;  crystal- 
lisation is  going  on  within  them  over  nearly  the  whole  area, 
and  therefore  in  regions  that  differ  greatly  among  them- 
selves as  to  temperature,  humidity,  air  density,  electrical 
conditions,  &c.  Moreover,  the  kind,  number,  dimensions, 
altitude  and  density  of  the  clouds  within  those  various 
regions  differ  so  greatly  one  from  another  that  the  snow 
crystals  emanating  from  each  region  furnish  us  rare 
opportunities  for  observing  and  studying  the  effects  of  each 
of  these  various  conditions  upon  the  forms. 


130 


NATURE 


[June  ii,  1903 


The  results  arrived  at  by  a  study  of  the  data  secured 
during  the  four  winters  of  1898-99  to  1901-2,  inclusive,  in 
regard  to  the  relative  frequency  of  occurrences  of  the 
various  types  and  the  apparent  connection  between  size  and 
form  and  the  air  temperatures,  agree  in  general  with  the 
results  arrived  at  by  many  other  meteorologists  and  ob- 
servers, both  in  Europe  and  America,  as  set  forth  in  the 
work  "  Schneekrystalle, "  by  Dr.  G.  Hellmann,  Berlin, 
1893. 

Doubtless  the  actual  connection  between  forms  and  sizes 
of  snow  crystals  and  the  temperature  and  density  of  the 
air  is  much  more  intimate  than  our  present  knowledge  would 
indicate,  because  our  studies  are  based  on  air  temperatures 
at  the  earth's  surface,  instead  of  in  the  cloud  strata  where 
the  snow  crystals  form.  The  temperature  may  often  be 
mild  at  the  earth's  surface  when  the  crystals  are  develop- 
ing at  high  altitudes  where  the  cold  is  intense,  and  such 
crystals  should  be  classed  with  those  deposited  during  ex- 
treme cold. 

Structure  of  Snow  Crystals. — The  beautiful  details,  the 
lines,  rods,  flowery  geometrical  tracings  and  delicate  sym- 
metrically arranged  shadings  to  be  found  within  the  interior 
portions  of  most  of  the  more  compact  tabular  crystals,  and 


in  less  degree  within  the  more  open  ones,  have  attracted 
the  attention  of  nearly  all  observers  who  have  studied  snow 
crystals.  That  these  interior  details  more  or  less  perfectly 
outline  preexisting  forms  must  have  been  early  recognised, 
yet  the  knowledge  as  to  what  they  actually  were  reniained 
long  in  obscurity,  and  a  complete  explanation  of  all  of 
them  is  yet  to  be  found.  The  investigations  of  Drs.  Norden- 
skiold  and  G.  Hellmann  enable  us  to  form  a  general  con- 
ception as  to  their  true  character.  These  observers  dis- 
covered that  many  of  the  lines,  rods,  and  other  configur- 
ations within  the  crystals,  that  add  so  much  to  the  beauty 
of  the  forms,  and  which  are  so  plainly  revealed  in  the 
photomicrographs,  are  due  to  minute  inclusions  of  air. 
This  included  air  prevents  a  complete  joining  of  the  water 
molecules  ;  the  walls  of  the.  resultant  air  tubes  cause  the 
absorption  and  refraction  of  a  part  of  the  rays  of  light 
entering  the  crystal ;  hence,  those  portions  appear  darker 
by  transmitted  light  than  do  the  other  portions.  The 
softer  and  broader  interior  shadings  may  perhaps  also  be 
due,  in  whole  or  part,  to  the  same  cause,  but  if  so,  the 
corresponding  inclusions  of  air  must  necessarily  be  much 
more  attenuated  and  more  widely  diffused  than  in  the  former 
cases.     We  can  only  conjecture  as  to  the  manner  in  which 

NO.    1754,  VOL.  681 


these  minute  air  tubes  and  blisters  are  formed.  It  may 
well  be  that  some  of  them  are  the  result  of  a  sudden  and 
simultaneous  rushing  together  of  water  molecules  around 
the  crystal  from  all  sides.  This  might  result  in  the  form- 
ation of  closely  contiguous  parallel  ledges,  or  laterally  pro- 
jecting outgrowths  that  are  separated  from  each  other 
during  the  initial  impact  by  a  narrow  groove,  or  air  space, 
but  are  soon  bridged  over  by  subsequent  growth.  Similar 
contiguous  parallel  growths  occur  frequently  around  the 
angles  of  very  short  columnar  forms,  and  lend  plausibility 
to  this  theory.  Air  spaces  also  exist  within  columnar 
forms,  as  noted  by  Hellmann  and  Nordenskiold.  They 
seem  to  occur  within  such  forms  as  hollow  cup-like  ex- 
tensions, projecting  perpendicularly  within  them  from  each 
of  the  ends  of  the  crystals. 

Modifications  of  Forms  of  Snow  Crystals. — By  close  study 
of  the  photomicrographs,  we  find  that  the  most  common 
form  outlined  within  the  nuclear  portions  of  the  crystals 
is  a  simple  star  of  six  rays,  a  solid  hexagon,  and  a  circle. 
The  subsequent  additions  assume  a  bewildering  variety  of 
shapes,  each  of  which  usually  differs  widely  from  the  one 
that  preceded  it,  and  from  the  primitive  nuclear  form  at  its 
centre.  Bearing  in  mind,  however,  the  tendency  of  the 
crystals  evolved  within  the  upper  clouds  toward  solidity, 
and  the  tendency  of  those  from  the  lower  clouds  to  form 
more  branching  open  crystals,  our  task  of  deciphering  the 


Fig.  2. — Nos.  730-7^8. 


hieroglyphics,  and  of  tracing  thereby  the  probable  flights 
of  each  individual  crystal  within  the  clouds,  becomes  much 
easier  than  might  be  anticipated. 

Taking  photomicrograph  No.  821  as  an  example,  we  can 
picture  with  some  certainty  its  various  flights  within  the 
clouds  during  each  stage  of  its  growth.  Star-shaped  at 
birth,  it  was  probably  carried  upward  by  ascending  air 
currents,  and  at  some  upper  level  assumed  the  solid 
hexagonal  form  that  we  see  outlined  around  the  star-shaped 
nucleus.  Having  now  become  heavier,  it  probably  de- 
scended, and  acquired  further  growth  at  some  lower  level, 
such  as  that  wherein  it  had  its  birth. 

Modifications  of  Forms  due  to  other  Causes. — As  it  is 
generally  conceded  that  winds  play  an  important  part  in 
modifying  the  forms  of  snow  crystals,  let  us  consider  the 
probable  manner  in  which  they  operate  to  accomplish  this. 

Aside  from  causing  modifications  by  wafting  the  crystals 
upward  and  downward  within  the  clouds  to  regions  varying 
in  temperature,  humidity,  density,  &c.,  as  previously  noted, 
the  winds  probably  cause  modifications  in  other  ways. 
Violent  winds  may  prevent  a  perfect  and  orderly  joining  of 
the  aqueous  molecules,  causing  imperfections  in  the  forms, 
or  perhaps  amorphous,  granular  aggregations. 

Again,  they  may  waft  greater  quantities  of  water  mole- 
cules to  one  or  more  portions  of  a  growing  crystal,  causing 
abnormal  growth  to  take  place  around  such  portions. 

More  important  still,  violent  vvinds  often  cause  fractures 


June  ii,  1903 j 


NATURE 


131 


"  to  occur,  especially  as  regards  the  branching  forms,  and 
whenever,  as  must  often  happen,  subsequent  growth  takes 
place  around  and  upon  such  broken  crystals,  irregular,  un- 
symmetrical  forms  result.  Doubtless,  we  may  attribute  the 
ori^^in  of  some  of  the  odd  oblong  crystals  to  the  fact  that 
crystallisation  sometimes  takes  place  around  and  upon  a 
long  broken  branch,  or  other  long  portion  detached  by  frac- 
ture from  some  preexisting  crystal.  Other  odd  forms  seem 
to  owe  their  abnormal  character  to  design  rather  than 
accident.  Columnar  forms  and,  in  a  less  degree,  small 
solid  tabular  forms,  being  relatively  so  much  heavier  and 
more  compact  than  stellar  and  similar  branching  forms, 
are  much  less  likely  than  these  to  be  wafted  about  and  to 
receive  modification's  due  to  wind  action. 

Among  the  other  causes  of  modification  of  forms,  we 
must  mention  the  close  proximity  of  two  or  more  crystals 
during  one  or  more  stages  of  their  growth.  This  close 
proximity  while  developing  would  probably  cause  a  greater 
growth  of  those  portions  of  each  contiguous  crystal  that  lie 
farthest  away  from  the  crystal  closely  adjoining,  and  thus 
perfect  symmetry  would  be' impaired. 

Considerable  modifications  of  form  are  frequently  due  to 
the  aggregation  upon  the  crystals  of  amorphous  or  granular 
material,  contributed  by  relatively  coarse  cloud  spherules, 
particles  of  mist,  or  minute  rain  drops.  Frail  light,  branch- 
ing stellar  and  other  forms  are  often   rendered  coarse  and 


Fig.  3.  — Nos.  742-750. 


heavy  by  such  additions  taking  place  around  and  upon  every 
angle  of  the  crystals,  so  that  they  fall  quickly  to  the  earth.' 
Perfect  crystals  are  frequently  covered  over  and  lines  of 
beauty  obliterated  by  such  granular  coatings.  Granulation 
often  proceeds  to  such  a  degree,  and  the  true  crystals  are  so 
deeply  coated  over  and  imbedded  within  it,  that  the  character 
of  the  nucleus  does  not  reveal  itself,  except  under  the  closest 
examination.  Such  heavy  granular  covered  crystals  possess 
great  interest  for  many  reasons ;  they  show  when  the 
character  of  the  snow  is  due  to  the  aggregation  of  relatively 
coarse  cloud  particles,  or  minute  rain  drops,  and  not  to  the 
aggregation  of  the  much  smaller  molecules  of  water,  pre- 
sumably floating  freely  about  between  them.  They  also 
offer  a  complete  explanation  of  the  formation  and  growth 
of  the  very  large  rain  drops  that  often  fall  from  thunder- 
clouds and  other  rainstorms,  if  we  accept  the  conclusion 
that  such  large  drops  result  from  the  melting,  or  merging 
together,  of  one  or  more  of  the  large  granular  crystals. 
For  many  reasons  (among  which  we  mention  the  almost 
invariable  presence  of  low  cloud  strata  when  granulation 
occurs,  and  the  aggregation  occurring  on  perfect  crystals, 
while  these  are  presumably  within  the  low  clouds,  rather 
than  the  occurrence  of  such  aggregations  as  a  distinct 
identity  by  itself)  we  are  led  to  infer  that,  as  a  rule,  the 
heavy  granular  covered  crystals  are  peculiarly  a  product 
of  the  lower  or  intermediate  cloud  strata. 


Chronological  List  of  Snowstorms  and  Photomicrographs. 
— We  now  pass  to  the  analysis  of  the  photomicrographs  of 
individual    snow    crystals    secured    during    the    remarkably 


NO.    1754,   VOL.  68] 


Fig.  4.— Nos.  783-7Q1. 

favourable  winter  of  1901-2.  The,  number  of  individual 
crystals  is  very  considerable,  and  the  beautiful  or  odd  and 
interesting  ones  form  a  large  percentage  of  the  whole 
number ;  many  of  them  deserve  special  mention  and  pro- 
longed close  study.  Considering  them  in  chronological 
order,  the  snow  forms  of  the  blizzards  of  November,  1901, 
first  demand  our  attention. 

1901,  November  26. — Eighteen  different  forms  were  photo- 
graphed on  this  date,  and  among  them  two,  Nos.  716  and 
718  (Fig.  i),  are  very  choice  and  beautiful.  These  exhibit 
a  rather  unusual  and  notable  peculiarity,  viz.  a  plain  or 
delicately  lined  nucleus  contrasted  with  a  brecciated,  boldly 
designed  external  portion ;  the  latter  approaching  granu- 
lation, as  though  the  nuclear  portion  was  formed  in  clouds 
that  were  less  dense  and  humid  than  those  in  which  the 
outline  portions  were  added.  No.  712  is  a  fine  example  of 
the  star-shaped  form  of  crystal,  exhibiting  an  extreme  and 
slender  development  of  the  six  primary  rays  without  any 
corresponding  development  of  the  secondary  rays.  Many  of 
the  branching  forms  of  this  date  were  observed  to  be  broken, 
as  though  by  the  action  of  violent  winds. 


#l« 


816-824. 


Xovctiihrr  2-.  -Continuation  of  the  same  storm.  Crystal 
types  small,  granular,  and  irregular,  succeeded  later  by 
medium-sized,  rather  compact  crystalline  tabular  forms  and 


1^.2 


NATURE 


[June  i  i,  1903 


a  few  doublets.  Nos.  722  and  723  are  charming  patterns 
in  snow  architecture, 

November  30.— Clouds  rather  thin  stratus  and  nimbus. 
Crystal  types  wholly  tabular  of  both  open  and  stellate 
structure  (Fig.  2,  Nos.  730-737). 

Among  the  seven  forms  of  this  date  we  find  much  to 
admire  in  the  perfect  beautv  and  symmetry  of  Nos.  731-734- 
The  beautiful  starfish  design  exhibited  by  No.  735  is  some- 
what rare.  It  is  noteworthy  that  Prof.  S.  Squinabol,  of 
the  University  of  Padua,  made  drawings  of  a  snow  crystal 
found  in  Genoa  in  1887  that  closely  resembles  this  latter 
one.  The  star  with  long  slender  rays  deposited  during  this 
same  storm,  on  November  26  (see'  No.  712),  also  closely 
resembles  one  figured  by  Squinabol  in  his  work  "  La 
Navigata. "  No,  737  is  another  form  that  closely  resembles 
some  of  those  secured  by  other  observers ;  it  is  very  similar 
to  some  of  the  photomicrographs  secured  by  Dr.  Neuhaus, 
of  Berlin,  during  the  winter  of  1893,  and  published  in  Dr. 
G.  Hellmann's  work. 

December  4. — Clouds  stratus,  with  detached  running 
masses  of  low  nimbus ;  probably  high  cirro-stratus  above 
these.     The    western   portion    of    this    cold    southern    storm 


Fig.  6.— Nos.  876-: 


furnished  a  great  number  of  forms  of  snow  crystals  that 
were  in  general  rather  small  and  compact. 

The  rare  beauty  of  Nos.  745,  748  (Fig.  3)  will  appeal  to 
all ;  crj'stallographers  will  find  much  of  interest  in  No.  749. 

1902,  January  5. — The  clouds  of  the  western  edge  of  the 
storm  of  January  5,  1902,  furnished  a  large  and  splendid 
set  of  forms.  Nos.  783,  785,  786,  and  788  (Fig.  4)  are 
exquisite  examples  of  the  frail,  branching  type  of  crystals. 
Xo.  785  is  so  rarely  beautiful  that  Mr.  Bentley  describes 
it  as  the  peer  of  any  in  his  whole  collection. 

January  12. — Clouds  obscured  by  heavy  snowfall.  A  long 
series  of  magnificent  snow  crystals  was  secured  from  the 
clouds  of  the  south-west-central  portion  of  the  storm  or 
blizzard  of  January  12  (see  Nos.  816-824,  Fig.  5).  The 
snow,  as  usual  whenever  it  comes  from  the  central-western 
portion  of  a  storm,  consisted  of  a  great  variety  of  types 
both  columnar  and  tabular,  but  as  the  storm's  central  portion 
passed  farther  to  the  east,  during  the  afternoon  of  January 
12,  the  columnar  forms  ceased  to  be  deposited.  Nos.  818, 
821  and  822  possess  much  beauty  of  design  and  perfection 
of  form. 

February  8. ^Clouds  stratus  and  nimbus  ;  probably  high 
cirro-stratus  superimposed  above  them.  A  continuation  of 
the  storm  of  F"ebruary  7,  and  its  increase  in  rigour  furnished 

NO.    1754,  VOL.   68] 


more  forms  than  were  ever  before  secured  bv  Mr.  Bentb 
from  any  one  storm.  The  beautiful  branching"  crystals,  N( 
881  and  883  (Fig.  6),  portray,  in  general,  the  characters  . 
the  forms  tha't  successively  replaced  both  the  solid  tabul; 
and  columnar  forms,  as  the  western  edge  of  the  storm  can 
nearer.  No.  884  exhibits  a  most  interesting  phase 
crystallic  evolution  ;  it  is  composed  of  four  contiguous  poini 
or  rather  portions,  and  two  somewhat  stunted  portions,  al 
similar  to  each  other,  but  differing  widely  from  the  oth 
four.  No.  885  shows  two  overlapping  additions  to  two 
the  points,  thus  rendering  it  of  more  than  usual  interr 
and  presenting  us  with  another  seemingly  unsolvali 
problem  in  crystallography. 

In  concluding  this  mention  of  individual  forms,  it  i^ 
worthy  of  note  that,  as  during  previous  winters,  occasionally 
single  individual  crystals,  and  more  rarely  larger  numbers 
of  such,  produced  during  the  storms  of  this  winter,  re- 
sembled closely,  in  outline  or  interior  details,  or  oddity,  one 
or  more  of  the  individual  forms  found  among  the  snows 
of  previous  winters.  The  recurrence  of  similar  types,  after 
perhaps  long  intervals  of  time  have  elapsed,  is  a  phenomenon 
of  great  interest.  ' 

In  conclusion,  it  may  be  worth  noting  that  by  the  addition 
of  more  than  200  plates  during  the  past  winter,  the  number 
of  individual  photomicrographs  of  crystals  in  Mr.  Bentley's- 
collection  is  brought  up  to  somewhat  more  than  1000,  no 
two  of  which  are  alike.  This  completes  also  his  seventeenth 
year  of  photographic  work  among  the  snow  crystals. 


DR.  A.  A.  COMMON,  F.R.S. 

IT  was  with  deep  regret  that  the  news  of  the  sudden 
death  of  Dr.  Common  had  to  be  announced  in  the 
last  number  of  this  Journal.  Dr.  Common  was  so  hale 
a:nd  hearty  that  it  came  as  a  great  shock  to  his  friends 
to  find  that  he  was  no  more,  and  his  loss  is  felt  not 
only  by  a  great  circle  of  friends,  but  by  the  astronomical 
world  at  large.  Born  in  1841,  August  7,  Dr.  Andrew 
Ainslie  Common  was  by  profession  an  engineer,  but 
quite  at  an  early  date  he  turned  his  attention  to 
astronomy.  In  1874  he  became  the  possessor  of  a 
5^-inch  refractor,  and  three  years  later  of  an  18-inch 
reflector  by  Calver.  It  was  evidently  the  use  of  the 
latter  instrument  which  sowed  the  seed  for  his  later 
important  researches  in  the  making  and  silvering  of 
both  large  and  small  mirrors.  An  idea  of  his  remark- 
able energy  and  success  in  the  grinding  and  silvering 
of  mirrors  can  be  gathered  from  the  following  list  of 
large  reflectors  in  use  which  he  referred  to  in  his 
presidential  address  to  Section  A  (Department  of 
Astronomy)  of  the  British  Association  in  1900.  This 
list  only  referred  to  reflectors  of  2ft.  6in.  and  upwards, 
and  out  of  the  nine  given  five  were  from  his  own 
workshop. 


Reflectors  of  2  ft.  6  in.  and  upwards. 


Lord   Rosse  

Dr.    Common 

Melbourne  

Paris  

Meudon 

Solar   Physics   Observatory   (Com  non) 

Crossley  (Lick;   Common)       2     ° 

Greenwich    (Common)    ...         ...         ...         ...     2     6 

Solar   Physics   Observatory   (Common)         ...     2     6 

His  knowledge  of  engineering  was  a  valuable  ad- 
junct in  the  designing  and  construction  of  the  mount- 
ings for  his  large  mirrors.  Dr.  Common  paid  great 
attention  to  this  latter  question,  for  on  it  depended  to 
a  very  great  extent  their  efficiency  and  utilisation.  He 
eliminated  the  "  tube  "  by  substituting  a  light  frame- 
work of  iron  w^hich  reduced  air  currents  to  a  mini- 
mum ;  adopted  a  new  method  to  prevent  the  mirror 
being  strained ;  mounted  large  mirrors  equatorially  by 
the  ingenious  device  of  reducing  the  friction  of  the 
moving  parts  by  floating  them  in   mercury;  designed 


June  ii,  1903] 


NA  TURE 


133 


and  used  successfully  a  slipping  plate  for  use  in  the 
principal  focus  for  photographic  and  visual  purposes. 

Not  only  was  his  time  chiefly  devoted  to  the  construc- 
tion of  these  astronomical  instruments,  but  he  turned 
them  to  great  advantage  by  showing  what  could  be 
done  with  them.  Among  the  most  noteworthy  of  these 
attainments  was  the  magnificent  photograph  of  the 
nebula  of  Orion  which  he  secured  in  1883,  and  for 
which  he  won  the  gold  medal  of  the  Royal  Astro- 
nomical Society.  Nebulge,  star  clusters,  &c.,  all  came 
under  his  keen  eye,  and  his  researches  not  only  demon- 
strated the  cumulative  effect  of  the  photographic  film, 
but  showed  that  a  new  field  of  astronomical  work  was 
dawning  by  the  employment  of  reflectors  for  long 
exposure  photography. 

More  recently  Dr.  Common,  among  other  things, 
turned  his  attention  to  the  improvements  in  telescopic 
gun  sights,  and  in  this  direction  his  loss  will  be  keenly 
felt.  He  became  a  fellow  of  the  Royal  Astronomical 
Society  in  1876,  received  the  gold  medal  in  1884,  and 
was  president  in  1895-96.  He  was  elected  a  fellow 
of  the  Royal  Society  in  1885,  and  was  an  honorary 
LL.D.  of  St.  Andrews. 

Jovial,  good-hearted,  good-natured,  and  generous 
beyond  degree  in  distributing  his  mirrors  to  those  who 
would  use  them,  all  his  friends  join  with  the  widow, 
son  and  three  daughters  whom  he  has  left  behind  in 
mourning  the  loss  of  a  personal  friend. 

William  J.  S.    Lockyer. 


PROF.    C.    A.    BJERKNES. 

T  N  Nature  of  May  28  mention  was  made  of  the 
A  death  of  Prof.  C.  A.  Bjerknes,  of  the  University 
of  Christiania,  at  the  age  of  seventy-eight. 

Though  occupying  the  chair  of  pure  mathematics, 
it  was  to  applied  mathematics,  and  especially  to  hydro- 
dynamics, that  Bjerknes  devoted  the  greater  part  of 
his  attention  and  study.  He  studied  mathematics  at 
the  University  of  Gotti'ngen  early  in  the  •'  fifties,"  his 
teachers  including  Riemann,  who  lectured  on  Abelian 
functions  to  a  class  of  three  only — Schering,  Bjerknes 
and  Dedekind — presumably  between  185 1,  when 
Riemann  obtained  the  doctorate,  and  1859,  when  he 
was  appointed  ordinary  professor,  also  Lejeune  Dirich- 
let,  who  lectured  to  Schering  and  Bjerknes  in  1855-56, 
and  who  proposed  to  them  the  problem  of  the  ellipsoid 
in  a  steady  fluid  current.  Solutions  were  given  by  both 
Schering  and  Bjerknes,  but  it  was  not  until  1873  that 
Bjerknes  completed  his  work  on  the  problem  of  the 
general  motion  of  an  ellipsoid  in  fluid. 

Bjerknes  was  at  an  early  date  attracted  by  the  prob- 
lem of  replacing  action  at  a  distance  by  action  of  an 
intervening  medium,  and  he  exhibited  considerable 
originality  in  the  energy  with  which  he  took  up  the 
advancement  of  a  doctrine  which  at  that  time  received 
little  support.  The  discovery  that  a  sphere  could 
move  through  a  perfect  liquid  without  retardation 
having  shown  that  the  existence  of  an  ether  does  not 
involve  a  violation  of  Newton's  first  law,  Bjerknes 
set  to  work  to  investigate  the  forces  acting  between 
two  spheres  moving  in  liquid,  and  in  particular  he 
developed  the  notion  of  "  pulsating  "  spheres,  i.e. 
spheres  fluctuating  periodically  in  volume,  finding  that 
between  such  spheres  attractions  and  repulsions  exist, 
obeying  the  law  of  the  inverse  square,  and  their  sense 
being  dependent  on  whether  the  phases  are  the  same 
or  opposite.  The  discussion  of  all  the  terms  entering 
into  the  expressions  for  the  forces  was  not  completed 
until  a  comparatively  late  date,  and  in  the  meanwhile 
dynamical  theories  of  physical  phenomena  have  de- 
veloped in  other  quarters,  and  ethers  differing  in  their 
properties    from    ordinary    matter,    and    in    particular 

NO.    1754,  VOL.  68] 


from  matter  in  a  fluid  state,  have  come  into  existence. 
But  another  interest  was  aroused  in  these  hydro- 
dynamical  attractions  and  repulsions  by  the  experi- 
mental verifications  of  the  results  of  the  theory  which 
were  successfully  carried  out  by  both  Prof.  C.  A. 
Bjerknes  and  his  son,  and  of  which  we  hope  to  give  a 
fuller  account  shortly.  These  experim.ents  were  com- 
menced in  1875,  using  rough  and  ready  methods,  but 
the  apparatus  have  been  gradually  improved,  and  a 
number  of  papers  on  the  subject  were  published,  chiefly 
in  the  period  1878-1880,  by  Bjerknes  and  Schiotz  in  the 
Christiania  Forhandlinger. 

Among  Bjerknes 's  other  writings  we  note  the  bio- 
graphical notice  "Niels  Henrik  Abel;  tableau  de  sa 
vie  et  de  son  action  scientifique,"  published  at  Paris 
in  1885.  Prof.  V.  Bjerknes  has  for  many  years  col- 
laborated with  his  father,  and  the  second  volume  of 
his  "  Vorlesungen  nach  C.  A.  Bjerknes'  Theorie " 
only  appeared  quite  recently.  G.  H.  Bryan. 


NOTES. 
Mr.   Balfour  has  accepted  the  presidency  of  the  British 
Association  for  the   meeting  to  be   held   at   Cambridge   in 
1904. 

Prof.  Ray  Lankester  has  been  elected  a  Foreign 
.\ssociate  of  the  National  Academy  of  Sciences,  Washing- 
ton, and  a  member  of  the  American  Philosophical  Society, 
Philadelphia. 

We  learn  from  the  Paris  correspondent  of  the  Times  that 
a  monument,  which  has  been  erected  by  public  subscription 
to  the  memory  of  Pasteur,  was  unveiled  at  Chartres  on 
Sunday.  This  memorial  specially  commemorates  the 
services  of  the  great  bacteriologist  to  agriculture  by  his 
discovery  of  a  specific  for  anthrax,  which  resulted  from  a 
long  series  of  experiments  undertaken  at  a  local  farm. 
The  principal  feature  of  the  monument  is  a  high  relief, 
which  represents  Pasteur  and  his  assistants  at  work.  It  is 
the  design  of  Dr.  Paul  Richer,  who,  besides  being  a 
member  of  the  Academy  of  Medicine,  is  a  distinguished 
sculptor. 

A  Reuter  message  from  Simonstown,  dated  June  9, 
states  that  the  German  Antarctic  ship  Gauss  arrived  there 
on  Tuesday  morning  after  a  successful  year's  work  in  the 
South  Polar  regions.  She  will  remain  there  for  three 
weeks  to  refit,  and  will  then  sail  for  home.  On  sailing 
from  Cape  Town  the  Gauss  called  at  Kerguelen  Island,  and 
landed  a  party,  which  reached  the  floating  ice  on 
February  14,  1902.  The  ship  was  ice-bound  on  February 
22  in  lat.  665,  long.  90.  New  land  was  discovered,  which 
was  named  the  Emperor  William  II.  Land.  This  was 
covered  with  ice,  with  the  exception  of  an  inactive  volcano. 
The  expedition  was  ice-bound  here  for  almost  a  year,  and 
many  scientific  investigations  were  carried  out  during  this 
period.  The  ship  left  the  ice  on  April  8  and  proceeded  to 
Durban,  passing  Kerguelen  Island,  and  calling  at  St.  Paul 
and  New  .\msterdam  Islands.  The  members  of  the  ex- 
pedition enjoyed  good  health,  there  being  no  case  of  sick- 
ness, accident,  or  death  during  the  whole  cruise.  Prof. 
Drygalski  speaks  in  the  highest  terms  of  the  vessel's  be- 
haviour, both  in  the  sea  and  in  the  ice. 

The  Hanbury  gold  medal  has  this  year  been  awarded  to 
M.  Eugene  Collin,  6cole  de  Pharmacie,  Paris. 

A  TABLET  placed  on  the  wall  of  Coate  House,  near 
Swindon,  Wilts,  the  birthplace  of  Richard  Jefferies,  was 
unveiled  by  Prof.  N.  Story  Maskelyne  on  June  6. 


134 


NATURE 


[June  ii,  1903 


The  Vega  medal  of  the  Stockholm  Society  of  Anthropo- 
logy and  Geography  has  been  awarded  to  Prof,  von 
Richthofen.  of  Berlin. 

A  NEW  serum  department  of  the  Jenner  Institute,  at 
Elstree,  will  be  opened  on  July  3.  Dr.  George  Dean  is  the 
bacteriologist  in  charge  of  the  department. 

An  expedition  in  charge  of  Dr.  F.  A.  Cook,  of  Brooklyn, 
is,  says  Science,  to  explore  Mount  McKinley  and  other 
Alaskan  mountains  under  the  auspices  of  the  Geographical 
Society  of  Philadelphia  and  the  Arctic  Club,  of  New  York. 

The  Geological  Society  has  made  the  first  award  of  the 
proceeds  of  the  Daniel  Pidgeon  fund,  founded  by  Mrs. 
Pidgeon  in  accordance  with  the  testamentary  directions  of 
her  husband,  the  late  Mr.  Daniel  Pidgeon,  to  Dr.  E.  W. 
Skeats,  of  the  Royal  College  of  Science. 

The  Brussels  Bulletin  Commercial  states  that  the 
Municipal  Council  of  Lorient  has  recently  decided  to 
organise  an  International  Exhibition  of  industry,  agri- 
culture, maritime  defence,  and  fine  arts,  to  be  held  from 
July  to  October  of  this  year. 

It  is  reported  that  a  young  Austrian  doctor  named  Sachs 
has  fallen  a  victim  to  his  scientific  zeal,  having  accidentally 
inoculated  himself  with  plague,  from  the  effects  of  which 
he  died  after  a  short  illness.  Such  regrettable  incidents 
will  occur  while  scientific  research  is  pursued,  and  cannot 
be  avoided  even  by  the  greatest  foresight.  There  is  no 
likelihood  that  other  cases  will  develop,  as  under  good 
hygienic  conditions  plague  is  not  particularly  infectious 
from  man  to  man,  and  European  doctors  and  nurses  tend- 
ing the  sick  seldom  contract  the  disease. 

The  wide  distribution  of  typhoid-infected  blankets  that 
had  been  used  in  South  Africa  is  another  "  regrettable 
incident  "  of  the  campaign,  though  those  who  made  use 
of  manifestly  soiled  blankets  without  washing  them  cannot 
be  held  blameless.  On  moist  fabrics  it  has  been  proved 
that  the  typhoid  bacillus  retains  its  vitality  for  many  weeks 
or  even  months. 

Science  announces  that  Prof.  Florian  Cajori,  professor 
of  mathematics  at  Colorado  College,  has  been  appointed 
representative  of  the  United  States  on  the  international 
committee  of  the  Congress  for  the  Study  of  the  History 
of  the  Sciences,  which  will  make  arrangements  for  the  next 
meeting  of  the  Congress  at  Berlin  in  1906. 

At  a  meeting  of  the  German  Chemical  Society  on  June  4 
the  presentation  of  the  Hofmann  foundation  gold  medal 
was  made  to  Sir  William  Ramsay  and  to  Prof.  Moissan, 
of  Paris.  This  medal  is  to  be  awarded  once  in  every  five 
years  to  a  foreigner  for  distinguished  chemical  research 
work.  The  medal  awarded  to  Sir  William  Ramsay  bears 
on  the  obverse  the  effigy  of  Hofmann  and  on  the  reverse 
the  inscription  "  For  distinguished  work  in  the  field  of 
general  chemistry,  and  particularly  for  the  discovery  of 
new  ingredients  of  the  air." 

By  the  death  of  M.  Eugene  Demarcay  at  the  early  age 
of  fifty-one,  French  science  has  suffered  a  severe  loss. 
Although  his  earlier  work  was  in  the  field  of  organic 
chemistry,  his  name  is  best  known  in  connection  with  his 
researches  on  the  chemistry  of  the  rare  earths.  The 
magnificent  specimens  of  pure  salts  of  neodidymium,  praseo- 
didymium,  samarium  and  europium  shown  bv  him  at  the 
NO.    1754,  VOL.   68] 


Paris  Exhibition  of  1900  were  the  result  of  years  of  work 
of  the  most  painstaking  and  laborious  kind  in  a  field  in 
which  he  was  one  of  the  pioneers,  and  in  which  the 
number  of  workers  is  still  too  few. 

An  Engineering  Conference  in  connection  with  the  In- 
stitution of  Civil  Engineers  will  commence  on  June  16 
when  Mr.  W.  H.  Maw  will  deliver  the  eleventh  "  James 
Forrest  "  lecture  on  "  Some  Unsolved  Problems  in 
Engineering."  On  June  17  Mr.  J.  C.  Hawkshaw,  presi- 
dent, will  inaugurate  the  conference  with  a  short  address 
to  all  the  sections.  The  sections  with  their  chairmen  are 
as  follows  : — (i)  Railways,  Sir  Guilford  Molesworth, 
K.C.I.E.  ;  (2)  harbours,  docks,  and  canals.  Sir  Leader 
Williams ;  (3)  machinery,  Dr.  Alexander  B.  W.  Kennedy, 
F.R.S.  ;  (4)  mining  and  metallurgy,  Mr.  E.  P.  Martin; 
(5)  shipbuilding.  Sir  John  I.  Thornycroft,  F.R.S.  ;  (6) 
waterworks,  sewerage,  and  gasworks,  Sir  Alexander 
Binnie ;  (7)  applications  of  electricity,  Mr.  Alexander 
Siemens. 

A  PRACTICAL  demonstration  of  the  great  power  of  the 
Marconi  Wireless  Telegraph  station  at  Poldhu  was  given 
by  Prof.  Fleming  during  his  lecture  at  the  Royal  Institu- 
tion last  week.  A  large  mast  had  been  erected  above  the 
Institution,  and  a  complete  receiving  station  set  up ; 
messages  were  received  from  Mr.  Marconi,  signalling  from 
Poldhu,  and  also  from  a  transmitting  station  at  University 
College.  All  the  experiments  passed  off  without  the 
slightest  hitch.  Prof.  Fleming,  in  speaking  of  the  future 
prospects  of  wireless  telegraphy,  laid  stress  upon  the  fact 
that  there  was  a  large  sphere  of  usefulness  open  to  it  which 
submarine  cables  and  land  telegraphs  could  not  touch. 

In  the  House  of  Commons  on  Monday  Mr.  Austen 
Chamberlain,  speaking  on  the  vote  for  the  telegraph 
Services,  referred  at  some  length  to  the  relations  between 
the  Post  Office  and  the  Marconi  Wireless  Telegraph  Co. 
He  said  that  the  Post  Office  had  no  desire  to  check  the 
progress  of  wireless  telegraphy,  nor  could  they  have  done 
so  had  they  wished,  as  their  monopoly  did  not  extend  beyond 
the  three-mile  limit.  The  Marconi  Co.  had,  however, 
asked  for  too  much  ;  in  the  first  instance  they  asked  to  be 
given  a  permanent  and  exclusive  right  to  work  wireless 
telegraphy  in  this  country,  which  he  could  not  grant, 
especially  after  the  Post  Office's  experience  with  the 
telephone  system.  He  had,  however,  granted  them  a 
private  wire  to  Poldhu  on  the  ordinary  terms  as  soon  as 
they  asked  for  it,  but  before  undertaking  to  act  as  their 
agents  for  the  collection  of  messages,  as  was  done  for  the 
cable  companies,  the  Post  Office  required  that  certain  con- 
ditions should  be  fulfilled  in  order  to  safeguard  the 
Admiralty,  and  also  asked  that  their  experts  should  be 
satisfied  that  the  company  were  able  to  carry  on  their 
business  and  transmit  messages  across  the  Atlantic  com- 
mercially. He  was  still  waiting  an  answer  to  this  request, 
which  was  made  last  March.  This  statement  does  not 
quite  tally  with  the  accounts  which  were  published  last 
February,  and  were  allowed  then  to  pass  uncontradicted. 
In  any  case  there  seems  no  reason  why  the  Marconi  Com- 
pany should  be  required  to  pass  an  examination  set  by  the 
Post  Office ;  if  people  wish  to  risk  sending  messages  by 
wireless  telegraphy  to  America,  they  ought  to  be  allowed 
full  facilities  for  doing  so  ;  the  Post  Office,  by  taking  in 
the  messages  need  incur  no  responsibility,  by  refusing  to 
take  them  in  it  renders  itself  open  to  the  charge  of  obstruct- 
ing progress. 

Reuter's  Agency  is  informed  that  a  large  number  of 
foreign  Government  and  technical  delegates  will  be  present 


June  ii,  1903] 


NATURE 


35 


at  the  International  Fire  Prevention  Congress  which  is  to 
be  held  in  London  next  month.  The  congress  has  been 
convened  by  the  British  Fire  Prevention  Committee,  and 
will  work  in  six  sections,  the  papers  and  discussions  being 
in  English,  French,  and  German. 

We  regret  to  record  the  death,  on  May  30,  of  Mr.  Alfred 
Haviland,  aged  seventy-eight.  He  had  for  many  years  de- 
voted attention  to  the  geographical  distribution  of  disease 
in  Great  Britain,  more  especially  of  cancer  and  heart  dis- 
ease, having  published  maps  and  a  separate  volume  on  the 
subject. 

\\i;  learn  from  a  cutting  from  the  Brisbane  Courier  that 
Dr.  J.  P.  Thomson,  the  hon.  secretary  of  the  Royal  Geo- 
graphical Society  of  Australasia,  has  left  Brisbane  on  a 
visit  to  America,  Great  Britain  and  the  Continent.  At  a 
meeting  prior  to  his  departure  Dr.  Thomson'  was  invested 
•with  the  powers  of  a  delegate  from  the  Australasian  Society 
to  all  kindred  societies  in  the  various  centres  he  may  visit. 

The  death  is  announced  of  Prof.  Deichmiiller,  extra- 
ordinary professor  of  astronomy  at  Bonn  University.  From 
the  Athenaeum  we  learn  that  he  was  born  on  February  25, 
1855,  and  not  long  after  completing  his  nineteenth  year 
took  part  in  the  German  expedition  to  observe  the  transit 
of  Venus  at  Tschifu  in  1874.  Ever  since  October,  1876,  he 
had  been  attached  to  the  Bonn  Observatory,  and  had  shown 
skill  not  only  as  an  astronomical  observer  and  calculator, 
but  also  as  a  mechanician.  He  took  a  prominent  part  in 
the  teaching  at  the  University,  and  was  made  extraordinary 
professor  of  astronomy  in   1897. 

An  account  of  the  life  and  works  of  the  late  Prof.  Willard 
Gibbs  is  given  in  the  Yale  Alumni  Weekly  for  May  6.  It 
contains  a  portrait  of  Prof.  Gibbs,  and  a  chronological 
record  of  his  principal  published  papers,  together  with  a 
list  of  some  of  his  academic  distinctions  and  of  the  societies 
of  which  he  was  a  member.  Besides  the  papers  whigh  have 
done  most  to  make  his  name  known.  Prof.  Gibbs  made 
important  contributions  in  the  domain  of  physical  optics, 
notably  in  connection  with  the  electromagnetic  theory,  but 
it  is  only  by  an  exhaustive  study  of  the  papers  themselves 
that  his  work  can  be  adequately  appreciated. 

M.  DE  FoNViELLE  writes  that  at  the  end  of  April  a  balloon 
belonging  to  the  German  Aeronautical  Society  left  Berlin 
in  the  morning  and  landed  at  Skjolkor,  in  Seeland,  in  the 
afternoon,  having  crossed  the  Baltic  in  nine  hours.  The 
balloon  was  subsequently  destroyed  by  a  spontaneous 
explosion,  the  result  of  an  electric  discharge.  The 
balloon  reached  an  altitude  of  4000  metres,  where  a 
temperature  of  -16°  C.  was  registered.  During  the  de- 
scent of  the  balloon  the  aeronauts  observed  crystals  of 
snow  falling  in  the  car;  the  electricity  generated  by  the 
formation  of  the  snow  had  not  had  time  to  escape  before 
the  first  impact  with  the  earth,  because  the  descent  was 
very  rapid.  When  the  pilot  took  hold  of  the  valve  line  an 
explosion  occurred  and  ignited  the  gas  of  the  balloon. 

We  have  received  an  advance  copy  of  Merck's  annual 
report  for  1902  on  advancements  in  pharmaceutical 
chemistry  and  therapeutics.  It  is  a  valuable  and  interest- 
ing summary  of  new  preparations  introduced  for  the  treat- 
ment of  disease,  and  should  be  in  the  hands  of  every 
medical  man.  It  contains,  in  addition,  notes  upon  many 
old  remedies  and  the  manner  of  prescribing  them,  together 
with  a  full  bibliography. 

It  is  announced   that   Dr.    Louis  Martin,   of  the   Pasteur 
Institute,    Paris,    has    succeeded    in    preparing    pastilles    of 
NO.    J  754.  VOL.  68] 


an  anti-diphtheritic  serum  for  local  treatment.  The  serum 
is  an  anti-microbic  one  obtained  by  the  injection  of  dead 
diphtheria  bacilli.  These  pastilles  will  not  replace  the  in- 
jection of  the  serum,  but  will  supplement  the  action  of  the 
latter,  and  during  convalescence  will  remove  contagion  by 
destroying  the  diphtheria  bacilli  in  the  patient's  throat. 

Mr.  JoNATH.-iN  Hutchinson,  F.R.S.,  has  returned  from 
his  tour  in  India  and  Ceylon  more  convinced  than  ever  of 
the  correctness  of  his  theory  that  leprosy  is  connected  with 
the  consumption  of  fish.  In  a  letter  to  the  Times  (May  25) 
he  states  that  there  is  no  risk  whatever  from  fresh  or  well- 
cured  fish ;  the  danger  comes  when  decomposition  com- 
mences. He  points  out  that  there  is  an  e.xcessive  prevalence 
of  leprosy  among  the  Roman  Catholic  community  in  India, 
and  suggests  that  the  fast-day  ordinances  should  be  modi- 
fied, also  that  the  salt-tax  should  be  abolished.  The 
leprosy  bacillus  has  never  been  found  in  fish,  and  Mr. 
Hutchinson  does  not  explain  how  it  is  that  fish  becomes 
infective  when  stale. 

Mr.  David  Houston  has  examined  bacteriologically  a 
number  of  samples  of  Irish  butter  publicly  exhibited,  and 
concludes  that  a  bacteriological  examination  will  yield  im- 
portant information  concerning  the  grade  of  any  particular 
sample  of  butter.  For  example,  one  prize  butter  contained 
260  spores  of  moulds  per  gram  ;  the  creamery  was  visited 
and  the  walls  were  found  to  be  covered  with  a  growth  of 
mould.  Another  creamery  sent  a  "  preserved  "  sample  and 
gained  a  prize.  A  specimen  of  the  butter-milk  taken  from 
the  churn  was  found  to  be  crowded  with  putrefying  and 
gas-forming  bacteria,  together  with  wild  yeasts  and 
moulds ;  a  most  undesirable  state  of  things,  and  revealing 
why  a  "  preserved  "  sample  was  exhibited. 

It  has  been  stated  by  some  authorities  that  the  colon 
bacillus  is  normally  present  in  the  digestive  tract  of  oysters. 
As  this  bacillus  is  undesirable  in  water  used  for  drinking 
purposes,  inasmuch  as  its  presence  may  indicate  the  pollu- 
tion of  such  water  with  sewage,  it  is  not  surprising  that 
considerable  interest  has  been  aroused  by  its  being  reputed 
to  be  constantly  present  in  the  bodies  of  these  molluscs. 
Mr.  Caleb  A.  Fuller,  of  the  Brown  University,  U.S.A.,  has 
endeavoured  to  throw  fresh  light  on  the  subject  by  carrying 
out  a  systematic  qualitative  bacteriological  examination  of 
the  digestive  tract  in  the  case  of  more  than  2000  oysters. 
The  specimens  were  taken  from  a  bank  which  was  free 
from  any  trace  of  pollution,  and  the  colon  bacillus  was 
entirely  absent  from  the  adjacent  sea-water.  Sixteen 
different  varieties  of  bacteria  were  isolated  and  examined, 
but  not  a  single  colon  bacillus  was  discovered.  This  result 
would  seem  to  indicate  that  oysters  do  not  normally  con- 
tain the  B.  coli  communis,  and  that  if  it  is  found  in  their 
digestive  tract,  suspicion  should  fall  on  the  breeding 
ground  as  having  been  exposed  to  pollution. 

The  report  of  the  Fernley  Observatory,  Southport,  for 
the  year  1902,  shows  that  the  work  of  this  well-equipped 
establishment  has  been  kept  uo  to  the  usual  high  standard 
of  efficiency.  Mr.  Baxendell  does  excellent  work,  not  only 
in  taking  observations,  but  by  instituting  useful  compari- 
sons between  various  instruments  and  methods.  The 
delicate  records  of  the  Halliwell  self-registering  rain-gauge 
give  much  satisfaction;  this  instrument  recorded  641  hours 
of  rain  against  573  hours  by  another  recording  gauge.  The 
comparison  of  the  Campbell-Stokes  and  Jordan  sunshine 
lecords  gave  only  a  difference  of  fifteen  hours  in  the  year 
in  favour  of  the  latter  instrument,  a  much  closer  result  in 
tabulating  the  records  than  some  less  careful  observers 
might  have  reached.     Several  new  tables  ha%e  been  added. 


136 


NATURE 


[June  i  i,  1903 


dealing  with  hourly  results  ;  one  of  these  shows  that  the 
land  and  sea  breezes  are  unusually  marked  at  Southport, 
to  an  extent,  the  author  remarks,  of  which  meteorologists 
were  not  aware.  The  report  contains  the  usual  interesting 
comparison  of  climatological  statistics  with  other  health 
resorts. 

The  Meteorological  Ofilice  pilot  chart  for  June  shows 
that,  as  a  result  of  the  decision  of  the  shipping  companies 
to  divert  temporarily  the  steamer  routes  to  the  southward, 
there  has  been  a  great  decrease  in  the  number  of  ice  reports 
from  the  southern  extremity  of  the  Newfoundland  Bank. 
With  the  opening  of  the  St.  Lawrence  season,  however,  re- 
ports from  the  northern  part  of  the  Bank  are  becoming  more 
frequent.  Another  feature  of  the  chart  is  an  illustrated 
description  of  the  violent  storm  of  wind,  rain  and  snow 
which,  originating  near  Corsica,  suddenly  developed  great 
energy  on  the  evening  of  April  i6,  and  starting  off  across 
north  Italy,  travelled  through  Austria  and  Poland  to  the 
Baltic  and  the  Gulf  of  Bothnia.  ' 

The  twenty-second  number  of  the  pamphlet  series  issued 
by  the  West  Indian  Department  of  Agriculture  forms 
part  ii.  of  Mr.  Maxwell-Lefroy's  investigation  of  "  The 
Scale  Insects  of  the  Lesser  Antilles."  It  contains  fifty 
pages  of  valuable  illustrated  information  on  a  subject  which 
is  of  the  greatest  importance  to  the  colonists,  as  scale 
insects  are  becoming  increasingly  troublesome  in  some  of 
the  islands.  The  twenty-third  pamphlet  contains  Mr.  John 
Barclay's  "  Notes  on  Poultry  in  the  West  Indies."  Hitherto 
the  only  information  which  the  colonists  had  on  the  subject 
of  poultry  applied  to  countries  well  outside  the  tropics,  but 
Mr.  Barclay,  of  the  Jamaica  Agricultural  Society,  has  for 
several  years  past  devoted  personal  attention  to  the  rearing 
of  poultry  in  a  tropical  climate. 

Commander  Whitehouse,  R.N.,  has,  we  learn  from  the 
Times,  returned  to  England  on  sick  leave  from  the  survey 
of  the  southern  portion  of  the  Victoria  Nyanza.  With  the 
recently  inaugurated  service  of  steamers  round  the  lake  the 
quickest  route  to  the  Tanganyika  region  will  be  by  way 
of  the  Uganda  Railway,  and  a  project  is  on  foot  for  opening 
a  route  from  Lake  Victoria  to  the  north  of  Tanganyika  to 
connect  with  the  steamer  on  the  last-named  lake.  Dis- 
coveries of  gold  are  stated  to  have  been  made  both  in  British 
and  German  territory  along  Lake  Victoria,  one  being  near 
the  Lumbas  Station  of  the  Uganda  Railway  at  mile  520,  and 
the  other  in  German  territory  to  the  east  of  Speke  Gulf. 

In  the  course  of  a  recent  article  published  in  the  Recueil 
de  I'Institut  botanique  de  Bruxelles,  Prof.  Errera  comes  to 
the  conclusion  that  it  is  not  possible  for  organisms  to  exist 
of  a  size  very  appreciably  smaller  than  those  which  can  be 
observed  with  the  highest  powers  of  the  microscope  now 
■in  use.  An  estimation  is  made  of  the  number  of  molecules 
of  certain  bodies,  such  as  albuminoids,  which  are  present 
in  a  bacterium  of  given  size:  the  number  is  of  such  an 
order  of  magnitude  that  only  a  few  molecules  could  be 
present  in  an  organism  having  a  diameter  Qoiyu,  and  thus 
a  minimum  limit  to  the  possible  size  is  obtained. 

The  geology  of  Kalahandi  State,  in  the  Central  Provinces 
of  India,  is  described  by  Dr.  T.  L.  Walker  (Mem.  Geol. 
Surv.  India,  vol.  xxxiii.  part  iii.).  The  entire  State  is 
made  up  of  unfossiliferous  rocks,  mainly  crystalline  schists, 
with  occasional  masses  of  laterite  which  cap  the  broad 
hills  in  the  south-eastern  part  of  the  State.  The  occurrence 
of  graphite,  which  may  be  of  commercial  importance,  is 
noticed,  and  it  is  remarked  that  the  graphite-bearing  rocks 
may  become  diamond-bearing  in  places  where  they  have 
NO.    1754,   VOL.   68] 


been  subjected  to  intense  pressure.  In  sands  ir6m  the 
streams  near  Bondesor,  minute  crystals,  regarded  a» 
diamonds,  have  been  detected. 

Although  several  accounts  of  the  cytological  changes 
which  accompany  the  formation  of  eggs  in  the  Sapro- 
legniaceje  have  been  published,  the  lack  of  agreement  in 
details  and  conclusions  made  it  desirable  that  further 
evidence  should  be  obtained.  .This  is  forthcoming  in  the 
experiments  and  histological  investigations  which  are  re- 
corded by  Prof.  B.  M.  Davis  in  the  Decennial  Puhlications 
of  the  University  of  Chicago.  The  experiments  were  con- 
ducted entirely  with  plants  bearing  oogonia  only.  A 
peculiar  feature  is  the  appearance  of  specialised  masses  of 
cytoplasm,  the  coenocentra,  round  which  the  eggs  are 
formed,  and  which  influence  the  destiny  of  the  nuclei. 

A  recent  issue  of  Psyche  contains  the  full  report  of  a 
lecture  by  Mr.  F.  M.  Webster  on  the  "  diffusion  "  of 
insects  in  North  America.  It  is  pointed  out  that  this 
diffusion  commenced  far  back  in  the  Tertiary  period,  and 
attention  is  directed  to  the  intimate  connection  between  the 
insects  of  North  America,  northern  Asia  and  Europe  which 
existed  at  that  epoch.  Very  remarkable  is  the  fact  that  the 
modern  Rhynchophora  of  North  America  agree  more  closely 
with  their  European  Tertiary  representatives  than  they  do 
with  those  of  their  own  country.  All  this  indicates  the  prob- 
ability of  a  former  free  intercourse  between  America  and 
Asia,  and  perhaps  also  between  America  and  Europe  vici 
the  north-east.  The  lines  of  insect  diffusion  on  the 
American  continent  are  treated  in  some  detail. 

The  heredity  of  albinism  forms  the  subject  of  a  paper  by 
Messrs.  Castle  and  Allen  published  in  the  Proceedings  of 
the  American  Academy.  The  experiments,  which  were 
made  with  mice,  guineapigs,  and  rabbits,  serve  to  show 
that  albinism,  at  least  in  domesticated  animals,  is  not,  as 
often  supposed,  a  sign  of  weakness  and  want  of  vigour. 
The  important  result  is,  however,  the  proof  that  albinism, 
as  indicated  by  its  disappearance  for  a  generation  and  its 
subsequent  reappearance  under  close  breeding,  is  inherited 
in  conformity  with  Mendel's  law  of  heredity,  and  that,  in 
the  terminology  of  that  law,  it  belongs  to  the  category  of 
recessive  phenomena.  For  instance,  in  the  case  of  mice,  it 
has  been  demonstrated  that  the  grey  hybrids  produced  by 
crossing  grey  with  white  mice,  when  bred  inter  se,  gave 
birth  to  grey  and  white  offspring  approximately  in  the 
Mendelian  ratio  of  three  to  one. 

In  the  Monthly  Review  for  June  Sir  Herbert  Maxwell 
reviews  the  question  of  animal  intelligence  ;  that  is  to  say, 
the  psychology  of  animals  other  than  man.  Commencing 
with  the  declaration  that  he  has  nothing  new  to  com- 
municate, the  author  proceeds  to  observe  that  the  problem 
resolves  itself  into  three  items,  (i)  Are  animals  born  as 
automatons,  and  do  they  continue  as  such  throughout  life? 
(2^  If  they  are  conscious,  are  their  consciousness  and  in- 
telligence merely  the  physical  products  of  certain  changes 
which  take  place  during  development,  and  therefore  spon- 
taneous in  the  sense  that  the  development  of  organic  tissue 
is  spontaneous?  (3)  Is  the  conscious  intelligence  esoteric, 
that  is  to  say,  due  to  the  action  of  an  external  and  superior 
mandate,  or  suggestion,  acting  upon  a  suitable  physical 
receptacle?  After  relating  a  number  of  instances  of  anirrial 
behaviour  bearing  upon  it.  Sir  Herbert  considers  it  prob- 
able that  the  first  question  should  be  answered  as  follows, 
namely,  that  at  birth  animals  are  sentient  and  unconscious, 
automatons,  but  that  they  are  also  provided  with  mental 
machinery  ready  to  respond  in  a  greater  or  less  degree  ta 


June  i  r,  1903] 


NATURE 


137 


external  impressions.  In  regard  to  the  second  question, 
evidence  is  adduced  to  show  that,  although  the  growth  of 
the  organ  of  consciousness  may  be  considered  spontaneous 
and  congenital,  yet  that  there  are  instances  where  the  in- 
telligence of  individuals  displays  a  forward  movement 
which  may  have  important  effects  upon  the  habits  of  the 
race.  As  regards  the  third  question,  the  author  observes 
that  if  it  be  unphilosophical  to  attribute  to  a  certain  species 
of  moth  a  knowledge  of  vegetable  physiology,  "  what  is 
left  but  to  speculate  whether  the  F"irst  Cause  be  not  also  a 
Directing  Power,  with  means  of  communicating  his  man- 
dates to  the  humblest  of  his  creatures?  " 

In  the  current  number  of  the  Bulletin  of  the  American 
Mathematical  Society,  Mr.  E.  B.  Wilson  reviews  a  very 
interesting  work.  Prof.  G.  Loria's  "  Ebene  Curven,"  which 
ought  to  attract  all  classes  of  mathematicians.  Besides 
giving  an  account  (illustrated  with  numerous  figures)  of  'a 
large  number  of  special  plane  curves  which  are  of  interest 
for  historical  or  other  reasons,  Prof.  Loria  gives  a  summary 
<)f  his  memoir  on  panalgebraic  curves.  A  panalgebraic 
curve  is  one  for  which  x,y  and  dy/dx  are  connected  by  an 
algebraic  equation  ;  in  this  class  are  included  a  very  large 
proportion  of  all  plane  curves  which  have  hitherto  been 
studied,  and  the  fact  that  Prof.  Loria  has  demonstrated  a 
considerable  number  of  geometrical  properties  common  to 
them  all  is  very  interesting  and  remarkable. 

Messrs.  Dawbarn  and  Ward,  Ltd.,  have  published  a 
booklet  by  Mr.  H.  Snowden  Ward  entitled  "  Profitable 
Hobbies,"  containing  much  useful  information  upon  manual 
work  of  various  kinds  which  can  be  successfully  performed 
by  amateurs. 

By  arrangement  with  Messrs.  Kegan  Paul,  Trench, 
Triibner,  and  Co.,  Ltd.,  the  Rationalist  Press  Association 
has  published,  through  Messrs.  Watts  and  Co.,  a  si.xpenny 
edition  of  J.  Cotter  Morison's  "  The  Service  of  Man.  An 
Essay  towards  the  Religion  of  the  Future." 

In  the  Physikalische  Zeitschrift,  No.  i6,  p.  457,  Messrs. 
Elster  and  Geitel  discuss  the  question  of  the  cause  of  the 
electrical  conductivity  of  the  air  in  the  neighbourhood  of 
phosphorus  undergoing  slow  oxidation.  Experiments  are 
described  which  indicate  that  the  cloud  rising  from  the 
surface  of  the  phosphorus  is  not  responsible  in  any  way  for 
the  electrical  conduction.  It  is  also  rendered  probable  by 
-uitably  devised  experiments  that  the  conductivity  is  really 
liie  to  ionisation  of  the  air  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the 
phosphorus. 

In  a  recent  investigation  of  the  properties  of  colloidal 
solutions  by  Mr.  H.  Garrett,  experiments  on  the  viscosity 
of  solutions  of  gelatin,  silicic  acid  and  albumin  have  been 
made  which  appear  to  throw  considerable  light  on  the 
nature  of  such  systems.  They  behave  like  heterogeneous 
liquids  composed  of  two  solutions  having  a  surface  tension 
at  the  contact  surfaces.  At  any  given  temperature  the 
viscosity  of  these  solutions  is  not  constant,  since  this  de- 
pends on  the  surface  tension,  and  this  again  is  a  variable 
depending  on  the  previous  history  of  the  solution. 

A  NEW  refractory  material,  to  which  the  name 
■"  Siloxicon  "  has  been  given,  is  now  being  manufactured 
on  a  large  scale  by  the  International  Acheson  Graphite 
Company  at  Niagara  Falls.  It  contains  silicon,  oxygen 
-and  carbon,  and  is  said  to  give  most  satisfactory  results  as 
a  substitute  for  refractory  clays,  magnesia,  lime  and 
graphite  in  their  application  to  high  temperatures.  The 
product  is  obtained  by  the  action  of  carbon  on  silica  at  a 
temperature  of  4500-5000°  F.  in 'the  electric  furnace,  the 
quantity  of  carbon  employed  being  insufficient  for  the  com- 
plete reduction  of  the  silica  and  its  conversion  into  carbide. 


NO.     1754,   VOL.   68] 


It    is   stated    that    in   these   circumstances   compounds   con- 
taining all  three  elements  are  obtained. 

The  current  number  of  the  Journal  of  Physical  Chemistry 
contains  an  interesting  paper  by  Messrs.  Miller  and  Kenrick 
on  the  subject  of  the  identification  of  basic  salts.  The 
allocation  of  formulae  to  basic  salts  is  apt  to  be  somewhat 
arbitrary,  and  there  is  no  doubt  that  many  of  the  "  amor- 
phous finely-divided  precipitates  "  which  have  been  endowed 
with  formulse  and  thus  raised  to  the  dignity  of  chemical 
individuality  are  nothing  more  than  mixtures  of  different 
bodies  in  proportions  dependent  upon  the  conditions  of 
preparation.  The  authors  show  that,  at  any  rate  for  those 
precipitates  the  equilibrium  of  which  with  the  mother-liquor 
is  attained,  the  question  of  ifidividuality  can  in  many  cases 
be  solved  by  simple  application  of  the  phase  rule.  The  con- 
siderations brought  forward  hAve  been  applied  to  establish 
the  individuality  of  several  basic  salts  which  have  been 
investigated. 

In  the  current  number  of  the  Comptes  rendus  there  is 
an  account,  by  M.  P.  Lemoult,  of  the  preparation  and 
properties  of  dibromoacetylene.  Tribromoethylene,  which 
is  easily  obtained  in  quantity  by  the  action  of  sodium 
ethylate  upon  symmetrical  tetra-bromoethanes,  is  heated 
with  alcoholic  potash  in  the  absence  of  air,  and  the  dibromo- 
acetylene collected  under  water.  The  distillation  has  to  be 
carried  out  in  a  current  of  nitrogen,  as  the  substance  is 
spontaneously  inflammable  in  air.  Dibromoacetylene  can- 
not be  distilled,  even  in  a  vacuum,  and  under  certain  con- 
ditions may  explode  violently.  Bromine  and  iodine  give 
rise  to  C,Br^  and  C^Br^I^  respectively,  and  cautious  treat- 
ment of  the  ethereal  solution  with  moist  air  or  oxygen 
gives  rise  to  oxalic  and  hydrobromic  acids.  The  first  action 
would  appear  to  be  the  addition  of  oxygen  resulting  in  the 
formation  of  oxalyl  bromide,  which  is  then  acted  upon  by 
the  water  present  in  the  usual  manner. 

We  have  received  from  Mr.  H.  Kondo,  director  of  the 
Taihoku  Observatory,  Formosa,  valuable  results  of  meteor- 
ological or  rainfall  observations  made  at  fourteen  stations 
in  that  island  and  in  the  Pescadores  in  the  years  1896-1901, 
also  a  discussion  of  the  observations  (in  Japanese)  accom- 
panied by  diagrams  showing  very  clearly  the  general 
characteristics  of  climate,  tracks  of  typhoons,  &c.  We 
extract  the  following  values  for  Keelung  and  Koshun,  on 
the  extreme  north-east  and  south  respectively ;  these  are 
stations  of  the  second  order,  but  at  the  central  observatory 
hourly  observations  are  recorded.  At  Keelung  the  mean 
annual  maximum  temperature  is  75°-7,  minimum  66°-6 ; 
absolute  maximum  94°-6  in  July,  minimum  37°-4  in 
February ;  mean  annual  rainfall  about  150  inches.  At 
Koshun  the  corresponding  values  are  : — mean  maximum 
8i°-7,  minimum  7i°i  ;  absolute  maximum  92°i  in  July, 
minimum  49°-6  in  February ;  mean  annual  rainfall  about 
92  inches. 

The  additions  to  the  Zoological  .Society's  Gardens  during 
the  past  week  include  two  Grevy's  Zebras  (Eqtius 
grevyi  (S  9 )  from  Southern  Abyssinia,  presented  by  Lieut. - 
Colonel  J.  L.  Harrington,  C.V.O.  ;  two  Leadbeater's 
Cockatoos  {Cacatua  leadbeateri)  from  Australia,  presented 
by  Lady  Katherine  Coke ;  two  Eastern  Sarus  Cranes 
(Grus  antigone),  two  Thurgi  Terrapins  {Hardella  thurgi), 
a  Batagur  Water  Tortoise  {Batagur  baska),  twelve  Long- 
fingered  Frogs  {Rana  hexadactyla)  from  India,  five  Wall 
Lizards  (Lacerta  muralis,  var.  melisselensis)  from  St. 
Andrae,  a  Magpie  (Pica  rustica  albino),  British,  deposited ; 
two  Common  Camels  {Camelus  dromedarius,  9  9)  ^^°"^  '^^ 
Soudan,  purchased  ;  a  Red-fronted  Lemur  {Lemur  rufifrons), 
two  Japanese  Deer  {Cervus  sika),  born  in  the  Gardens. 


NATURE 


[June  ii,  1903 


OUR  ASTRONOMICAL  COLUMN. 

The  South  Polar  Cap  of  Mars. — In  an  article  pub- 
lishe.d  in  No.  4,  vol.  xvii.  of  the  Astrophysical  Journal,  Prof. 
Barnard  details  the  results  of  his  observations  of  the  South 
Polar  cap  of  Mars  made  at  Lick  during  the  close  approaches 
of  the  planet  in  1892  and  1894.  He  made  a  series  of  micro- 
metrical  measures  of  the  cap  during  each  opposition,  and 
the  figures  obtained  during  1892  are  set  out  in  a  table 
which  accompanies  the  article. 

Whilst  looking  over  these  measures  recently  it  occurred 
to  Prof.'  Barnard  that  if  they  were  plotted  with  respect  to 
the  summer  solstice  of  the  Martian  southern  hemisphere 
some  instructive  results  might  be  obtained.  This  was 
done,  and  the  two  curves,  which  are  reproduced,  show  that 
the  cap  at  both  oppositions  followed  the  same  law  of 
decrease  with  remarkable  fidelity. 

Another  important  point  observed  was  that  the  cap 
appeared  to  diminish  for  some  time  after  the  summer 
solstice,  that  is  to  say,  the  highest  temperature  was  not 
reached  until  several  weeks  after  the  maximum  of  solar 
heat ;  this  may  have  an  important  bearing  when  discussing 
the  existence  of  a  Martian  atmosphere  similar  to  the 
earth's  atmosphere. 

In  May,  1894,  the  Polar  cap  covered  an  area  of  about 
365,000  square  miles,  by  the  end  of  November  it  had  com- 
pletely disappeared,  thus  showing  that  the  snow,  if  snow 
it  be,  is  not  of  any  very  great  depth. 

One  remarkable  phenomenon  observed  was  the  appear- 
ance of  a  projection  from  the  edge  of  the  cap  in  the  same 
position  and  at  the  same  period  during  each  opposition  ; 
this  remained  behind  as  a  bright  strip,  and  seems  to  in- 
dicate the  existence  of  a  mountain  range  which  is  prob- 
ably high  enough  to  remain  permanently  snow-capped. 

Eight  drawings  of  the  cap  during  each  opposition,  and  a 
drawing  of  the  whole  planet,  accompany  the  article,  and 
show  the  details  of  the  outline  of  the  cap  very  clearly. 

The  Harvard  Photographs  of  the  Entire  Sky. — In 
Circular  No.  71  of  the  Harvard  College  Observatory,  Prof. 
E.  C.  Pickering  gives  a  description  of  the  photographs  taken 
at  Cambridge  (Mass.)  and  Arequipa,  which  have  been 
obtained  so  as  to  furnish  a  bi-monthly  record  of  the  entire 
sky  down  to  stars  of  the  twelfth  magnitude.  Each  plate 
measures  ten  inches  by  eight,  and  covers  a  region  of  more 
than  30  degrees  square  ;  they  have  been  obtained  with  two 
similar  anastigmatic  lenses  of  one  inch  aperture  and 
thirteen  inches  focal  length. 

Prof.  Pickering  explains  how  useful  these  plates  have 
already  proved  at  Harvard  in  determining  changes  of 
variable  stars,  the  times  of  the  first  appearances  of  Novae, 
&c.,  and  states  that  in  order  to  allow  astronomical  science 
generally  to  participate  in  these  benefits,  it  has  been 
decided  to  make  negative  copies  on  glass  of  one  series  of 
fifty-five  plates,  and  distribute  them  to  all  who  desire  them 
at  a  price  below  cost.  The  whole  set  of  fifty-five  may  be 
obtained  for  1500  dollars,  and  selected  sets  of  ten  for  3;i.i 
dollars ;  the  balance  of  the  cost  is  being  paid  from  the 
"  Advancement  of  Astronomical  Science  "  fund  of  the 
Harvard  Observatory.  Should  the  demand  justify  the  ex- 
periment a  second  set,  the  centres  of  which  are  near  the 
corners  of  the  first  set,  will  be  issued  later. 

Prof.  Pickering  gives  a  catalogue  of  the  plates  it  is  pro- 
posed to  issue,  giving  full  particulars  of  the  regions  they 
cover,  the  dates  of  exposure,  &c.,  and  in  a  set  of  "  re- 
marks "  appended  to  the  catalogue  he  gives  details  of  any 
special  object  each  plate  contains. 


THE  ROYAL  OBSERVATORY,  GREENWICH. 
'T'  HE  Report  of  the  Astronomer  Royal  to  the  Board  of 
Visitors  of  the  Royal  Observatory,  Greenwich,  was 
read  at  the  annual  visitation  on  Saturday  last.  From  the 
record  of  work  done  during  the  year  covered  by  the  report, 
we  select  a  few  notes  referring  to  the  state  of  some  in- 
vestigations of  especial  interest. 

Longitude  Operations. — The  second  stage  of  the  redeter- 
mination of  the  Paris-Greenwich  longitude  was  completed 
in  the  autumn  of  last  year.  As  in  the  first  stage  carried 
out  in  the  spring  and  referred  to  in  the  last  report,  observ- 


NO.    1754,   VOL.   68] 


ations  were  made  simultaneously  by  two  French  and  two 
English  observers  at  adjacent  stations.  The  observations 
of  both  the  French  and  English  observers  were  made  in 
three  groups  of  three,  six,  and  three  full  nights  (or  their 
equivalents  in  half  nights),  the  observers  with  their  instru- 
ments being  interchanged  between  the  first  and  second  and 
again  between  the  second  and  third  parts.  In  the  deter- 
mination made  in  the  autumn  the  stands  were  also  inter- 
changed with  the  instruments. 

The  reduction  of  the  observations  made  by  the  English 
observers  is  completed  with  the  exception  of  slight  correc- 
tions which  may  have  to  be  made  in  a  very  few  instances  to 
the  assumed  right  ascensions  of  the  stars. 

The  determination  made  in  the  spring  of  last  year  gave 
for  the  dift'erence  of  longitude  between  Cassini's  meridian 
and  that  of  the  Greenwich  transit-circle  9m.  2o-974S.,  and 
for  the  difference  of  personal  equation  D  —  H  =00415.  The 
determination  made  in  the  autumn  gave  9m.  2o-909s.  and 
the  difference  of  personal  equation  D  —  H  =00495.  In  the 
first  series,  if  the  level  determination  had  been  based 
entirely  on  observations  of  the  striding  levels,  the  result 
would  have  been  9m.  20-9825.,  and  if  entirely  on  the 
observations  of  nadirs  9m.  20-969S.  In  the  second  series 
the  difference  between  the  results  from  "  striding  levels  " 
and  "  nadirs  "  was  only  0002s.  In  the  first  series  the 
probable  error  of  the  difference  of  longitude  determined 
from  one  full  night's  observations  was  +  0040s.,  and  in  the 
second  series  only  +o-oi8s.,  giving  for  the  probable  error 
of  the  determination  made  in  the  spring  +001135.,  and  for 
that  made  in  the  autumn  ±000473.  In  each  series  there 
was  a  double  interchange  of  observers,  so  that  the  probable 
error  includes  any  change  of  personal  equation  between  the 
first  and  third  parts,  and  this  would  appear  to  account  to 
some  extent  for  the  larger  probable  error  found  for  the 
first  series. 

The  International  Geodetic  Association,  considering  it 
desirable  that  a  redetermination  of  the  difference  of  longi- 
tude Potsdam-Greenwich  should  be  made  with  their  lately 
adopted  Repsold  registering  micrometer,  the  longitude 
pavilion  was  placed  at  their  disposal,  and  the  Post  Office 
authorities  have  given  all  the  telegraphic  facilities  desired. 
Prof.  Albrecht  and  Herr  Obst  installed  their  instruments  in 
the  last  week  in  April,  and  the  observations  are  now  in 
progress. 

Lunar  Tables. — The  need  for  improved  tables  of  the  moon 
has  been  emphasised  during  the  past  year  by  the  discussion 
of  the  results  of  Greenwich  observations  in  the  last  ten 
years,  which  was  taken  up  primarily  in  connection  with 
the  delimitation  of  an  Anglo-German  boundary,  and  may 
perhaps  be  advantageously  extended  with  a  view  to  its  use 
in  the  formation  of  improved  tables  of  the  moon.  In  the 
same  connection  Prof.  Newcomb,  who  has  devoted  so  much 
attention  to  the  subject,  has  urged  that  a  fresh  comparison 
should  be  made  between  theory  and  the  Greenwich  meridian 
observations  from  1750  to  the  present  time.  It  is  a  question 
for  consideration  whether  it  would  be  practicable  to  carry 
out  this  work  at  the  Royal  Observatory  in  such  a  form  as 
would  facilitate  the  preparation  of  improved  tables  and 
materially  advance  the  lunar  theory. 

Stellar  Observations. — The  progress  made  in  the  observ- 
ation of  the  reference  stars  for  the  astrographic  plates,  for 
which  more  than  10,000  stars  are  to  be  observed  three  times 
above  and  twice  below  pole,  has  been  very  satisfactory. 

The  observations  of  these  stars  were  commenced  in  1897 
and  will  be  completed  at  the  end  of  1906.  In  635  years. 
633  per  cent,  of  the  observations  have  been  secured,  oi 
which  115  per  cent,  were  contributed  in  the  last  year. 
From  a  comparison  of  the  observations  above  and  below 
pole  for  the  stars  from  N.P.D.  0°  to  5°,  which  have  been 
completely  observed,  it  appears  that  the  probable  error  of 
a  catalogue  place  (five  observations)  does  not  exceed 
+  o"-23  in  R.A.  or  N.P.D. 

As  the  photography  for  the  Greenwich  Zone  (Dec. +  64° 
to  the  Pole)  has  been  completed,  only  a  few  photographs 
have  been  taken  with  the  astrographic  equatorial  to  replace 
some  which  appeared  to  be  inferior  to  the  general  standard. 
Altogether  116  photographs  were  taken  during  the  year; 
these  include  16  plates  for  the  Astrographic  Chart,  21  for 
the  Catalogue,  48  of  Nova  Persei,  11  of  Comet  b  1902, 
6  of  Comet  a  1903,  and  8  for  the  adjustments  of  the  instru- 
ment. 


June  it,  1903] 


NATURE 


U9 


The  counting'  of  the  Chart  plates  has  been  continued 
during  the  year,  and  completed  between  Dec.  64°  and  Dec. 
70°.  A  paper  on  the  statistics  of  the  stars  between  65°  and 
70°  N.  Dec.  was  communicated  to  the  Royal  Astronomical 
Society  in  January,  and  printed  in  the  Monthly  Notices. 

The  28-inch  refractor  has  been  used  throughout  the  year 
for  micrometric  measurements  of  double  stars.  The  total 
number  of  double  stars  measured  during  the  year  is  381  ; 
of  these  192  have  components  less  than  1*0  apart,  and  105 
less  than  o''-5. 

Series  of  measures  have  been  obtained  of  k  Pegasi, 
S  Equulei,  70  Ophiuchi,  and  (  Herculis.  Capella  has  been 
examined  at  every  favourable  opportunity,  and  observations 
of  the  position  angle  of  the  elongated  image  have  been 
secured  on  eight  occasions. 

Solar  Activity. — Shortly  after  the  date  of  the  last  report 
a  long  period  of  almost  complete  solar  quiescence  set  in  ; 
from  1902  June  5  to  September  17  inclusive,  a  period  of 
105  days,  the  mean  daily  spotted  area  was  less  than  a 
single  unit  (one  millionth  of  the  sun's  visible  hemisphere). 
An  active  period  set  in  on  September  18  and  lasted  until 
November  28,  72  days,  the  mean  daily  area  being  164 
niillionths.  The  rest  of  the  year  1902  was  very  quiet,  the 
remaining  34  days  showing  a  mean  daily  area  of  only  3. 
In  the  present  year  the  sun  has  been  much  more  active,  and 
has  been  free  from  spots  on  only  14  days  since  January  i, 
as  compared  with  about  100  in  the  same  period  of  last  year. 
The  first  of  a  fine  series  of  spot-groups  appeared  on  the 
east  limb  on  1903  March  21,  and  a  succession  of  new  groups 
has  followed  almost  without  intermission  up  to  the  date 
of  this  report.  There  can  be  no  doubt,  therefore,  that  the 
solar  activity  is  very  decidedly  upon  the  increase. 

Tables  and  diagrams  showing  the  distribution  of  sun- 
spots  in  latitude  and  the  areas  of  sun-spots  and  faculae  com- 
pared with  magnetic  diurnal  ranges  for  the  29  years  1874 
to  1902  have  been  prepared,  and  will  be  published  in  the 
.Monthly  Notices  R.A.S.  for  May. 

Magnetic  Observations. — The  principal  results  for  the 
magnetic  elements  for  1902  are  as  follows  : — 

Mean  declination     16°  22' 8  West. 

/  4  0134  (in  British  units). 
■"    1  I '8505  (in  Metric  units). 

Mean  dip  (with  3-inch  needles)       67°  3'  25". 

Meteorological  Observations. — The  mean  temperature  for 
the  year  1902  was  49°!,  or  o°-4  below  the  average  for  the 
50  years  1841-90. 

The  rainfall  for  the  year  ending  1903  April  30  was  2368 
inches,  being  086  inch  less  than  the  average  of  50  years. 
The  number  of  rainy  days  was  172.  The  rainfall  has  been 
less  than  the  average  for  each  of  the  eight  years  from  1895 
to  iqo2  inclusive,  the  total  deficiency  for  the  eight  years 
ending  1902  December  31  amounting"  to  28-91  inches.  For 
the  four  months  1903  January-April  there  has  been  an 
e.vcess  of  095  inch. 


THEORY  OF  CYCLONES  AND  ANTICYCLONES. 
pROF.  F.  H.  BIGELOW  contributes  to  the  U.S. 
.Monthly  Weather  Review  for  February  a  paper  on 
the  mechanism  of  counter-currents  of  different  tempera- 
tures in  cyclones  and  anticyclones.  An  outline  theory  of 
the  structure  of  cyclones  and  anticvclones  was  described 
in  the  report  of  the  Chief  of  the  Weather  Bureau  for  1898- 
1899  (vol.  ii).  It  was  evident,  however,  that  a  more  com- 
plete insight  into  the  mechanism  of  motions  in  a  fluid  such 
as  air  under  atmospheric  conditions  would  be  afforded  by 
the  construction  of  systems  of  isobars  on  at  least  three 
planes  having  different  altitudes.  For  this  purpose,  the 
sea-level  and  the  levels  of  3500  and  10,000  feet  were  selected, 
and  since  December,  1902,  daily  reduced  pressures  for  these 
planes  have  been  received  from  the  regular  observing 
stations  of  the  United  States  and  Canada,  and  charts  have 
been  constructed  for  them.  The  approximate  gradients 
needed  for  a  preliminary  consideration  of  the  subject  have 
thus  been  obtained,  and  the  general  results  of  the  investi- 
gation are  stated  by  Prof.  Bigelow  as  follows  : — 

(i)  The  cyclone  is  not  formed  from  the  energy  of  the 
latent  heat  of  condensation,  however  much  this  mav 
strengthen  its  intensity  :  it  is  not  an  eddy  in  the  eastward 


Mean  horizontal  force 


NO.    1754,  VOL.  68] 


drift ;  but  it  is  caused  by  the  counterflow  and  overflow  of 
currents  of  different  temperatures.  Ferrel's  canal  theory 
of  the  general  circulation  is  not  sustained  by  the  observ- 
ations, nor  is  his  theory  of  local  cyclones  and  anticyclones 
tenable.  There  are  difficulties  with  regard  to  the  German 
vortex  theory,  but  this  is  nearer  the  truth  than  the  Ferrel 
vortex.  The  structure  in  nature  is  actually  more  complex 
than  has  been  admitted  in  these  theoretical  discussions, 
but  it  doubtless  can  be  worked  out  successfully  along  the 
lines  herein  indicated.  (2)  Regarding  the  relation  of  the 
upper  level  isobars  to  practical  forecasting,  it  is  noted  as 
the  result  of  the  examination  of  charts  that  (a)  the  direction 
of  the  advance  of  the  centre  of  the  low  pressure  is  controlled 
by  the  upper  strata,  and  its  track  for  the  following  twenty- 
four  hours  is  usually  indicated  by  the  position  of  the  10,000- 
foot  level  isobars ;  (h)  the  velocity  of  the  daily  motion  is 
also  dependent  upon  and  is  shown  by  the  density  of  these 
high  level  isobars  ;  (c)  the  penetrating  power  of  the  cyclone 
is  safely  inferred  from  an  inspection  of  the  three  maps  of 
isobars  of  the  same  date  ;  (d)  there  is  decided  evidence  that 
areas  of  precipitation  occur  where  the  3500-foot  isobars  and 
the  10,000-foot  isobars  cross  each  other  at  an  angle  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  90°  ;  (e)  there  have  been  several  cases  in 
which  the  formation  of  a  new  cyclone  has  been  first  dis- 
tinctly shown  on  the  upper  system  of  isobars  before  pene- 
trating to  the  surface  or  making  itself  evident  at  the  sea 
level.  (3)  It  is  expected  that  by  completing  our  discussion 
of  the  temperature  gradients  between  the  surface  and  the 
higher  levels  we  shall  be  able  to  secure  daily  isotherms  as 
well  as  daily  isobars  on  the  upper  planes,  and  this  will 
tend  to  strengthen  any  further  examination  of  these  im- 
portant problems.  A  suitable  report  will  be  prepared  in 
which  the  data  now  coming  into  our  possession  will  be 
subjected  to  a  mathematical  analysis  and  discussion. 

ATMOSPHERIC  VARIATIONS. 
Tj*  ROM  the  results  of  recent  researches  solar  prominences 
■*■  seem  to  be  playing  a  most  important  part,  not  only 
in  the  mechanism  of  the  solar  atmosphere,  but  in  the 
variations  of  our  own.  Any  investigation,  therefore,  that 
gives  us  new  ideas  or  corroborates  the  old  is  most  useful 
and  valuable.  In  a  previous  number  of  this  Journal  (vol. 
Ixvii.  p.  569,  April)  an  account  was  given  of  the  results 
obtained  from  a  research  on  the  distribution  of  solar 
prominences  as  regards  latitude.  The  prominence  circula- 
tion thus  disclosed  that  there  was  practically  a  law  at 
work  which  the  centres  of  prominence  action  followed,  and 
this  law,  deduced  from  observations  extending  over  the 
longest  period  available  (1872-1901),  was  found  to  be  in 
good  agreement  with  that  first  suggested  by  Prof.  Ricco 
in  1891  {.Mem.  d.  Soc.  degli  Spettr.,  vol.'xx.  p.  135). 
Prof.  Bigelow  has  also  been  studying  the  question  of 
prominence,  facula  and  spot  circulation,  and  in  a  recent 
number  of  the  Monthly  Weather  Review  (vol.  xxxi.  No.  i, 
p.  9)  has  stated  his  results.  The  method  he  adopted  was 
somewhat  different  from  the  one  first  mentioned  above,  for 
the  prominence  circulation  determined  by  him  has  been  de- 
duced by  finding  the  mean  variation  of  the  prominence  dis- 
tribution resulting  from  coupling  up  together  the  values  for 
those  years  which  he  considers  are  similar  in  relation  to 
the  eleven-year  sun-spot  cycle.  Anyone  familiar  with  this 
cycle  knows  the  difficulty  this  involves,  because  it  is  only 
the  mean  length  of  the  sun-spot  period  that  is  eleven  years. 
Further,  the  epochs  of  maxima  do  not  follow  those  of  the 
minima  at  constant  intervals,  but  vary  from  a  little  more 
than  three  to  five  years.  In  spite,  however,  of  these  probable 
sources  of  error.  Prof.  Bigelow  deduces  a  circulation  not 
very  different  from  the  one  mentioned  above,  so  that  all 
the  three  computations  and  deductions  show  that  there  is 
a  very  definite  movement  in  latitude  and  change  in  per- 
centage frequency  of  occurrence  from  year  to  year. 

.\  most  interesting  and  important  contribution,  by  Prof. 
T.  H.  Davis,  to  our  knowledge  of  the  fluctuation  of  the 
annual  wind  resultants,  and  indirectly  to  our  knowledge  of 
the  movements  of  cyclones  and  anticyclones,  appeared  in  one 
of  the  recent  numbers  of  the  Monthly  Weather  Review  (vol. 
XXX.  No.  II,  p.  519),  The  investigation  was  restricted 
chiefly  to  stations  included  in  the  meteorological  services  of 
the  United  .States  and  Canada,  and  the  period  discussed 
was  the  ten  years   1891-1900.     The  results  of  the  research 


40 


NATURE 


[June 


903 


are  best  seen  by  consulting  the  map  accompanying  the  paper, 
on  which  all  the  mean  wind  directions  for  each  year  and 
for  each  station  are  plotted. 

Most  interesting  curves  of  wind  resultants  at  Key  West, 
Bermuda,  Mt.  Washington,  and  Pike's  Peak  are  repro- 
duced. Prof.  Davis  concludes  by  saying  : — "  The  remark- 
able relations  revealed  by  these  tables  and  charts  show  that 
the  natural  relations  of  the  winds  are  complex  and  still 
obscure.  I  see  no  indication  of  a  sun-spot  nor  of  a  lunar 
influence.  To  what  natural  laws  or  combination  of  laws 
are  we  to  attribute  these  variations  in  the  annual  re- 
sultants? "  Perhaps,  as  a  suggestion,  Prof.  Davis  might 
correlate  the-  variations  of  the  wind  directions  in  the 
southern  stations  with  the  barometric  changes  from  year 
to  year,  which  latter  have  recently  been  shown  to  be  nearly 
identical  with  those  in  South  America,  and  the  inverse  of 
those  in  the  regions  about  the  Indian  Ocean  and  Australia. 

In  connection  with  the  preceding  paragraph,  the  paper 
by  Prof.  K.  Kassner,  on  "  Sonnenflecken,  Depressionen  der 
Zugstrasse  V*  und  Niederschlage  "  (/InuaZen  der  Hydro- 
graphie  und  Mariiimen  Meteorologie,  March)  is  of  great 
interest.  The  author  has  analysed  the  variations  in  the 
yearly  number  of  barometric  minima  which  pass  along  this 
cyclone  track,  as  specified  by  van  Bebber,  for  the  long  period 
1874  to  1901.  He  shows  that  the  variations  are  in  general 
agreement  with  an  inverted  sun-spot  curve,  that  is,  that 
there  is  a  greater  number  of  these  low  pressure  areas  at 
sun-spot  minima  than  at  the  maxima.  There  are,  however, 
several  outstanding  minor  variations  of  shorter  period. 


various  reports  show  clearly  the  directions  economic  ento- 
mology is  now  taking — the  introduction  of  parasitic  species 
which  prey  upon  the  pests,  particularly  of  ladybirds  feeding 
upon  aphis  and  scale — fumigation  of  infested  plants  with 
hydrocyanic  acid  or  carbon  bisulphide — and  the  compounding 
of  different  sorts  of  spraying  mixtures.  Mr.  Lounsbery 
gives  accounts  of  several  attempts  at  the  introduction  of 
exotic  ladybirds  from  California  to  keep  mealybug,  scale  and 
American  blight  in  check,  though  none  of  them  have  yet 
become  established,  as  has,  however,  been  successfully 
achieved  with  the  Vedalia,  which  keeps  Icerya  purchasi  in 
check.  Various  recipes  for  making  paraflin  emulsions  are 
given;  considering  the' efficacy  of  parafifin  as  an  insecticide, 
and  "the  difficulty  that  is  always  experienced  in  keeping  it 
emulsified,  it  is  strange  that  more  trial  is  not  made  of  the 
method  devised  by  Mr.  H.  H.  Cousins  of  increasing  the 
specific  gravity  of  the  paraffin  by  dissolving  naphthalene 
in  it.  Another  section  of  economic  entomology  treated  in 
this  report  is  the  investigation  of  a  cattle  tick  which  serves 
as  an  intermediary  host  for  a  parasite  causing  "  heart 
water,"  a  disease  mainly  affecting  sheep  and  goats,  and 
of  another  tick-propagated  disease  known  as  malignant 
jaundice  of  dogs. 

One  interesting  application  of  modern  methods  which 
may  be  found  here  reported  is  the  fumigation  with  hydro- 
cyanic acid  of  gaols,  asylums,  and  kindred  public  build- 
ings to  free  them  of  the  insect  vermin  which  are  so  terribly 
abundant  in  South  Africa. 


A  CAMERA  FOR  NATURALISTS. 
\Ar E  have  recently  had  an  opportunity  of  inspecting  one 
'  *  of  the  "  Birdland  "  cameras  made  by  Messrs.  Sanders 
and  Crowhurst,  of  71  Shaftesbury  Avenue,  to  the  design 
of  Mr.  Oliver  G.  Pike.  Mr.  Pike  is  well  known  as  a 
specialist  in  the  photography  of  birds  and  all  that  pertains 
to  them,  and  so  far  as  we,  who  are  not  specialists  in  this 
matter,  are  able  to  judge,  the  camera  that  he  has  designed 
is  excellently  adapted  for  the  use  of  naturalists.  Certainly 
no  pains  have  been  spared  on  the  part  of  the  makers  to 
carry  out  Mr.  Pike's  ideas  in  a  serviceable  and  practical 
way.  The  lens  is  a  Goerz  double  anastigmat  of  7  inches 
focal  length,  and  by  opening  the  front  of  the  camera  and 
drawing  the  lens  forward,  a  change  that  is  effected  in  a 
few  seconds,  the  back  combination  may  be  used  alone. 

The  range  of  focusing  is  sufficient  to  photograph  objects 
within  four  or  five  feet  even  when  the  single  combination 
is  used,  and  the  power  that  this  provides  in  conjunction 
with  the  lens  of  twelve  or  thirteen  inches  focal  length  in 
getting  large  images  will  be  appreciated  by  anyone  who 
has  attempted  the  photography  of  small  animals.  Focusing 
s'.ales  are  afTixed  both  for  the  complete  lens  and  the  single 
combination,  though  these  would  probably  be  rarely  used, 
as  the  finder  is  a  reflex  arrangement  that  gives  a  full-size 
view  of  the  image  that  falls  upon  the  plate  when  the  shutter 
is  operated.  An  important  point  with  regard  to  the  finder 
is  that  its  image  can  be  seen  when  viewed  from  above,  as 
usual,  and  also  by  looking  horizontally  when  the  camera 
is  level  with  the  eye.  A  mirror  in  the  hood  effects  this 
desirable  convenience.  The  shutter  is  the  focal  plane 
Anschutz,  but  with  a  device  made  soecially  by  Messrs. 
Sanders  and  Crowhurst  for  linking  it  with  the  mirror 
within  the  camera  that  reflects  the  image  upwards  on  to 
the  finder  screen.  One  release  removes  the  mirror  and 
operates  the  shutter,  all  the  movements  taking  place 
smoothly  and  practically  noiselessly.  The  camera  is 
covered  with  a  dull  green  leather,  and  all  metal  parts  are 
bronzed,  so  that  it  forms  an  inconspicuous  object  in  the 
ordinary  surroundings  of  the  country. 


ENTOMOLOGY    AT    THE    CAPE.^ 
'X'HE  Cape  has  been  described  as  the  most  magnificent 

-•-  natural  museum  of  insect  pests  and  parasitic  diseases 
which  the  world  possesses,  and  the  report  of  Mr.  I.ounsbery 
for  1901  shows  that,  despite  the  dislocation  induced  by  the 
war,    he   is   making   good   use   of   his   opportunities.     "  The 

1  Cape  of  Good  Hope  Report  of  the  Government  Entomologist  for 
1901.     Pp.  103.     (Cape  Town,  1902.) 


UNIVERSITY  AND   EDUCATIONAL 
INTELLIGENCE. 

Cambridge.— Mr.  A.  C.  Seward,  F.R.S.,  has  been 
reappointed  University  lecturer  in  botany.  The  University 
lectureship  in  midwifery  is  vacant  by  the  resignation  of 
Mr.  Stabb.  Candidates  are  to  make  application  to  the 
Vice-Chancellor  before  October  20.  Mr.  L.  Doncaster. 
I  King's,  has  been  appointed  assistant  to  the  superintendent 
\   of  the  museum  of  zoology. 

:       The   University  College  of  South  Wales  and  Monmouth- 

l   shire,    Cardiff,    is    proposed    for   adoption    as    an    institution 

i   affiliated  to  the  University  of  Cambridge. 

i       Dr.    Humphry,    Dr.    S.    West,    and   Dr.    W.    Hale   White 

!   have  been   appointed   examiners   in   medicine;    Dr.    Herman 

I   and  Dr.   Handfield  Jones  examiners  in  midwifery  ;  and  Mr. 

Clinton  Dent,  Mr.   E.  Ward,  and  Mr.   E.  Owen  examiners 

in    surgery — for    the    third    -M.B.    examination.     Mr.    F".    C. 

Parsons,   "  St.      Thomas's      Hospital,      London,      has     been 

appointed    an    examiner    in    human    anatomy.     Mr.    A.    E. 

Shipley    has    been    reappointed    University    member    of    the 

council  of  the  Marine   Biological  Association. 


NO.    1754,  VOL.  68] 


A  CHAIR  of  agricultural  botany  has  been  established  at 
the  University  of  Rennes,  and  M.  Daniel  has  been  elected 
the  first  professor. 

The  late  Alderman  Benjamin  Robinson,  chemical  manu- 
facturer, bequeathed  500L  for  scholarships  in  connection 
with  the  Royal  Salford  Technical  Institute. 

Dr.  J.  J.  R.  Maclkod,  assistant  demonstrator  of  physi- 
ology at  the  London  Hospital,  has  been  appointed  professor 
of  physiology  at  the  Western  Reserve  I'niversity,  Cleve- 
land, Ohio. 

Dr.  John  Rvan  has  been  appointed  principal  of  the 
Paddington  Technical  Institute  of  the  London  County 
Council.  Dr.  Ryan  was  formerly  professor  of  engineering 
at  University  College,  Nottingham,  and  at  University 
College,  Bristol,  and  has  for  the  past  three  years  held  the 
post  of  principal  of  the  Woolwich  Polytechnic. 

The  Edinburgh  summer  meeting,  which  was  instituted 
in  1886  and  held  annually  until  1899,  is  now  to  be  resumed, 
and  the  course  will  extend  from  August  3  to  29.  The  meet- 
ing will  be  directed  by  Prof.  Patrick  Geddes,  and  wilt 
deal  this  year  especially  with  a  study  of  Edinburgh  and 
its  -region.  The  requirements  of  Scottish  and  English 
teachers  in  nature-study  will  receive  prominent  attention, 
and  a  series  of  excursions  to  various  places  of  interest  will 
be  held.     Sir  John  Murray,  Prof.  J.  Arthur  Thomson,  and 


June  i  i,  1Q03 


NATURE 


141 


Mr.  J.  G.  Goodchild  are  assisting  in  various  departments. 
Communications  should  be  addressed  to  tiie  secretary  at 
Mie  Outlook  Tower,  Edinburgh. 

.\   SLMMER  meeting  of  university   extension  students   will 

■   held    in    Oxford    in   August,    the   first   part    being   from 

Vugust    I    to  August    13,    and   the  second   from  August    13 

.August  24.     The  inaugural  address  will  be  delivered  on 

Saturday,    August    i,    at   8.30   p.m.,    by   the   United   States 

\:nbassador.     The    programme    of    lectures    is    grouped    in 

\e  sections,  one  of  which  is  natural  science.     The  list  of 

rturers  includes  the  names  of  Dr.   C.   W.   Kimmins,   Mr. 

Michael    Sadler,    and    Prof.    Sims   Woodhead.     Conferences 

have  been  arranged  on  "  The   Education  Act  of    1902   and 

University     Extension,"     chairman.     Sir     William     Anson, 

M.P.  ;  "  Free  Libraries  and  Popular  Education,"  chairman, 

Lord    Goschen,    F.R.S.  ;    and   "  Science   in    its    Relation   to 

Industry,"  chairman.  Sir  Philip  Magnus. 

The  President  of  the  Board  of  Education  has  appointed 
Dr.  H.  F.  Heath,  Academic  Registrar  of  the  University  of 
London,    to    the    post    of   director   of    special    inquiries    and 
ports_  rendered    vacant    by    Mr.    Sadler's    resignation    on 
lay  9.'    As  the  papers  describing  the  circumstances  which 
d  Mr.   Sadler  to  resign  an  office  filled  by  him  with  such 
access  since  1895,  when  it  was  created,  have  not  yet  been 
lid  before  Parliament,   the  appointment  of  a  new  director 
was  unexpected,   and  will  be  received  with  surprise  by  the 
educational   w'orld.     F'or  eight   years   Mr.    Sadler  has  been 
engaged    in    collecting    materials    for    the    study    of    educa- 
tional  systems   and    methods,    and   the   information   he   has 
rendered  available  in  his  eleven  volumes  of  special  reports 
has  been  of  the  greatest   assistance   to   students  of   educa- 
itional    science.       But    scientific    method    and    thoroughness 
meet  with  little  encouragement  in  this  country,  and  though 
everyone    seriously    interested    in    education    recognises    the 
value  of  Mr.   Sadler's  work  and  understands  its  formative 
influence,  it  is  evident  that  to  the  official  mind  the  exigencies 
uf    the    moment    are    of    mpre    consequence    than    scientific 
knowledge.       It   is  to  be  hoped   that  the  outcome   of   the 
■  affair   will    be    to   place   the   Special    Inquiries    Office   on    a 

firmer  footing,  and  that  the  new  director  will  be  given 
increased  facilities  for  the  continued  efficiency  of  the  work 
carried  on  by  Mr.  Sadler. 

The    programme    of    summer    rambles    for    the    present 
■ason,    published    in    connection    with    the   biolop^v    section 
I    the   Essex  County   Education   Committee,    and   prepared 
\    Mr.    E.    C.    Horrell    with    the   assistance   of    Mr.    F.    J. 
i  hittenden,  should  prove  very  useful  to  teachers  of  nature- 
-uidv.       It    is    noteworthy    that    two    distinct    rambles    in 
ditferent  parts  of  the  county  are  arranged  for  each  Saturday 
iifternoon  during  June  and  July,  so  that  a  large  number  of 
teachers    is    given    the    opportunity    of    attending.       Each 
ramble   is  conducted  by  a   member  of  the  biological   staff. 
The    excursions    are    intended    to    afford    opportunities    to 
trachers  to  gain  experience  in  the  methods  adopted  in  the 
>tudy  of  nature  in   the  field.     Any   teacher  is  eligible   who 
i:ikes   an    interest    in    general   natural   history,    a'nd    is   pre- 
pared to  devote  a  little  leisure  to   its  study.     There  is  no 
\         fee,    but    teachers   bear    their   own    expenses.       The    advice 
r  given   to   intending   ramblers   is   sensible   and   practical,    as 

the  following  quotations  show  : — "  Students  must  not 
needlessly  uproot  plants,  tread  upon  crops,  break  through 
fences,  or  leave  gates  open."  "  The  teacher  should  always 
bear  in  mind  that  most  biological  and  morphological  facts 
\  can  be  illustrated  quite  as  satisfactorily  by  a  common  plant 

as  by  a  rare  one,  and  a  plant  should  never  be  collected 
simply  because  it  is  rare."  It  would  be  difficult  to  devise 
a  better  plan  to  secure  rational  nature-study  work  in  our 
schools  than  this  way  of  first  educating  the  teachers  to 
become  intelligent  observers. 

In  a  letter  to  the  7'tmes  of  June  8,  Mr,  Sidney  Lee  draws 
an  interesting  and  instructive  comparison  between  American 
and  British  methods  of  appointing  university  professors. 
Of  the  superiority  of  the  American  plan  there  can  be  no 
doubt.  In  .America,  as  soon  as  a  vacancy  arises  in  the 
professorial  staff,  the  president  of  the  university  consults 
members  of  the  faculty  concerned.  He  invites  their  opinion 
as  to  who  is  the  fittest  man  to  fill  the  vacant  chair.  But 
the  president  does  not  confine  his  inquiries  to  his  immediate 
circle  of  colleagues.       Knowledge    of    the    reputations    that 


NO.    1754,  VOL.   68] 


m.en  are  acquiring  in  academic  work  is  wonderfully  well 
diffused.  The  president  who  is  seeking  to  fill  a  vacant 
chair  has  at  command  ready  means  of  communication  with 
presidents  and  professors  of  other  universities.  After  due 
and  thorough  investigation,  he  forms  his  decision  as  to  how 
the  vacant  post  may  be  filled  with  greatest  advantage  to 
the  institution  over  which  he  presides.  He  then  forwards  an 
invitation  to  the  chosen  person  to  occupy  the  vacant  office. 
The  procedure  in  vogue  in  this  country  is  too  well  known 
to  require  description,  and  the  only  argument  Mr.  Lee 
has  found  in  its  favour  is  that  it  enlarges  the  electors'  field 
of  choice.  "  But,"  he  remarks,  "  this  argument  is  open 
to  most  serious  question.  Men  of  ordinary  sensitiveness 
often  refuse  to  submit  themselves  to  the  humiliating  ordeal 
of  public  or  semi-public  competition  for  a  vacant  professor- 
ship, which  in  many  respects  reduces  them  to  the  level  of 
advertising  vendors  of  quack  medicines.  In  effect  the  pre- 
vailing system  often  narrows  the  field  of  choice  open  to  the 
electors,  who  are  not  in  the  habit  of  looking  outside  the 
panel  of  self-appointed  candidates ;  it  is,  indeed,  doubtful 
if  honourable  regard  for  the  terms  of  their  public  advertise- 
ments permit  them  such  a  course  of  action." 


SOCIETIES  AND  ACADEMIES. 
London. 

Royal  Society,  April  30.—"  Preliminary  Note  on  the  Use 
of  Chloroform  in  the  Preparation  of  Vaccine."  By  Alan  B. 
Green,  M.A.,  M.D.  (Cantab).  Communicated  by  W.  H. 
Power,  M.D.,  F.R.S. 

Briefly  stated,  the  method  of  preparing  vaccine  by  the 
chloroform  process  is  described  as  follows  : — Vaccine 
emulsion  is  first  prepared  by  triturating  one  part 
by  weight  of  vaccine  pulp  with  three  parts  by 
weight  of  water.  Through  this  emulsion,  air  charged 
with  chloroform  vapour  is  passed,  with  the  result 
that  the  water  of  the  emulsion  becomes  saturated  with 
chloroform  (i  in  200).  After  such  saturation  all  excess  of 
chloroform  immediately  escapes  automatically  from  the 
vaccine,  and  the  lymph  is  not  brought  into  contact  with 
a  stronger  solution  of  chloroform  than  i  in  200.  The  ex- 
traneous micro-organisms  originally  present  in  the  lymph 
are  by  this  means  killed  in  from  one  to  six  hours,  while  the 
lymph  remains  fully  potent  for  vaccination.  Vaccinations 
have  been  performed  with  lymph  prepared  in  this  way  with 
highly  successful  results. 

By  the  chloroform  process,  lymph,  free  from  extraneous 
micro-organisms,  can  be  distributed  for  use  twenty-four 
hours  after  collection  from  the  calf,  instead  of  after  the 
lapse  of  a  month  or  longer,  which  is  the  time  generally 
necessary  for  the  elimination  of  these  organisms  by  the 
glycerine  process.  The  rapid  preparation  of  lymph  by  the 
chloroform  process  possesses  many  obvious  advantages. 

Zoological  Society,  May  12.— Dr.  Henry  Woodward, 
F.R.S.,  vice-president,  in  the  chair. — Mr.  W.  B.  ToKot- 
meier  exhibited  a  skin  and  some  illustrations  of  a  species 
of  pheasant  from  Mongolia  recently  described  under  the 
name  of  Phasiamts  hagenbecki.  He  suggested  that  it  would 
make  a  handsome  addition  to  our  coverts. — Mr.  Frank 
Finn  spoke  on  variation  in  wild  mammals  and  birds,  and 
exhibited  illustrative  living  specimens  and  drawings.  The 
specimens  included  a  frontlet  of  the  barking-deer  (Cervulus 
niuntjac),  bearing  supernumerary  antlers  springing  from  the 
bony  pedicles  below  the  ordinary  antlers  ;  two  abnormally- 
coloured  Sambhar  deer  (Cervus  unicolor) ;  a  goldfinch 
(Carduelis  carduelis),  showing  red  patches  at  the  back  of 
the  head  ;  and  an  'albinistic  variety  of  the  ruff  (Pavoncella 
pugnax),  with  head  and  neck  nearly  white. — Mr.  F.  E. 
Beddard,  F.R.S.,  exhibited  preserved  and  injected  brains 
of  mammals  prepared  in  the  Society's  prosectorium.— Dr. 
J.  F.  Oemmill  read  a  contribution  to  the  study  of  double 
monstrosities  in  fishes.  It  contained  an  account  of  the 
anatomy  of  double  monster  trout-embryos,  reference  being 
made  to  the  fusion,  disappearance,  or  modification  of  organs 
which  occurred  at  the  region  of  transition  from  the  double 
to  the  normal  condition. — Mr.  Robert  Qurney  dealt  with 
the  metamorphoses  of  the  decapod  crustaceans  .^geon 
fasciatus,  Risso,  and  ^.  trispinosus.  Hailstone.  The  larvae 
of  the  two  species  were  described,  and  comparisons  made 
with  those  of  other  Crangonid.t,  from  which  it  was  shown 


[42 


NATURE 


[June  i  i,  1903 


that  the  known  larvae  of  the  British  Crangonidae  fell 
naturally  into  three  groups,  representing  the  genera  /Egeon 
(which  would  include  Cheraphilus),  Crangon,  and  Ponto- 
philus. — Mr.  C.  Tate  Regra^n  read  a  paper  on  the  fishes 
collected  by  Dr.  Goeldi  at  Rio  Janeiro.  Four  species  were 
described  as  new. — Mr.  Martin  Jacoby  described  fifty-six 
new  species  of  South  American  Coleoptera  of  the  family 
Chrysomelidae. 

Geological  Society,  May  13.— Mr,  E.  T.  Newton,  F.R.S., 
vice-president,  in  the  chair. — On  some  disturbances  in  the 
Chalk  near  Royston  (Hertfordshire),  by  Mr.  H.  B.  Wood- 
ward, F.R.S.  The  disturbed  Chalk  near  Royston,  with 
its  fractured  and  displaced  flints,  occurs  in  conjunction  with 
Boulder-clay,  and  the  latter  is  found  beneath  a  considerable 
thickness  of  disturbed  Chalk.  While  Boulder-clay  occurs 
along  the  high  ground  bounding  the  disturbed  area  to  the 
south,  the  undulating  downs  to  the  north  are  devoid  of  this 
Glacial  Drift.  The  facts  were  to  be  explained,  on  the 
land-ice  theory,  if  the  ice  were  at  first  welded  to  the  rubbly 
surface-strata  in  regions  north  of  the  escarpment,  and,  when 
movement  set  in,  there  were  overthrusts  of  debris-laden 
ice,  and  upper  layers  of  ice  were  rent  asunder  from  and 
moved  over  lower  ones ;  while  to  the  thrust  or  long-con- 
tinued pressure  of  ice  along  shear-planes  at  the  higher 
levels  may  be  attributed  the  belt  of  disturbed  strata. — On 
a  section  at  Cowley,  near  Cheltenham,  and  its  bearing 
upon  the  interpretation  of  the  Bajocian  denudation,  by  Mr. 
L.  Richardson. — Description  of  a  species  of  Heterastraea 
from  the  Lower  Rhaetic  of  Gloucestershire,  by  Mr.  R.  F. 
Tomes.  The  specimen  was  obtained  from  Lower  Rhaetic 
Beds  at  Deer.hurst  (Gloucester).  It  occurred  a  little  above 
the  bone-bed  ;  it  is.  specifically  new  and  generically  new  to 
the  Rhaetic,  and  it  displays  Jurassic  relationships!  It 
differs  from  the  several  Liassic  species  in  the  small  size  of 
the  corallum  and  of  its  calices. 

Royal  Meteorological  Society,  May  20. — Captain  D 
Wilson-Barker,  president,  in  the  chair. — Mr.  C.  P.  Hooker 
read  a  paper  on  the  relation  of  the  rainfall  to  the  depth  of 
water  in  a  well.  In  this  he  gave  the  weekly  measurements 
of  the  depth  of  water  in  a  well  (loi  feet  deep)  and  the 
amount  of  rainfall  at  Cirencester,  extending  over  the  sixteen 
years  1887-1902.  The  depth  of  water  in  the  well  depends 
on  how  much  rain  penetrates,  and  the  penetration  is  deter- 
mined by  the  amount  of  rain,  the  rapidity  of  its  fall,  and 
the  existing  condition  of  the  soil.  The  winter  rains  pene- 
trate easily,  and  the  summer  rains  with  difficulty.  Mere 
absence  of  rain  is  not  the  only  cause  of  scarcity,  deficiency 
of  spring  rains,  and  subsequent  heat  and  evaporation  being 
far  more  important  factors.  After  the  early  spring  months 
but  little  rain  penetrates  to  the  well,  so  that  a  timely  fore- 
warning, at  that  season  might  prove  of  great  value  by  en- 
abling the  existing  supplies  to  be  husbanded  at  an  early 
period.  Considering  how  narrow  is  the  boundary  between 
sufficiency  and  want,  and  looking  to  the  fact  that  every 
year  sees  further  demands  made  on  our  water  supplies,  the 
author  considers  that  it  is  of  the  utmost  importance  that 
more  attention  should  be  paid  to  the  storage  of  our  surplus 
winter  rains.  This  -might  be  done  by  the  formation  of 
large  hill  reservoirs,  and  doubtless  such  measures  as  the 
reafforesting  of  large  tracts  of  land  would  be  of  use  in 
checking  the  rapidity  with  which  the  rains  reach  the  rivers 
and  are  so  lost. — Mr.  W.  Marriott  gave  an  account  of  the 
frost  of  April,  which  was  so  keenly  felt  coming  after 
the  long  spell  of  very  mild  weather  in  "February  and  March. 
The  fortnight  April  12-25  was  marked  by  keen  northerly 
winds,  great  dryness,  and  low  temperatures.  Frosts  on 
nhe  ground  were  of  almost  nightly  occurrence,  and  as  the 
result,  the  destruction  of  the  fruit  blossom  has  been  verv 
great  and  also  very  general.  In  many  places  a  good  deal 
of  the  apple  and  strawberry  blossom,  although  only  in  bud 
at  the  time,  was  killed,  while,  potatoes  were  cut  to  the 
ground,  and  the  foliage  of  horse  chestnuts  and  limes  much 
injured,  particularly  on  the  windward  side. 

Royal  Microscopical  Society,  May  20.— Dr.  Hy.  Wood- 
ward, F.R.S. ,  in  the  chair.— Mr.  C.  L.  Curties  exhibited 
a  new  monochromatic  light  apparatus,  which  was  a  modi- 
fication of  that  shown  at  the  November  meeting  by  Dr. 
Spitta.  It  consisted  of  an  optical  bench  carrying  a  Nernst 
electric  lamp,  aplanatic  bulls-eye  condenser,  adjustable  slit, 
achromatic  collimating  lens,  a  prism  upon  which  was 
WO.    1754,   VOL.   68J 


mounted  a  Thorpe  replica  grating,  and  an  achromatic 
projection  lens,  the  whole  being  fitted  upon  a  mahogany 
base  capable  of  being  tilted.  The  spectrum  given  was  ex- 
ceedingly brilliant,  and  any  part  could  be  brought  into  the 
field  of  the  microscope. — Messrs.  W.  Watson  and  Sons 
exhibited  a  new  form  of  museum  microscope  placed  inside 
a  locked  glass  case  through  which  the  eye-piece  projected. 
There  was  a  circular  disc  in  place  of  the  ordinary  stage, 
upon  which  twelve  slides  could  be  fixed ;  it  was  rotated 
from  the  outside,  so  as  to  bring  each  object  into  the  field. 
Messrs.  Watson  also  exhibited  a  bulls-eye  condenser  of 
long  focus  for  photomicrographic  purposes,  fitted  with  iris 
diaphragm  and  centring  adjustments.— There  was  an  ex- 
hibition of  pond  life  by  fellows  of  the  Society  and  members 
of  the  Quekett  Microscopical  Club. — It  was  announced  that 
at  the  next  meeting  on  June  17  there  would  be  a  communi- 
cation from  Lord  Rayleigh  on  Mr.  Gordon's  paper  on  the 
Helmholtz  theory  of  the  microscope,  and  that  Dr.  H. 
Siedentopf  would  give  a  demonstration  of  his  method  of 
making  visible  ultra-microscopic  particles  in  glass,  and  the 
application  of  the  method  to  bacteria. 
Cambridge. 
Philosophical  Society,  May  4.  — Dr.  Baker,  president, 
in  the  chair. — On  Mendelian  heredity  of  three  characters 
allelomorphic  to  each  other,  by  Mr.  W.  Bateson,  F.R.S. 
The  object  of  this  note  was  to  direct  attention  to  various 
possibilities  attainable  by  a  modification  of  the  Mendelian 
method.  In  the  ordinary  method  the  constitution  of  the 
gametes  in  the  first  cross  (F,)  is  tested  by  breeding  such 
individuals  inter  se  or  with  a  pure  recessive.  The  ensuing 
generation  (Fj)  will  consist  of  a  mixture  of  dominant  and 
recessive  individuals ;  but  if  the  proportions  depart  from 
the  expected  3  :  i  or  i  :  i,  it  is  not  possible  to  tell  whether 
such  departure  is  due  to  change  in  relative  numbers  of 
dominant  and  recessive  gametes,  to  imperfect  segregation 
of  characters,  or  to  change  in  dominance.  This  question 
can  in  part  be  answered  by  a  method  which  consists  m  cross- 
ing F,  produced  from  a  parent  having  one  dominant 
character  with  another  heterozygous  individual  having  a 
different  dominant  character  (the  same  recessive  being  used 
in  both  cases). — On  the  diathermancy  of  antimonite,  by  Mr. 
A.  Hutchinson. — On  the  potential  difference  between  the 
terminals  of  a  vacuum  tube,  by  Mr.  W.  A.  D.  nudgo. 
The  experiments  described  in  the  paper  were  made  in  a 
tube  which  contained  a  perforated  and  movable  metal 
disc.  It  was  found  that  the  presence  of  the  disc  caused 
the  potential  difference  between  the  ends  of  the  tube  to  rise 
considerably  above  that  of  a  perfectly  similar  tube  without 
a  disc.  The  increase  varied  with  the  nature  of  the  metal ; 
using  different  metals  as  discs,  the  order  of  increase  was 
Pb  I,  Ag  1-25,  (Cu  Fe  Zn)  135,  Al  35,  Mg  38.- The  deter- 
mination of  curves  satisfying  given  conditions,  by  Mr.  H. 
Bateman. — On  the  existence  of  a  radio-active  gas  in  the 
Cambridge  tap-water,  by  Prof.  Thomson,  F.R.S.  (see  p.  90). 
— On  a  continuous  spectrum,  by  Mr.  T.  H.  Havelock. — On 
the  Thomson  effect  in  alloys  of  bismuth  and  tin,  by  Mr.  S.  C 
Laws.  The  quantity  of  heat  evolved  or  absorbed  in  con- 
sequence of  the  temperature  gradient  when  a  current  C 
passes  between  two  sections  of  a  homogeneous  conductor  the 
difference  of  temperature  of  which  is  5T  may  be  represented 
by  CffST.  These  experiments  comprise  some  measurements 
of  the  quantity  o-— the  specific  heat  of  electricity — in  bis- 
muth and  alloys  of  bismuth  and  tin.  Some  values  for  <r 
obtained  in  this  way  are  : — bismuth  860  ergs  per  absolute 
unit  current  per  1°  C.  ;  alloy  containing  13  per  cent,  tin 
10,700  ergs  per  absolute  unit  current  per  1°  C.  ;  alloy  con- 
taining 6  per  cent,  tin  11,200  ergs  per  absolute  unit  current 
per  1°  C. — A  preliminary  account  of  an  investigation  of 
the  effect  of  temperature  on  the  ionisation  of  gases  acted 
on  by  Rontgen  rays,  by  Mr.  R.  K.  McClung:.  This  paper 
gives  some  of  the  results  obtained  in  a  series  of  experi- 
ments made  to  ascertain  what  effect  the  heating  of  a  gas 
has  on  the  amount  of  ionisation  produced  in  it  by  the  action 
of  Rontgen  rays.  The  results  obtained  show  conclusively 
that  the  amount  of  ionisation  is  independent  of  the  tempera- 
ture of  the  gas  when  the  density  of  the  gas  is  kept  constant. 
Observations  were  made  on  air  for  a  range  of  temperatures 
of  nearly  two  hundred  degrees  from  about  9°  C.  to  a  little 
more  than  200°  C.  Carbon  dioxide  was  also  examined  for 
a  slightly  wider  range  of  temperatures,  and  precisely  the 
same  result  was  obtained  as  for  air. 


June  ii,  1903] 


NATURE 


143 


Edinburgh. 

Royal  Society,  May  5.— Prof.  Geikie  in  the  chair.— 
Mr.  J.  Ci.  Goodchild  read  a  paper  dealing  with  (i)  Scottish 
c  arriigurms,  amethysts,  and  quartz,  (2)  chalcedony,  opal 
and  jasper,  in  which  many  interesting  details  were  given 
.  t  the  valuable  collection  in  the  Museum  of  Science  and 
Art.  Important  questions  as  to  the  genesis  of  these 
minerals  and  the  influence  of  environment  were  indicated 
as  calling  for  careful  investigation. — Mr.  J.  G.  Qoodchild 
also  read  a  paper  on  the  phonetics  of  Gaelic,  a  subject  to 
which  he  had  devoted  attention  for  many  years.  A  speci- 
men of  Gaelic,  which  Prof.  Mackinnon  had  put  together 
as  containing  all  the  different  sounds  used  in  Gaelic,  was 
transliterated  in  the  phonetic  alphabet  known  as  palaeo- 
tvpe,  and  each  sound  was  then  discussed,  especially  in  re- 
lation to  its  mode  of  production.  The  author  argued  that 
many  of  the  peculiarities  of  Gaelic  sounds  were  due  to  the 
resonance  in  the  vestibule  or  chamber  immediately  above 
the  glottis. — Dr.  A.  T.  Masterman  gave  a  brief  note  on 
the  heart  and  pericardium  in  Enteropneusta,  Echinodermata 
and  their  allies,  sketching  what  he  believed  to  be  the 
process  of  embryological  development.  One  stage  he  had 
net,  however,  been  able  as  yet  to  observe. — Prof.  C.  G. 
Knott  communicated  a  further  instalment  of  his  investi- 
tjations  into  the  interrelations  of  the  resistance  and 
magnetisation  of  nickel  at  high  temperatures.  In  the  later 
experiments  the  temperature  was  pushed  up  to  about 
400°  C.  The  increase  of  resistance  of  a  particular  wire  when 
magnetised  was  found  to  increase  as  the  temperature  was 
raised,  but  afterwards  greatly  to  decrease.  This  was  to 
be  expected  if  we  suppose  that  the  greatness  of  this  effect 
in  the  magnetic  metals  is  due  to  their  magnetisation.  At 
the  highest  temperature  reached  the  percentage  change  of 
resistance  in  a  moderate  field  was  about  one-sixtieth  of  the 
value  at  ordinary  temperatures. 

Mav  18. — The  Hon.  Lord' M'Laren  in  the  chair. — Dr. 
Alex.  M.  M'Aldowie  read  a  paper  on  the  human  plantar 
reflexes.  The  lower  limb  in  infants  was  a  prehensile  limb, 
and  the  reflex  movement  when  the  sole  was  tickled  was 
similar  to  that  in  monkeys.  As  the  child  began  to  try 
to  walk,  the  character  of  the  reflex  changed,  and  became 
ultimately  plantigrade  in  type.  The  prehensile  reflex, 
however,  remained  in  abeyance,  and  manifested  itself  in 
disease.  Under  these  conditions  it  appeared  as  soon  as 
the  cerebral  control  was  withdrawn  or  overcome,  and  thus 
permitted  the  spinal  control  to  reassert  itself.  It  was  a 
remarkable  fact  that  such  a  reflex,  which  disappeared  so 
early  in  the  individual  life,  should  reappear  under  patho- 
logical conditions.  The  author  considered  that  this  per- 
manence of  the  prehensile  reflex  indicated  that  the  period 
in  the  development  of  the  ancestors  of  the  human  race 
when  the  lower  limb  was  an  organ  of  prehension  was  one 
of  immense  duration. — Sir  William  Turner,  K.C.B.,  in  a 
paper  on  the  occurrence  of  the  sperm  whale  or  cachalot 
in  the  Shetland  seas,  described  in  detail  the  lower  jaw,  the 
teeth,  and  the  tympano-petrous  bones  of  a  large  specimen 
which  had  been  found  dead  near  Hillswick,  Shetland,  in 
August,  iqoi.  The  animal  was  a  male,  and  was  61  feet 
long.  The  point  of  a  massive  explosive  harpoon  was  found 
imbedded  in  the  head,  and  had  penetrated  the  great  chamber 
for  the  lodgment  of  the  spermaceti,  most  of  which  had 
consequently  drained  away.  Of  the  sixty-four*  teeth 
obtained,  forty-two  were  mandibular,  seven  were  doubtful, 
probably  mandibular,  but  had  never  cut  the  gum,  and  the 
remaining  fifteen  belonged  to  the  upper  jaw.  They  were  of 
various  shapes,  straight  and  curved,  and  were  obviously  rudi- 
mentary and  functionless.  The  paper  contained  a  history 
of  other  occurrences  of  sperm  whales  in  the  Shetland  seas, 
and  closed  with  a  comparative  study  of  the  tympano- 
petrous  bones  of  Physeter,  Kogia,  and  other  Odontoceti. — In 
a  preliminary  note  on  the  shedding  of  scales  in  gadoid  fishes, 
Mr.  .\lex.  Wallace  Brown  brought  evidence  in  favour  of  the 
view  that  these  fish  shed  their  scales  before  spawning,  rtnd 
that  this  shedding  ceases  when  the  fish  cease  spawning. 
Should  this  fact  be  established  by  future  investigation,  the 
ordinary  view  that  the  rings  on  the  scales  indicate  years 
of  growth  will  have  to  be  abandoned. 

P.ARIS. 

Academy  of  Sciences,  June  2. — M.  Albert  Gaudry  in 
the  chair. — On  certain  singularities  of,  partial  diff^erential 
equations  of   the  elliptic   type,    by   M.    Emile   Picard. — On 


some  new  fossils  from  the  Soudan,  by  M.  A,  de  Lapparent. 

Further  fossils  found  by  Captain  Gaden  in  the  Soudan  are 
undoubtedly  Cretaceous  in  type.  One  of  them,  an 
ammonite,  is  related  to  the  genus  Mammites  and  also  to 
\'ascoceras.  The  sea  must  thus  have  extended  as  far  as 
Tchad,  and  covered  the  Damerghou.  It  is  nearly  certain 
that  during  the  Cretacean  epoch  it  joined  the  Atlantic, 
and  that  the  whole  of  Africa  north  of  i3°-i4°  "N.  latitude 
was  occupied  by  a  vast  sea,  from  which  the  high  lands  of 
Abyssinia  and  an  island  including  Air,  Tassali,  Ahaggar 
and  Tademait  emerged.— Astronomical  and  magnetic  work 
at  Madagascar,  by  M.  P.  Colin.  A  series  of  measure- 
ments of  the  magnetic  elements  showed  a  diminution  in 
the  declination  at  Tamarive  of  11'  between  May,  1902,  and 
April,  1903,  with  a  slight  maximum  in  September;  the 
inclination  diminished  i'  45",  and  the  horizontal  com- 
ponent diminished  by  000033. — On  the  infinitesimal 
properties  of  linear  systems  of  circles,  by  M.  Mesuret. — 
On  the  anisotropy  of  silk,  and  on  the  value  of  Poisson's 
ratio  for  this  substance,  by  M.  F.  Beaulard.  The  results 
of  the  measurements  given  show  clearly  that  silk  is  not 
isotropic. — On  the  magnetism  of  liquids  and  crystals,  by 
M.  Georges  Meslin.  No  solid  belonging  to  the  cubical 
system  exhibits  the  phenomenon  of  magnetic  dichroism. — 
On  the  heat  conductivity  of  iron  in  the  magnetic  field,  by 
M.  A.  Lafay.  The  experiment  of  Maggi,  which  would 
appear  to  show  that  the  heat  conductivity  of  iron  is  affected 
in  a  magnetic  field,  is  a  convection  phenomenon  due  to  the 
air,  and  is  not  observed  in  a  vacuum.  There  is  some  experi- 
mental ground  for  supposing  that  in  a  very  intense  magnetic 
field  the  conductivity  of  iron  for  heat  is  appreciably 
diminished,  but  the  effects  do  not  vary  with  variations  in 
the  direction  of  the  magnetic  and  heat  flux. — On  the 
utilisation  of  energy  for  transmission  in  wireless  telegraphy, 
by  M.  G.  Ferris. — On  the  radiations  emitted  by  radio- 
active lead,  by  MM.  Korn  and  Strauss.  On  comparing 
the  photographic  effect  of  equal  quantities  of  radio-active 
lead,  in  the  form  of  sulphate,  one  of  which  had  been  ex- 
posed to  the  influence  of  the  kathode  rays  for  ten  minutes, 
it  was  found  that  the  action  on  the  photographic  plate  was 
much  more  intense  in  the  case  of  the  exposed  sample. 
This  effect  could  not  be  due  to  phosphorescence,  since  the 
photographic  action  was  unaffected  by  interposing  a  thin 
plate  of  aluminium  or  black  paper.  No  other  radio-active 
material  appears  to  show  this  effect,  which  is  remarkable 
in  that  there  is  no  corresponding  increase  in  the  electro- 
active  power,  the  rate  at  which  an  electrified  body  is  dis- 
charged remaining  the  same. — On  the  emanation  of 
radium  and  its  coefficient  of  diffusion  in  air,  by  MM.  P. 
Curie  and  J.  Daune.  The  view  of  Rutherford  that  the 
emanation  of  radium  behaves  as  a  gas  is  confirmed  by  a 
fresh  experimental  method.  The  fact  that  the  emanation 
of  radiation  is  condensed  at  the  temperature  of  liquid  air, 
first  announced  by  Rutherford,  is  also  confirmed. — On  the 
purification  of  hydrogen  on  the  industrial  scale  by  cold,  by 
.M.  Ch.  Renard.  Crude  hydrogen  passed  at  the  rate  of 
one  to  tv^-o  litres  per  minute  through  a  vessel  containing 
liquid  air  is  completely  freed  from  hydrogen  arsenide.  The 
method  may  be  practically  useful  in  the  purification  of 
hydrogen  for  balloons.— On  the  cementation  of  steel,  by 
>i.  L6on  Guillet.  The  velocity  of  penetration  of  the  steel 
by  the  carbon  depends  upon  the  temperature,  the  time,  and 
the  nature  of  the  substance  supplying  the  carbon.  By 
simple  cementation  certain  nickel  steels  acquire  the  same 
hardness  as  carbon  steels,  when  the  cementation  of  the  latter 
has  been  followed  by  tempering. — The  decarburation  of 
steels  and  thin  metallic  plates  by  evaporation  in  a  vacuum, 
by  M.  G.  Belloc. — On  the  form  assumed  by  mercuric 
iodide  on  separating  from  solution,  by  M.  D.  Gernex. 
When  mercuric  iodide  is  formed  either  by  volatilisation  or 
evaporation  from  solution  at  low  temperatures,  the  unstable 
I  yellow  form  is  produced.— Observations  on  the  precipitation 
I  of  manganese  bv  persulphuric  acid  in  acid  solution,  by 
j  M.  H.  BaubiKiiy.  A  study  of  the  effect  of  varying  the 
j  volume  of  the  solution  in  which  the  precipitation  is  carried 
1  out. — The  alloys  of  copper  and  magnesium,  by  M.  O- 
Boudouard.  In  a  preceding  paper  the  study  of  the  fusi- 
j  bilitv  curve  indicated  the  existence  of  three  definite  com- 
'  binations  :  Cu^Mg,  CuMg,  and  CuMg„.  In  the  present 
I  paper  these  results  are  confirmed  by  a  metallographic  study 
j  of  the  alloys. — On   the  silicides  of  chromium,   by   MM.    P. 


NO.    1754,  VOL.   68] 


144 


NATURE 


[June  ii,  1903 


and  J.  FiKueras.  Four  silicides  have  been 
isolated,  corresponding  to  the  compositions  SiCr,,  SiCr,, 
SijCrj  and  Si^Cr.  Details  of  the  preparation  and  properties 
of  SijCr^  are  given. — The  electrolytic  reduction  of  un- 
satura'ted  acids,  by  M.  C.  Marie.  By  the  use  of  mercury 
as  a  kathode,  the  unsaturated  acids  may  be  reduced  to  the 
corresponding  saturated  acids. — On  dibromo-acetylene, 
CBr  CBr,  by  M.  P.  Lemoult. — On  Pyronema  confluens, 
by  M.  P.  H.  Dang:eard. — On  the  botanical  characters  of 
the  mycelium  of  the  truffle,  by  M.  Louis  Matruchot. — The 
morphological  characters  of  Pleurocecidia,  by  M.  C. 
Houard. — On  some  fossil  algae  in  ancient  strata,  by  M.  B. 
Renault.  As  the  result  of  a  microscopical  examination  of 
boghead  cannels  the  conclusion  is  drawn  that  these  were 
formed  by  the  accumulation  of  gelatinous  algae  at  the 
bottoms  of  lakes,  each  layer  of  coal  being  recognisable  by 
the  genus  of  algae  producing  it. — On  the  present  state  of 
the  volcano  of  Mont  Pel6e,  by  M.  Giraud. — On  the  geology 
of  the  neighbourhood  of  Cinglais  (Calvados),  by  M.  A. 
Bigrot. — On  the  graphical  characters  of  fatigue  in  volun- 
tary movements  in  man,  by  MM.  A.  Imbert  and 
J.  Gek.gnibre. — The  degradation  of  carbohydrates  in  the 
animal  organism,  by  MM.  A.  Bach  and  F.  Battelli.  The 
theory  is  put  forward  that  two  alternating  actions  are  at 
work,  both  produced  by  enzymes.  The  carbohydrates  are 
first  hydrolysed,  with  production  of  carbon  dioxide,  and 
then  acted  upon  by  an  oxidising  enzyme,  with  evolution 
of  water.  According  to  this  view  the  carbon  dioxide  is 
never  formed  by  direct  oxidation,  but  by  hydrolysis. 

DIARY  OF  SOCIETIES. 

THURSDAY.  June  ii. 

Royal  Society,  at  4. — Election  of  Fellows.— At  4.30.— The  Bending  of 
Eletric  Waves  round  a  Conducting  Obstacle;  Amended  Result  :  H.  M. 
Macdonald,  F.R  S. — On  the  Propagation  of  Tremors  over  the  Surface 
of  an  Elastic  Solid:  Prof.  H.  Lamb,  F.R.S.— The  Diffusion  of  Salts 
in  Aqueous  Solutions  :  J.  C.  Graham. — On  the  Structure  of  Gold  Leaf,  and 
the  Absorption  Spectrum  of  Gold  :  Prof.  J.  W.  Mallet,  F.R.S.— On 
Reptilian  Remains  from  the  Trias  of  Elgin  :  G.  A.  Boulenger,  F.R.S.— 
A  Method  for  the  Investigation  of  Fossils  by  Serial  Sections  :  Prof.  W.  J. 
SoUas,  F.R.S. — An  Account  of  the  Devonian  Fish,  Palaeospondylns 
Gunni,  Traquair  :  Prof.  W.  J.  Sollas,  F.R.S.,  and  Miss  L  B.  J.  Sollas.— 
The  Measurements  of  Tissue  Fluid  in  Man ;  Preliminary  Note  :  Dr. 
G.  Oliver. — Observations  on  the  Physiology  of  the  Cerebral  Cortex  of 
the  Anthropoid  Apes :  Dr.  A.  S.  F.  Grunbaum  and  Prof.  C.  S. 
Sherrington,  F.R.S. 

Mathematical  Society,  at  3.30. — Quaternions:  Major  P.  A.  MacMahon. 
— Automorphic  Functions  and  the  General  Theory  of  Algebraic  Curves : 
Mr.  H.  W.  Richmond — Jacobi's  Construction  for  Quadric  Surfaces  : 
Prof.  G.  B.  Mathews. — Addition  to  the  Papers  on  Four  Known  Simple 
Groups  of  Order  25920  :  Prof.  L.  E.  Dickson. 
FRIDAY,  June  12 

Physical  Society,  at  5. — Some  Experiments  on  Shadows  in  an  Astigmatic 
Beam  of  Light :  Prof.  S.  P.  Thompson. — The  Positive  lonisation  produced 
by  Hot  Platinum  in  Air  at  Low  Pressures  :  O.  W.  Richardson — On  a 
Method  of  Determining  the  Viscosity  of  Pitch-like  Solids :  Prof.  F.  T. 
Trouton  and  E.  S   Andrews. 

Royal  Astronomical  Society,  at  5. — Eclipse  of  the  Moon,  1903  April  n  : 
F.  W.  Henkel. — Note  on  the  Use  of  Peirce's  Criterion  for  the  Rejection 
of  Doubtful  Observations:  S.  A.  Saunder.— On  a  Probable  Relationship 
between  the  Solar  Prominences  and  Corona  :  W.  J.  S.  Lockyer. — Note 
on  the  Present  Condition  of  the  Lunar  Theory  :  E.  Nevill.  — On  the 
Relation  between  the  Light  Changes  and  Orbital  Elements  of  a  Close 
Binary  System  ;  with  Special  Reference  to  _RR  Centauri  :  A.  W.  Roberts. 
— Recent  Observations  of  Mars  and  Jupiter  :  W.  F.  Denning. — The 
Spectra  of  Sun-spots  in  the  Region  'B-D  :  Rev.  A.  L.  Cortie. — Experi- 
ments as  to  the  Actuality  of  the  "Canals"  observed  on  Mars  :  J.  E. 
Evans  and  E.  W.  Maunder. — Promised  Pa/>ers  :  Positions  of  170  Stars 
around  Nova  Geminorum,  and  a  Discussion  concerning  the  Difference 
between  two  Exposures  on  the  same  Plate  :  F.  A.  Bellamy. — Examina- 
tion of  Mr.  Whittaker's  "  Undulatory  Explanation  of  Gravity"  from  the 
Physical  Standpoint :  G.  Johnstone  Stoney. — Observations  of  the 
Satellite  of  Neptune  from  Photographs  taken  with  the  2Sinch  Re- 
fractor :  Royal  Observatory,  Greenwich. — Mean  Areas  and  Heliographic 
Latitudes  of  Sun-spots  in  the  Year  1902,  deduced  fiom  Photographs 
taken  at  the  Royal  Observatory,  at  Dehra  Dun  (India),  and  in  Mauritius  : 
Royal  Observatory,  Greenwich. 

Malacological  Society,  at  8. — A  List  of  Species  of  Mollusca  from  South 
Africa,  forming  an  Appendix  to  G.  B.  Sowerby's  "  Marine  Shells  of  South 
Africa":  E.  A.  Smith. —On  a  New  Genus,  Planorbia,  Moore,  from  the 
Albert  Edward  and  Albert  Nyanzas :  J.  E.  S.  Moore. — Notes  on  Some 
Jurassic  Shells  from  Borneo,  including  a  New  Species  of  Trigonia : 
R.  BuUen  Newton. — Description  o{  M-arginella  lateritia,  n.sp.,  from  the 
Andaman  Islands:  J.  C.  MelviU  and  E.  R.  Sykes.— New  Mollusca  from 
New  Zealand:  Rev.  W.  H.  Webster. 

MONDAY,  June  15. 

Victoria  Institute,  at  4.30.— Annual  Meeting.— Address  by  Prof. 
W.  M.  Flinders  Petrie. 

'TUESDAY,  June  16. 
Royal  Statistical  Society,  at  5. 

Zoological  Society,  at  8.30. — On  an  Extinct  Species  of  Genet  (Genetta 
plesictoides)  ^rom  the  Pleistocene  of  Cyprus  :  Miss  Dorothy  M.  A.  Bate. 
— Description  of  a  New  Fish  of  the  Gobiid  Genus  Rhiacichthys  from 
British  New  Guinea:   G.  A.  Boulenger,  F.R.S. — Descriptions  of  New 


NO.    1754,  VOL.  68] 


Reptiles  from  British  New  Guinea:  G.  A.  Boulenger,  F.R.S.— The 
Marine  Fauna  of  Zanzibar  and  British  East  Africa,  from  Collections 
made  by  Mr.  Cyril  Crossland  in  the  Years  1901  and  1902 — Polychaeta, 
Part  II.  :  Cyril  Crossland. 

Institution  of    Civil   Engineers,   at    9. — "James   Forrest"  Lecture, 
Some  Unsolved  Problems  in  Engineering :  W.  H.  Maw. 
WEDNESDA  Y,  June  17. 

Royal  Microscopical  Society,  at  8.— On  the  Theory  of  Optical  Images, 
with  Special  Reference  to  the  Microscope:  Lord  Rayleigh,  F.R.S. — On 
a  Method  of  making  Visible  Ultra-microscopic  Particles  in  Glass,  and 
the  Application  of  the  Method  to  Bacteria  :  Dr.  H.  Siedentopf. — On  the 
Lag  in  Microscopic  Vision  :  E.  M.  Nelson. 

Chemical  Society,  at  5.— (i)  The  Estimation  of  Arsenic  in  Fuel;  (2) 
The  Electrolytic  Estimation  of  Minute  Quantities  of  Arsenic,  more 
Especially  in  Brewing  Materials  :T.  E.  Thorpe. — Crystallised  Ammonium 
Sulphate  and  the  Position  of  Ammonium  in  the  Alkali  Series:  A.  E.  H. 
Tutton. — Action  of  Hydrogen  on  Sodium  :  A.  Holt,  jun. — (1)  The  Action 
of  Halogens  on  Compounds  containing  the  Carbonyl  Group  ;  (2)  Reac- 
tions involving  the  Addition  of  Hydrogen  Cyanide  to  Carbon  Com- 
pounds:  A.  Lapworth. — The  Acetoacetic  Ester  Synthesis:  A.  C.  O. 
Hann  and  A.'  Lapworth. — Rimu  Resin  :  T.  H.  Easterfield  and  B.  C. 
Aston. — Not§  on  the  Karaka  Fruit  :  T.  H.  Easterfield  and  B.  C.  Aston. 

Institution  of  Civil  Engineers,  at  10  a.m. — Inaugural  Address  of  the 
Engineering  Conference  :  John  Clarke  Hawkshaw. 

Royal  Meteorological  Society,  at  4.30.— The  Meteorological  Aspects 
of  the  StO'm  of  February  26-27,  1903:  Dr.  W,  N.  Shaw,  F.R.S.— The 
Dines- Baxendell  Anemograph  and  the  Dial-pattern  Non-oscillating  Pres- 
sure-plate Anemometer :  Joseph  Baxendell. 

THURSDAY,  June  18. 

Royal  Society,  at  4.30. — Probable  papers  :  (i)  Surface  Flow  in  Crystal- 
line Solids  under  Mechanical  Disturbance  :  {■z)  The  Effects  of  Heat  and 
of  Solvents  on  Thin  Films  of  Metal :  G.  Beilby.— The  Magnetic  Expan- 
sion of  some  of  the  Less  Magnetic  Metals  (with  an  Appendix  by  G.  A. 
Schott) :  Dr.  P.  E.  Shaw.— On  the  Discharge  of  Electricity  from  Hot 
Platinum  :  Dr.  H.  A.  Wilson.— The  Bionomics  oiConvoluta  Roscoffensis, 
with  Special  Reference  to  its  Green  Cells  :  Dr.  F.  W.  Gamble  and  F. 
Keeble. — New  Investigations  into  the  Reduction  Phenomena  of  Animals 
and  Plants  :  Preliminary  Communication  :  Prof.  J.  B.  Farmer,  F.R.S.. 
and  J.  E.  S.  Moore. — The  Action  of  Choline,  Neurine,  Muscarine  and 
Betaine  upon  Isolated  Nerve  (and  upon  the  Excised  Heart):  Dr.  A.  D. 
Waller,  F.R.S.,  and  S.  C.  M.  Sowton. — The  Physiological  Action  of 
Betain  Extracted  from  Raw  Beet  Sugar  :  Dr.  A.  D.  Waller,  F.R.S.,  and 
Dr.  R.  H.  Aders  Plimmer.— On  the  Physiological  Action  of  the  Poison  of 
the  Hydrophidae  ;  Part  II.  Action  on  the  Circulatory,  Respiratory  and 
Nervous  Systems  :  Dr.  L.  Rogers. — A  Paper  on  the  Spectra  of  Neon, 
Krypton  and  Xenon  :  E.  C.  C.  Baly. — A  Study  of  the  Interaction  of 
Mercury  and  Nitric  Acid  :   Prof.  P.  Chandra  Ray. — And  other  Papers. 

Linnean  Society,  at  8.— Descriptions  of  New  Chinese  Plants:    S.    T. 

Dunn. — On  the  Life-history  of  a  New  Indian  Species  of  Monophlebus  : 

E.    P.   Stebbing — On   the  Anatomy  of  Leaves 'of.  British   Grasses:    L. 

Lewton-Brain. — Scottish  Freshwater  Plankton. 

FRJUA  y,  June  19. 

RovAL  Institution,  at  9.— Radium  :  Prof.  Pierre  Curie  (in  French). 


PAGE 
.     121 


CONTENTS. 

Differential  Equations .    . 

The  Magnitude  of  the  Proteinic  Molecule.     By  F, 

Escombe 123 

Physiological  Reports 123 

Our  Book  Shelf:— 

Le  Conte  :  "  An  Elementary  Treatise  on  the  Mechanics 
of     Machinery,    with    Special    Reference    to     the 

Mechanics  of  the  Steam  Engine  " 124 

Bradbury:  "  Elementary  Chemistry." — ^J.  B.  C.     .    .     125 

Hudson:  "  Hampshire  Days." — R.  L 125 

Kirchner  and  Michaelis  :    "  Worterbuch  der  philoso- 

phischen  Grundbegriffe." — G.  S.  B 

Letters  to   the    Editor  :— 

Psychophysical     Interaction.  — Sir     Oliver    Lodge, 

F.R.S.;  Prof.  J.  H.  Muirhead 

Seismometry  and  Geite.— Prof.  John  Milne,  F.R.S. 
The  Vitality  of    the    Typhoid    Bacillus.      By    Dr. 

Allan  Macfadyen   .        

Note  on  the  Probable  Occasional  Instability  of  All 

Matter.     By  Sir  Oliver  J.  Lodge,  F.R.S 

Photographs  of  Snow  Crystals.     {Illustrated.)     .    .    . 
Dr.   A.    A.  Common,  F.R.S.     By  Dr.  William  J.  S. 

Lockyer 132 

Prof.     C.    A.     Bjerknes.     By   Prof.     G.    H.    Bryan, 

S IV, 


125 


126 
127 

127 

128 
129 


F.R. 


33 


Notes         

Our  Astronomical  Column  : — 

The  South  Polar  Cap  of  Mars 

The  Harvard  Photographs  of  the  Entire  Sky    .    . 

The  Royal  Observatory,  Greenwich 

Theory  of  Cyclones  and  Anti-Cyclones    .... 

Atmospheric  Variations 1^9 

A  Camera  for  Naturalists 140 

Entomology  at  the  Cape 140 

University  and  Educational  Intelligence 140 

Societies  and  Academies 141 

Diary  of  Societies 142 


138 
138 
138 
139 


NATURE 


145 


THURSDAY,    JUNE    18,    1903. 


A  SCHEME  OF  VITAL  FACULTY. 
Human  Personality  and  its  Survival  of  Bodily  Death. 
By  Frederic  W.  H.  Myers.  In  two  volumes.  Vol. 
i.  pp.  xlvi  +  700;  vol.  ii.  pp.  XX  +660,  including 
elaborate  index.  (London  :  Longmans,  Green  and 
Co.,  1903.)     Price  2I.  2s.  net. 

IN  introducing  this  book  to  what  must  be  regarded 
for  the  most  part  as  a  hostile  audience,  I  would 
claim  for  it  that  it  is  a  record  of  the  life-work  of  a  per- 
tinacious and  industrious  student,  in  a  region  beyond 
the  borderland  of  present  orthodox  science ;  and  would 
explain  that  it  has  for  its  object  the  better  comprehension 
and  coordination  of  a  multitude  of  human  faculties,  some 
of  them  recognised  as  real  though  obscure,  others  not 
yet  generally  recognised  as  existing.  The  phenomena  of 
sleep,  of  genius,  of  multiple  personality,  of  hysteria,  of 
hypnotism,  of  hyperaesthesia,  and  of  trance,  are  among 
those  generally  recognised  by  medical  specialists  and 
practically  treated;  though,  in  truth,  most  of  them  seem 
to  be  regarded  chiefly  or  solely  as  pathological  curiosi- 
ties. The  phenomena  of  sensory  and  motor  auto- 
matism, of  telepathy,  and  of  clairvoyance,  are  not 
among  the  human  faculties  yet  generally  recognised. 
By  long  study  Myers  was  able  to  accept  them  all,  in 
various  degrees,  and  he  discerned  a  thread  of  con- 
nection running  through  them,  so  that  he  felt  it 
possible  gradually  to  design  a  comprehensive  scheme 
which  should  include  them  all, — a  building,  as  it  were, 
in  the  composition  of  which  each  constituent  filled  its 
appointed  place,  so  that  no  part  was  left  forlorn  and 
unsupported  by  adjacent  materials,  and  so  that  the 
eye  of  science  subsequently  glancing  over  it  might  be 
willing  to  recognise  the  possibility  and  appropriate- 
ness of  structures  which  when  isolated  had  seemed 
strange  and  fantastic  and  incredible. 

The  construction  of  such  a  unified  scheme,  welding 
together  phenomena  often  spoken  of  as  occult  with 
others  which,  though  recognised  by  science,  were  diffi- 
cult of  interpretation  and  classification, — like  genius, 
for  instance,  or  hysteria  in  its  many  aspects, — was 
Myers's  end  and  aim  ;  and  the  result  is  embodied  in  two 
closely-printed  volumes.  Whether  he  has  succeeded, 
it  is  for  posterity  and  for  psychologists  to  say.  His 
treatment  is  not  likely  at  once  to  commend  itself  to 
philosophers,  and  it  is  not  as  a  philosopher  that  he 
writes ;  his  treatment  aims  at  being  scientific,  but  it  is 
i  unusual  in  being  very  distinctly  literary  in  form,  i 
shall  not  argue  the  matter,  but  shall  content  myself 
with  giving  such  few  extracts  from  the  earlier  portion 
of  the  book  as  may  legitimately  present  to  a  critical 
audience  the  object  and  motive  power  of  the  whole 
treatise,  a  treatise  on  human  personality  and  vital 
faculty,  which,  whether  successful  or  not,  is,  at  all 
events,  more  comprehensive  and  more  ambitious  than 
anything  which  has  hitherto  been  attempted  by  man 
in  that  direction. 

If  the  objection  is  made  that  Myers  was  not  a  man 

of  science,  he  himself  would  have  admitted  it  at  once  ; 

but  I  am  not  so  ready  to  admit  it  for  him.     Without 

the  technical  training,  he  seemed  to  me  definitely  to 

NO.    1755,  VOL.  68] 


have  many  of  the  faculties  and  instincts  and  powers 
of  a  man  of  science,  combined  with  such  a  mental 
grasp,  vivid  imagination,  and  power  of  expression,  as 
would  put  most  of  us  to  shame. 

However  that  may  be,  I  would  point  out  that  men 
not  professionally  scientific  have  had  a  profound  in- 
fluence on  scientific  progress  before  now,  and  if  I  were 
to  seek  for  an  analogy  to  the  effect  which  I  expect 
these  volumes  will  have  upon  the  development  of  the 
psychical  sciences,  I  would  liken  it  by  anticipation  to 
the  effect  of  the  "  Novum  Organon  "  upon  the  physical 
sciences.  Francis  Bacon  was  a  man  of  letters,  not  a 
scientific  man,  but  he  recalled  all  educated  men  to  the 
possibility  of  exploration  by  experiment  and  observa- 
tion, and  so  cleared  the  ground  and  paved  the  way  for 
the  general  acceptance  of  the  results  of  Gilbert  and 
other  great  and  truly  scientific  men  of  the  same  and 
subsequent  eras,  whose  pioneering  work  might  else 
have  been  lost  in  a  mist  of  dislike,  disbelief,  and 
obscurantism, 

Myers  has  shown  that  obscure  psychical  phenomena 
can  be  legitimately  investigated  by  observation  and 
experiment,  and  can  be  regarded  as  part  of  a  sufficiently 
comprehensive  scheme  of  natural  knowledge ;  him, 
then,  I  liken  to  Bacon.  If  we  ask  who  corresponds  to 
the  Gilbert  of  the  same  age  in  the  psychical  sciences, 
few  of  us  would  have  any  hesitation  in  bringing  for- 
ward such  names  as  those  of  Wallace  and  of  Crookes. 

In  so  far  as  it  may  be  said  that  Bacon  did  not  wholly 
appreciate  the  work  of  Gilbert,  so  we  may  say  some- 
thing similar  of  Myers's  attitude  to  what  he  was  con- 
strained to  consider  the  somewhat  too  trusting  dis- 
position of  that  eminent  man  Dr.  Wallace ;  though  of 
the  more  stringent  methods  and  results  of  Sir  W. 
Crookes  he  was  keenly  appreciative. 

I  am  merely  stating  facts  without  comment,  and 
will  now  content  myself  with  a  few  explanatory  and 
helpful  extracts,  showing  Myers's  recognition  to  the 
full  of  the  importance  of  strictly  scientific  procedure, 
his  appreciation  of  the  stringency  and  value  of  scientific 
proof,  and  of  the  difficulties  attending  scientific  in- 
vestigation in  so  unknown  and  comparatively  unex- 
plored a  territory  as  that  of  the  psychical  nature  and 
spiritual  faculties  of  man. 

"  The  method  which  our  race  has  found  most  effec- 
tive in  acquiring  knowledge  is  by  this  time  familiar  to 
all  men.  It  is  the  method  of  modern  Science — that  pro- 
cess which  consists  in  an  interrogatiqn  of  Nature  en- 
tirely dispassionate,  patient,  systematic;  such  careful 
experiment  and  cumulative  record  as  can  often  elicit 
from  her  slightest  indications  her  deepest  truths.  That 
method  is  now  dominant  throughout  the  civilised 
world;  and  although  in  many  directions  experiments 
may  be  difficult  and  dubious,  facts  rare  and  elusive, 
Science  works  slowly  on  and  bides  her  time— refusing 
to  fall  back  upon  tradition  or  to  launch  into  specula- 
tion, merely  because  strait  is  the  gate  which  leads  to 
valid  discovery,  indisputable  truth.     .     .     . 

"  It  is  my  object  in  the  present  work — as  it  has  from 
the  first  been  the  object  of  the  Society  for  Psychical  Re- 
search, on  whose  behalf  most  of  the  evidence  here  set 
forth  has  been  collected — to  do  what  can  be  done  to 
break  down  that  artificial  wall  of  demarcation  which 
has  thus  far  excluded  from  scientific  treatment  pre- 
cisely the  problems  which  stand  in  most  need  of  all  the 
aids  to  discovery  which  such  treatment  can  afford. 

"  Yet  let  me  first  explain  that  by  the  word  '  scien- 

H 


146 


NATURE 


[June  i8,  1903 


tific  '  I  signify  an  authority  to  which  I  submit  myself — 
not  a  standard  which  I  claim  to  attain.  Any  science 
of  which  I  can  here  speak  as  possible  must  be  a 
nascent  science— not  such  as  one  of  those  vast  systems 
of  connected  knowledge  which  thousands  of  experts 
now  steadily  push  forward  in  laboratories  in  every 
land — but  such  as  each  one  of  those  great  sciences  was 
in  its  dim  and  poor  beginning,  when  a  few  monks 
groped  among  the  properties  of  '  the  noble  metals,'  or 
a  few  Chaldean  shepherds  outwatched  the  setting 
stars." 

As  an  illustration  of  the  temper  of  mind  which 
Myers  brings  to  bear,  and  conceives  ought  always  to 
be  brought  to  bear,  to  the  understanding  of  obscure 
phenomena,  I  will  take  the  case  of  witchcraft,  and 
quote  as  follows  : — 

"  The  lesson  which  witchcraft  teaches  with  regard  to 
the  validity  of  human  testimony  is"  the  more  remark- 
able because  it  was  so  long  and  so  completely  mis- 
understood. The  belief  in  witches  long  passed — as 
well  it  might — as  the  culminant  example  of  human 
ignorance  and  folly ;  and  in  so  comparatively  recent  a 
book  as  Mr.  Lecky's  '  History  of  Rationalism,'  the  sud- 
den decline  of  this  popular  conviction,  without  argu- 
ment or  disapproval,  is  used  to  illustrate  the  irresistible 
melting  away  of  error  and  falsity  in  the  '  intellectual 
climate  '  of  a  wiser  age.  Since  about  1880,  however, 
when  French  experiments  especially  had  afforded  con- 
spicuous examples  of  what  a  hysterical  woman  could 
come  to  believe  under  suggestion  from  others  or  from 
herself,  it  has  begun  to  be  felt  that  the  phenomena  of 
witchcraft  were  very  much  what  the  phenomena  of  the 
Saltpetri^re  would  seem  to  be  to  the  patients  themselves, 
if  left  alone  in  the  hospital  without  a  medical  staff. 
And  in  '  Phantasms  of  the  Living,'  Edmund  Uurney, 
after  subjecting  the  literature  of  witchcraft  to  a  more 
careful  analysis  than  anyone  till  then  had  thought  it 
worth  while  to  apply,  was  able  to  show  that  practi- 
cally all  recorded  first-hand  depositions  (made  apart 
from  torture)  in  the  long  story  of  witchcraft  may  quite 
possibly  have  been  true,  to  the  best  belief  of  the  de- 
ponents ;  true,  that  is  to  say,  as  representing  the  con- 
viction of  sane  (though  often  hysterical)  persons,  who 
merely  made  the  almost  inevitable  mistake  of  confusing 
self-suggested  hallucinations  with  waking  fact.  Nay, 
even  the  insensible  spots  on  the  witches  were  no 
doubt  really  anaesthetic — involved  a  first  discovery  of 
a  now  familiar  clinical  symptom — the  zones  anal- 
gdsiques  of  the  patients  of  Pitres  or  Charcot.  Witch- 
craft, in  fact,  was  a  gigantic,  a  cruel  psychological  and 
pathological  experiment  conducted  by  inquisitors  upon 
hysteria ;  but  it  was  conducted  in  the  dark,  and  when 
the  barbarous  explanation  dropped  out  of  credence  much 
of  possible  discovery  was  submerged  as  well." 

Myers's  attitude  to  the  in  some  quarters  prevalent 
creed  called  spiritualism  has  been  frequently  misunder- 
stood, but  it  is  illustrated  by  the  following  extract  : — 

"  A  large  group  of  persons  have  founded  upon  these 
and  similar  facts  a  scheme  of  belief  known  as  Modern 
Spiritualism,  or  Spiritism.  Later  chapters  in  this  book 
will  show  how  much  I  owe  to  certain  observations 
made  by  members  of  this  group — how  often  my  own 
conclusions  concur  with  conclusions  at  which  they  have 
previously  arrived.  And  yet  this  work  of  mine  is  in 
large  measure  a  critical  attack  upon  the  main  Spiritist 
position,  as  held,  say,  by  Mr.  A.  R.  Wallace,  its  most 
eminent  living  supporter — the  belief,  namely,  that  all 
or  almost  all  supernormal  phenomena  are  due  to  the 
action  of  the  spirits  of  the  dead.  By  far  the  larger 
proportion,  as  I  hold,  are  due  to  the  action  of  the  still 
embodied  spirit  of  the  agent  or  percipient  himself. 
Apart  from  speculative  differences,  moreover,   I  alto- 

NO.    1755,  VO^-  6^1 


gether  dissent  from  the  conversion  into  a  sectarian 
creed  of  what  I  hold  should  be  a  branch  of  scientific 
inquiry,  growing  naturally  out  of  our  existing  know- 
ledge. It  is,  I  believe,  largely  to  this  temper  of  un- 
critical acceptance,  degenerating  often  into  blind 
credulity,  that  we  must  refer  the  lack  of  progress  in 
Spiritualistic  literature,  and  the  encouragement  which 
has  often  been  bestowed  upon  manifest  fraud— so  often, 
indeed,  as  to  create  among  scientific  men  a  strong  in- 
disposition to  the  study  of  phenomena  recorded  or  ad- 
vocated in  a  tone  so  alien  from  Science." 

He  then  relates  the  rise  of  a  society  for  investigating 
psychical  matters  in  a  new  fashion,  among  eminent 
men  at  Cambridge,  who  felt  that  the  time  was  ripe 
for  an  attack  on  superstition  and  on  world-old  legendary 
tradition  concerning  an  unseen  world  and  occult  in- 
fluences— the  subject-matter,  in  fact,  of  all  religion 
— by  purely  scientific  terrestrial  methods,  and  in  the 
conviction 

"  that  no  adequate  attempt  had  yet  been  made  even  to 
determine  whether  anything  could  be  learnt  as  to  an 
unseen  world  or  no;  for  that  if  anything  were  know- 
able  about  such  a  world  in  such  fashion  that  Science 
could  adopt  and  maintain  that  knowledge,  it  must  be 
discovered  by  no  analysis  of  tradition,  and  by  no  mani- 
pulation of  metaphysics,  but  simply  by  experiment  and 
observation^ — simply  by  the  application  to  phenomena 
within  us  and  around  us  of  precisely  the  same  methods 
of  deliberate,  dispassionate,  exact  inquiry  which  have 
built  up  our  actual  knowledge  of  the  world  which  we 
can  touch  and  see.  I  can  hardly  even  now  guess  to  how 
many  of  my  readers  this  will  seem  a  truism,  and  to  how 
many  a  paradox.  Truism  or  paradox,  such  a  thought 
suggested  a  kind  of  effort,  which,  so  far  as  we  could 
discover,  had  never  yet  been  made.  For  what  seemed 
needful  was  an  inquiry  of  quite  other  scope  than  the 
mere  analysis  of  historical  documents,  or  of  the  origines 
of  any  alleged  revelation  in  the  past.  It  must  be  an 
inquiry  resting  primarily,  as  all  scientific  inquiries  in 
the  stricter  sense  now  must  rest,  upon  objective  facts 
actually  observable,  upon  experiments  which  we  can 
repeat  to-day,  and  which  we  may  hope  to  carry  further 
to-morrow.  It  must  be  an  inquiry  based,  to  use  an 
old  term,  on  the  uniformitarian  hypothesis ;  on  the 
presumption,  that  is  to  say,  that  if  a  spiritual  world 
exists,  and  if  that  world  has  at  any  epoch  been  manifest 
or  even  discoverable,  then  it  ought  to  be  manifest  or 
discoverable  now." 

As  to  the  objection  frequently  urged  against  psychical 
investigation,  on  the  ground  of  the  asserted  triviality 
and  apparent  worthlessness  of  some  of  the   faculties  \ 
which  are  the  object  of  study,  Myers  says  : —  ; 

"  In  investigating  those  faculties  we  have  been  in 
no  wise  deterred  by  the  fact  of  the  apparent  useless- 
ness  of  some  of  them  for  our  waking  ends.  Useless 
is  a  pre-scientific,  even  an  anti-scientific  term,  which 
has  perhaps  proved  a  greater  stumbling-block  to  re- 
search in  psychology  than  in  any  other  science.  In 
science  the  use  of  phenomena  is  to  prove  laws,  and  the 
more  bizarre  and  trivial  the  phenomena,  the  greater 
the  chance  of  their  directing  us  to  some  law  which 
has  been  overlooked  till  now." 

Before  embarking  on  his  long  and  laborious 
quest — the  enumeration  and  dissection  of  instances, 
and  the  finding  of  a  hypothesis  that  should  fit  and  weld 
them  all  together — he  concludes  this  part  of  his  intro- 
duction with  the  following  modest  claim  : — 

"  The  truest  success  of  this  book  will  lie  in  its  rapid 
supersession  by  a  better.     For  this  will  show  that  at 


June  i8,  1903] 


NATURE 


147 


least  I  have  not  erred  in  supposing  that  a  serious  trea- 
tise on  these  topics  is  nothing  else  than  the  inevitable 
complement  and  conclusion  of  the  slow  process  by  which 
man  has  brought  under  the  domain  of  science  every 
group  of  attainable  phenomena  in  turn — every  group 
save  this." 

In  the  belief  that  this  book  marks  an  epoch  in 
the  history  of  psychical  science,  and  that  it  will  ulti- 
mately react  with  beneficial  effect  on  the  progress  and 
enlargement  of  the  scope  of  science  generally,  1 
venture  to  introduce  this  life-work  of  my  friend  to  the 
readers  of  Nature,  or  at  least  to  such  of  them  as  are 
not  already  familiar  with  the  subject. 

Oliver  Lodge. 


SCHOOL  GEOMETRY  REFORM. 
A    School    Geometry.       Parts   i.    and   ii.       By    H.    S. 

Hall,  M.A.,  and  F.  H.  Stevens,  M.A.     Pp.  x  +   140. 

(London:    Macmillan   and   Co.,   Ltd.,    1903.)     Price 

IS.  6d. 
Experimental    and    Theoretical    Course    of    Geometry. 

By  A.  T.   Warren,   M.A.     Pp.   viii  +  248.     (Oxford: 

the  Clarendon  Press,  1903.)     Price  2s. 
Elementary  Geometry.     By  Frank  R.   Barrell,  M.A., 

B.Sc.  Section  i.,  part  i.,  pp.  xi  +116.  Price  is.  Section 

i.,  part  ii.,  pp.  vii+  117  to  168.     Price  is.     (London  : 

Longmans,  Green  and  Co.,  1903.) 
Solid  Geometry.     By  Dr.  Franz  Hocevar.     Translated 

and  Adapted  by  C.  Godfrey,  M.A.,  and  E.  A.  Price, 

B.A.     Pp.  vii  +  80.     (London  :  Adam  and  Charles 

Black,   1903.) 

A  PERSON  may  be  a  Cambridge  Wrangler,  and  yet 
unable  to  make  a  simple  graphical  construction 
with  accuracy.  The  ordinary  schoolboy's  knowledge 
of  practical  geometry  is  generally  worthless  or  nil,  and 
his  knowledge  of  pure  geometry,  the  result  of  his  pre- 
mature encounter  with  Euclid,  is  of  like  character. 

But  this  state  of  affairs  is  being  rapidly  changed. 
As  Messrs.  Hall  and  Stevens  say  in  the  first  volume 
of  their  new  geometry,  "  The  working  of  examples 
should  be  made  as  important  a  part  of  a  lesson 
in  geometry  as  it  is  so  considered  in  arithmetic  and 
algebra." 

The  book  contains  an  excellent  collection  of  easy 
graphical  and  deductive  exercises,  many  of  the 
examples  requiring  numerical  answers.  The  latter  are 
given  at  the  end.  A  boy  working  through  this  course 
should  acquire  a  working  knowledge  of  geometry,  and 
a  fair  insight  into  the  methods  of  deductive  logic. 

The  volume  contains  the  substance  of  Euclid  book  i., 
and  is  based  on  the  recommendations  of  the  Mathe- 
matical Association ;  the  sequence  of  Euclid  is  in  the 
main  adhered  to.  There  are  two  parts,  the  latter 
dealing  with  areas.  In  this  the  experimental  course  is 
incorporated  with  the  deductive  exercises,  and  assigned 
equal  importance  with  the  latter.  This  is  a  good 
feature,  and  is  to  be  continued  in  a  further  volume 
which  the  authors  have  in  preparation.  In  the  present 
case,  it  seems  to  be  a  defect  that  the  plan  has  not  been 
carried  out  to  the  same,  or  even  a  greater,  extent  in 
|)art  i.,  which  is  concerned  with  lines,  angles,  and 
rectilineal  figures.  Here  it  would  appear  to  be 
NO.    1755,  VOL.  68] 


especially  necessary  to  make  the  experimental  course 
predominate.  But  the  subject  of  school  geometry  is  in 
a  state  of  transition,  and  the  authors  have  probably 
thought  it  well  to  proceed  cautiously. 

Mr.  Warren's  volume  is  also  based  on  the  report 
of  the  Committee  of  the  Mathematical  Association. 
The  course  includes  the  fundamental  properties  of  the 
triangle  and  circle.  Ratio  and  proportion,  similar 
figures,  and  polygons  are  likewise  considered.  The 
experimental  treatment  occupies  the  first  half  of  the 
book,  and  in  the  second  half  the  same  ground  is 
covered,  the  propositions  being  formally  established 
by  deduction. 

The  two  volumes  by  Mr.  Barrell  comprise  the  first  of 
three  sections  of  a  new  school  geometry  which,  when 
complete,  will  extend  to  Euclid  xi.  and  the  mensuration 
of  the  simple  geometrical  solids.  It  is  written  in  ac- 
cordance with  the  new  syllabus  of  the  Cambridge  Local 
Examinations,  and  the  report  of  the  Mathematical 
Association.  Part  i.  is  intended  to  take  the  place  of 
Euclid,  book  i.  Part  ii.  corresponds  with  Euclid,  book 
iii.,  1-34,  and  also  includes  a  portion  of  book  iv.  In 
the  treatment  adopted,  the  experimental  and  practical 
course  is  worked  in  along  with  the  deductive  geometry, 
and  is  always  made  subordinate  to  the  latter.  We 
should  like  to  see  the  demonstrative  geometry  relatively- 
less  prominent.  A  feature  to  be  noticed  is  that  the 
author  gives  three  meanings  of  a  plane  angle,  in  the 
last  of  which  the  angle  is  regarded  as  the  plane  space 
swept  out  by  a  line  of  indefinite  length  (one  way)  turn- 
ing about  one  end ;  the  amount  of  turning  is  not  the 
angle,  but  the  measure  of  its  magnitude.  The  author 
is  right  in  stating  that  this  conception  is  implied  in 
many  of  Euclid's  phrases.  The  numerical  answers  of 
lengths  and  areas  are  given  to  three  significant  figures, 
and  of  angles  to  the  nearest  ten  minutes.  In  the 
latter  case  decimals  of  a  degree  would  perhaps  have 
been  preferable. 

The  actual  personal  use  of  mathematical  instruments 
for  graphical  computations  is  probably  largely  foreign 
to  many  of  the  authors  of  the  new  text-books,  and  the 
treatment  suffers  on  this  account.  There  must  be 
much  future  development  before  any  text-book  can 
be  allowed  to  become  crystallised. 

Now  that  the  study  of  pure  geometry  is  to  include 
numerical  as  well  as  graphical  computations,  it  may 
become  necessary,  and  it  is  certainly  very  desirable,^ 
to  introduce  simple  tables  of  functions  of  angles  so  as- 
to  be  able  to  solve  right  angled  triangles  completely, 
instead  of  being  restricted  as  at  present  to  the  property 
of  complementary  angles  and  the  use  of  Euclid  i.,  47. 

The  "Solid  Geometry"  by  Dr.  Hocevar  will  illustrate 
how  this  branch  of  the  subject  is  presented  to  youths 
in  Germany.  Chapters  i.  and  ii.  deal  with  the  pro- 
perties of  the  line  and  plane  in  space,  and  the  solid 
angle,  but  in  a  much  less  formal  manner  than  is  the 
case  in  Euclid  xi.  The  remaining  chapters  relate  to 
the  properties  and  mensuration  of  the  prism,  cylinder, 
pyramid,  cone,  sphere  and  regular  polyhedra.  Exercises 
are  provided  in  great  variety,  chiefly  of  the  numerical 
type,  and  all  necessary  answers  are  collected  at  the 
end  of  the  volume,  where  the  reader  will  also  find  a 
useful  index. 


148 


NATURE 


[June  i8,  1903 


The  translators  say  that,  as  the  course  of  elementary 
plane  geometry  will  be  shortened  on  account  of  recent 
changes,  teachers  will  be  able  to  introduce  solid  geo- 
metry at  an  earlier  period  than  formerly.  The  choice 
■of  the  best  complete  school  course  of  geometry  is  a 
very  important  matter  at  the  present  time.  We  should 
like  to  see  solid  geometry  taught  in  connection  with 
projection,  and  think  that  the  elementary  geometry  ol 
vectors  should  be  introduced. 


SHIP'S    MAGNETISM. 
Elementary  Manual  for  the  Deviations  of  the  Compass 
in  Iron  Ships.     By  E.  W.  Creak,  C.B.,  F.R.S.,  Re- 
tired  Captain    R.N.     Pp.    xii+150;    with   4   charts. 
(London  :  J.  D.  Potter,  1903.) 
T  N  his  preface  the  author  explains  that  the  present 
work  aims  at  being  the  successor  of  the  "  Elemen- 
tary Manual  "  by  the  late  Sir  F.  J.  Evans.     It  is 
■"  intended    for    the    use    of    seamen    of    the     Royal 
Navy  and  Mercantile  Marine  and  Navigation  Schools, 
and  as  an  introduction  to  the  Admiralty  Manual  for 
the  Deviations  of  the  Compass." 

After  a  table  of  contents,  there  is  a  short  introduc- 
tion embodying  some  elementary  definitions.  Sections 
1.  and  ii.,  pp.  1-25,  give  an  elementary  description  of 
the  properties  of  magnets,  with  illustrations  intended 
to  supply  a  general  idea  of  the  action  of  the  earth  as  a 
magnet,  followed  by  a  brief  account  of  the  phenomena 
of  terrestrial  magnetism  which  are  of  most  importance 
to  navigators.  Section  iii.,  pp.  26-42,  describes  the 
•ordinary  "  Thomson  "  and  liquid  compasses  and 
various  auxiliary  instruments.  It  also  describes  that 
temple  of  accuracy  the  Compass  Observatory  at 
Deptford,  and  gives  valuable  advice  on  such  practical 
matters  as  the  storage  of  compass  cards,  and  the 
choice  of  a  site  for  the  standard  compass  on  board 
ship.  Sections  iv.  to  vi.,  pp.  43-108,  are  mainly 
technical. 

Section  iv.  treats  of  the  "  swinging  "  of  ships  to 
determine  the  deviations  of  the  compass.  It  describes 
the  sources  of  change  in  the  deviation,  more  especially 
the  effects  due  to  "  heeling  "  of  the  ship  and  to  change 
of  geographical  position.  It  also  gives  some  interest- 
ing particulars  as  to  the  large  changes  of  deviation 
produced  by  the  firing  of  heavy  guns  in  warships. 
Section  v.  describes  the  effects  of  "  soft  "  and  "  hard  " 
iron.  It  introduces  the  reader  to  semicircular  and 
quadrantal  deviation  by  describing  experiments  where- 
by analogous  effects  can  be  produced  by  magnets  or 
by  soft  iron  situated  near  a  compass. 

Section  vi.  associates  different  constants  in  the 
ordinary  mathematical  theory  of  ship's  magnetism — 
which  the  reader  of  the  work  is  apparently  intended 
to  consult  in  the  Admiralty  Manual — with  the  action 
of  imaginary  magnets  occupying  specified  positions 
in  the  ship.  It  then  takes  the  actual  results  obtained 
in  swinging  certain  warships,  and  shows  how  to  con- 
struct deviation  tables  from  them.  This  is  done  with 
great  minuteness,  and  should  be  specially  valuable  to 
those  who  are  unable  to  master  the  theoretical  part  of 
the  subject.  Section  vii.,  pp.  109-13 1,  treats  of  hollow 
iron  spheres,  Flinders  bars,  and  other  means  of 
NO.    1755,  VOL.  68] 


mechanical  correction  of  the  compass.  There  is  a 
short  account  of  the  Peichl  quadrantal  corrector,  which 
the  author  considers  specially  adapted  for  the  case  of 
compasses  in  conning  towers  of  warships,  where  the 
earth's  horizontal  force  is  generally  much  reduced  by 
the  action  of  the  ship's  own  magnetism.  Amongst 
some  concluding  notes  the  author  mentions  the  highly 
magnetisable  and  the  nearly  unmagnetisable  alloys 
of  iron  recently  discussed  by  Prof.  Barrett  and  Mr. 
Hadfield  as  having  a  possible  future  in  connection 
with  compass  work. 

At  the  end  of  the  book  are  some  tables  and  a  copious 
index.  Table  i.  serves  to  facilitate  the  calculation  of 
deviation  tables.  Table  ii.  tabulates  some  elementary 
trigonometrical  functions.  Tables  iii.  and  iv.  embody 
recommendations  as  to  the  dimensions  of  soft  iron 
spheres  and  Flinders  bars  most  suitable  for  the  correc- 
tion of  deviation  errors  of  assigned  magnitude.  At 
the  end  are  charts  of  the  earth's  isogonal  and  isoclinal 
lines,  and  the  lines  of  equal  horizontal  and  vertical 
force,  calculated  for  the  epoch  1905. 

So  far,  at  least,  as  warships  are  concerned,  the 
author's  practical  knowledge  of  the  subject  is  prob- 
ably unrivalled,  and  the  value  of  the  book  as  a  mine 
of  experience  is  hardly  likely  to  be  questioned.  On 
the  theoretical  side  there  is  more  room  for  two  opinions. 
The  author  takes  a  very  humble — it  is  sincerely  to  be 
hoped  too  humble — view  of  the  mathematical  attain- 
ments of  British  navig^ators.  His  attitude  to  theory 
is  the  very  antithesis  of  that  of  Mascart  in  his  recent 
"  Magnetisme  Terrestre  "  (chapter  xiv.).  Mathe- 
matical results  are  occasionally  introduced  by  a  state- 
ment which  does  not  amount  to  a  complete  proof,  but 
might  be  mistaken  for  one,  when  a  proof  could  be 
given  without  assuming  advanced  mathematical  know- 
ledge. Various  of  the  references  to  magnetic  and 
general  theory  scattered  throughout  the  book  are  also 
capable  of  more  exact  statement  from  a  physical 
standpoint. 

The  fact  that  the  author  defines  the  C.G.S.  units  in 
his  introduction,  but  sticks  to  inches  and  other  British 
or  wholly  arbitrary  units  In  his  text  and  charts,  affords 
food  for  reflection.  In  one  or  two  sections  of  the  book 
there  seem  an  appreciable  number  of  minor  misprints, 
more  especially  in  one  or  two  of  the  numerical  ex- 
amples, and  attention  might  usefully  be  given  to  their 
elimination  in  the  probable  event  of  a  second  edition 
of  the  work  being  called  for.  C.  C. 


OUR    BOOK  SHELF. 

Encyclopaedia    Biblica,    a    Critical    Dictionary   of   the 
Literary,  Political  and  Religious  History,  the  Archae- 
ology, Geography  and  Natural  History  of  the  Bible. 
Edited  by  the  Rev.  T.  K.  Cheyne,  D.Litt.,  D.D.,  and 
J.  Sutherland  Black,  M.A.,  LL.D.     Vol.  iv.  Q  to  Z. 
Pp.  xxxii  +  cols.  3989  to  5444.       (A.  and  C.   Black, 
1903-) 
This  work,  now  completed,  contains,  as  the  publishers 
inform  us,   about  as  much  printed  matter  as   twelve 
volumes  of  the  "  Dictionary  of  National  Biography." 
They  have  also  published  a  thin-paper  edition,  which 
when  bound  in  one  volume  is  only  about  three  inches 
thick.       This    encyclopaedia    has    commanded    for    its 


June  i8,  1903] 


NATURE 


149 


several  departments  the  services  of  specially  quali- 
fied writers,  and  will  occupy  for  some  time 
to  come  a  hig-h  position  as  a  work  of  reference 
for  Biblical  questions.  As,  however,  it  affords 
willing-  hospitality  to  the  representatives  of  the  most 
advanced  criticism,  it  will  be  interesting  in  the  course 
of  a  few  years  as  a  standard  of  comparison  to  show 
how  far  these  opinions  have  been  able  to  hold  their 
own.  Discussions  of  this  kind  occupy  a  large  space 
even  in  geographical  and  historical  articles  and  some- 
times make  it  difficult  to  extricate  physical  facts  from 
the  maze  of  contradictory  opinions.  But  these,  when 
found,  are  clearly  and  accurately  stated,  as  in  the 
article  "  Trachonitis,"  which,  however,  is  merely  one 
of  the  more  conspicuous  of  a  large  group.  The  maps 
also  are  a  marked  characteristic  of  the  whole  work — 
numerous,  excellent  of  their  kind,  having  in  many 
cases  contour  lines  and  tints  to  indicate  heights  above 
and  below  sea  level.  That,  for  instance,  which  in- 
cludes Trachonitis  gives  an  excellent  idea  of  the  phys- 
ical geography  from  north  of  Hermon  to  south  of 
Pella  in  the  Jordan  valley.  The  short  article  on 
"  Tabor  "  also  is  an  admirable  epitome  of  a  place  in- 
teresting both  geographically  and  historically.  That 
on  "  Tarshish  "  is  a  learned  discussion  on  the  identi- 
fication of  the  place.  In  that  on  "  Stones  (Precious)  " 
we  find  an  almost  exhaustive  summary  of  what  is 
known  or  conjectured  about  the  gems  of  ancient  times, 
with  remarks  on  those  in  the  high  priest's  breast-plate 
and  the  foundations  of  the  vision  city.  The  articles  on 
natural  history  are  not  seldom  from  at  least  two 
contributors,  one  supplying  the  scientific  the  other  the 
historical  information.  For  the  former,  as  under  the 
word  "Serpent,"  Mr.  Shipley  is  responsible,  so  that 
we  are  sure  of  being  on  safe  ground,  while  the  other 
contributor  adds  much  curious  folklore.  Indeed,  the 
frequent  references  to  this  are  not  the  least  valuable 
part  of  the  "  Encyclopeedia. "  Sir  W.  Thiselton-Dyer 
has  contributed  to  the  botanical  articles,  such  as  the 
"Vine,"  in  this  volume;  that  also  on  "Wine  and 
Strong  Drinks  "  is  full  of  interesting  information. 
Many  of  the  theological  and  critical  conclusions,  as  im- 
plied above,  will  doubtless  be  disputed,  but  as  a  com- 
pendium of  information  on  history,  archaeology, 
geography,  and  all  kindred  topics  the  "  Encvclopaedia  " 
is  most  valuable.  '  T.  G.  B. 

Country  Rambles:  a  Field  Naturalist's  and  Country 
Lover's  Note  Book  for  a  Year.  By  W.  Perciva'l 
Westell.  Pp.  xvi  +  312  +  xxxvi.  (London:  Henry 
J.  Drane,  1903.)     Price  los.  6d. 

Mr.  Westell  has  made  a  serious  mistake ;  he  has 
let  himself  become  the  slave  of  his  note-book.  He 
seems  to  have  made  up  his  mind  to  write  a  year's 
diary  for  publication,  with  the  result  that  he  has  filled 
it  with  trivialities  which  after  a  few  pages  will 
weary  the  reader,  be  he  naturalist  or  not.  On  almost 
every  page  we  find  entries  such  as  the  following, 
\\hich  are  taken  quite  at  random  : — "  February  2. 
Ihe  snow  will  act  as  a  deterrent  on  the  singing  of  our 
ti'athered  musicians,  although  I  have  often  heard 
Robin  and  Wren  singing  in  the  very  depth  of  winter, 
<vidently  cheered  by  the  transient  gleam."  "March 
21.  I  was  tempted  out  into  the  garden  early  by  the 
brilliant  sunshine,  and  did  a  bit  of  gard'/nmg. 
Chaffinch  'pinking.'  How  delicate-looking  the  first 
Snowdrop  as  it  peeps  through  the  brown  earth!  " 
"June  10  (among  other  similar  entries).  What  a 
variety  of  small  beetles  cross  the  path  of  the  rambler, 
like  dark  little  jewels  darting  about  in  the  sunlight ! 
There  are  many  hairy  caterpillars  too.  Cannot  they 
move  at  a  rate  !  How  they  curl  up  into  the  ball  of 
protection  !  "  No  wonder  that  we  read  on  the  same 
page,   "  How  often  the  Note-book  comes  out  at  this 

NO.  1755,  VOL.  68] 


season!  "  Mr.  Westell's  mind  has  been  working 
more  upon  his  note-book  than  upon  nature,  and  he 
would  do  well  to  leave  it  behind  him  for  some  time  to 
come,  and  to  reconstruct  his  ideas  of  observation  and 
of  a  naturalist's  work.  When  he  touches  a  difficult 
or  doubtful  problem,  he  shows  us  at  once  what  manner 
of  naturalist  he  is.  On  p.  125  we  read  that  "  an 
instance  is  recorded  by  Herr  Muller  {sic),  a  well-known 
German  Naturalist,  of  a  Cuckoo  sitting  on,  and  hatch- 
ing, her  own  fledgling.  Three  Cuckoo's  eggs  were 
found  by  Herr  Muller  in  a  hollow  under  a  tussock  of 
grass,  &c. "  This  statement  seems  to  be  taken  from 
Dr.  Japp's  book  on  the  Cuckoo;  the  Herr  Muller  is 
Adolf  Muller,  the  forester;  the  occurrence  he  described, 
though,  of  course,  in  itself  not  impossible,  has  not 
been  accepted  by  ornithologists  whose  opinions  at  any 
rate  deserve  some  consideration,  e.g.  Prof.  Nev^-ton, 
Mr.  A.  H.  Evans,  and  Mr.  Howard  Saunders.  Yet 
Mr.  Westell  retails  this  as  a  proved  but  extraordinary 
fact,  without  making  the  least  attempt  either  to  test 
the  truth  of  it  himself  by  going  to  the  original  source, 
or  to  collect  the  opinions  of  scientific  naturalists  on  an 
alleged  zoological  fact  of  such  great  importance.  He 
has  to  learn  that  there  are  other  qualifications  for  a 
naturalist  besides  the  constant  companionship  of  a 
note-book  and  a  binocular  glass.  We  are  very  far 
from  v^'ishing  to  discourage  the  proper  use  of  these,  cr 
the  intelligent  enjoyment  and  observation  of  nature, 
but  what  we  cannot  possibly  encourage  is  the  publica- 
tion of  bulky  and  expensive  volumes  like  this 
(weighted,  too,  by  photographs,  only  some  of  which 
are  really  excellent),  which  cannot  satisfy  the  real 
naturalist  or  even  the  ordinary  reader;  and  in  this  we 
are  sorry  to  disagree  with  Mr.  F.  G.  Aflalo,  who  has 
written  a  kindly  preface  to  the  book.  It  is  to  be  hoped 
that  Mr.  Westell's  love  of  the  country  and  of  nature 
will    in  the  course  of  time   be  turned  to  better  account. 

Text-book   of   Organic    Chemistry.     By    Prof.    A.    F. 

Holleman,  translated  by  A.  Jamieson  Walker.     Pp. 

xxvii  +  555.     (New  York  :  Wiley  and  Sons ;  London  ; 

Chapman  and  Hall,  Ltd.,  1903).  Price  los.  6d.  net. 
A  SHORT  time  ago  an  English  translation  of  Holle- 
man's  "  Inorganic  Chemistry  "  was  welcomed  by 
chemists  in  this  country.  The  translation  of  the  organic 
part  has  followed  with  commendable  promptitude. 
This  book  is  one  of  the  best  on  organic  chemistry 
which  it  has  been  our  lot  to  read.  Prof.  Holleman  ap- 
proaches his  subject  with  a  freshness  and  vigour  of 
style  which  make  it  delightful  reading.  Furthermore, 
he  is  not  bound  down  by  precedent  or  prejudice,  and 
therefore  follows  no  stereotyped  style. 

The  book  is  written  upon  theoretical  lines,  and  for 
this  reason  Prof.  Holleman  does  not,  as  a  rule,  enter 
into  descriptive  details  of  manufacturing  processes,  and 
he  only  occasionally,  as,  e.g.,  in  the  case  of  iodoform, 
describes  even  laboratory  methods  for  preparing  sub- 
stances. This  we  consider  is  a  good  feature  of  the 
work- — not  that  methods  of  preparation  on  a  large  scale 
should  be  neglected  in  teaching  chemistry,  but  there 
are  already  many  books  which  give  more  or  less  accur- 
ate details  of  manufacturing  processes.  And  as  for 
methods  of  laboratory  preparation,  these  should  be 
taught  in  the  laboratory.  Again,  if  the  student  is  well 
grounded  in  his  theory,  as  he  should  be  if  he  carefully 
studies  this  book,  he  is  less  likely  to  look  upon  methods 
of  preparation  as  if  they  were  so  many  cookery  receipts. 

The  book  naturally  falls  under  two  heads,  the  ali- 
phatic and  the  aromatic  compounds.  The  aliphatic 
part  is  certainly  more  complete  than  the  aromatic, 
which  latter,  considering  that  it  contains,  beside  hydro- 
carbons of  the  benzene  and  naphthalene  series,  the  ter- 
penes,  heterocyclic  compounds  such  as  pyrrole,  furfuran, 
&c.,  and  the  albumens,  is  shorter  than  we  should  have 


I50 


NATURE 


[June  18,  1903 


expected.  The  subject,  however,  is  treated  very  con- 
cisely and  generally  very  clearly.  There  is  rather  a 
want  of  lucidity,  however,  in  his  treatment  of  the  syn- 
thesis of  indigo  on  p.  512.  The  chapter  on  the  diazo- 
compounds  and  the  short  resume  of  Hantzsch's  work 
in  this  direction  are  very  good,  and  his  remarks  upon 
the  electro-reduction  of  nitro  compounds  are  also 
excellent. 

Prof.  Holleman  pays  particular  attention  to  the 
physico-chemical  side  of  the  subject,  an  aspect  which 
has  been  neglected  by  most  writers  of  books  on  organic 
chemistry.  On  p.  188,  for  example,  in  the  chapter 
upon  polybasic  acids,  he  devotes  a  long  paragraph  to 
their  physical  and  chemical  properties;  again,  on  p. 
196,  he  gives  a  clear  explanation  of  the  electro-synthesis 
of  dibasic  and  other  acids,  while  on  p.  334  he  describes 
Tafel's  fine  work  on  the  electro-reduction  of  purine 
derivatives.  In  fact,  one  of  the  chief  values  of  the  work 
is  the  welding  together  of  physical  and  organic 
chemistry. 

The  book  is  hardly  suitable  for  beginners  or  for 
students  who  want  (we  will  not  say  require)  just  a 
smattering  of  organic  chemistry,  but  for  the  earnest 
student  of  the  subject  the  work  is  one  which  can  be 
most  highly  recommended.  The  style  is  good,  the 
method  of  arrangement  is  excellent,  and  we  think  that 
there  are  few  who  will  lay  down  the  book  after  having 
studied  it  and  feel  disappointed. 

Messrs.  Wiley  have  produced  the  book  in  excellent 
style,  and  have  spaced  out  the  formulae  and  equations 
in  a  lavish  manner.  Truly  science  knows  no  nation- 
ality— the  book  is  written  by  a  Hollander,  translated 
bv  a  Scotchman,  and  published  by  an  American  house. 

F.  M.  P. 

Education  in  Accordance  with  Natural  Law.  Sugges- 
tions for  the  Consideration  of  Parents,  Teachers,  and 
Social  Reformers.  By  Charles  B.  Ingham.  Pp. 
xi+125.  (London:  Novello  and  Co.,  Ltd.;  New 
York  :  Novello,  Ewer  and  Co.,  n.d.)  Price  35.  net. 
Ever  since  the  publication  of  Rousseau's  "  liimile," 
with  its  well-known  opening  sentence,  "  Tout  est  bien 
sortant  des  mains  de  I'Auteur  des  choses,  tout 
degenere  entre  les  mains  de  I'homme, "  there  have  been 
writers  reflecting  more  or  less  satisfactorily  the 
illuminating  ray  which  Jean  Jacques  directed  against 
the  educational  formalism  of  his  day.  Of  course,  if 
■educational  methods  contravene  the  laws  of  nature, 
good  results  cannot  be  expected ;  but  it  is  of  supreme 
importance  that  writers  venturing  to  define  and 
formulate  a  system  of  education  in  conformity  with 
natural  law  should  at  least  first  make  sure  that  they 
understand  the  broad  generalisations  they  call  to 
their  aid.  An  examination  of  Mr.  Ingham's  argu- 
ments gives  rise  to  the  suspicion  that  he  has  not  com- 
pletely mastered  the  conclusions  at  which  men  of 
science  have  arrived,  and  that  his  acquaintance  with 
physical  science  is  scarcely  intimate.  But  Mr.  Ingham 
is  an  experienced  teacher,  and  has  many  sensible 
pieces  of  advice  to  offer,  and  even  if  the  truths  he 
advances  are  not  new,  they  certainly  are  not  univer- 
sally adopted  yet.  To  mention  a  few  points  on  which 
the  author  has  sound  views  is  alone  possible  here. 
He  advocates  earnestly  the  need  for  more  scientific 
methods  in  education ;  he  pleads  for  more  leisure  time 
for  boys  and  girls,  in  which  they  may  follow  their 
own  devices ;  and  he  inveighs  against  the  unsatis- 
factory early  training  of  girls.  He  has  not,  we  think, 
given  science  a  sufficiently  important  place  in  the 
education  of  young  people,  but  there  can  be  little 
doubt  that  if  parents  could  be  persuaded  to  read  the 
book  they  would  have  q  clearer  idea  of  what  the  aim 
of  education  should  be.  A.  T.  S. 


LETTERS    TO    THE    EDITOR. 

[The  Editor  does  not  hold  himself  responsible  for  opinions 
expressed  by  his  correspondents.  Neither  can  he  undertake 
to  return,  or  to  correspond  with  the  writers  of,  rejected 
manuscripts  intended  for  this  or  any  other  part  of  Nature. 
No  notice  is  taken  of  anonymous  commutiications.] 

Psychophysical  Interaction. 

I  AM  interested  by  the  letter  of  the  professor  of  philosophy 
in  the  University  of  Birmingham  on  p.  126,  and  if  your 
readers  are  not  weary  of  the  discussion — as  I  see  no  reason 
why  they  should  be,  since  it  is  clearly  a  difficult  question 
which  must  be  discussed  from  time  to  time  as  science 
advances — ^.I  should  like  to  add  a  few  words. 

When  Prof.  Muirhead  says  that  my  recent  contention  was 
advocated  by  Descartes,  he  is  stating  what  is  of  interest, 
but  what  I  did  not  know  ;  I  was  not  aware  that  the  idea 
of  energy,  or  even  of  momentum,  was  sufficiently  clear  in 
his  era.  But  however  this  may  be,  he  must  not  think  that 
I  regard  the  statement  "  that  mind  cannot  produce  energy  " 
as  axiomatic.  It  is  a  question  not  of  axiom,  but  of  fact. 
It  seems  to  me  that  live  things  do  not  generate  energy  and 
do  direct  it ;  so  I  assert  this,  not  as  a  necessity  of  thought, 
nor  as  an  idea  for  which  I  have  a  special  predilection,  but 
simply  as  an  experience.  If  Descartes  maintained  the  same 
thesis,  so  much  the  more  likely  is  it  to  be  true. 

Inert  matter — all  matter  is  inert — matter  devoid  of  life  then 
let  us  say,  moves  (technically,  is  accelerated)  when  and  be- 
cause it  is  pushed  from  behind.  Live  matter  moves  or  is  im- 
pelled to  move  from  other  motives ;  it  is  urged  by  anticipa- 
tion of  the  future  sometimes,  by  gratification  of  appetite  for 
instance,  ^  by  avoidance  of  pain,  often.  A  typical  case  i^ 
a  coster mcmger's  vehicle  propelled  by  a  bunch  of  carrots,  or 
by  the  blows  of  a  stick  applied  in  indiscriminate  profusion. 
There  is  nothing  like  that  in  storm  or  cataract  or  tide ;  nor 
is  there  anything  like  it  in  motor-car  or  railway-train, 
unless  we  include  in  the  machinery  the  mind  of  the 
engineer. 

Prof.  Muirhead  recommends  a  pacification  of  the  question 
in  the  ultimate  nirvana  of  idealistic  monism.  I  am  dis- 
posed to  acquiesce  ultimately  in  this  destination,  but  I  feel 
that  there  is  something  more  proximate  to  be  attained  first. 
Philosophers  go  so  fast  and  so  far,  they  do  not  give  the 
scientific  man  a  chance  ;  he  wants  to  study  the  landscape 
and  grub  by  the  roadside.  The  ultimate  outlook  is  doubt- 
less there,  very  fine  and  attractive,  like  the  setting  sun  ; 
but  the  traveller  to  the  west  has  much  to  see  and  much 
to  do,  and  a  constant  gaze  too  far  ahead  may  only  dazzle 
him  and  unfit  him  for  his  proper  work  on  the  terrestrial 
sphere.  Oliver  Lodge. 

Oxford,  June   12. 


The  opponents  are  not  getting  into  close  quarters.  Dr. 
Hobson  was  irreproachable,  but  the  others  are  using  the 
word  "  force  "  all  through  the  discussion,  although  it  is 
the  most  unhappy  word  anyone  could  use  in  a  controversy 
about  fundamental  physical  conceptions.  Its  object  is  to 
enable  us  to  contemplate  one  aspect  of  an  action  while  we 
dismiss  the  other  absolutely  from  our  minds,  because,  when 
we  want  to  give  all  our  attention  to  one  of  the  two  bodies 
concerned,  it  helps  us  to  ignore  the  other  as  much  as 
possible. 

It  is  remarkable  also  that  Prof.  Minchin  should  write 
that  "  guiding  or  deviating  forces,"  if  they  allow  the 
universe  to  keep  its  total  energy  intact,  "  infallibly  alter 
its  total  momentum."  Prof.  Ward  seems  to  have  said  the 
same  thing,  and  the  curious  error  remains  without  specific 
contradiction.  Yet  anyone  who  remembers  that  if  there 
are  n  particles  in  the  universe,  there  are  3_w  velocities  for 
a  sprite  to  amuse  himself  by  tinkering  with,  will  agree 
that  he  must,  indeed,  be  a  stupid  or  self-willed  sprite  who 
could  not  arrange  to  keep  2;«w^  Swl,  5wj>,  and  2mi  un- 
changed while  he  disported  himself  with  variations  of  the 
other  3«  — 4  integrals. 

Though  that  is  merely  a  mistake  on  a  side  issue,  an 
example  on  it  will  serve  to  put  clearly  the  two  different 
points  of  view.  Suppose  that  there  are  two  bodies  of  equal 
mass     2m     moving  due   north   with   velocities   of  9   and    i 


NO.  1755,  VOL.  68] 


^UNE  18,   1903] 


NATURE 


SI 


lits  respectively,  and  without  mutual  action.  The  total 
lergy  is  ni(9*+i-)  =  82m,  the  total  momentum  due  north 
2wi(9+i),  that  due  east  is  zero.  At  12  o'clock  the  sprite 
nils  that  the  first  body  should  diminish  its  velocity  due 
)rth  to  5  and  get  one  of  4  due  east,  while  at  the  same 
yme  the  second  shall  increase  its  velocity  to  5  due  north 
id  get  one  of  4  due  west.  The  bodies  obey  the  sprite,  of 
)urse,  and  even  though  he  has  by  no  means  confined  him- 
•If  to  "  guiding  or  controlling  forces,"  the  energy  re- 
gains the  same,  for  ni(5^-f-4-  +  5-  +  4^)— 82m,  and  the  total 
momentum  north  is  2m(5  +  5),  and  that  east  is  2^1(4-4), 
i.e.  20m  and  o,  the  same  as  before. 

Now  suppose  a  materialistic  philosopher  had  been  observ- 
\g  all  this.  Before  12  o'clock  his  observations  of  the 
>ntinued  uniform  motion  of  the  bodies  would  have  led 
im  to  conclude  that  there  was  no  mutual  action  between 
them,  i.e.  the  law  of  the  force  was  that  it  was  zero.  At 
12  o'clock  he  would  observe  a  change,  and  if  ignorant  that 
there  was  a  sprite,  would  conclude  that  some  other  system, 
unseen  by  him,  had  come  into  collision  with  his  system. 
If  he  is  assured  this  is  not  the  case,  he  will  be  driven 
to  the  only  alternative,  viz.  that  at  12  o'clock  the  law 
of  the  action  between  them  had  suddenly  changed.  (For 
the  philosopher  to  say  that  a  force  had  acted  on  the  balls 
at  12  o'clock  would  be  merely  another  way  of  saying  that 
their  motion  had  changed,  because  the  definition  of 
force,  derived  from  Newton's  laws,  is  "  that  which  changes 
the  state  of  motion  of  a  body."  Hence,  whether  he  thought 
the  action  was  due  to  a  sprite,  to  an  external  material 
system,  or  to  a  change  in  the  law  of  action  between  the 
bodies,  the  statement  that  at  12  o'clock  a  force  had  acted 
on  each  would  be  equally  appropriate,  and  whatever  sup- 
position be  adopted,  the  force  would  have  the  direction  and 
magnitude,  viz.  that  deduced  by  Newton's  laws  from  the 
observed  changes  in  the  motion.) 

Replace  the  two  particles  by  the  entire  universe,  and  the 
point  in  dispute  is  really  this.  The  physicist  says,  the 
rhanees  in  the  motion  of  each  particle  at  any  instant 
depend  solely  on  the  positions  of  it  and  all  the  other 
jiarticles,  according  to  laws  which  do  not  change  with  the 
lime.  The  form  of  the  dependence,  too,  shows  that  there 
is  but  one  future  course  of  the  motion — k.K-it.v.'s  singular 
solutions  do  not  come  in — and  that  it  only  needs  infinite 
mathematical  knowledge  to  calculate,  from  the  positions 
and  velocities  at  12  o'clock  to-day,  and  the  unalterable 
laws  of  mutual  action,  what  every  particle  of  the  system 
will  be  doing  at,  say,  3  o'clock  three  hundred  years  hence. 

It  is  open  to  anyone  to  deny  this  position,  but  he  ought, 
I  think,  to  state  exactly  how  far  he  does  deny  it,  even 
though  he  may  not  be  able  to  state  exactly  what  he  wishes 
to  substitute  for  it.  What  it  seems  to  me  necessary  for 
Sir  Oliver  Lodge  to  deny  is  that  these  laws  apply  to  living 
matter.  He  must  say  that  if  the  motions  of  the 
material  particles  of  which  protoplasm  is  composed  be  ex- 
amined (in  conjunction,  of  course,  with  those  of 
the  rest  of  the  universe),  our  materialistic  philosopher 
would  be  compelled  to  conclude  that  a  change  in  the  law 
of  action  had  taken  place — just  as  he  would  in  the  case  of 
the  two  particles,  if  he  were  certified  that  they  composed 
the  whole  universe.  The  materialist  philosopher  would 
then,  I  imagine,  be  prepared  to  receive  with  attention,  at  all 
•  vents.  Sir  Oliver's  assurance  that  these  extraordinary 
changes  were  due  to  an  exertion  of  will-  or  psychic-power 
on  the  part  of  the  protoplasm,  and  that  the  law  of  mutual 
action  between  the  material  particles  was  not  changed  at 
all — it  was  only  "  supplemented,"  I  suppose  he  would  say, 
by  the  action  of  mind  on  matter. 

Whether  this  is  really  so  or  not  is  perhaps  open  to  that 
reasonable  doubt  which  may  exist  on  any  matter  which  has 
not  been  made  the  subject  of  conclusive  experiment,  and 
any  man  is  entitled  to  say  that  he  doubts  whether  an  observ- 
ation of  the  motions  of  live  matter  would  not  reveal  some- 
thing incompatible  with  the  supposition  that  the  "  forces  " 
acting  on  the  particles  of  the  universe  are  determined 
according  to  any  fixed  law,  i.e.  a  law  independent  of  the 
time. 

It  would  be  interesting,  but  inappropniate,  to  discuss  how 
far  such  a  supposition  will  help  people  in  regard  to  "  the 
elTicacy  of  prayer  and  many  another  practical  outcome  of 
religious  belief,"  the  reality  of  which  Sir  Oliver  and  many 
ethers  consider  to  depend  on   the  attitude  taken   in  regard 

NO.  1755,  VOL.  68] 


to  it.  Practically  the  effect  of  a  general  adoption  of  the 
supposition  would  be  that  for  many  years  to  come  it  would 
be  thought  to  have  removed  the  difficulties,  but  after  a 
time  these  would  crop  up  exactly  as  before.  When  men 
became  more  familiar  with  the  conception  of  spirit,  they 
would  ask  of  it  also,  what  laws  it  followed,  and  in  the 
mental,  as  in  the  physical  world,  the  conception  of  a  neces- 
sary law  of  operation  would  assert  its  absolute  sway  among 
the  higher  minds  who  make  knowledge  their  object.  For 
it  is  only  that  which  is  subject  to  law  which  can  be  the 
object  of  knowledge.  That  which  is  capricious  can  only 
be  the  subject  of  memory  and  conjecture.  It  is  not  in  this 
direction  that  any  permanent  solution  of  difficulties  is  to  be 
sought.  Edward  P.  Culverwfxl. 

Trinity  College,  Dublin,  May  28. 


In  relation  to  the  letters  on  "  Psychophysical  Inter- 
action "  appearing  in  Nature,  the  initial  questioning  the 
discussion  works  back  to  is  whether  we  are  to  recognise 
in  mind  the  mere  knower,  or  manipulator,  as  well,  of 
animal  action.  In  relation  to  such  a  questioning  it  may 
be  of  use  to  consider  that  what  is  inferred  concerning  mind 
as  existing  anywhere  outside  oneself  is  inferred  by  study 
of  action  displays.  We  possess  no  faculty  which  can 
directly  become  aware  of  the  psychical  outside' oneself.  It 
is  in  action  we  see  it,  if  at  all.  The  study  of  animal  in- 
telligence infers  as  to  animal  intelligence  by  seeing  it  in 
animal  action.  We  meet  with  peculiar  kinds  of  actions 
which  seem  to  require  intelligence  for  their  origin ;  and 
therefore  surmise  as  to  animal  intelligence.  The  observ- 
ation holds  of  the  human  intelligences  with  which  we  come 
in  contact.  We  can  only  get  to  know  the  mind  of  a  man 
through  his  action  that  he  acts  intelligently  ;  therefore  he 
must  be  intelligent.  A  man  may  speak  his  ideas  to  us,  and 
by  his  speaking  convince  us  of  his  inlying  intelligence  ;  but 
in  ultimate  analysis  talking  is  as  much  a  muscular  per- 
formance as  walking.  Or  he  may  write  his  thoughts,  and 
we  by  reading  may  see  in  what  he  has  written  that  he  has 
ideas';  but  if  the  mind  is  mere  knower  it  cannot  manipu- 
late action  to  the  writing  down  of  ideas,  and  therefore  this 
is  effected  in  some  other  way.  For  all  we  may  know  to  the 
contrary,  the  man  vacant  of  mind  may  be  more  at  large 
than  we  are  apt  to  suspect,  for  by  the  mechanical  hypothesis 
a  man  mav  talk  rationally  and  yet  not  have  ideas. 

The  mechanical  hypothesis  disposes  of  the  actions  of 
animals  by  the  theory  of  their  being  fitted  and  adapted  in 
reciprocal  relation  to  environment  by  process  of  natural 
selection.  Variations  in  action  take  place  in  species,  and 
the  species  which  are  favoured  with  favourable  variations 
in  action  in  the  long  run  survive.  The  theory  explains 
manv  of  the  adjustments  of  animal  action,  but  not  all. 
There  are  instances  to  which  the  hypothesis  can  never  ex- 
tend, and  they  are  the  instances  of  action  which  are  put 
in  in  circumstances  where  there  is  no  scope  for  natural 
selection  to  work.  Take,  for  instance,  a  man  learning  to- 
play  a  cornet.  The  learning  to  play  a  cornet  is  the  putting 
in  of  an  action  process,  and  as  such  is  worthy  of  biologic 
consideration.  The  man  learns  to  play  the  instrument  by 
manipulating  his  breathing  and  fingering  the  keys.  He 
studies  the  music  before  him,  and  internally,  and  mentally, 
decides  upon  the  fingering  which  is  appropriate.  His 
breathing  into  the  instrument  is  timed  by  his  mental  trans- 
lation of  signs  given  by  the  printed  page.  Each  stage 
of  his  practising  is  revised  by  hearing.  Where  he  plays  a 
false  note  he  goes  back,  and  exercises  e.xtra  attention  to 
do  better. 

The  entire  action  of  players  in  a  cricket  field  is  action 
adjusted  in  relation  to  the  motion  of  the  ball.  It  is  actiori 
determined  by  seeing.  Deduct  the  seeing  and  it  cannot  be 
done.  And  cricket  has  not  been  long  enough  in  existence 
for  natural  selection  to  have  anything  to  do  with  it.  Sa 
the  editing  of  Nature  is  an  intelligent-mechanical  process. 
Deduct  the  intelligence  in  that  process,  and  it  cannot  be 
done.  The  expert  conjurer,  equilibrist,  or  trick  cyclist 
depends  upon  the  alertness  of  his  sensations  for  the  correct- 
ness of  his  performance. 

.\pparently  in  the  whole  proceeding  of  animal  action^ 
excepting  the  old  established  automatic,  knowing,  seeing, 
hearing,  feeling,  plays  its  part.  Ants  will  eat  sugar  but 
not  saccharin.       The   taste  to  them   is  not  as  sugar.       So 


152 


NATURE 


[June  i8,  1903 


the  lion  runs  to  his  prey  with  his  nose  to  the  ground,  and 
the  action  of  the  bloodhound  is  valuable  on  account  of  his 
line  scent.  It  seems  with  mind  as  mere  knower  and  non- 
manipulator  of  action  these  performances  could  not  be  put 
through.  A.  Bowman. 

144  Well  Street,   Hackney,   May  26. 

Musical  Sands. 

May  I  record  the  discovery  of  musical  sands  at  places 
along  the  shore  between  Ramsgate  and  Kingsgate.  The 
sand  occurs  in  small  patches  close  to  the  chalk  cliffs,  the 
largest  patch  being  found  at  Joss  Gap.  In  composi- 
tion the  sand  is  very  similar  to  that  of  Studland  Bay,  but 
the  individual  grains  are  more  polished,  and  the  proportion 
of  denser  minerals  far  higher.  Of  course,  the  sand  can 
•only  be  experimented  upon  when  it  has  been  uncovered  by 
the  sea  for  a  sufficient  length  of  time  to  enable  it  to 
"become  dry,  and  it  gives  remarkable  results  when  tested 
in  the  ordinary  way — especially  when  placed  in  a  china 
vessel  and  struck  with  a  wooden  plunger. 

June  8.  Cecil  Carus-Wilson. 


THE  STUDY  OF  BACTERIAL  TOXINS. 

THE  study  of  the  toxins  produced  by  bacteria  is 
one  of  the  most  important  branches  of  bacteri- 
ological research.  The  solution  of  some  of  the  main 
problems  of  immunity  and  disease  depends  upon  the 
knowledge  that  can  be  gained  with  reference  to  the 
nature  of  the  bacterial  toxins  and  their  mode  of  action 
upon  the  animal  body. 

The  methods  introduced  by  Pasteur,  Koch,  and 
other  observers  have  rendered  it  possible  to  detect  and 
to  isolate  the  specific  agents  in  a  number  of  infective 
processes.  The  number  of  infective  diseases  that  have 
been  definitely  associated  with  the  action  of  bacteria  is 
considerable,  e.g.  tuberculosis,  cholera,  diphtheria, 
typhoid  fever,  &c. 

It  was  natural  that  the  earliest  attempts  to  prevent 
the  invasion  of  the  animal  body  by  these  micro- 
parasites  should  be  based  more  or  less  on  the  prin- 
<:iples  of  Jennerian  vaccination.  An  attenuated  virus, 
for  example,  was  taken  and  used  directly  as  a  vaccine 
in  order  to  produce,  if  possible,  an  active  immunity  to 
the  disease  in  question.  This  system  of  protective 
inoculation  was  tested  in  a  number  of  diseases,  and 
■notably  in  infective  diseases  of  the  lower  animals.  The 
anthrax  vaccine  employed  for  the  protection  of  cattle 
and  sheep  is  a  typical  example  of  such  immunising 
methods,  whilst  in  recent  years  analogous  methods  of 
protective  inoculation  have  been  extensively  used  in 
certain  diseases  of  man. 

The  study  of  the  microparasites  associated  with 
diphtheria  and  tetanus  showed  that  organisms  of  this 
type  possessed  not  merely  infective  but  likewise  marked 
toxic  properties.  It  was  further  established  that  these 
toxic  properties  were  the  determining  factors  in  the 
production  of  the  graver  symptoms  in  cases  of  diph- 
theria and  tetanus.  It  therefore  became  apparent  that 
in  diseases  of  this  order,  the  point  of  cardinal  import- 
ance was  to  combat,  if  possible,  the  toxins  produced  in 
their  course.  The  laboratory  experiments  made  with 
the  diphtheria  and  tetanus  organisms  demonstrated 
that  the  poisons  were  soluble  products  of  the  bacterial 
cells  in  question,  and  were  excreted  into  the  nutrient 
fluids  in  which  they  had  been  cultivated.  These  toxins 
were  proved  to  be  of  a  specific  nature,  as  they  repro- 
duced the  essential  general  symptoms  of  the  diseases. 

Diphtheria  and  tetanus  are  therefore  intoxications 
of  the  body,  due  to  the  action  of  specific  soluble  poisons 
produced  by  the  parasites  at  the  seat  of  infection.  The 
toxins,  on  being  introduced  into  suitable  animals 
in  carefully  regulated  doses,  produced  an  active  im- 
rnunisation  of  the  animals  characterised  by  the  forma- 
tion in  their  blood  of  anti-bodies    as  regards  the  toxins 

NO.  T755,  '^OL    68] 


in  question — in  other  words,  antitoxins  resulted.  The 
antitoxic  serum,  when  added  to  the  toxin  in  vitro, 
robbed  the  toxin  of  its  poisonous  properties,  and,  prob- 
ably in  virtue  of  some  chemical  combination  between 
toxin  and  antitoxin,  a  neutral  mixture  resulted.  The 
serum  containing  these  specific  anti-bodies,  on  intro- 
duction into  other  animals,  conferred  on  them  a  passive 
immunity.  They  were  protected  against  the  action  of 
the  toxin  in  question,  and,  most  important  of  all,  the 
serum  was  efficacious  in  the  case  of  an  already  existing 
intoxication — it  possessed  curative  as  well  as  protective 
properties.  If  a  large  animal,  such  as  a  horse,  vvas 
actively  immunised  by  injection  of  the  soluble  toxins, 
considerable  quantities  of  these  antitoxic  substances 
were  formed  and  accumulated  in  its  blood  and  blood- 
serum.  In.  this  way  the  serum  of  an  animal  highly 
charged  with  antitoxins  became  a  valuable  and  in- 
nocuous vehicle  for  the  introduction  of  these  preventive 
and  curative  substances  into  the  human  system.  The 
natural  defensive  forces  of  the  body  were  thereby  re- 
inforced, and  in  the  right  direction.  This  method  of 
serum  therapeutics  has  had  brilliant  results  in  the  case 
of  diphtheria,  and  has  been  demonstrated  to  be  a 
feasible  therapeutic  method  in  the  case  of  tetanus. 
These  maladies  belong  to  the  group  of  intoxicative 
diseases.  There  remamed,  on  the  other  hand,  a  large 
number  of  diseases  in  which  a  general  multiplication 
of  the  microorganisms  in  their  host  appeared  to  be 
the  salient  feature.  It  has  been  usual  to  call  these,  in 
contradistinction  to  the  former,  infective  diseases.  The 
successful  results  in  the  case  of  diphtheria  led  to  the 
extensive  study  on  similar  lines  of  infective  organisms 
generally.  A  systematic  search  was  made  for  soluble 
bacterial  poisons,  as  their  detection  would  be  likely  to 
lead  to  valuable  additions  to  antitoxic  serum 
therapeutics. 

The  researches  in  this  direction  met  with  unexpected 
difficulties  and  disappointments.  The  results  obtained 
in  the  case  of  diphtheria  and  tetanus  were  not  found 
to  be  of  general  application.  Each  organism  had 
therefore  to  be  taken  on  its  own  merits,  and  indi- 
vidually studied.  It  speedily  became  apparent  that,  as 
regards  a  considerable  number  of  infective  agents,  the 
conditions  were  not  the  same.  On  cultivation  in  fluid 
media  no  distinct  evidence  of  the  production  of  soluble 
poisons  could  be  obtained,  or,  if  present,  they  were  so 
in  an  inappreciable  amount.  The  attempts,  therefore, 
to  produce  antitoxins  by  the  injection  of  such  culture 
fluids  into  animals  did  not  promise  to  be  of  much  prac- 
tical value.  This,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  has  proved  to 
be  the  case;  the  various  serums  prepared  were  found 
to  possess  little  or  no  curative  value.  Many  infective 
organisms  did  not  apparently  produce  their  injurious 
effects  through  the  agency  of  soluble  toxins,  and  conse- 
quently curative  methods  based  on  the  assumption  re- 
sulted in  failure.  Research  was  thrown  back  once 
more  upon  the  living  infective  agents,  and  the  possi- 
bilities there  might  be  of  protecting  the  body  directly 
against  their  invasions,  or,  in  other  words,  of  produc- 
ing not  a  poison  but  a  bacterial  immunity.  Bac- 
tericidal substances  were  found  to  be  present  in  the  blood 
of  individuals  who  had  passed  through  an  attack  of 
certain  infective  diseases,  and  the  bactericidal  action 
was  specific  as  regards  the  infective  agent  in  each  case. 
For  example,  the  blood  of  a  patient  recovering  from 
typhoid  fever  is  bactericidal  to  the  typhoid  organism. 
In  the  absence  of  soluble  immunising  products,  there 
was  a  strong  presumption  that  these  substances  were 
to  be  sought  for  within  the  bodies  of  the  bacteria.  The 
bacteria  in  that  .case,  if  injected  directly  into  the 
system,  would  tend  to  produce  an  active  immunisation 
of  the  body,  and  would  reinforce  the  bactericidal  pro- 
perties of  the  tissues  in  specific  directions.  The  method 
most  generally  favoured  for  this  purpose  was  the  in- 


Juke  i8,  1903J 


NATURE 


153 


jection  of  killed  cultures  of  the  bacteria  in  question. 
The  typical  examples  are  the  vaccines  employed  in 
cholera,  plague,  and  typhoid  fever  for  prophylactic 
purposes.  The  killed  cultures  of  the  several  organisms 
are  injected  directly  into  the  healthy  individual  in  cal- 
culated doses,  and  the  method  is  generally  described  as 
one  of  protective  inoculation.  In  all  these  cases  the  im- 
munising value  of  the  vaccine  appears  to  lie  essentially 
in  the  dead  bodies  of  the  bacteria  it  contains.  The 
active  immunisation  that  occurs  depends  upon  a  solu- 
tion of  the  dead  bacteria  by  the  blood  and  tissues,  and 
a  consequent  liberation  of  any  immunising  substances 
peculiar  to  the  cells.  The  properties  developed  by  the 
blood  of  the  treated  individuals  are  antibacterial  and 
not  antitoxic,  or  if  so  only  to  a  small  degree.  If  one 
assumes  that  the  properties  of  the  blood  in  such  in- 
stances are  purely  of  a  bacteriolytic  character,  there 
would  be  no  protection  necessarily  afforded  against 
any  poisonous  substances  that  might  be  present  in  the 
bacterial  cells,  and  liberated  from  them  in  the  process 
of  their  dissolution  or  in  the  course  of  the  disease. 
Whatever  the  point  of  view,  the  conviction  is  now  an 
established  one  that  in  a  number  of  infective  diseases 
it  is  the  direct  study  of  the  specific  cellular  agents  that 
will  be  most  likely  to  lead  to  results  of  therapeutic 
value.  The  important  conclusion  has  been  arrived  at 
that  there  are  two  kinds  of  bacterial  poisons — soluble 
toxins,  which  are  secreted  by  the  bacteria,  and  cellular 
toxins,  which  are  contained  within  their  body  sub- 
stance. The  toxins  may  be  either  extra-  or  intracellu- 
lar. The  diphtheria  and  tetanus  poisons,  already  re- 
ferred to,  are  examples  of  the  first  group,  and  are  to 
be  met  with  in  the  nutrient  fluids  in  which  the 
organisms  are  cultivated.  The  typhoid  and  plague 
toxins  are  examples  of  the  second  group,  and  are  prac- 
tically absent  from  the  culture  fluids  in  which  the 
specific  organisms  are  grown.  The  poisonous  prin- 
ciples are  contained  within  the  bodies  of  the  microbes. 
The  dead  bodies  of  typhoid  bacilli,  although  destitute  of 
all  infective  properties,  are  yet  toxic  when  introduced 
into  animals  in  virtue  of  the  intracellular  toxins  they 
contain — the  animals  succumb  to  an  intoxication. 

In  the  case  of  many  diseases  formerly  regarded  as 
purely  infective  in  character,  it  has  now  become  ap- 
parent that,  in  addition  to  the  infective,  the  poisonous 
properties  of  the  invading  bacterial  cells  have  to  be 
taken  into  account.  Any  therapeutic  endeavours  of  a 
curative  character,  it  appears  to  the  writer,  ought 
therefore  to  be  based  on  the  presumption  that  every 
infection  implies,  sooner  or  later,  an  intoxication. 

The  number  of  infective  organisms  in  connection 
with  which  research  has  failed  to  demonstrate  soluble 
toxins  of  possible  clinical  importance  is  considerable. 
The  presumption  in  such  cases  is  that  the  missing 
toxins  are  intracellular,  and  that  if  antitoxic  principles 
of  treatment  are  to  be  devised  they  must  be  based  on 
a  knowledge  of  the  nature  and  properteis  of  these 
cellular  poisons.  A  vital  question  consequently  for 
bacteriologists  at  the  present  moment  is  the  relation 
of  intracellular  toxins  to  immunity.  The  study  of  the 
intracellular  constituents  of  bacteria  has,  it  will  be 
obvious,  assumed  great  importance  on  account  of  the 
issues  involved.  It  is  interesting  to  note,  by  way  of 
parenthesis,  how  generally  biological  research  is  being 
attracted  to  the  direct  study  of  the  cell,  and  how  widely 
it  is  being  recognised  that  the  processes  of  life,  whether 
of  a  natural  or  a  morbid  character,  are  in  their  essentials 
of  an  intracellular  nature.  In  this  respect  the  re- 
searches of  Buchner  were  of  wide  biological  signifi- 
cance. They  were  suggestive  of  much  more  than  a 
theory  of  a  cell-free  alcoholic  fermentation  of  sugars. 
And  in  the  bacteriological  field  the  original  investiga- 
tions of  Koch,  and  the  preparation  by  him  of  tuberculin 
from  the  tubercle  bacillus,  drew  general  attention  to 

NO.  1755,  "^OL.  68] 


the  important  results  that  might  be  obtained  from  the 
study  of  the  bacterial  cell  and  its  constituents.  Various 
methods  are  employed  with  this  object  in  view.  The 
killed  cultures  of  bacteria  may  be  used,  and  their 
physiological  effects  determined  by  injection  into 
animals,  or  by  chemical  means  extracts  may  be  pre- 
pared from  the  organisms  and  their  effects  similarly 
tested,  or  mechanical  methods  may  be  adopted  in  oider 
to  obtain  the  fresh  intracellular  juices. 

In  the  investigations  carried  out  by  the  writer,  in 
conjunction  with  Mr.  Rowland,  during  the  past  four 
years,  mechanical  methods  were  selected  as  the  best 
adapted  for  the  general  purpose  in  view,  viz.  the 
study  of  the  intracellular  toxins  and  ferments  of  bacteria 
and  other  cells.  The  first  essential  was  the  elaboration 
of  a  method  to  obtain  the  plasma  of  such  minute  cells 
as  the  bacteria.  The  aim  was  to  procure  the  fresh  cell 
juices  and  to  avoid  their  possible  modification  by  heat 
or  by  chemical  agents.  For  this  purpose  the  cells  were 
mechanically  triturated  by  a  cold  grinding  process. 
The  necessary  cold  was  most  conveniently  obtained  by 
the  use  of  liquid  air.  It  was  found  that  the  cells  could 
be  mechanically  broken  up  when  in  the  brittle  condi- 
tion produced  by  immersion  in  liquid  air,  without  any 
admixture  of  sand  or  other  foreign  substances.  A 
number  of  bacteria  and  other  cells  have  been  triturated 
in  this  fashion,  and  their  fresh  intracellular  constituents- 
obtained.  The  results  In  the  case  of  the  typhoid 
bacillus  will  serve  to  illustrate  the  general  line  of  re- 
search being  followed.  The  typhoid  organisms  were 
grown  on  ordinary  beef  broth  agar,  and  after  careful 
washing  with  distilled  water  were  disintegrated  in  a 
mechanical  contrivance  at  the  temperature  of  liquid 
air  ( - 180°  C).  The  disintegrated  mass  was  freed 
from  insoluble  suspended  particles  by  centrifugalisa- 
tion,  and  an  opalescent  fluid,  representing  the  cell- 
juices  of  the  organism,  resulted.  The  typhoid  cell- 
juices  obtained  by  this  method,  on  inoculation  \nX.o 
animals  in  small  doses,  invariably  proved  toxic  or  fatal. 
It  was  therefore  concluded  that  the  typhoid  bacillus 
contains  within  itself  an  intracellular  toxin  and  that  It  Is 
possible  to  extract  It  from  the  organism. 

The  typhoid  cell-juices  were  further  tested  for  im- 
munising and  other  properties,  and  were  administered 
subcutaneously  to  suitable  animals.  The  experiments 
showed  that  the  serum  of  the  monkey,  after  injection 
of  the  typhoid  cell-juices,  possessed  antibacterial  and 
antitoxic  properties,  inasmuch  as  the  serum  protected 
experimental  animals  against  the  typhoid  bacilli,  and 
also  against  the  intracellular  toxin  obtained  from  them. 
The  serum  was  found  to  possess  curative  and  preven- 
tive properties  as  regards  the  typhoid  bacillus  and  the 
intracellular  toxin  extracted  from  the  same  organism. 
The  research  thus  afforded  proof  that  in  the  case  ot 
one  species  of  pathogenic  bacterium,  the  intracellular 
juices  of  the  organism,  when  injected  into  a  suitable 
animal,  give  rise  to  the  production  of  a  serum  which 
is  both  bactericidal  to  the  organism  Itself  and  anti- 
toxic as  regards  a  toxin  contained  in  its  substance. 

The  results  already  obtained  are  such  as  to  en- 
courage further  inquiry  as  to  the  possibility  of  their 
practical  application  In  the  case  of  typhoid  fever,  as 
well  as  to  determine  in  how  far  such  properties  of  the 
cell-juice  are  shared  by  other  pathogenic  microbes.  The 
particular  method  employed  has  proved  of  value  in  the 
study  of  a  distinct  class  of  toxins  and  ferments  brought 
to  light  by  recent  research  which  are  contained  and 
operate  within  the  cell  and  bacterium,  in  contradistinc- 
tion to  the  well-known  class  of  toxins  which  are  extra- 
cellular, i.e.  extruded  during  life  from  the  cell  to  the 
surrounding  medium.  The  importance  attached  to  the 
intracellular  group  of  bq^terial  poisons  is  evidenced 
by  the  increasing  attention  that  is  now  being  paid  to 
their  study.  Allan  Macfad^en. 


154 


NA  TURE 


[June  i8,  1903 


SCIENTIFIC  KITE  FLYING. 

SYSTEMATIC  observations  of  the  temperature  and 
humidity  of  the  upper  air  have  been  made  for 
many  years  past,  both  in  America  and  on  the  Continent, 
kites  being  the  means  employed  mostly  in  America, 
and  kites  and  balloons  on  the  Continent. 

The  plan  adopted  is  to  send  up  a  kite  of  some  60  to 
80  square  feet  of  lifting  surface,  the  line  used  being 
steel  music  wire  instead  of  string,  additional  kites 
being  attached  to  the  line  as  occasion  requires.  The 
end  kite,  or  the  line  close  to  it,  carries  a  self-recording 
instrument,  and  in  this  way  observations  at  a  height 
approximating  to  or  even  exceeding  three  miles  are 
sometimes  obtained,  although  it  is  not  often  that  the 
air  motion  in  the  various  strata  is  such  as  to  render  a 
height  of  more  than  10,000  feet  possible.  The  obstacle 
to  be  overcome  is  the  pressure  of  the  wind  upon  the 
line,  which  soon  reduces  the  angular  altitude  of  the 
kite,  and  it  is  on  this  account,  rather  than  on  the 
greater  strength  of  steel  for  the  same  weight,  that 
steel  music  wire  is  preferable  to  string,  the  resistance 
•of  the  wire  on  account  of  its  smaller  section  being  so 
much  less. 


by  6  ft.  by 


There  are  few  days  on  which  a  small  elevation  may 
not  be  reached  by  a  kite,  but  days  really  suitable  are 
not  plentiful.  It  is  self-evident  that  a  suitable  wind  is 
the  first  requisite,  and  to  obtain  a  great  height  a  suit- 
able wind  must  prevail  from  the  lowest  to  the  highest 
strata  reached.  We  cannot,  of  course,  alter  the  wind, 
but  fortunately  we  are  able  to  move  the  point  to  which 
the  kite  line  is  attached,  and  this  practicallv  comes  to 
the  same  thing  as  altering  the  force  of  the  wind.  The 
most  convenient  means  of  doing  this  is  to  fly  the  kites 
from  the  deck  of  a  steam  vessel,  and  during  last 
summer  observations  were  thus  obtained  for  seven 
weeks  almost  daily. 

The  work  was  inaugurated  by  a  committee  of  the 
Ro3-al  Meteorological  Society,  cooperating  with  a  com- 
mittee appointed  by  the  British  Association. ^  Thev 
hired  a  small  steam  tug  of  55  feet  length  and  14  feet 
6  inches  beam.  The  vessel  was  stationed  at  Crinan, 
which  is  at  the  north  end  of  the  Crinan  Canal,  on  the 
west  coast  of  Scotland,   an^.   Sundays  excepted,   kite 

5  See  paper  on  "The  Method  of  Kite-flying  from  a  Steam  Vessel,  and 
JWeteorological  (Observations  obtained  thereby  off  the  West  Coast  of  Scot- 
land    {Quarterly  Journal  of  the  Royal  Meteorological  Society,  April). 


ascents  were  made  from  her  deck  every  day,  no  matter 
what  the  weather,  from  July  8  to  August  26.  The 
vessel  could  not  steam  more  than  seven  knots,  and 
the  wind  velocity  necessary  to  raise  a  kite  is  from  nine 
to  twelve  knots,  so  that  on  occasions  when  it  was  a 
dead  calm  no  kite  could  be  started.  It  happened,  how- 
ever, that  no  day  was  calm  throughout,  so  that  some 
time  during  the  hours  of  daylight  the  opportunity  of 
reaching  at  least  1500  feet  elevation  was  afforded. 
Had  the  tug  been  capable  of  ten  instead  of  seven  knots. 
I  have  little  doubt  but  that  a  height  of  5000  feet  might 
have  been  attained  every  day. 

Using  one  or  two  kites  only,  no  difficulty  was  ex- 
perienced. The  most  troublesome  point  was  getting 
the  kite  together  when  the  wind  was  strong.  The  tug 
was  small,  and  had  no  bulwarks,  so  that  there  was  no 
shelter  of  any  kind  on  deck,  but  her  smallness  was 
certainly  an  advantage  in  another  way.  A  larger 
vessel  would  have  produced  eddies  in  the  wind,  and 
probably  have  rendered  it  difficult  to  start  the  kite  direct 
from  the  deck.  As  it  was  we  had  no  trouble,  and  it 
was  ver}^  seldom  that  a  kite  failed  to  rise  steadily  from 
the  starting  point.     In  calm  weather  the  vessel  was 


^'O-  1755.  ^'OL.  68] 


kept  steaming  against,  or  nearly  against,  the  wind  so 
as  to  produce  sufficient  relative  motion  to  raise  and 
maintain  the  kites.  In  rough  weather  she  was  taken 
out  against  the  wind  for  some  ten  or  twenty  miles 
until  a  position  was  attained  from  which  a  clear  run 
down  the  wind  was  possible,  and  the  kite  was  then 
started.  A  wind  of  force  5  on  the  Beaufort  scale 
is  the  most  suitable  wind  for  kite  flying.  This  is  known 
technically  as  a  fresh  breeze,  and  is  sufficient  to  pro- 
duce a  moderate  amount  of  white  on  the  sea  surface. 
One  of  the  kites  of  the  usual  size  for  scientific  kite 
flying  will,  in  such  a  breeze,  exert  a  pull  of  about 
50  lbs.  The  wire  used  will  bear  a  strain  of  some 
300  lbs.,  and  weighs  about  16  lbs.  to  the  mile,  so  that 
one  kite  in  such  circumstances  will  take  nearly  two 
miles  of  wire,  and,  if  it  be  a  good  one,  will  raise  the 
instruments  to  about  5000  or  6000  feet.  The  pull  of 
50  lbs.  is  well  within  the  limits  of  stability  of  the  kites, 
and  is  on  the  whole  about  the  most  convenient  to  work 
with,  if  one  can  be  certain  of  the  goodness  of  the  kite. 
At  Crinan  the  tug  was  so  manoeuvred  that  a  tension 
of  40  lbs.   for  each  kite  on  the  line  might  be  main- 


June  i8,  1903] 


NATURE 


55 


tained,  but  kite  flying  is  an  art  of  which  we  were  then 
without  previous  experience,  and  so  it  was  well  to  err 
on  the  safe  side.  A  steam  vessel  is  extremely  con- 
venient for  kite  flying,  as  by  altering  either  her  speed 
or  direction  the  strain  upon  the  wire,  provided  the 
vessel  is  not  already  going  full  speed  against  or  with 
the  wind,  can  be  varied  with  the  utmost  nicety. 

With  more  than  two  kites  difficulties  often  occur, 
owing  to  the  fact  that  very  different  wind  velocities 
may  prevail  at  different  heights.  If  the  wind  is 
greatest  at  the  surface,  adding  more  kites  does  not 
add  appreciably  to  the  height  of  the  end  one,  since  no 
kite  can  rise  into  a  stratum  in  which  it  does  not  find 
sufficient  wind.  This  sometimes  occurred,  but  the 
more  usual  case  was  that  the  wind  force  increased  too 
rapidly  with  elevation,  so  that  if  the  tug  were  used 
to  increase  the  relative  surface  wind  to  suit  the  lower 
kites,  it  added  too  much  to  the  strength  of  the  upper 
wind,  and  by  unduly  increasing  the  force  upon  the 
upper  kites,  put  a  dangerously  high  tension  upon  the 
wire.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  the  tug  were  moved  to 
suit  the  upper  kites,  the  lower  ones  might  be  be- 
calmed, and  useless  for  lifting  purposes,  or  perhaps 
even  fall  into  the  sea. 

Very  interesting  results  have  been  obtained  from 
these  experiments,  both  in  America  and  on  the  Con- 
tinent, but  it  has  been  felt  that  the  conditions  prevail- 
ing over  the  large  oceans  are  very  likely  different  from 
those  over  the  continents.  The  cyclonic  disturbances, 
on  the  motion  of  which  our  weather  very  largely  de- 
pends, certainly  show  a  preference  for  the  sea,  and  it 
was  in  the  hope  that  some  light  might  be  thrown  on 
their  mechanism,  and  the  causes  which  produce  them, 
that  a  locality  on  the  west  coast  of  Scotland  was  chosen 
for  the  observations.  The  evidence  obtained  from  last 
summer's  work  is  not  sufficient  to  be  conclusive,  but 
so  far  as  it  goes  it  tends  to  show  that  as  a  depression 
approaches,  the  decrease  of  temperature  with  elevation 
becomes  less  than  it  was  before.  This  was  the  case 
with  every  depression  that  passed  while  the  experiments 
were  in  progress,  and  it  leads  to  the  conclusion  that  the 
upper  air  in  the  neighbourhood  of  a  cyclone  is  relatively 
warm,  and  that  the  cyclones  are  convectional  effects. 

A  further  result  of  the  observations  shows  that  the 
temperature  of  Ben  Nevis  was  in  every  instance  below 
that  of  the  free  air  at  the  same  level  some  sixty  miles 
to  the  south-west,  often  from  5°  to  8°  F.  below. 
That  the  two  air  temperatures  should  have  agreed 
was  hardly  expected,  but  the  difference  was  very 
marked,  and  it  is  desirable  that  the  experiments 
should  be  repeated  in  the  same  locality  to  confirm  the 
result.  The  fact,  however,  that  the  summit  of  the 
mountain  is  so  often  wrapped  in  clouds,  when  the  sky 
is  clear  elsewhere,  tends  to  show  that  the  summit  must 
be  unduly  cold,  and  it  seems  likely  that  the  effect  is 
produced  by  the  adiabatic  cooling  of  the  air  as  it  is 
forced  up  the  mountain  slope.  In  fact,  the  cloud  level 
on  all  the  mountains  and  hills  in  the  neighbourhood 
was  always  much  below  the  point  at  which  the  kites 
entered  the  clouds.  It  is  also  known  from  the  differ- 
ences in  the  barometer  on  the  Ben  and  the  values 
computed  from  the  Fort  William  readings  that  the 
temperature  of  the  intermediate  layers  of  air  is  not 
truly  represented  by  the  mean  derived  from  the  summit 
and  sea-level  temperatures. 

England  being  so  near  the  usual  cyclonic  tracks, 
observations  on  the  upper  air  are  of  especial  interest, 
and  it  is  very  desirable  that  a  permanent  station  for 
the  purpose  should  be  established.  It  may  perhaps  be 
found  that  unmanned  balloons  too  often  fall  into  the 
sea  to  be  usefully  employed,  but  the  attempt  is  well 
worth  a  trial,  and  so  far  as  kite  observations  are  con- 
cerned, the  only  difficulty  is  the  financial  one. 

W.  H.  Dines. 


A    NATIONAL    DIPLOMA    IN    AGRICULTURE. 

A  SO-CALLED  national  diploma  in  the  science  and 
practice  of  agriculture  can  now  be  obtained  by 
any  student  who  passes  the  necessarj-  examinations. 
This  diploma  has  undoubtedly  a  high-sounding  title- 
it  would  be  difficult  indeed  to  suggest  a  title  of  greater 
weight — and  it  is  therefore  not  surprising  that  the 
number  of  students  entering  each  year  for  the  ex- 
amination is  steadily  increasing,  and  that  successful 
students  should  be  proud  to  write  the  important  letters 
N.D.A.  after  their  names.  Now  we  greatly  wish  that 
a  truly  national  diploma  in  agriculture  could  be 
obtained ;  that  a  well-ordered  scheme  of  education  and 
examination  were  authoritatively  set  forth;  and  that 
the  skill  and  knowledge  of  the  nation  should  be  really 
brought  to  bear  upon  the  subject.  The  diploma  in 
question  has  no  right  to  the  title  of  "  national."  It 
is  granted  by  a  joint  committee  of  two  agricultural 
societies — the  Royal  Agricultural  Society  of  England 
and  the  Highland  and  Agricultural  Society  of  Scot- 
land—it should  therefore  be  designated  "  the  agri- 
cultural societies'  diploma."  To  claim  for  it  a 
national  importance,  and  thus  to  imply  that  it  ranks 
above  all  other  agricultural  diplomas,  is  simply  to 
mislead  the  public,  and  to  assert  a  position  to  which 
it  has  absolutely  no  right.  The  question  of  continu- 
ing to  grant  the'  diploma  in  question  has  lately  entered 
a  critical  stage;  it  may  be  of  service,  therefore,  to  set 
forth  in  few  words  the  origin  and  character  of  the 
examinations  on  which  it  is  based. 

It  must  be  reckoned  as  greatly  to  the  credit  of  the 
two  agricultural  societies  we  have  just  named  that 
they  have  been  for  many  years  engaged  in  promoting 
agricultural  education  'by  means  of  examinations. 
The  Highland  and  Agricultural  Society  of  Scotland 
was  at  the  pains  to  obtain  a  supplementary  charter  in 
1856  in  order  that  it  might  add  agricultural  education 
to  the  other  functions  of  the  Society.  This  charter 
sets  forth  that  "  in  order  to  encourage  the  proper 
education  of  agriculturists  in  Scotland  "  the  Society 
is  empowered  to  appoint  a  committee  consisting  of  the 
professors  of  agriculture,  anatomy,  botany,  chemistry, 
natural  history,  and  technology  in  the  University  of 
Edinburgh,  with  sundry  public  officials,  and  seven 
members  chosen  by  the  Society.  This  committee  is 
to  appoint  a  board  of  examiners,  and  to  grant  diplomas 
bearing  the  corporate  seal  of  the  Society.  The  Society 
has  acted  on  the  powers  thus  given  ;  it  has  conducted 
annual  examinations  in  Edinburgh  from  1858  to  1899, 
and  granted  diplomas  according  to  the  terms  of  its 
charter. 

The  Royal  Agricultural  Society  of  England  possesses 
no  such  definite  authority  as  that  given  to  the  High- 
land Society  for  the  conduct  of  examinations  or  the 
granting  of  diplomas;  its  charter,  given  in  1840, 
merely  authorises  it  "  to  take  measures  for  the  im- 
provement of  the  education  of  those  who  depend  upon 
the  cultivation  of  the  soil  for  their  support."  The 
Society  has  conducted  annual  examinations  in  England 
from  1868  to  1899.  Up  to  1897  the  successful  candi- 
dates received  certificates,  but  in  1898  and  1899 
diplomas  were  granted. 

In  1897  the  two  societies  nominated  a  joint  board 
of  examiners  to  conduct  examinations  in  the  science 
and  practice  of  dairying,  and  annual  examinations 
have  since  been  regularly  held  both  in  England  and 
Scotland.  The  successful  candidates  receive  a  national 
diploma  in  the  science  and  practice  of  dairying. 

In  1899  the  two  societies  took  a  further  step,  and 
appointed  a  joint  board  of  examiners  to  conduct  ex- 
aminations in  the  science  and  practice  of  agriculture; 
the  examinations  hitherto  conducted  by  the  separate 
societies  then  ceased.  The  first  examination  by  the 
joint  board  was  held  in  1900,  and  such  examinations 


:n.  1755,  VOL.  68] 


156 


NATURE 


[June  i8,  1903 


have  since  been  regularly  continued.  The  examin- 
ation is  always  held  in  England.  The  successful 
candidates  receive  a  national  diploma  in  the  science 
and  practice  of  agriculture. 

Such,  then,  is  the  history  of  the  diploma  of  which 
we  are  at  present  speaking.  It  is,  of  course,  obvious 
that  any  society  or  societies  may  hold  an  examination 
in  any  subject  they  please,  and  grant  certificates  to 
successful  candidates;  but  may  such  bodies,  without 
proper  authority,  presume  to  confer  a  national 
diploma  ?  That  is  the  serious  question  before  us.  The 
charter  of  the  Highland  Society  undoubtedly 
authorises  it  to  confer  a  diploma  in  agriculture  in 
Scotland,  but  the  language  of  its  charter,  which  we 
have  already  quoted,  clearly  limits  its  authority  to  that 
country.  This  fact  is  so  manifest  that  we  are  now 
told  by  the  agricultural  Press  that  the  Highland 
Society  intends  to  apply  to  His  Majesty's  Government 
for  an  extension  of  its  charter.  The  charter  of  the 
English  Society  contains  no  authority  to  grant 
diplomas. 

We  have  already  said  that  a  national  diploma  in 
agriculture  appears  to  us  as  a  desirable  thing,  if  it 
could  be  granted  by  national  authority  and  awarded 
only  to  thoroughly  trained  men.  If  powers  to  grant 
such  a  diploma  are  now  being  sought,  the  terms  of  the 
charter  granted  many  years  ago  to  the  Highland 
Society  supply  some  pertinent  suggestions.  If  the 
diploma  is  to  be  really  national,  if  it  is  to  be  stamped 
with  a  national  authority,  the  schemes  of  education 
and  examination  laid  down  must  not  be  decided  on  by 
the  members  of  two  agricultural  societies.  The 
charter  of  the  Highland  Society  names  six  professors 
of  the  University  of  Edinburgh  as  members  of  the 
education  committee.  A  charter  granted  with  a 
similar  object  now  would  naturally  take  a  similar  line, 
but  it  would  not  limit  itself  to  the  University  of  Edin- 
burgh. The  ex  officio  members  of  a  national  com- 
mittee should  clearly  include  professors  from  other 
British  Universities,  and  representatives  of  the  Govern- 
ment Boards  of  Agriculture  and  Education.  Until  such 
a  general  body  is  constituted  and  authorised  to  grant 
diplomas,  it  is  a  misuse  of  language  to  speak  of  a 
national  diploma  in  agriculture  or  dairying. 

We  turn  now  to  the  character  of  the  examination 
at  present  held  for  the  award  of  the  so-called  national 
diploma.  If  the  diploma  granted  merely  professefl  to 
be  an  agricultural  societies'  diploma,  it  would  be 
scarcely  necessary  to  speak  on  the  subject;  but  the 
claim  to  national  rank  surely  implies  a  diploma  ex- 
amination of  first-rate  quality,  and  if  it  fails  of  this 
it  certainly  demands  public  criticism. 

The  diploma  in  question  is  granted  solely  on  the  re- 
sult of  examinations,  no  previous  course  of  training 
being  required.  The  examinations  for  the  diploma  em- 
brace many  branches  of  elementary  science ;  half  of 
the  subjects  are  taken  by  the  candidate  in  his  first  year 
and  half  in  his  second  year.  The  syllabuses  pub- 
lished of  the  subjects  for  examination  are  un- 
doubtedly meagre,  some  of  them  strikingly  so. 
This  is  a  real  disadvantage,  as  the  teachers  who  are 
preparing  students  for  these  examinations  naturally 
limit  their  instructions  to  the  syllabus.  The  examin- 
ations are  both  written  and  oral,  but  include  no 
laboratorywork.  In  each  subject  the  written  examin- 
ation is  limited  to  two  hours,  save  in  the  case  of 
practical  agriculture  to  which  three  hours  are  allotted. 
The  candidates  are  generally  directed  to  attempt  every 
question  in  the  paper,  six  to  ten  questions  being  set. 
The  whole  of  the  subject  of  practical  agriculture  is  dealt 
with  in  one  paper  of  three  hours,  followed  by  an  oral 
examination.  The  tests  applied  by  the  examiners 
would  thus  appear  to  be  decidedly  superficial.  The 
number  of  marks  allotted  to  each  subject  must  be  sup- 


posed to  indicate  their  relative  importance  in  the  eyes 
of  the  examining  board.  We  find  that  book-keeping 
and  agricultural  chemistry  receive  the  same  number  ot 
marks,  while  general  chemistry  and  veterinary  science 
each  receive  half  as  many  marks  as  book-keeping  !  It 
is,  indeed,  essential  that  anyone  who  is  to  practise 
farming  should  pass  an  examination  in  book-keeping, 
but  that  a  knowledge  of  agricultural  chemistry  should 
be  taken  to  represent  no  greater  previous  study  or  no 
greater  fitness  for  dealing  with  the  problems  of  agri- 
culture than  a  mastery  of  the  art  of  posting  trad^ 
accounts  is  certainly  remarkable,  and  surely  indicates 
a  low  appreciation  of  agricultural  science  by  the 
examining  board. 

We  have  now  done.  The  questions  we  have  raised 
demand  earnest  attention.  The  character  of  our  whole 
system  of  agricultural  education  depends  on  the 
standard  set  by  what  is  apparently  its  highest  grade. 
The  present  diploma  has  been  given  a  title  to  which 
it  has  no  right,  and  if  has  failed  to  justify  by  its  ex- 
cellence the  rank  which  has  been  sought  for  it. 


THE    INTERNATIONAL    CONGRESS    FOR 
APPLIED    CHEMISTRY. 


^pHE  fifth  International  Congress  for  Applied 
A  Chemistry,  which  sat  in  the  Reichstags-Gebaude 
of  Berlin  from  June  2  to  8  under  the  masterly  presi- 
dency of  Dr.  Otto  N.  Witt,  professor  at  the  Technical 
High  School  of  Charlottenburg,  will  be  remembered 
as  a  great  representative  meeting.  The  actual  attend- 
ance figure  was  not  announced,  probably  because 
many  of  the  members  who  had  previously  secured  their 
tickets  forgot  to  enter  their  names  on  arrival.  But  the 
figure  cannot  much  fall  short  of  2700.  Preparations 
had  originally  been  made  for  1500  members.  About 
2500  had  arrived  by  the  time  of  the  opening  of  the 
Congress,  and  those  joining  later  could  .not  be 
favoured  with  invitations  to  the  many  pleasant  re- 
ceptions and  excursions  which  had  been  arranged. 
Everything  possible  was,  however,  done  by  the  local 
committee,  over  which  Dr.  J.  E.  Holtz  presided,  and 
by  the  general  secretaries,  Dr.  Pulvermacher  and 
T.  Karwath.  Everybody  could  gain  admission  to  the 
grand  "  Commers."  The  Diet  had  made  a  grant  of 
iS.ooo  marks,  donations  had  poured  in  from  many 
sides,  and  private  hospitality  was  practised  most 
liberally.  Chemical  works,  in  the  strict  sense  of  the 
word,  were  not  opened  to  members,  but  visits  to 
I  special  exhibitions,  scientific  institutes,  and  manu- 
factories would  have  supplied  an  amply  long  and  in- 
structive programme  even  if  the  sectional  proceedings 
had  left  members  far  more  spare  time  than  they  did. 
Some  sections  deliberated  from  9  to  i,  and  again  from 
3  to  6  and  later.  The  ladies  were  excellently  taken 
care  of  during  the  whole  congress  week. 

Though  a  more  suitable  and  dignified  place  for  the 
meeting  could  not  have  been  found  than  the  magni- 
ficent palace  of  the  Imperial  Diet,  the  large  committee 
rooms  of  which  afforded  ample  accommodation  for  all- 
the  sections,  a  parliament  building  is  not  a  laboratory, 
and  some  of  the  sections  had  to  emigrate  for  their 
experimental  demonstrations.  Section  vii.,  ferment- 
ation and  starch,  sat  mostly  in  the  Institute  for 
Fermentation,  and  had  an  exhibition  of  its  own  in  the 
grounds  adjoining  this  institute.  Section  ix.,  photo- 
chemistrv,  was  isolated— and  rather  neglected,  too— 
in  the  Technical  High  School  at  Charlottenburg. 
Section  x.,  electrochemistry  and  physical  chemistry, 
found  a  home  in  the  Physical  Institute  of  the  Uni- 
versity, close  to  the  Reichstag.  Each  section  had  its 
official  luncheon  restaurant.  The  plenary  meetings 
took  place  in  the  large  hall  of  the  Reichstag. 


NO.    1755,  VOL.  68] 


June  i8,  1903] 


NATURE 


157 


On  Tuesday  evening,  June  2,  President  Witt 
welcomed  the  members  in  German,  French,  and 
English.  The  formal  opening  meeting  on  the  next 
morning,  at  which  Prince  Frederick  Henry  repre- 
sented the  Emperor,  was  addressed  by  Prof.  VVict; 
Secretary  of  State  Count  Posadowsky-Wehner,  on 
behalf  of  the  Empire ;  the  Prussian  Minister  of  Educa- 
tion, Dr.  Studt;  Mayor  Dr.  Rei.cke,  on  behalf  of  the 
City  of  Berlin ;  representatives  of  the  learned  and 
technical  bodies  which  had  taken  part  in  the  organisa- 
tion ;  and  the  official  delegates,  Dr.  Tilden  speaking 
for  Great  Britain.  As  thirty  Governments  had  sent 
delegates,  the  representative  of  Switzerland,  Prof. 
Lunge,  was  heard  as  speaker  for  the  minor  States. 
There  was  a  beautiful  passage  in  President  Witt's 
eloquent  welcome :  The  flames  of  special  research 
burn  in  the  many  chapels,  and  the  Congress  unites  all 
the  worshippers  of  the  one  universal  science. 
Mayor  Reicke  also  earned  warm  applause.  The 
honorary  president  of  the  Congress,  the  veteran 
chemist  Prof.  Clemens  Winkler,  was  not  well  enough 
to  attend.  The  vice-presidents  were  Drs.  H.  Botlinger, 
M  Delbriick,  C.  von  Martius,  E.  A.  Merck.  The 
honorary  vice-presidents,  Moissan,  Meldola,  Piutti, 
and  Christomanos,  were  appointed  by  acclamation. 

The  second  plenary  meeting  on  Friday  morning  was 
devoted  to  lectures.  H.  Moissan  demonstrated  some 
of  the  properties  of  the  alkali  hydrides  which  he  has 
recently  prepared.  Potassium  hydride  is  a  snowy 
mass,  which  has  to  be  kept  in  sealed  tubes,  and  de- 
composes, when  heated,  into  potassium  and  hydrogen ; 
a  tube  was  broken  under  water  to  exemplify  this. 
Carbonic  acid  gas  decomposes  the  mass,  but  the  de- 
composition does  not  occur  in  the  second  of  two  tubes 
joined  in  series,  because  the  presence  of  a  trace  of 
moisture  in  the  CO^  is  necessary,  nor  does  it  occur 
below  -650  C.  The  KH^  does  not  conduct  the 
electric  current,  not  even  when  fused,  and  the 
hydrogen  in  these  alloys  does  not  behave  like  a  metal 
any  more  than  it  resembles  metal  in  its  liquid  state. 

Sir  William  Crookes  then  gave  his  discourse  on 
modern  views  on  matter  :  the  realisation  of  a  dream, 
dealing  with  speculations  which  the  mysterious  radio- 
active emanations  suggest  or  support,  and  alluding 
to  a  fatal  atomic  dissociation  which  works  when  we 
brush  a  piece  of  glass  with  silk,  and  in  sunshine  and 
raindrops,  in  lightning  and  flames ;  protyle  the  form- 
less mist,  might  once  more  reign  supreme. 

J.  H.  van  't  Hoff  then  explained  how  the  phase-law 
of  Willard  Gibbs  enables  us  to  understand  the  form- 
ation of  natural  salt  deposits,  referring  to  the  influence 
of  temperature,  pressure,  and  time;  the  higher  the 
basicity  of  the  acid  and  the  valency  of  the  metal,  the 
longer  can  a  state  of  supersaturation  exist,  and  when 
we  have  dibasic  acids  and  bivalent  metals,  the  addition 
of  a  solid  crystal  of  the  respective  salt  will  no  longer 
produce  the  crystallisation  which  is  instantaneous  in 
the  case  of  Glauber  salt. 

The  retrospective  view  of  the  ammonia-soda  process, 
by  E.  Solvay  (Brussels),  did  not  enter  into  any  detail. 
In  the  next  lecture,  on  auto-oxidation,  Carl  Engler 
(Karlsruhe)  went  in  a  certain  measure  back  to 
Schonbein's  ozone  and  antozone.  Oxygen  does  not 
appear  to  combine  in  single  atoms,  but  always  as  a 
whole  molecule,  giving  an  unsaturated  compound 
which  yields  a  peroxide;  this  peroxide  then,  by  giving 
off  half  of  its  oxygen,  forms  oxides,  and  we  may  dis- 
tinguish two  classes  of  bodies  in  this  respect.  The 
auto-oxidators  bind  the  oxygen  to  peroxide  and  pass 
half  of  it  on  to  the  acceptor,  which  itself  cannot  bind 
the  atmospheric  oxygen.  We  have  thus,  in  the 
animal  and  vegetable  kingdoms,  to  which  these  argu- 
ments particularly  apply,  peculiar  catalytic  processes. 
Engler  made  reference  to  a  paper,  read  by  L.  Woehler 

NO.    1755,  VOL.  68] 


(Karlsruhe),  who  has  extracted  18  per  cent,  of  Pt 
from  spongy  platinum,  by  hydrochloric  acid,  precipi- 
tated a  protohydrate  from  the  solution,  and  oxidised 
platinum,  both  as  foil  and  sponge,  by  heating  it  in 
oxygen  ;  a  piece  of  foil  absorbed  1-9  per  cent,  of  oxygen 
in  thirty-seven  days. 

The  last  general  lecture  was  given  by  G.  Kraemer, 
of  Berlin,  on  coal  tar  researches. 

The  concluding  plenary  meeting  had  to  pass  or 
reject  the  sectional  resolutions  which  are  to  be  pre- 
sented to  the  permanent  committee  of  the  International 
Congresses  for  Applied  Chemistry,  and  also  to  select 
the  place  for  the  next  meeting.  Most  of  the 
numerous  resolutions,  concerning  the  drawing  up  of 
analytical  reports,  the  undesirability  of  characterising 
reagents  simply  as  pure,  the  specialisation  of 
the  Trauzl  test  (explosions  within  lead  chambers), 
the  transport  of  explosives,  a  uniform  method  of 
compiling  statistics  of  accidents,  the  soda  test 
of  petroleum,  the  prohibition  of  additions  of  starch 
to  press  yeast,  and  other  points  were  approved 
of  without  discussion.  The  electrochemical  units,  re- 
commended by  Nernst,  Warburg,  and  Strecker,  on 
behalf  of  the  Bunsen  Gesellschaft,  the  Physical 
Society,  and  the  Elektrotechnische  Verein  of  Berlin, 
for  general  use  in  publications,  were  adopted  by  the 
Congress,  with  an  amendment  by  A.  A.  Noyes 
(Boston)  that  a  committee  of  the  Bunsen  Gesellschaft 
should  cooperate  with  other  societies  in  order  to  make 
the  system  more  comprehensive.  The  proposals  of 
Section  xi.,  legal  and  economical  questions,  however, 
met  with  opposition.  It  was  not  unreasonably  com- 
plained that  the  resolutions  were  not  in  print  before 
the  meeting,  though  they  had  been  published  in  the 
daily  journals — not  always  in  their  final  versions, 
however — and  the  meeting  declined  to  sanction  :  that 
the  registration  as  trade  marks  of  words  is  not  to  be 
considered  illegal  for  the  reason  that  those  words  had 
previously  been  used  in  a  definite  sense.  The  assembly 
agreed  to  the  general  prohibition  of  white  phosphorus 
matches,  and  recommended  proper  care  of  the  em- 
ployes in  chemical  works  as  a  moral  obligation  the 
observance  of  which  would  serve  the  manufacturer's 
own  interest.  The  two  International  Commissions,  for 
analysis  (created  in  1900,  chairman,  Prof.  Lunge)  and 
for  manures  and  fodders  (created  in  1898,  chairman, 
Dr.  von  Grueber,  of  Malmo)  were  reappointed.  The 
sugar  chemists  wished  to  settle  their  analytical  methods 
for  themselves.  A  new  commission  is  to  be  elected  for 
compiling  a  codex  alimentarius. 

The  remarkable  skill,  tact,  and  firmness  with  which 
President  Witt  guided  the  assembly  in  these  dis- 
cussions were  again  called  into  requisition  when 
the  place  of  the  next  meeting  was  to  be  decided.  On 
behalf  of  the  Italian  Government,  the  City  of  Rome, 
and  the  learned  societies  of  Italy,  Prof.  Paterno  di 
Sessa  invited  the  congress  to  Rome.  In  accordance 
vtith  a  resolution  unanimously  passed  by  the  British 
members  of  the  Congress  in  a  special  meeting,  at 
which  thirty-eight  members  were  present,  Mr.  I. 
Levinstein,  president  of  the  Society  of  Chemical 
Industry,  asked  the  Congress  to  come  to  London  in 
1906,  on  behalf  of  that  society  and  other  societies  in- 
terested; Dr.  Tilden,  the  British  delegate,  supported 
the  invitation.  Both  Italy  and  Great  Britain  had 
previously  offered  hospitalitj  to  the  Congress,  Italy,  it 
would  appear,  twice,  England  once.  The  question 
was  finally  decided  by  a  regular  division,  after  the 
manner  of  the  German  Reichstag,  when  294  members 
voted  for  Rome  and  274  for  London. 

The  sectional  proceedings  were  conducted  on  the 
linos  of  the  German  Naturforscher-Versammlung. 
The  presidents  of  the  eleven  sections  and  four  sub- 
sections  were  almost   all   Berlin   men.     Their  names 


rsS 


NATURE 


[June  i8,  1903 


are: — (i)  Analytical  chemistry,  G,  von  Knorre ;  (2) 
inorganic  chemical  products,  A.  Heinecke,  director  of 
the  Berlin  porcelain  manufacture ;  (3a)  mining-  and 
metallurgy,  G.  Weeren  ;  (36)  explosives,  W.  Will ;  (4a) 
organic  products  (including  tar),  H.  Wichelhaus ; 
(4b)  dyes,  A.  Lehne;  (5)  sugar,  A.  Herzfeld;  (6)  fer- 
mentation and  starch,  M.  Delbriick ;  (7)  agricultural 
chemistry,  O.  Kellner;  (8)  Hygiene,  E.  A.  Merck; 
subsections  (a)  foods,  K.  von  Buchka ;  (b)  pharmacy, 
H.  Thorns;  (c)  hygiene,  M.  Rubner;  (9)  photo- 
chemistry, A.  Miethe;  (10)  electro-  and  physical  chemis- 
try, H.  Bottinger  (of  Elberfeld) ;  (li)  legal  and 
economical  questions,  C.  A.  von  Martius.  Before 
adjourning  each  day,  the  sections,  however,  nominated 
the  president  and  vice-presidents  for  the  following 
meeting.  As  a  result,  the  time  limits,  twenty  minutes 
for  the  reading  of  a  paper,  five  minutes  for  each 
speaker,  were  not  well  adhered  to.  Each  speaker  is 
at  once  presented  with  a  slip  of  paper  on  which  he  is 
to  condense  his  remarks  for  publication  in  the  daily 
journal  or  later  in  the  reports.  Some  sections  gave 
brief  abstracts  of  the  proceedings  in  the  daily  journals, 
others  merely  stated  titles  of  papers  and  names  of 
authors  and  speakers.  A  not  inconsiderable  number 
of  the  457  reports  and  papers  announced  were  not  read 
owing  to  the— frequently  only  momentary — absence  of 
the  authors.  Brief  abstracts  of  some  of  the  most  im- 
portant papers  will  follow.  H.  Borns. 


NOTES. 

The  annual  conversazione,  or  ladies'  soiree,  of  the  Royal 
Society  will  be  held  on  Friday,  June  19. 

Prof.  J.  J.  Thomson  has  had  the  honorary  degree  of 
doctor  of  science  conferred  upon  him  by  the  Columbia 
University,  New  York. 

Sir  Oliver  Lodge  delivered  the  Romanes  lecture  in  the 
Sheldonian  Theatre,  Oxford,  on  Friday  last,  on  the  subject 
of  "  Modern  Views  of  Matter." 

A  GENERAL  meeting  of  the  Institution  of  Mining  Engineers 
will  be  held  in  London  on  Thursday,  July  2,  and  the 
following  day  in  the  rooms  of  the  Geological  Society. 

Mr.  E.  T.  Whittaker,  of  Trinity  College,  Cambridge, 
will  deliver  an  address  before  the  Mathematical  Society  of 
University  College,  London,  on  Thursday,  June  25,  at 
5.30  p.m.,  on  "  Some  Present  Aims  and  Prospects  of 
Mathematical  Research." 

The  Moniteur  Officiel  du  Commerce  of  Paris  announces 
that  an  International  Exhibition  of  the  Industrial  Appli- 
ances of  Alcohol  will  be  held  at  Rio  de  Janeiro  in  August. 

A  Reuter  telegram  from  Cape  Town  states  that  the 
Gauss  expedition  has  disproved  the  existence  of  Termination 
Island,  which  is  marked  on  maps,  the  expedition  passing 
over  the  alleged  site  of  the  island. 

That  the  Soufri^re  in  St.  Vincent  is  still  in  a  state  of 
slight  agitation  is  recorded  by  Dr.  E.  O.  Hovey  (Sentry, 
Kingstown,  March  13).  Outbursts  issue  from  time  to  time 
from  the  centre  of  the  lake  in  the  crater.  The  most  im- 
pressive changes  which  have  taken  place  are  in  the  erosion 
of  the  lately-erupted  volcanic  material,  and  he  estimates 
that  twenty-five  million  tons  have  been  carried  to  sea  from 
the  valley  of  the  Wallibou. 

We  referred  last  week  to  the  demonstration  of  the  prac- 
tical  working  of  the   Marconi   long-distance   wireless   tele- 
graphy given  by  Prof.   Fleming  during  his  lecture  at  the 
Royal  Institution.     Prof.  Fleming  has  written  to  the  Times 
NO.    1755,  VOL.   68] 


complaining  that  the  experiments  were  made  particularly 
difKcult  to  carry  out  towards  the  end  of  the  lecture  as  the 
signals  were  being  wilfully  interfered  with  by  an  outside 
source.  Mr.  Nevil  Maskelyne,  in  a  reply  to  Prof.  Fleming's 
letter,  admits  that  he  was  the  author  of  the  interference, 
which  was  designed  to  demonstrate  that  the  Marconi  Com- 
pany was  not  justified  in  its  claim  that  it  had  solved  the 
question  of  interference."  A  lecture  at  the  Royal  Institu- 
tion scarcely  seems  a  suitable  occasion  for  settling  com- 
mercial or  semi-scientific  disputes,  nor  can  the  result  of 
the  experiment  be  regarded  as  convincing.  It  shows,  no 
doubt,  that  it  is  possible  for  an  outsider  to  interrupt  the 
signalling,  but  then  it  is  also  possible  to  throw  stones  at 
telegraph  wires  and  break  them ;  it  does  not  demonstrate 
that  two  different  systems  working  legitimatelj  side  by 
side  would  interfere  with  one  another  when  the  ordinary 
precautions  necessary  in  commercial  work  were  being 
taken. 

Last  week  telephonic  communication  was  opened  between 
London  and  Brussels.  The  line  is  particularly  interesting, 
as  the  submarine  portion  forms  the  longest  submarine  tele- 
phone cable  yet  laid.  The  total  length  from  St.  Margaret's 
Bay  (Dover)  to  La  Panne,  Belgium,  is  a  little  more  than 
forty-seven  miles ;  this  is  rather  more  than  double  the 
length  of  the  Dover-Calais  cable  (twenty-three  miles),  which 
forms  part  of  the  London-Paris  telephone  line.  The  cable 
was  made  by  Henley's  Telegraph  Works,  and  was  laid  in 
three  sections  by  the  Alert  and  the  Monarch,  the  two  joints 
being  made  at  sea.  The  Alert  laid  16^  miles  of  cable, 
chiefly  in  the  shallow  water  off  the  Belgian  coast,  the  re- 
maining 305  miles  being  laid  by  the  Monarch  ;  the  cable 
crosses  one  of  the  Anglo-Belgian  telegraph  cables  in  deep 
water  at  about  one-third  of  the  total  distance  from  La 
Panne.  The  length  of  the  whole  line  from  London  to 
Brussels  is  210  miles,  made  up  as  follows  : — 83  miles  over- 
head lines  in  England,  80  miles  overhead  lines  in  Belgium, 
and  47  miles  submarine  cable. 

The  promoters  of  the  mono-rail  high  speed  electric  rail- 
way between  Liverpool  and  Manchester  hope  to  be  able 
to  start  the  work  of  construction  this  summer.  When  the 
railway  is  completed,  a  service  of  trains  running  at  1 10 
miles  an  hour  will  be  started ;  this  will  reduce  the  time 
taken  over  the  journey  from  Liverpool  to  Manchester  from 
forty  to  twenty  minutes.  Those  interested  in  the  scheme 
regard  it  as  being  the  prelude  to  a  reorganisation  of  ex- 
press railway  service  throughout  the  country,  and  believe 
that  once  the  possibility  of  working  at  these  high  speeds 
has  been  clearly  demonstrated,  the  railway  companies  will 
be  induced  to  build  special  mono-rail  tracks  alongside  their 
existing  lines  for  express  services.  It  is  already  rumoured 
that  the  Great  Western  Railway  is  considering  the  advisa- 
bility of  constructing  such  a  track  for  an  express  service 
between  Bristol  and  London.  In  connection  with  high 
speed  traction  on  railways,  the  experiments  to  be  carried 
out  in  Germany  during  the  next  few  weeks  will  be  watched 
with  interest.  All  the  leading  locomotive  builders  and 
electrical  firms  have  been  invited  to  submit  designs,  and 
trials  will  be  made  on  the  lines  between  Hamburg,  Hanover 
and  Berlin  ;  it  is  hoped  to  attain  speeds  of  90  to  100  miles 
an  hour  with  safety. 

Mr.  a.  Meek  informs  us  that  a  full-grown  male  beluga 
(Delphinapterus  leucas)  came  ashore  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Tyne  on  June  10,  and  was  captured  by  the  salmon  fisher- 
men. It  measured  14  feet  2  inches.  The  specimen  has 
already  been  cut  up  by  the  purchasers,  so  that  it  was 
possible  to  see  that  the  teeth  numbered  eight  on  each  side 
of  each  jaw,  or  thirty-two  altogether,  and  that  there  were 


June  i8,  1903] 


NATURE 


59 


eleven  ribs  on  each  side.  The  skeleton  is  to  be  presented 
to  the  Hancock  Museum  or  to  the  Durham  College  of 
Science.  Mr.  Meek  states  that,  so  far  as  he  is  aware,  an 
example  of  this  species  has  not  before  been  caueht  south 
of  the  Forth. 

The  establishment  of  an  economic  tripos  in  the  University 
•of  Cambridge  will  mark  an  important  step  in  the  move- 
ment which  it  is  to  be  hoped  will  ultimately  break  down 
the  barrier  at  present  existing  between  the  university  man 
and  the  man  of  business.  The  proposed  tripos  has  been 
warmly  approved  by  a  number  of  leading  representatives 
of  the  railway,  ship-owning,  financial,  mercantile,  and 
manufacturing  interests,  as  well  as  by  prominent  members 
of  the  Government.  The  tripos  as  proposed  will  consist 
of  two  parts,  of  which  the  first  is  to  be  taken  in  the  second 
vear,  and  will  not  qualify  for  a  degree  except  in  conjunc- 
tion with  some  other  examination.  The  syllabus  of  the 
iirst  part  includes  (i)  an  essay  paper;  (2)  one  paper  on  the 
existing  British  Constitution ;  (3)  two  papers  on  recent 
economic  and  general  history ;  (4)  three  papers  on  the 
general  principles  of  economics.  The  historical  part  leads 
up  to  part  ii.,  where  specialisation  is  encouraged.  In  both 
parts  questions,  not  all  of  which  are  optional,  may  be  set, 
including  quotations  from  French  or  German  writers,  so 
that  a  knowledge  of  these  languages  is  essential.  Among 
ihe  careers  for  which  the  proposed  tripos  will  afford  a 
valuable  training  are  those  of  the  country  squire,  the 
politician,  the  business  man,  and  the  administrator  of 
■charities.  It  is  only  by  the  study  of  the  principles  of 
economics  and  political  science  treated  as  exact  sciences, 
l)ut  founded  upon  actual  facts  of  business  life,  that  our 
country  can  hold  its  own  against  the  competition  of  other 
countries  where  these  principles  are  so  studied,  and  can 
thus  maintain  that  supremacy  which  it  was  able  to  obtain 
under  entirely  different  conditions  by  rule  of  thumb  methods 
iind  by  pure  speculation. 

There  was  little  new  in  the  narrative  of  the  British 
Antarctic  Expedition  given  by  Sir  Clements  Markham  at 
ix  special  meeting  of  the  Royal  Geographical  Society  on 
June  10.  Commander  Scott's  short  record  of  the  voyage 
of  the  Discovery  and  work  of  the  expedition,  brought  back 
by  the  relief  ship  Morning  at  the  end  of  last  March,  and 
printed  in  Nature  of  April  2  (vol.  Ivii.  p.  516),  contained 
the  substance  of  what  has  been  achieved.  Some  of  the 
results  of  explorations  were  summarised  in  a  subsequent 
F  number  (p.  12).  The  paper  read  by  Sir  Clements  Markham 
confirmed  the  information  given  in  these  two  messages. 
The  description  and  discussion  of  the  scientific  results  are 
left  until  Commander  Scott  and  his  fellow-explorers  return 
to  this  country  with  details  of  their  work.  In  proceeding 
along  the  ice-barrier,  the  furthest  easterly  point  reached 
was  152°  30'  W.,  and  at  this  extremity  extensive  land,  to 
which  the  name  King  Edward  VII.  land  has  been  given, 
was  found,  rising  to  heights  of  2000  to  3000  feet.  The 
ice-barrier  was  studied  from  this  point  to  Cape  Crozier, 
and  its  height  was  found  to  vary  from  30  to  900  feet.  The 
winter  quarters  of  the  ship  were  in  lat.  77°  50'  S.,  which 
is  more  than  500  miles  further  south  than  any  ship  has 
wintered  before.  Meteorological  observations  made  in  this 
position  over  a  period  of  two  years  will  be  of  great  value. 
The  most  southeily  point  reached  by  a  sledge  journey  from 
the  ship  was  lat.  82°  17'  S.,  long.  163°  E.,  and  from  it  a 
range  of  mountains  was  seen  extending  as  far  as  visible  in 
a  south  by  east  direction.  The  journey  during  which  these 
observations  were  made  occupied  ninety-four  days,  and  the 
explorers  must  have  travelled  more  than  980  statute  miles. 
Another  journey  was  made  to  the  west  of  the  ship,  the 
NO.    1755,  VOL.  68] 


farthest  point  reached  being  in  lat.  77°  21'  S.,  long. 
'57°  25'  E.  The  horizon  to  the  west  of  this  point  was 
unbroken  and  clear.  An  altitude  of  9000  feet  was  attained 
at  a  distance  of  142  miles  from  the  ship  as  the  crow  flies. 
Many  interesting  photographs  were  shown  at  the  meeting, 
and  judging  from  them  and  the  brief  messages  brought 
back  by  the  Morning,  the  expedition  will  contribute  much 
to  our  knowledge  of  the  physical  and  biological  conditions 
of  South  Polar  regions. 

A  SHORT  account  of  one  of  the  sections  of  the  International 
Congress  of  History  was  given  in  Nature  of  April  30  (vol. 
Ixvii.  p.  613).  A  memoir  by  Prof.  Ernest  Lebon,  describing 
a  plan  for  an  analytical  bibliography  of  contemporary 
works  on  the  history  of  astronomy,  was  among  the  papers 
presented  to  the  congress,  and  has  since  been  laid  before 
the  Paris  Academy  of  Sciences.  At  the  meeting  of  the 
Academy  at  which  the  memoir  was  received,  M.  Paul 
Appell,  Dean  of  the  Faculty  of  Sciences  of  the  University 
of  Paris,  spoke  in  favour  of  Prof.  Lebon 's  plan,  and  said 
that  the  bibliography  would  not  only  be  valuable  to  scientific 
historians,  but  would  also  be  welcomed  by  all  astronomers. 
The  May  number  of  the  Bulletin  de  la  Societi  astronomique 
dc  France  contains  the  titles  of  the  chapters  of  Prof.  Lebon 's 
work,  and  the  names  of  the  authors  of  books  and  papers 
which  are  summarised  in  it. 

During  a  heavy  thunderstorm  at  Heppner,  Oregon,  on 
Sunday  last,  a  remarkable  downpour  of  rain  occurred,  pro- 
ducing a  destructive  flood,  which  caused  the  death  of  more 
than  three  hundred  people.  Heppner  is  situated  in  a  gulch 
through  which  a  stream  runs  usually  only  a  few  feet  in 
width.  On  Sunday  a  dense  cloud  suddenly  covered  the 
mountain  overlooking  the  town,  and  the  rain  which  followed 
produced  a  great  mass  of  water  which  rushed  down  the 
mountain  and  carried  everything  before  it,  the  little  stream 
being  quickly  converted  into  a  deep  torrent  about  four 
hundred  feet  wide.  The  flood  swept  a  clean  path  more 
than  a  mile  long  and  two  blocks  wide  through  the  town. 

The  daily  weather  report  issued  by  the  Meteorological 
Office  on  Saturday  morning,  June  13,  showed  that  the  area 
of  high  barometric  pressure  lying  outside  our  Atlantic 
coasts  had  to  some  extent  given  place  to  a  disturbance  of 
a  very  complex  character  which  occupied  the  whole  of 
England.  By  about  midday  heavy  rain  set  in  over  a  great 
part  of  the  country,  and  continued  persistently,  especially 
over  the  southern  districts,  during  the  following  days.  In 
the  neighbourhood  of  the  metropolis  rain  continued  with 
scarcely  any  intermission  for  a  period  of  59  hours,  and  the 
amount  measured  in  the  week  was  482  inches,  being  nearly 
3  inches  in  excess  of  the  average  for  the  month.  In  the 
north  of  London  the  fall  was  even  heavier  than  in  the 
south,  and  amounted  to  about  2\  inches  in  the  24  hours 
ending  8h.  a.m.  on  Monday,  while  the  temperature,  owing 
to  the  continuation  of  northerly  winds,  was  about  20°  below 
the  average.  To  find  such  a  heavy  fall  of  rain  in  June  we 
have  to  go  back  to  i860,  when  an  amount  of  58  inches 
was  measured  at  Greenwich,  but  this  was  spread  over 
twenty-three  days.  The  average  rainfall  for  the  neigh- 
bourhood of  London  is  193  inches  only  for  the  month  of 
June.  The  heavy  rainfall  was  entirely  due  to  the  lingering 
of  the  low  barometric  pressure  to  the  southward. 

In  the  Quarterly  journal  of  the  Royal  Meteorological 
Society  for  April  last,  Mr.  W.  Marriott  contributed  an  in- 
teresting paper  on  the  earliest  telegraphic  daily  meteor- 
ological reports  and  weather  maps.  The  paper  refers 
specially  to  reports  relating  to  this  country,  although  men- 
tion   is   made  of   the   maps   compiled    in    the    United   States 


i6o 


NATURE 


[June  i8,  1903 


by  the  Smithsonian  Institution  by  means  of  telegraphic 
reports,  in  1849,  and  some  years  previously,  from  monthly 
returns,  by  Prof.  Espy.  The  first  telegraphic  weather  re- 
port in  this  country  appears  to  be  that  published  by  the 
Daily  Neivs  on  August  31,  1848.  The  first  printed  daily 
weather  map  was  that  issued  in  August,  1851,  at  the  great 
exhibition  in  Hyde  Park.  The  first  Government  daily 
weather  report  was  prepared  by  Admiral  FitzRoy,  and 
issued  to  London  newspapers  in  i860.  In  January,  1871, 
the  Shipping  and  Mercantile  Gazette  published  daily  wind 
charts,  prepared  by  the  Meteorological  Office,  and  in  March, 
1872,  that  office  issued  its  first  daily  weather  maps.  The 
6h.  p.m.  weather  maps  published  by  the  Times,  and  pre- 
pared by  the  Meteorological  Office,  commenced  on  April  i, 
1875.  As  Mr.  Marriott  has  also  quoted  the  weather  maps 
prepared  by  Mr.  Glaisher  from  July,  1849,  which  do  not 
appear  to  have  been  entirely  based  on  telegraphic  reports, 
w".  may  direct  attention  to  one  or  two  early  English  in- 
vestigations of  a  somewhat  similar  nature.  In  the  report 
of  the  Meteorological  Department  of  the  Board  of  Trade 
for  the  year  1857,  Admiral  FitzRoy  directed  attention  to  the 
desirability  of  collecting  synchronous  weather  observations, 
and  subsequently  some  hundreds  of  synchronous  charts  were 
prepared  in  the  office,  although  not  published,  excepting  for 
the  time  of  the  "  Royal  Charter  "  storm  (October,  1859). 
Mr.  Francis  Galton  discussed  the  daily  weather  for  the 
month  of  December,  1861,  and  some  600  maps  and  diagrams 
were  published  in  "  Meteorographica  "  (Macmillan,  1862). 
With  respect  to  work  abroad,  it  may  not  be  out  of  place 
to  state  that  between  1816-20  H.  W.  Brandes  apparently 
prepared  synchronous  weather  charts  for  each  day  of  the 
year  1783,  from  the  Mannheim  and  other  observations. 
Although  the  charts  were  not  published,  the  data  on  which 
they  were  constructed  were  quoted  in  his  "  Beitrage  zur 
Witterungskunde  "  (Leipzig,  1820),  and  one  of  the  maps 
(for  March  6,  1783)  was  reconstructed  and  published  in 
"  Les  Bases  de  la  M^t^orologie  dynamique,"  by  Dr. 
Hildebrandsson  and  M.  Teisserenc  de  Bort  (Paris,  1898). 

At  the  recent  flower  show  held  in  the  Temple  grounds, 
amongst  the  hardy  shrubs  there  was  displayed  a  profusion 
of  maples,  many  of  which  hail  from  Japan.  An  interest- 
ing article  on  these  and  other  Japanese  trees  which  com- 
mend themselves  by  reason  of  their  quick  growth  and  free 
flowering  habit  is  contributed  by  Mr.  J.  H.  Veitch  to  the 
last  number  of  the  Journal  of  the  Royal  Horticultural 
Society.  Amongst  the  more  technical  contributions  to  be 
found  in  the  same  publication,  one  of  considerable  import- 
ance is  the  account  of  manurial  experiments  with  vegetable 
crops  carried  out  by  Dr.  Dyer  and  Mr.  Shrivell. 

In  the  absence  of  the  director,  the  annual  report  for  1902 
of  the  Royal  Botanic  Gardens,  Ceylon,  has  been  issued  by 
the  assistant  director,  Mr.  J.  B.  Carruthers.  During  the 
year  an  estate  of  500  acres  was  acquired  with  the  object  of 
turning  it  into  an  agricultural  experiment  station,  and  was 
placed  under  the  charge  of  Mr.  H.  Wright.  The  value  of 
a  special  establishment  for  dealing  with  agricultural  matters 
of  economic  importance  is  evident,  and  the  presence  of 
aggravated  canker  amongst  the  cacao  trees  growing  on 
the  land  acquired  for  the  purpose  provided  an  opportunity 
for  demonstrating  the  scientific  treatment  of  this  disease. 
In  the  ornamental  lake  of  the  Peradeniya  Gardens  an 
artificial  island  was  constructed  of  mud  taken  from  a  depth 
of  8  to  10  feet  below  the  water.  It  is  expected  that  an 
instructive  object  lesson  in  the  seed  dispersal  of  terrestrial 
plants  will  be  afforded  by  the  systematic  examination  of 
the  plants  which  develop  on  this  area.  A  first  attempt  to 
raise  worms  and  silk  cocoons  in  the  island  is  recorded  by 
NO.   1755,  VOL.  68] 


Mr.  E.  E.  Green.  In  spite  of  untoward  circumstances,  of 
which  the  principal  was  a  shortage  of  mulberry  leaves  or 
any  other  efficient  substitute,  the  few  cocoons  raised  were 
quite  satisfactory,  and  it  seems  probable  that  the  industry 
might  with  advantage  be  taken  up  by  the  natives. 

Dr.  Hacker,  whose  investigations  on  the  cytology  of 
Copepods  are  well  known,  has  recently  {Jen.  Zeitschr,  f. 
Naturw.  1902)  reinvestigated  the  question  as  to  the  per- 
manence of  the  maternal  and  paternal  chromosomes  in  the 
germ  cells  of  the  offspring.  The  result  has  been  not  only 
to  show  that  the  parental  chromosomes  remain  distinct  in 
the  nuclei  of  the  germ  tract  of  the  young  organisms,  but 
that  the  processes  associated  with  the  "  reduction-divisions  '^ 
may  prove  to  be  even  more  complicated  than  had  previously 
been  supposed.  It  appears  that  in  the  early  prophase  of 
the  heterotype  mitosis,  tetrads  are  formed  in  numbers  equal 
to  those  of  the  somatic  chromosomes.  These  are  divided,, 
during  the  first  polar  mitosis,  by  an  "  equal  "  division,, 
twelve  dyads  travelling  to  the  respective  poles.  These  the 
dyads  fuse  longitudinally  in  pairs,  thus  giving  rise  to  the 
reduced  number  (6)  of  chromosomes.  The  next  mitosis 
divides  these  in  such  a  way  that  the  collaterally  fused  pairs 
are  transversely  split,  and  thus  a  true  qualitative  "  reduc- 
tion division  "  is  brought  about.  It  would  thus  appear 
that  the  first  of  the  two  divisions  effects  the  mingling  of 
the  parental  chromosomes,  whilst  the  second  ensures  a 
qualitative  distribution  of  those  originating  from  the  pen- 
ultimate (grandparent)  generation.  This  occurs  in  such  a 
way  that  each  of  the  six  chromosomes  ultimately  passing 
to  the  daughter-nuclei  consists  of  halves  contributed  by  two 
different  grandparents. 

W'E  have  received  the  report  (Aarsberetning)  of  the 
Bergen  Museum  for  1902. 

No.  xi.  of  the  Sitzungsberichte  of  the  Vienna  Academy 
for  the  current  year  contains  a  resume  of  the  results  of 
Dr.   F.  Steindachner's  recent  expedition  to  Brazil. 

The  "  dragonets  "  (Callionymidae)  and  allied  fishes  of 
Japan  are  described  by  Messrs.  Jordan  and  Fowler  in  No. 
1305  of  the  Proceedings  of  the  U.S.  Nat.  Museum,  several 
new  forms  being  recorded. 

Among  the  contents  of  the  June  number  of  the  Entomo- 
logist we  find  a  paper  on  the  parasitic  Hymenoptera  and 
Tenthredinidai  collected  by  Mr.  Whymper  in  the  Andes  of 
Ecuador,  and  a  continuation  of  Miss  Sharpe's  list  of  butter- 
flies from  British  East  Africa. 

The  Proceedings  of  the  South  London  Entomological 
and  Natural  History  Society  for  1902  is  illustrated  by  two 
plates,  devoted  to  the  life-history  of  the  crustacean  Argulus 
foliaceus,  which  lives  parasitically  on  sticklebacks.  The 
council  reports  that  the  affairs  of  the  Society  continue  to- 
prosper,  the  number  of  members  again  showing  a  slight 
increase. 

A  REVISION  of  the  American  moths  of  the  family 
Gelechiidce,  with  descriptions  of  new  species,  by  Mr.  A. 
Busck,  of  the  Department  of  Agriculture,  appears  in  voL 
XXV.  (No.  1304)  of  the  Proceedings  of  the  U.S.  Nat. 
Museum.  No.  52  of  the  Bulletin  of  the  U.S.  Nat.  Museum,, 
comprising  723  pp.,  is  devoted  to  a  list  of  North  American 
Lepidoptera,  which  will  doubtless  prove  of  great  value  to 
entomologists. 

In  their  thirty-first  annual  report  (for  1902)  the  directors- 
of  the  Zoological  Society  of  Philadelphia  record  a  general 
satisfactory  progress  on  the  part  of  that  institution.  With 
the  exception  of  a  slight  diminution,   probably  due  to  un- 


June  i 8,  1903] 


NATURE 


161 


favourable  weather,  during  three  months,  the  number  of 
admissions  to  the  gardens  shows  a  steady  increase  through- 
out the  year.  A  number  of  species  of  animals  have  been 
-exhibited  for  the  first  time  in  the  menagerie  during  the 
year. 

"  Sawdust  and  Fish  Life  "  is  the  title  of  an  article  in 
a  recent  issue  of  the  Transactions  of  the  Canadian  Insti- 
tute. From  the  result  of  experiments  in  aquariums,  the 
-author,  Dr.  A.  P.  Knight,  gives  reasons  for  the  belief  that 
the  sawdust  thrown  in  large  quantities  into  the  Canadian 
rivers  is  very  harmful  to  fish  ;  but  from  actual  observations 
in  the  rivers  themselves,  it  does  not  appear  that  the  de- 
struction is  as  great  as  might  have  been  expected. 

We  have  received  a  copy  of  an  "  Outline  of  Special 
Course  in  Natural  History  for  Training  Colleges  and 
King's  Students,"  just  issued  by  the  Marischal  College, 
Aberdeen.  It  contains  outlines  for  demonstrations  on 
1  lassification,  the  adaptation  of  animals  to  their  surround- 
ngs,  and  examples  of  the  leading  types  of  animal  life,  con- 
luding  with  suggestions  for  seasonal  studies  in  natural 
history.  Although  the  illustrations  are  somewhat  crude, 
ihe  pamphlet  seems  well  adapted  to  its  purpose. 

The  Liverpool  Marine  Biology  Committee  is  to  be  con- 
^gratulated  on  the  issue  of  the  tenth  fasciculus  of  the  well- 
known  "  L.M.B.C.  Memoirs,"  this  part,  of  which  Prof. 
J.  R.  A.  Davis  and  Mr.  H.  J.  Fleure  are  the  joint  editors, 
being  devoted  to  the  common  limpet  (Patella).  The  mode 
of  treatment  of  the  subject  follows  the  line  of  the  earlier 
issues,  and  the  illustrations  are  numerous.  The  authors 
believe  that,  although  limpets  are  rightly  included  among 
the  lower  gastropods,  yet  that  they  form  an  isolated  type, 
which  has  been  specialised  in  connection  with  their  adop- 
tion of  the  habit  of  adhering  to  exposed  surfaces,  and 
making  limited  excursions  for  the  purpose  of  feeding. 

The  report  on  the  examination  of  food,  drugs  and  public 
water  supplies  reviewing  the  work  of  the  Laboratory  of 
Hygiene  of  the  State  of  New  Jersey,  U.S.A.,  has  reached 
us.  It  deals  especially  with  the  analytical  methods  em- 
ployed in  testing  foods  and  drugs  ;  these  are  detailed,  and 
should  be  of  considerable  service  to  public  analysts  in  this 
country. 

We  have  received  the  "  Year  Book  "  of  the  Livingstone 
College.  The  College  trains  missionaries  in  the  elements 
of  medicine  and  hygiene,  the  curriculum  extending  over  a 
period  of  nine  months.  During  this  time  the  students  are 
systematically  trained  in  the  elements  of  anatomy  and  in 
hygiene,  nursing,  cooking,  &c.,  suitable  to  tropical 
climates,  as  well  as  in  the  prevention  and  treatment  of  the 
ailments  they  are  likely  to  meet. 

A  COPY  of  the  report  of  the  Medical  Officer  of  Health  for 
*he  City  of  London  for  1902  has  been  received.  It  contains 
an  account  of  the  procedures  adopted  by  the  Corporation 
•of  London  for  the  sanitary  protection  of  its  citizens,  some 
■of  which  have  already  been  noticed  in  these  columns,  e.g. 
the  prohibition  of  spitting,  and  condemnation  of  typhoid- 
contaminated  shell-fish.  A  point  of  interest  is  that,  though 
the  day  population  of  the  City  probably  exceeds  359,000, 
■only  339  births  were  registered  during  1902. 

The  geology  of  the  country  near  Leicester  is  the  title  of 
a  memoir,  by  Mr.  C.  Fox-Strangways,  lately  issued  by 
the  Geological  Survey.  It  is  accompanied  by  a  colour- 
printed  map  of  the  area,  which  includes  Mount  Sorrel  and 
Leicester  on  the  west,  and  parts  of  Rutlandshire  on  the 
east.  Excepting  for  the  granite  quarries  at  Mount  Sorrel, 
tiumerous  brick-yards,  sand  and  gravel  pits,  and  occasional 

NO.   1755,  VOL.  68] 


lime-works,  the  country  is  essentially  one  of  meadow  and 
pasture,  and  a  famous  hunting  ground,  the  subsoil  being 
for  the  most  part  clay — Boulder-clay,  Lias-clay,  Keuper 
Marl,  and  Alluvium.  As  most  of  the  area  is  drift-covered, 
this  new  map  differs  very  largely  from  the  old  series  geo- 
logical survey  map,  on  which  only  the  "  solid  "  geology 
was  depicted.  In  addition  this  new  map  has  alongside  it 
a  colour-printed  section  which  gives  an  excellent  and  in- 
structive view  of  the  structure  of  the  ground.  In  the 
memoir  Mr.  Strangways  gives  full  particulars  of  the  strata, 
a  catalogue  of  the  fossils  from  the  Trias  and  Lias  of 
Leicestershire  and  Rutland,  and  numerous  records  of 
borings  and  well-sections.  A  photographic  plate  shows  the 
weathered  crags  of  granite  at  Mount  Sorrel,  grooved  by 
the  erosive  power  of  wind-drifted  sand  in  Triassic  times,  as 
pointed  out  by  Prof.  W'atts.  The  price  of  the  memoir  is 
3s.,  and  of  the  map  is.  6d. 

A  "  Subject  List  of  Works  on  Architecture  and  Build- 
ing Construction,  in  the  Library  of  the  Patent  Office,"  has 
been  published  in  the  Patent  Office  library  series.  The 
subject  list  consists  of  two  parts,  viz.  a  general  alphabet 
of  subject  headings,  with  entries  in  chronological  order  of 
the  works  arranged  under  these  headings ;  and  a  key  or 
summary  of  these  headings  shown  in  class  order.  Copies 
of  the  publication  can  be  obtained  at  the  Patent  Office, 
Chancery  Lane,  W.C.,  price  sixpence. 

A  SECOND  revised  edition  of  the  "  Smithsonian  Physical 
Tables,"  prepared  by  Prof.  Thomas  Gray,  has  been  pub- 
lished by  the  Smithsonian  Institution.  This  edition  differs 
from  that  issued  in  1897  in  a  few  particulars  only,  the  chief 
alteration  being  that  the  table  of  electrochemical  equiva- 
lents now  contains  columns  showing  atomic  weights  with 
0  =  16  and  H  =  i  based  upon  the  report  of  the  International 
Committee  on  Atomic  Weights.  The  table  giving  values 
of  the  density  and  volume  of  water  between  — 10°  C.  and 
100°  C.  needs  revision,  the  volumes  from  46°  to  100°  being 
obviously  wrong  in  the  second  decimal  place.  This,  however, 
is  a  small  point,  and  can  be  easily  corrected  by  anyone  using 
the  tables.  By  issuing  works  of  this  kind,  which  are  very 
valuable  to  teachers  and  investigators,  but  for  which  the 
demand  is  necessarily  limited,  the  Smithsonian  Institution 
is  doing  great  service  to  science. 

The  first  number  of  the  "  Year  Book  "  of  the  Carnegie 
Institution  of  Washington  contains  detailed  information  of 
what  has  already  been  accomplished  for  the  encouragement 
of  scientific  research  as  the  result  of  the  munificence  of  Mr. 
Carnegie.  Upwaids  of  38,000/.  has  been  voted  to  assist 
a  number  of  men  of  science  in  their  investigations,  but  the 
fund,  large  as  it  is,  has  proved  inadequate  to  meet  all  the 
requests  for  aid  received  by  the  trustees.  As  a  consequence 
it  has  been  found  necessary  to  limit  the  activities  of  the 
institution — ground  already  occupied  will  be  avoided,  the 
systematic  education  of  students  will  not  be  undertaken, 
and  sites  and  buildings  for  other  institutions  will  not  be 
provided.  It  is  to  be  understood,  the  "  Year  Book  "  states, 
that  apparatus  and  materials  purchased  to  assist  investi- 
gators are  to  be  regarded  as  the  property  of  the  Carnegie 
Institution.  The  persons  assisted  are  expected  to  report 
upon  the  methods  toUowed  and  the  results  obtained,  and 
to  state  in  the  published  results  that  aid  was  received  from 
the  Institution.  Appropriations  are  to  be  made  from  time 
to  time  for  the  printing  of  papers  of  acknowledged  im- 
portance To  secure  the  counsel  of  e.xperts,  special 
advisers  have  been,  and  will  be,  invited  from  time  to  time 
for  consultation.  The  first  appendix,  which  runs  to  238 
pages  of  the  "  Year  Book,"  consists  of  reports  of  eighteen 
advisory    committees    on    the    chief    branches    of    scientific 


l62 


NA  TURE 


[June  1 8,  1903 


knowledge.  Another  appendix  deals  with  the  proposed 
explorations  and  investigations  on  a  large  scale,  and  is 
contributed  to  by  several  well-known  American  men  of 
science. 

A  siRiKiNG  illustration  of  the  enormous  advance  that  has 
taken  place  in  chemical  manipulation  during  the  past  two 
or  three  years  is  afforded  by  a  paper,  in  a  recent  number  of 
the  Berkhte,  on  the  "  Evaporation  and  Boiling  of  Metal3 
in  Quartz-glass  and  in  the  Electric  Furnace  in  the  Vacuum 
of  the  Kathode-light."  Dr.  F.  Krafft  there  states  that  the 
quartz  tubes  could  be  safely  heated  to  1200°,  and  with  care 
iip  to  1400°  C,  even  when  exhausted  to  the  low  pressure 
required  for  the  production  of  the  kathode-light  in  a  vacuum 
tube,  and  that  even  when  containing  metals  they  could  be 
safely  taken  from  the  furnace  at  1200°,  allowed  to  cool 
in  the  air  without  annealing;  and  then  replaced  in  the 
furnace  without  any  risk  of  fracture.  By  using  an  electric 
furnace  it  was  possible  not  only  to  regulate  the  tempera 
ture  within  2°  or  3°  between  18°  and  1400°  C,  but  also  to 
connect  the  quartz  tubes  to  the  pump  by  means  of  a  ground- 
glass  joint  made  tight  with  wax,  the  wax  remaining  un- 
melted  although  within  a  few  inches  of  the  hottest  parr 
of  the  furnace. 

The  results  achieved  by  the  methods  described  in  the  fore- 
going note  were  remarkable.  The  only  vapour  in  the 
quartz  lube  was  that  of  the  metal,  which  extended  from 
the  surface  of  the  liquid  to  the  top  of  the  furnace,  above 
which  condensation  took  place.  Under  this  almost  in- 
conceivably low  pressure  cadmium  boiled  at  420°,  i.e.  below 
the  boiling  point  of  sulphur,  zinc  at  545°,  and  bismuth 
below  1000°,  the  temperature  of  the  furnace  being  about 
T5o°  above  that  of  the  boiling  metal.  Lead  could  be 
rapidly  distilled  with  a  furnace  temperature  of  1180°,  and 
antimony  at  775-780°.  Silver  began  to  evaporate  fairly 
rapidly  at  1200°,  but  did  not  boil  at  1340°  ;  copper  showed 
a  distinct,  though  slight,  evaporation  at  1315°,  but  gold, 
even  at  1375°,  the  highest  temperature  reached  in  the  ex- 
periments, gave  only  a  small  mirror  of  silver,  and  below 
it  a  tiny  distillate  of  gold  weighing  less  than  2  mg.  It  is 
of  interest  to  note  that  the  boiling  points  in  an  absolute 
vacuum  of  these  metals,  which  probably  lie  at  about  1400°, 
1600",  and  1800°  respectively,  are  in  the  order  of  increasing 
valency,  and  not  in  the  order  of  their  atomic  weights. 

The  additions  to  the  Zoological  Society's  Gardens  during 
the  past  week  include  a  Sooty  Mangabey  (Cercocebiis 
fuliginosus),  a  Green  Monkey  {Cercopithecus  callitrichus) 
from  West  Africa,  presented  by  Mr.  C.  S.  Birch  ;  a  Two- 
spotted  Paradoxure  (Nandinia  binotata),  two  Senegal 
Touracous  (Turacus  persa)  from  West  Africa,  presented  by 
Mr.  James  Drew ;  a  Ring-tailed  Coati  {Nasua  rufa)  from 
South  America,  presented  by  the  Hon.  Sibyl  Edwards ;  a 
Patagonian  Cavy  {Dolichoiis  patachonica)  from  Patagonia, 
presented  by  Sir  E.  G.  Loder ;  a  Common  Quail  {Coturnix 
commutiis),  British,  presented  by  Mr.  J.  Woodward;  an 
Adanson's  Sternothere  (Sternothoerus  adansoni)  from  West 
Africa,  a  Pale  Lizard  {Agama  pallida),  an  Egyptian  Eryx 
{Eryx  jaculus),  a  Blunt-nosed  Snake  {Tarbophis  obtusus),  a 
Schokari  Sand  Snake  {Psammophis  schokari),  a  Diademed 
Sand  Snake  {Lytohynchus  diadema)  from  North  Africa,  pre- 
sented by  Captain  Stanley  Flower ;  a  Stair's  Monkey 
(Cercopithecus  stairsi)  from  British  East  Africa,  a  Green 
?>Ionkey  {Cercopithecus  callitrichus),  an  Eroded  Cinixys 
{Cinixys  erosa)  from  West  Africa,  a  Black-headed  Lemur 
{Lemur  brunneus),  a  Grey  Lemur  {Hapalemur  griseus) 
from  Madagascar,  five  Grey  Monitors  {Varanus  griseus), 
five  Spiny-tailed  Mastigures  {Uromastix  acanthinurus), 
eight    Ocellated    Sand    Skinks,    a    Corais    Snake    {Coluber 

NO.  1755,  VOL.  68J 


corais)  from  South  America,  a  King  Snake  {Coronella 
gctula),  a  Mocassin  Snake  {Tropidonotus  fasciatus)  from 
North  America,  a  Carpet  Python  {Python  variegata)  from 
Queensland,  a  Rhesus  Monkey  {Macacus  rhesus,  var.),  two 
Indian  Rat  Snakes  {Zamenis  mucosa)  from  India,  deposited  ; 
a  Burrhel  Wild  Sheep  {Ovis  iurrhel),  an  Axis  Deer  {Cervus 
axis),  born  in  the  Gardens. 


OUR  ASTRONOMICAL  COLUMN. 

Connection  between  Sun-spots  and  Atmospheric 
Temperature. — M.  Charles  Nordmann  has  recently  completed 
a  discussion  of  the  effect  of  sun-spots  on  the  mean  annual 
temperature  of  the  earth's  atmosphere  in  tropical  regions. 
The  period  under  discussion  extends  from  1870  to  1900,  and 
the  method  of  discussion  is  analogous  to  that  published  by 
Koppen  in  1873,  which  dealt  with  the  period  1830  to  1870. 

M.  Nordmann  has  compared  the  mean  annual  variations 
of  temperature  from  the  normal,  as  obtained  from  the 
observations  made  at  thirteen  tropical  stations  situated  in 
various  longitudes,  with  Wolf's  numbers  for  sun-spot 
frequencies  during  the  same  period,  and  from  the  two  curves 
obtained  by  plotting  the  two  sets  of  numbers  he  has  arrived 
at  the  following  conclusion  : — "  The  mean  terrestrial 
temperature  follows  a  period  sensibly  equal  to  that  of  solar 
spots ;  the  effect  of  spots  is  to  diminish  the  mean  tempera- 
ture, i.e.  the  curve  which  represents  the  variations  of 
temperature  is  parallel  to  the  inverse  curve  of  sun-spot 
frequencies  {Comptes  rendus,  No.  18). 

The  Crossley  Reflector  of  the  Lick  Observatory.— 
This  reflector,  it  will  be  remembered,  was  presented  to  the 
Lick  Observatory  by  Mr.  Crossley,  of  Halifax,  Yorks,  and 
contains  one  of  the  splendid  mirrors  made  by  the  late  Dr. 
Common.  It  has  an  aperture  of  3  feet,  and  a  focal  length 
of  17  feet  6  inches.  When  remounted  and  used  at  Lick  it 
was  found  that  the  instrument  was  unsuitable  for  long 
exposures  on  account  of  flexure  and  other  defects,  therefore 
a  new  mounting  has  been  devised  and  constructed  by 
Messrs.  Harron,  Rickard  and  McCune,  of  San  Francisco, 
and  is' found  to  work  satisfactorily. 

The  polar  axis  is  14  feet  long,  and  is  so  raised  as  to 
allow  the  instrument  to  be  used  in  all  positions.  As  shown 
in  the  accompanying  illustration,  this  axis  rests  on  two 
piers,    the    northern    one    consisting    of    an    inclined    steel 


pillar,  8  feet  high,  resting  on  a  concrete  and  brick  found- 
ation which  is  6  feet  high,  whilst  the  bearing  for  the 
southern  end,  carrying  the  altitude  and  azimuth  adjust- 
ments, rests  directly  on  the  brick  and  concrete  foundation, 
the  downward  thrust  being  borne  by  hardened  steel  balls. 
The  telescope  tube  is  carried  by  the  strong  steel  declination 
axis,  and  the  mirror  is  contained  by  a  cast-iron  cell  in  the 
lower  cylindrical  section  of  the  steel  tube,  whilst  the  photo- 
graphic plate  holder,  with  the  usual  adjustments,   is  placed 


June  i8,  1903] 


NATURE 


163 


at  the  focus  of  the  mirror  and  in  the  optical  axis  of  the 
i-ame. 

The  driving-  motion  of  the  clock  is  transmitted  to  the 
telescope  by  two  sectors,  one  of  which  is  being  run  back 
ready  to  be  put  into  gear  again  whilst  the  other  is  being 
used ;  each  sector  allows  of  one  hour's  exposure  being 
made.  The  "  following  "  is  performed  by  means  of  an 
auxiliary  telescope  rigidly  attached  to  the  plate  holder 
(Scientific  American,  May  i6}. 

The  Relationships  between  Arc  and  Spark  Spectra. — 
In  No.  4,  vol.  xvii.  of  the  Astrophysical  Journal  there 
appears  an  advance  translation,  by  the  author,  of  a  paper 
on  the  above  subject  recently  communicated  to  the 
K.  Akademie  der  Wiss.  zu  Berlin  by  Prof.  J.  Hartmann. 

In  his  experiments  on  the  arc  spectrum  of  magnesium, 
using  metallic  poles,  he  found  that  the  line  at  \  4481,  which 
is  generally  regarded  as  essentially  a  "  spark  "  line, 
appears  in  the  arc  spectrum,  and  actually  increases  in  in- 
tensity as  the  current  strength  becomes  less  •  this  is  plainly 
shown  in  a  table  which  accompanies  the  paper.  From  this 
and  similar  results  the  author  arrives  at  the  conclusion 
that  the  higher  temperature  of  the  spark,  as  compared  with 
that  of  the  arc,   is  open  to  question. 

Further  experiments  showed  that  a  high  voltage  was 
not  necessary  for  the  production  of  "  spark  "  lines  in  the 
arc,  for  when  a  current  of  20  volts  and  4  amperes  was 
used  the  line  4481  was  about  thirty  times  more  intense 
than  when  120  volts  and  4  amperes  were  used. 

Prof.  Hartmann  arrives  at  the  conclusion  that  the  energy 
of  the  electric  discharge  and  of  the  chemical  changes  may 
play  a  more  important  part  in  the  production  of  "  spark  " 
lines  than  temperature  does,  and  in  his  experiments,  in 
which  the  arc  was  formed  in  an  atmosphere  of  hydrogen,  he 
has  shown  that  the  dielectric  is  also  an  important  factor  in 
determining  the  nature  of  the  spectrum  obtained. 


RADIO-ACTIVE  PROCESSES.' 
T^flKRE  are  three  distinct  types  of  radiation  spon- 
■*•  taneously  emitted  from  radio-active  bodies,  which  may 
bo  called  the  o,  fi,  and  y  rays.  The  o-rays  are  prominent 
in  causing  the  conductivity  of  a  gas,  they  are  easily  absorbed 
by  metals,  and  are  projected  bodies,  not  waves.  These 
bodies  are  about  the  size  of  a  hydrogen  atom,  they  are 
positively  charged,  and  travel  with  about  one-tenth  of  the 
velocity  of  light.  The  )3-rays  are  similar  in  all  respects  to 
the  kathode  rays  produced  in  a  vacuum-tube.  The  7-rays 
are  probably  like  Rontgen  rays,  but  of  very  great  pene- 
trating power.  The  o-rays  are  by  far  the  most  important. 
In  addition  to  these  rays  two  of  the  radio-elements  give  off 
radio-active  "emanations,"  which  are  in  all  respects  like 
gases.  The  radiations  from  these  emanations  are  not  per- 
manent, but  fall  off  in  a  geometrical  progression  with  the 
time.  The  radiation  of  the  thorium  emanation  falls  to  half 
value  in  one  minute,  that  from  radium  in  four  days.  They 
have  all  the  properties  of  gaseous  matter  in  infinitesimal 
<juantity.  Their  coefficients  of  diffusion  can  be  measured, 
the  order  of  their  molecular  weights  is  100,  they  are  occluded 
by  solid  compounds  producing  them,  and  may  be  condensed 
at  low  temperatures.  The  radium  emanation  condenses 
sharply    at     —150°    C,    the    thorium    emanation    between 


— 120°   C.    and 


The   two   emanations   excite   on 


objects  with  which  they  come  in  contact  two  kinds  of 
temporary  radio-activity,  that  from  the  radium  emanation 
decaying  much  faster  than  that  from  the  thorium  eman- 
ation. The  latter  decays  in  a  G.P.  with  the  time  falling  to 
half  value  in  eleven  hours.  These  effects  appear  to  be  pro- 
duced by  solid  matter  in  invisible  and  unweighable  quantity, 
which  can  be  dissolved  off  in  some  acids  but  not  in  others. 
On  evaporating  the  solutions,  the  radio-activity  is  obtained 
unchanged  in  the  residue.  The  experiments  of  Crookes  and 
Becquerel  in  separating  by  chemical  treatment  the  matter 
responsible  for  the  activity  of  uranium,  called  uranium  X, 
were  referred  to,  together  with  the  latter 's  observation 
that  the  separated  activity  had  completely  decayed  after  the 
lapse  of  a  year,  by  which  time  the  uranium  itself  had  com- 
pletely recovered  its  activity.     The  work  of  Rutherford  and 

1  Abstract  of  paper  read    before  the  Physical  Societv  on   Tune  ■;,   bv 
Prof.   E.  Rutherford,  F.R.S. 


NO.    T755,  VOL.  68] 


Soddy  on  thorium  was  then  discussed  in  detail.  Thorium 
precipitated  in  solution  by  ammonia  retains  only  25  per 
cent,  of  its  activity.  If  the  solution  is  evaporated  and 
ignited  the  remaining  75  per  cent,  is  found  in  the  extremely 
small  residue  left,  which  by  reason  of  its  separation  is 
ditlerent  chemically  from  thorium,  and  was  called 
thorium  X.  Left  to  themselves,  the  thorium  gradually  re- 
covers its  activity,  and  the  ThX  loses  it.  The  activity  of 
the  latter  falls  in  a  G.P.  with  the  time,  the  half  value  being 
reached  after  four  days.  At  any  time  the  sum  total  of  the 
two  activities  is  a  constant.  This  would  occur  if  the  ThX 
were  being  continually  produced  by  the  thorium,  and  this 
was  shown  to  be  the  case  by  precipitating  thorium  at 
definite  intervals  after  its  separation  from  ThX.  The  ThX, 
and  not  thorium,  produces  the  thorium  emanation.  The 
production  of  ThX  by  thorium,  of  the  emanation  by  ThX, 
and  of  the  matter  causing  the  excited  activity  by  the  eman- 
ation, are  all  changes  of  the  same  type,  although  the  rates 
of  change  are  distinct  in  each  case.  The  change  of  uranium 
into  uranium  X  is  also  similar,  being  the  slowest  of  all. 
Twenty-two  days  elapse  before  uranium  freed  from  ThX 
recovers  one-half  of  its  activity.  In  radium  the  radium 
emanation  is  the  first  product  produced,  and  since  this  in 
a  solid  is  almost  completely  occluded,  the  activity  of  a 
radium  salt  after  it  has  been  obtained  from  its  solution 
rises  after  precipitation  to  several  times  its  original  value, 
due  to  the  occlusion  of  the  emanation.  In  all  three  radio- 
elements  a  part  of  the  radio-activity  is  non-separable,  and 
this  part  consists  only  of  o-rays.  The  j8-rays  only  result 
at  the  last  stages  of  the  process  that  can  be  experimentally 
traced.  In  all  cases  the  radiation,  from  any  type  of  active 
matter,  is  a  measure  of  the  amount  of  the  next  type  pro- 
duced. Thus  the  radio-activity  of  ThX  at  any  period 
throughout  its  life  is  always  a  measure  of  the  amount  of 
emanation  it  produces.  These  results  find  their  explanation 
if  it  is  supposed  that  the  o-particles  projected  form  integral 
portions  of  the  atom  of  the  radio-active  element.  Thus 
ThX  is  thorium  minus  one  or  more  projected  o-particles. 
The  emanation  similarly  is  ThX  less  a  further  o-particle, 
and  so  on.  The  non-separable  activity  is  due  to  the  atoms 
of  the  original  radio-element  disintegrating  at  a  constant 
rate.  The  whole  of  the  processes  take  place  unaltered  in 
velocity,  apparently  under  all  conditions  of  temperature, 
state  of  aggregation,  and  chemical  combination.  This  is 
to  be  expected  of  a  subatomic  change  in  which  one  system 
only  is  involved  at  each  change.  On  this  view  the  spon- 
taneous heat-emission  of  solid  radium  salts,  discovered  by 
Curie,  is  explained  by  the  internal  bombardment  by  the 
o-particles  shot  off  and  absorbed  in  the  mass  of  the  sub- 
stance. The  amount  of  energy  given  out  in  these  sub- 
atomic changes  is  enormous,  and  from  Curie's  experiments 
it  can  be  deduced  that  each  gram  of  radium  gives  out  10" 
gram-calories  during  its  life,  which  is  sufficient  to  raise 
500  tons  a  mile  high.  It  seems  probable  that  the  internal 
energy  of  atoms  in  general  is  of  a  similar  high  order  of 
magnitude. 


SOME  UNSOLVED  PROBLEMS  IN 
ENGINEERING.' 
'T'HE  present  lecture  is  devoted  to  the  indication  of  some 
-*■  of  the  directions  in  which  the  further  aid  of  the 
physicist  is  more  immediately  required  by  the  engineer, 
while  it  is  hoped  that  in  future  lectures  each  branch  of 
inquiry  thus  pointed  out  will  be  dealt  with  in  detail  by 
someone  who  has  made  that  particular  subject  his  special 
study. 

In  v=sw  of  the  great  interests — monetary  and  otherwise 
—involved,  it  appears  to  me  that  the  whole  question  of 
steam-jacketing,  and  particularly  the  application  of  such 
jackets  to  compound  or  multiple-expansion  engines  of 
modern  types  and  of  large  power,  using  steam  at  high 
pressures,  deserves  a  much  more  thorough  and  systematic 
investigation  than  it  has  hitherto  received. 

The  action  of  steam-jackets  is,  however,  only  one  of 
several  important  problems  relating  to  steam-engine 
economy   at  present   remaining  unsolved.       Another   is   the 

1  Abridged  from  the  eleventh  "James  Forrest"  lecture  delivered  by 
Mr.  W.  H.  Maw  to  an  EngineeringjConference on  June  16,  at  the  Institution 
of  Civil  Engineers. 


1 64 


NA  TURE 


[June  i8,  1903 


economic  effect  of  interheaters,  through  which  the  steam 
is  passed  on  its  way  from  one  cylinder  to  another,  of  a 
compound  or  triple-expansion  engine.  During  the  past 
half-century,  numerous  types  of  interheaters  have  been  de- 
signed and  applied  more  or  less  spasmodically ;  while,  in 
recent  years,  the  use  of  such  appliances  has  become  a 
prominent  feature  in  certain  branches  of  American  practice. 
The  data  on  which  the  use  of  such  heaters  is  founded,  how- 
ever, are  far  from  being  of  a  satisfying  character,  and  they 
present  discrepancies  which  certainly  require  clearing  up. 

What  is  really  required  is  accurate  information  as  to  the 
e.xtent  to  which  our  most  advanced  steam-engine  practice 
can — especially  in  the  case  of  large  power  units — be  im- 
proved by  the  use  of  superheated  steam,  and  as  to  the 
manner  in  which  such  improvement  can  best  be  realised. 
In  connection  with  this  matter,  I  may  point  out  that  we 
are  much  in  want  of  a  thorough  determination  of  the 
physical  properties  of  superheated  steam,  extending  over 
the  range  of  temperatures  and  pressures  likely  to  be  em- 
ployed in  practice.  Such  a  determination  may,  I  hope, 
soon  be  undertaken.  Equally  desirable  also  is  the  thorough 
investigation  of  the  action  of  steam — both  saturated  and 
superheated — in  the  various  types  of  turbine  motors,  a 
matter  which  has,  as  yet,  been  by  no  means  dealt  with  so 
exhaustively  as  its  great,  and  rapidly  growing,  practical 
importance  deserves,  and  respecting  which  many  lessons 
undoubtedly  remain  to  be  learnt. 

In  addition  to  the  various  points  already  mentioned,  the 
question  of  the  economy  to  be  secured  by  the  use  of  still 
higher  pressures  of  steam  than  are  now  used  requires  in- 
vestigation. We  are  without  any  direct  determination  of 
the  latent  heat,  volume,  and  temperature  corresponding  to 
pressure  in  the  case  of  steam  of  pressures  exceeding  350  lbs. 
per  square  inch.  The  published  data  relating  to  steam  of 
higher  pressures  have  been  obtained  by  extrapolation,  and 
are  by  no  means  strictly  to  be  relied  upon. 

The  thorough  investigation  of  the  theory  and  practical 
working  of  internal-combustion  engines  presents  for  solu- 
tion problems  at  once  so  numerous  and  so  varied  as  to  tax 
to  the  utmost  the  skill  and  ingenuity  of  the  experimenter. 
There  appears  to  be  good  ground  for  believing  that  with 
an  increase  of  temperature  there  is  a  very  substantial  in- 
crease in  the  specific  heats  of  such  gases.  While,  how- 
ever, the  general  fact  may  be  regarded  as  proved,  the 
numerical  data  necessary  to  enable  that  conclusion  to  be 
turned  to  practical  account  are  far  from  having  been  fixed 
with  certainty,  and  further  determinations  are  greatly 
wanted. 

The  value  of  experiments  on  internal-combustion  engines 
depends  in  a  most  important  degree  upon  the  accuracy  with 
which  variations  of  temperature  can  be  observed,  both  in 
the  cylinder  before  and  during  explosion,  and  in  the  walls 
of  the  chamber  in  which  the  explosion  occurs.  As  Prof. 
Callendar  has  pointed  out,  the  temperature  assumed  by  the 
platinum  wire  of  an  electric  resistance  thermometer  ex- 
posed to  such  gases  must  necessarily  be  less  than  that  of 
the  gases  themselves.  Moreover,  the  rate  at  which  heat  is 
communicated  from  the  gases  to  the  wire  is  dependent  not 
only  upon  the  difference  of  temperature,  but  also  on  the 
pressure,  in  a  way  not  yet  accurately  known  ;  and  thus  the 
accurate  determination  of  the  results  of  explosions  in  in- 
i^ernal-combustion  engines  means  not  merely  the  skilful  use 
of  known  appliances,  but  the  determination  of  certain 
physical  constants  involving  much  expenditure  of  time  and 
labour.  Then,  again,  the  effect  of  the  injection  of  water 
or  water-vapour  into  the  cylinder  in  itself  offers  much 
scope  for  investigation,  as  does  also  the  influence  of  the 
quality  and  quantity  of  the -lubricating  oils  on  the  gaseous 
mixture.  The  governing  of  internal-combustion  engines 
and  the  regulation  of  the  powers  developed  by  them  at 
various  speeds  and  under  varying  conditions  are  also 
matters  which  present  many  unsolved  problems. 

In  the  case  of  large  bridges,  roofs,  and  structural  work 
of  that  class,  there  is  ample  scope  for  aid  to  be  given  by 
the  better  determin&tion  of  the  amount  and  effect  of  wind- 
pressure — a  branch  of  experimental  inquiry  which  is  at 
present  far  from  being  in  a  satisfactory  state.  What  is 
greatly  required  is  a  thorough  investigation  of  the  action 
of  the  wind  on  surfaces  of  different  areas  and  shapes,  and 
particularly  its  effect  on  partially  shielded  areas.  Amongst 
other  points  requiring  settlement  is  the  action  of  wind  on 
the  lee-side  of  roofs — a  matter  on  which  the  experiments  of 
NO.    1755,  VOL.   68] 


Irminger  have  thrown  much  light,  but  which  still  requires 
further  investigation. 

In  the  determination  of  the  stresses  induced  in  the 
elements  of  a  structure  by  the  forces  applied  to  that  struc- 
ture, there  still  remain  many  problems  of  importance  im- 
perfectly solved.  The  theory  of  the  plate-web  girder,  for 
instance,  is  in  a  far  from  satisfactory  state,  particularly  as- 
regards  the  action  of  web  stiffeners,  the  stresses  on  the 
web  itself,  and  those  on  the  connections  between  the  weib 
and  the  flanges.  The  whole  subject  of  resistance  to  com- 
pound stresses — such,  for  instance,  as  those  existing  in  the 
web  of  a  plate  girder  or  a  flat  stayed  plate,  forming  part 
of  a  steam  boiler — is  one  urgently  requiring  further  experi- 
mental investigation. 

Then,  again,  we  are  now  largely  using  hollow  shafts  for 
marine  and  other  purposes,  and  the  relation  of  these  to 
solid  shafts  of  the  same  nominal  strength,  as  regards  the 
power  of  resisting  repetitions  of  varying  or  alternating 
stress,  has  not  yet  been  systematically  investigated. 
Another  point  is  the  effect  of  oil-tempering  and  different 
modes  of  annealing  on  the  endurance  of  fatigue,  a  matter 
which,  in  view  of  the  effect  of  similar  treatments  on  the 
ultimate  strength  and  limit  of  elasticity  of  steel,  is  one  of 
much  importance. 

The  great  problem  we  have  still  to  face — and  it  is  a 
problem  which  will  tax  to  the  utmost  our  powers  of  re- 
search— is  the  determination  of  what  the  change  which  we 
call  elastic  fatigue  really  is.  The  indications  of  ordinary 
testing  machines  do  not  reveal  any  change  in  the  behaviour 
of  a  material  which  has  certainly  exhausted  a  large  pro- 
portion of  its  "  life  "  under  repeated  applications  of  stress,, 
and  we  must  evidently,  to  solve  the  problem,  have  recourse 
to  other  modes  of  inquiry.  What  is  the  change  of  struc- 
ture produced  by  fatigue,  and  in  the  case  of  any  but  pure 
metals  is  this  change  accompanied  by  any  rearrangement 
of  the  constituents?  How  is  this  change  of  structure 
affected  by  variations  of  treatments,  by  annealing,  or,  ira 
the  case  of  steel,  by  tempering? 

It  is  sometimes  of  considerable  importance  to  ascertairr 
whether  a  certain  object,  as,  for  instance,  a  propeller  shaft, 
or  a  portion  of  a  bridge  structure,  or  a  steel  rail,  has  or 
has  not  been  injured  by  the  repeated  applications  of  stress- 
to  which  it  has  been  subjected  ;  and  at  present  the  only 
method  of  determining  this  is  the  testing  to  destruction  of 
the  object  respecting  which  the  information  is  desired. 
But  if  we  knew  accurately  in  what  part  of  the  object  the- 
stresses  to  which  it  had  been  subjected  would  first  cause 
injury,  and  if  we  further  knew  in  what  way  the  existence 
of  such  injury  would  be  indicated  by  change  of  structure, 
it  would  follow  that  the  microscopic  examination  of  a  small' 
portion,  cut  from  the  most  sensitive  part  of  the  object, 
would  afford  a  valuable  indication  of  what  was  going  on. 

There  are  other  questions  which  appeal  directly  to  the 
users  of  steel.  Amongst  such  questions  are  the  oil-temper- 
ing of  mild  steel  forgings  and  of  steel  castings ;  the  in- 
vestigation of  the  treatment  during  manufacture  and 
hardening  of  spring  steel ;  the  examination  of  the  qualities- 
of  special  steel  alloys,  suitable  for  the  construction  of  engine 
or  machine  details,  in  which  exceptional  strength  and  light- 
ness are  essential  ;  and  the  production  of  alloys  capable  of 
resisting  corrosion  and  withstanding  great  changes  of 
temperature,  and  thus  specially  suitable  for  the  construction 
of  superheaters  and  other  apparatus  in  which  such  changes- 
occur. 

We  have  in  new  steels  a  series  of  materials  which  promise 
to  revolutionise  a  very  important  percentage  of  our  machine- 
work,  and  to  necessitate  very  material  alterations  in  the 
proportions  of  our  machine  tools,  involving  very  heavy 
outlay,  if  we  wish  to  advance  with  the  times.  Now  these 
arc  facts  pointing  to  the  necessity  for  extensive  research- 
conducted  in  a  thoroughly  systematic  way. 

I  have  endeavoured  to  show  how  desirable  it  is  that  the 
engineer  and  the  physicist  should  work  together  in  dealing 
with  certain  investigations  which  I  have  enumerated,  and  I 
have  done  so  because,  although  engineers  generally  now  fully 
appreciate  the  aid  which  physical  science  can  afford,  there 
ha?  not  hitherto  been  such  an  intimate  association  of  the  two 
classes  of  workers  as  is  really  desirable.  But  with  elec- 
trical engineering  the  case  is  quite  different.  We  are 
accustomed  to  speak  of  the  extraordinarily  rapid  development 
of  electrical  engineering,  and  the  marvellous  way  in  which 
it  is  assuming  such   a  paramount  position   in  civilised  life. 


June  iS,  1903] 


NATURE 


165 


but  I  do  not  remember  ever  hearing  this  wonderful  growth 
attributed  to  what  I  believe  to  be  its  real  cause,  namely, 
that  from  the  moment  that  the  practical  application  of 
electricity  became  one  of  the  branches  of  our  profession, 
engineers  and  physicists  have  worked  closely  hand  in  hand 
to  overcome  its  difficulties,  and  to  elucidate  the  questions 
to  which  it  gives  rise.  The  growth  of  electrical  engineer- 
ing thus  constitutes  a  great  object-lesson,  sufficient  in  itself 
-abundantly  to  emphasise  the  fact  that  the  future  progress 
of  engineering  is  indissolubly  bound  up  with  the  progress 
1  physical  research. 


THE   SOUTH  AFRICAN  ASSOCIATION. 
■p  EVIEWIN'G    the    brief    history    of    the    events    which 
'^     culminated  in  the  first  annual  meeting  of  the  South 

rican  Association  for  the  Advancement  of  Science,  the 
lily  proceedings  of  which  were  described  in  our  issue  for 
May  21,  Sir  David  Gill,  the  president,  announced  some  of 
the  facilities  which  had  been  offered  to  induce  the  British 
Association  to  visit  South  Africa  in  1905.  The  president 
read  a  letter  he  had  received  from  Sir  Gordon  Sprigg,  the 
Prime  Minister  of  Cape  Colony,  stating  that  free  railway 
passes  will  be  granted  over  the  Cape  Railway  system  for 
all  officials  of  the  British  Association,  and  a  limited  number 
of  invited  eruests ;  and  that  a  sum  not  exceeding  6000/. 
will  be  guaranteed  towards  the  cost  of  passages  to_  and 
from  the  Cape  for  the  above-mentioned  officials  and  visitors. 
This  amount  will  be  shared  by  the  Governments  of  the 
Transvaal,  Natal  and  the  Cape.  Sir  David  Gill  went  on 
to  say  that  the  other  Governments  had  undertaken  to  share 
one-half  of  this  responsibility,  and  to  grant  similar  free  use 
of  their  railways.  There  will  be  no  lack  of  private  hospi- 
tality, and  the'  council  of  the  British  Association  will  re- 
commend to  the  general  committee  of  the.  Association  at 
the  Southport  meeting  next  September  that  the  invitation 
to  hold  the  annual  meeting  in  1905  in  South  Africa  be 
accepted. 

Reference  was  also  made  to  the  value  of  a  closer  alliance 
between  the  results  of  scientific  research  and  everyday 
piactice  in  commercial  pursuits,  the  classical  works  of 
several  of  the  earlier  investigators  being  mentioned  as 
examples  of  the  far-reaching  effects  of  thorough  and  precise 
researches  into  common  everyday  phenomena.  Sir  David 
Gill  then  proceeded  to  enlarge  upon  the  practical  value  of 
scientific  research,  and  the  reasons  for  its  encouragement  in 
the  universities  and  colleges,  and  mentioned  the  unselfish 
work  of  Profs.  Beattie  and  Morrison  in  undertaking  the 
magnetic  survey  of  South  Africa,  during  1897  and  subse- 
quent years,  entirely  at  their  own  cost.  He  strongly  urged 
that  facilities  should  now  be  granted  to  them  for  completing 
this  most  important  work,  which  fills  a  gap  in  the  observ- 
ations that  are  now  being  carried  out  in  various  parts  of 
the  world  simultaneously  with  those  being  made  by  the 
various  Antarctic  expeditions  in  the  South  Polar  regions. 

Two  papers  read  before  Section  A  of  the  South  African 
Association  contained  interesting  statistics  as  to  different 
aspects  of  the  mining  industries  of  the  new  colonies.  In 
a  paper  on  "  Nitro-Glycerine  Explosives  :  their  Influence 
on  Industrial  Development,"  Mr.  William  Cullen,  of  the 
Modderfontein  Dynamite  Factory,  stated  that  by  means  of 
■explosives  alone  above  12,000,000  tons  of  ore  had  been 
milled  in  the  Transvaal  in  the  year  prior  to  the  war,  but 
no  estimate  could  be  formed  of  the  many  million  additional 
tons  removed  in  developing  shaft-sinking  and  so  on.  The 
old  dynamite  is  rapidly  becoming  a  thing  of  the  past,  and 
the  rnore  modern  blasting  gelatin  has  gradually  supplanted 
everything  else.  Perhaps  the  most  interesting  part  of  the 
paper  was  that  where  the  final  triumph  of  nitro-glycerine 
in  cordite  and  many  similar  powders  was  demonstrated, 
proving  it  to  be  not  only  the  strongest  disruptive  agent, 
but  also  the  mildest  and  easiest  managed  impellent. 

Mr.  W.  A.  Caldecott,  in  a  paper  on  the  "  Cyanide  Process 
■from  its  Introduction  into  the  Rand  to  the  Present  Day," 
said  the  immense  importance  of  the  process  was  shown  by 
the  fact  that  just  before  the  war  half  the  gold  from  the 
Rand  was  obtained  by  the  cyanide  process.  By  way  of 
comparison,  the  writer  stated  that  the  Rand  gold  output 
in  1890  was  494,523  ounces  milled,  and  only  286  ounces 
obtained    by    cyanide    process.       In    three    years    the    pro- 


portion grew  to  1,147,960  ounces  milled,  and  330,510  ounces 
by  cyanidation. 

The  records  of  meteorological  observations  made  at  the 
dynamite  factory  of  Modderfontein,  which  extend  over  a 
large  number  of  years,  and  form  probably  the  most  com- 
plete Transvaal  meteorological  record  available,  were  dis- 
cussed by  Mr.  William  Cullen  in  Section  A.  Rainfall, 
barometric  pressure,  temperature  (maximum,  minimum  and 
average),  atmospheric  moisture,  wind  velocity  and  wind 
diiection  were  some  of  the  meteorological  data  passed  in 
review.  All  were  illustrated  by  diagrams.  The  rainfall 
for  the  various  years  was  analysed,  and  it  was  pointed  out 
where  a  departure  from  the  normal  had  great  influence  on 
the  agricultural  interests  of  the  Transvaal,  and  on  the  pre- 
valence of  cattle  diseases.  The  average  rainfall  for  the 
past  five  years  was  25  inches,  the  highest  being  306,  and 
the  lowest  20- 1,  and  the  observations  seemed  to  show  that 
it  was  on  the  increase.  The  barometric  readings  showed 
a  very  slight  variation  all  through  the  year,  the  maximum 
difference  of  about  14  generally  coming  in  June,  but  every 
twenty-four  hours  the  maximum  and  the  minimum  records 
always  occurred  at  the  same  time. 

Prof.  S.  Schonland,  in  a  paper  to  Section  B  on  stone 
implements  in  the  Albany  Museum,  emphasised  the  per- 
sistence of  the  Palaeolithic  age  in  South  Africa  as  compared 
with  other  countries.  While,  he  said,  the  manufacturers 
of  stone  implements  in  South  Africa  were  not  devoid  of 
skill  which  must  excite  our  admiration,  while  their  arrow- 
heads of  perforated  stone,  their  rolling-pins,  their  stone 
lings,  indicated  that  there  was  not  only  skill,  but  an  in- 
heritance of  trade  tricks  handed  down  from  generation  to 
generation,  which  were  faithfully  adhered  to  by  the  masters 
of  the  craft,  it  was  astonishing  that  so  far  it  had  been 
impossible  to  find  any  evidence  of  progress  in  the  manu- 
facture of  stone  implements  in  South  Africa,  such  as  we 
knew  had  taken  place  in  other  countries  from  Palaeolithic 
times  to  the  time  when  stone  implements  were  given  up. 
Generally  speaking,  it  could  be  seen  that  not  only  had  the 
Stone  age  persisted  in  South  Africa  until  comparatively 
tecent  times,  but  that  the  Palaeolithic  age  had  persisted 
there  to  the  same  extent.  This  was  especially  shown  in  the 
entire  absence  of  polished  stone  implements. 

Dr.  J.  D.  F.  Gilchrist  dealt  in  the  same  section  with  the 
development  of  some  South  African  fishes.  It  has  been 
commonly  alleged  that  the  practice  of  netting,  as  carried 
on  in  the  Zwartkops,  the  Buffalo,  and  other  tidal  rivers  of 
South  Africa,  has  proved  destructive  to  the  eggs  and  spawn 
of  fish.  On  the  commencement  of  trawling  by  the  Govern- 
ment steamer  in  False  Bay  and  on  the  Agulhas  Bank,  it 
was  urged  that  the  dragging  of  the  net  along  the  bottom 
of  the  sea  caused  the  destruction  of  great  quantities  of  the 
eggs  and  young  of  food  fishes.  The  evidence  obtained  by 
an  inquiry  held  by  a  Parliamentary  Commission  seems  to 
indicate  that  many  of  the  common  fishes  may  deposit  their 
eggs  on  the  bottom  of  the  sea.  On  the  other  hand,  in  all 
the  instances  where  the  mature  eggs  had  been  procured  and 
successfully  fertilised  on  the  Government  steamer  Pieter 
Faure,  they  were  found  to  float  on  the  surface  of  the  water, 
and  only  after  the  larvae  had  been  hatched  out  some  time 
did  they  begin  to  sink  to  the  bottom.  It  was  also  brought 
to  the  notice  of  the  Commission  that  it  had  already  been 
demonstrated  in  northern  waters  that  there  was  only  one 
fish  of  practical  economic  importance  depositing  its  eggs 
on  the  bottom — the  herring — and  only  a  small  species  of 
herring  of  little  value  to  the  present  fishermen  occurs  in 
the  Cape  seas.  Recently  facilities  have  been  afforded  by 
Government  for  more  careful  examination  on  shore  of  the 
eggs  and  larvae  procured  by  means  of  fine  nets  and  from  the 
mature  fish.  The  eggs  and  larvae  were  described  of  the 
white  stumpnose,  red  stumpnose,  silver  fish,  sand  fish, 
zeverrim  or  zee-basje,  kabeljaauw,  horse  fish,  red  gurnard, 
klip-fish  (two  species),  sole  (two  species),  and  the  blaasop, 
and  the  ova  and  larvae  of  fish  as  yet  unknown.  The  general 
effect  of  the  investigations  so  far  carried  out  was  to  confirm 
that  the  trawling  did  not  interfere  with  the  eggs  of  fishes 
that  were  of  practical  commercial  value. 

At  a  concluding  general  meeting  of  the  Association  on 
the  last  day  of  the  proceedings,  the  council  of  the  Associa- 
tion for  the  present  year  was  elected  in  accordance  with 
nominations  received  from  the  chief  centres  in  Cape  Colony, 
Rhodesia,    Transvaal,    Natal,    and    Orange    River    Colony. 


NO.  1755,  VOL.  68] 


1 66 


NA  TURE 


[June  i8,  1903 


At  a  subsequent  meeting  of  the  newly-formed  council,  Sir 
Charles  Metcalfe  was  unanimously  elected  president  for 
the  ensuing  year  and  the  1904  meeting  to  be  held  at 
Johannesburg. 

The  following  officers  were  also  elected  : — vice-presidents, 
Mr.  Sidney  J.  Jennings,  Dr.  Muir,  Mr.  Gardner  F. 
Williams,  and  Mr.  J.  F"letcher  (Natal);  hon.  secretaries, 
Dr.  Gilchrist  (Cape  Town),  and  Mr.  Theodore  Reunert 
(Johannesburg) ;  hon.  treasurer,  Mr.  W.  Westhofen  (Cape 
Town). 


UNIVERSITY  AND   EDUCATIONAL 
INTELLIGENCE. 

Cambridge. — Prof.  Darwin  and  Prof.  Larmor  have  in- 
formed the  Vice-Chancellor  that  certain  donors  desire  to 
contribute  a  sum  of  400Z.  a  year,  for  five  years,  for  the  pur- 
pose of  augmenting  the  stipends  of  two  university  lecturers 
in  mathematics.  The  object  is  to  enable  the  lecturers, 
whose  present  stipend  is  50Z.  a  year  each,  to  devote  them- 
selves by  study  and  research  to  the  advancement  of  mathe- 
matical science.  The  donors  hope  that  by  additional  con- 
tributions a  sum  may  be  procured  which  will  enable  the 
arrangement  to  be  continued,  should  it  prove  successful  in 
the  first  instance.  The  general  board  recommends  that  the 
offer  should  be  gratefully  accepted,  and  it  proposes  that 
it  should  be  authorised  to  appoint  in  October  two 
lecturers  in  mathematics,  who,  for  the  sake  of  distinction, 
and  to  commemorate  two  of  the  most  eminent  of  Cambridge 
mathematicians,  shall  bear  the  title  of  the  Stokes  lecturer 
and  the  Cayley  lecturer  respectively.  The  new  offices  are 
to  be  tenable  with  university  and  college  lectureships. 

The  general  board  has  been  in  communication  with  the 
council  of  the  Royal  Geographical  Society  respecting  the 
reorganisation  of  geographical  studies  within  the  Uni- 
versity. •  It  suggests  that  a  board  of  geographical 
studies  should  be  appointed,  on  which  the  Society  should 
have  representatives ;  that  this  board  should  arrange  courses 
of  instruction  and  administer  funds ;  and  that  a  special 
examination  in  geography  for  the  ordinary  B.A.  degree 
should  be  instituted.  The  council  of  the  Society  has 
agreed  to  contribute  200Z.  a  year  for  five  years,  to  be  met 
by  a  corresponding  grant  from  the  University,  for  the 
expenses  of  the  scheme,  and  it  is  hoped  that  other  con- 
tributions to  the  geographical  fund  may  be  received.  The 
tenure  of  the  present  reader  in  geography  expires  at  Mid- 
summer, but  the  general  board  has  postponed  making 
fresh  arrangements  until  the  Michaelmas  term,  when  a 
complete  scheme  is  promised. 

The  annual  reports  of  the  Botanic  Garden  Syndicate  and 
of  the  antiquarian  committee  have  been  published  in  the 
University  Reporter  for  June  13.  They  record  a  large 
number  of  gifts  to  the  collections  from  many  sources. 

The  professorship  of  surgery  and  the  new  lectureships  in 
electrical  and  mechanical  engineering  were  duly  established 
by  the  Senate  on  June  11.  An  election  to  the  former  will 
be  made  during  the  summer.  The  latter  will  be  held  by 
Mr.  Lamb  and  Mr.  Peace,  the  present  demonstrators  of 
applied  mechanics. 

At  the  same  congregation  the  grace  which  brings  to  an 
end  the  long  reign  of  Euclid,  as  the  sole  arbiter  of  geometry 
in  the  pass  examinations,  was  passed  without  a  dissentient 
voice. 

Dissertations  and  memoirs,  constituting  records  of 
original  research,  and  qualifying  for  the  B.A.  degree,  have 
been  approved  in  the  case  of  Mr.  J.  C.  Simpson,  Caius 
(pathology),  and  of  Messrs.  R.  K.  McClung  and  J.  J.  E. 
Durack,  Trinity,  Mr.  F.  Horton,  St.  John's,  and  Mr.  M. 
Varley,  Emmanuel  (physics). 

In  the  mathematical  tripos,  part  i.,  Messrs.  Bateman 
and  Marrack,  Trinity,  divide  the  senior  wranglership.  For 
the  third  place  four  candidates  are  bracketed,  Messrs. 
Gold  and  Phillips,  St.  John's,  and  Messrs.  Barnes  and 
Hills,  Trinity.  Miss  P.  H.  Hudson,  .Newnham,  is 
bracketed  seventh  wrangler.  She  is  the  daughter  of  Prof. 
Hudson,  of  King's  College,  London,  and  the  sister  of  the 
senior  wrangler  of  1898.  Her  sister  was  bracketed  eighth 
wrangler   in    1900.     Six  men   and   one   woman   obtain   first 


^O.    1755,  VOL.   68] 


classes  in  part  ii.  of  the  tripos.     In  the  mechanical  sciences 
tripos,  part  i.,  thirty  men  obtain  honours. 


The  department  of  psychology  and  education  of  the 
University  of  Colorado  publishes  from  time  to  time  booklets- 
dealing  with  the  investigations  carried  out  by  its  staff. 
The  most  recently  published  number  is  concerned  with 
certain  aspects  of  educational  progress,  and  includes  fiva 
original  articles  dealing  with  subjects  as  different  as  the 
function  of  habits  and  the  English  Education  Act,  1902.. 
Under  the  title  "  Miscellanea  "  are  given  extracts  from 
educational  papers  published  in  different  parts  of  the  world, 
and  amongst  them  are  two  from  Nature. 

An  instructive  example  of  the  close  connection  maintained 
between  the  needs  of  the  American  commercial  community 
and  the  technical  colleges  of  the  United  States  is  provided 
by  a  recent  announcement  from  Chicago.  In  response  ta 
requests  from  insurance  companies,  architects,  and  con- 
tractors, the  Armour  Institute  of  Technology  of  Chicago 
is  now  offering  a  four  years'  course  in  fire  protection 
engineering,  leading  to  the  degree  of  bachelor  of  science. 
This  course  will  be  inaugurated  in  September  next  under 
the  direction  of  Prof.  Fitzhugh  Taylor,  formerly  engineer 
of  the  Underwriters'  Laboratories.  The  requirements  for 
admission  are  to  be  identical  with  those  for  the  mechanical, 
electrical,  civil,  and  chemical  engineering  courses.  .A 
special  feature  of  the  course  will  be  a  series  of  lectures  by 
prominent  insurance  officials,  architects,  and  contractors- 
upon  the  practical  features  of  their  work.  The  technical 
laboratory  work  of  this  course  will  be  given  at  the  Under- 
writers' Laboratories  of  Chicago.  These  laboratories, 
maintained  by  the  stock  fire  insurance  companies,  are  well 
fitted  for  the  work,  because  all  new  devices,  appliances,  and 
materials  that  enter  into  the  question  of  fire  protection,  or 
have  a  bearing  on  fire  risk,  are  taken  there  to  be  tested. 

The  papers  relating  to  the  appointment  and  resignation 
of  Mr.  M.  E.  Sadler,  Director  of  Special  Inquiries  and 
Reports  on  Education,  have  been  published  in  a  Blue-book 
(Cd.  1602).  It  is  evident  from  the  documents  that  Mr. 
Sadler  was  anxious  to  secure  that  education  should  have 
an  open-minded  and  impartial  intelligence  office  as  much 
as  the  War  Office  or  the  Admiralty.  With  this  object  in 
view,  and  the  desire  to  obtain  increased  efficiency,  Mr. 
Sadler  asked  for  increased  facilities  for  his  work,  including 
"  the  creation  of  a  new  post  of  scientific  assistant  in  the 
office  of  the  Director  of  Special  Inquiries  and  Reports  of 
the  Board  of  Education.  The  increase  in  the  number  of 
cases,  referred  to  the  office  of  Special  Inquiries  and  Re- 
ports, in  the  consideration  of  which  an  expert  knowledge 
of  scientific  terminology  and  a  general  acquaintance  with 
scientific  investigation  and  discovery  are  indispensable, 
renders  it  desirable  that  one  of  the  officers  attached  to  the 
staff  of  the  Director  of  Special  Inquiries  should  be  specially 
charged  with  the  duties  of  scientific  assistant."  This  was 
in  1900,  but  objection  was  raised  to  the  proposal  by  the 
vice-president.  An  inquiry  into  the  nature  of  the  demands 
was  then  asked  for  by  Mr.  Sadler,  but  was  not  approved. 
The  result  of  this  and  other  suggestions  showed  that  there 
was  no  desire  to  develop  the  work  of  the  Special  Inquiries 
Office,  but  rather  to  limit  it.  Matters  came  to  a  climax 
early  in  this  year,  when  a  request  for  permission  to  prepare 
certain  reports  was  made,  but  was  met  with  objections. 
Subsequently,  the  Director  framed  a  memorandum  setting 
forth  further  needs  of  the  Office  of  Special  Inquiries,  and 
stating  that  without  additional  assistance  he  could  not  con- 
tinue to  hold  himself  responsible  for  the  collection  and 
supply  of  accurate  and  well-digested  information  on  educa- 
tional work  at  home  and  abroad.  The  Board  of  Education 
failed  to  agree  with  the  proposals  made,  and  laid  down 
certain  new  conditions  for  the  conduct  of  the  Special 
Inquiries  Office.  The  result  was  that  on  May  9  Mr.  Sadler 
wrote  : — "  The  arrangements  which  have  been  proposed  to 
me  for  the  future  conduct  of  the  Special  Inquiries  Office 
would,  in  my  judgment,  gravely  impair  the  scientific 
thoroughness  and  independence  of  the  work  of  the  office, 
and  prove  incompatible  with  future  efficiency,"  and  on  this 
account  he  resigned  his  post. 


June  i8,  1903] 


NA  TURE 


67 


SOCIETIES  AND  ACADEMIES. 

London. 

Royal  Society,  May  28.— "On  the  Theory  of  Refraction 
in  Gases."  By  George  W.  Walkor,  M.A.,  A.R.C.Sc, 
Fellow  of  Trinity  College,  Cambridge.  Communicated  by 
Prof.  J.  J.  Thomson,  F.R.S. 

The  present  theories  of  refraction  in  gases  lead  to  the 
formula  fi-—i  =  Kf{p),  where  N  is  the  number  of  molecules 
per  unit  volume,  and  /(/>)  is  a  function  of  the  frequencies 
of  the  waves  and  independent  of  temperature.  The 
measured  variation  of  fj.  with  temperature  does  not  agree 
with  this  formula.  There  are  several  cases  where  fi'-i 
is  much  less  than  K— i,  where  K  is  the  dielectric  constant, 
and  in  such  cases  we  find  that,  although /t  ^  —  i  is  approxi- 
mately proportional  to  N,  K— i  is  nearly  proportional  to 
N/^,  where  0  is  the  absolute  temperature. 

The  present  theories  are  thus  inadequate  to  explain  the 
actual  facts. 

The  view  adopted  in  the  present  paper  is  that  instead 
of  having  free  periods  of  vibrations,  the  molecules  move 
in  constrained  motion.  Regarding  the  atom  as  consisting 
of  a  positively  charged  particle  united  with  a  large  number 
of  small  negatively  charged  particles,  it  is  supposed  that 
the  negative  particles  roll  on  the  surface  of  the  positive  one, 
but  do  not  vibrate  radially.  The  control  on  transmitted 
waves  is  thus  the  rotational  energy  of  motion  of  the 
particles,  and  it  must  be  proportional  to  the  absolute 
temperature. 

When,  by  collisions  or  otherwise,  the  rotational  motion 
becomes  so  great  that  the  electric  attraction  is  overcome 
by  the  centrifugal  force,  ionisation  occurs.  The  frequency 
or  frequencies  of  rotation  at  which  this  occurs  are  deter- 
mined by  the  electrical  attractions,  and  are  independent  of 
temperature,  although,  of  course,  the  higher  the  tempera- 
ture the  greater  will  be  the  amount  of  ionisation.  These 
frequencies  are  regarded  as  corresponding  to  the  spectral 
lines  ;  this  view  explains  the  ionisation  produced  by  ultra- 
violet light,  and  also  agrees  with  the  fact  that  luminosity 
is  probably  always  connected  with  ionisation,  e.g.  the 
characteristic  lines  come  out  in  the  electrical  discharge 
through  the  gas. 

Regarded  simply,  as  .obstacles,  the  molecules  must  con- 
tribute a  term  to  /I'  —  i,  which  is  proportional  to  N  and 
practically  independent  of  the  frequency.  The  final  formula 
obtained  is 

fi'-i=k,N  +  k^^/e  f{p,d), 
where  fe,  and  /c,  are  constants,  and  f{p,6)  is  a  function  of 
p  and  d.     The  function  is  fully  discussed  in  the  paper. 

The  formula  is  shown  to  be  capable  of  accounting  for  all 
the  known  facts  connected  with  the  dielectric  constant  and 
the  refractive  index,  while  the  absorption  of  ultra-violet 
light  and  apparent  absorption,  due  to  selective  reflection  in 
the  infra-red,  is  also  explained. 

Notwithstanding  the  very  complex  and  varied  facts  in 
air,  hydrogen,  carbon  dioxide,  ammonia  and  sulphur  di- 
oxide, complete  numerical  agreement  between  the  measure- 
ments of  K— I  and/j.-—!,  as  regards  both  absolute  magni- 
tude and  dependence  on  pressure,  temperature  and 
frequency,  has  been  established. 

Chemical  Society,  June  4— Dr.  W.  H.  Perkin,  sen., 
F.R.S.,  vice-president,  in  the  chair. — ^The  following  papers 
were  read  : — Formation  of  an  anhydride  of  camphoryloxime, 
by  Dr.  Lowry.  This  anhydride  is  formed  when  nitro- 
camphor  is  boiled  with  concentrated  hydrochloric  acid. — 
Mutarotation  of  glucose,  as  influenced  by  acids,  bases  and 
salts,  by  Dr.  Lowry.  The  mutarotaticm  of  glucose  is 
greatly  accelerated  by  the  presence  of  alkalis,  less  so  by 
acids,  and  is  not  influenced  by  the  presence  of  salts.— The 
solubility  of  dynamic  isomerides,  by  Dr.  Lowry.  It  is 
shown  that  in  some  cases  the  determination  of  solubility 
may  be  applied  to  the  study  of  dynamic  isomerides,  thus  the 
solubility  of  />scMdo-0-bromonitrocamphor  in  benzene  at  10° 
increases  from  23  to  93  per  cent.,  whilst  a  mixture  of 
this  •  with  its  isomeride  dissolves  to  the  extent  of  14  per 
cent. — Ihe  rusting  of  iron,  by  Dr.  Moody.  It  is  stated 
that  the  rusting  of  -iron  is  brought  about  by  the  initial  pro- 
duction of  ferrous  carbonate  by  the  action  of  atmospheric 
carbon  dioxide  on  the  metal,  this  salt  being  subsequently 
oxidised.  The  non-production  of  rust  in  presence  of  agents 
which  destroy   hydrogen   peroxide  •  is  regarded   as  due,    not 

^o-  1755.  VOL.  68] 


as  Dunstan  suggested,  to  the  destruction  of  hydrogen 
peioxide,  but  to  the  insolubility  of  carbon  dioxide  in  solu- 
tions of  these  substances.  In  the  discussion  it  was  pointed 
out  that  the  presence  of  impurities  in  the  iron  or  in  the 
reagents  employed  would  materially  affect  the  production 
of  rust  bv  inducing  electrolytic  changes,  and  that  Dunstan 
had  already  pointed  out  that  carbon  dioxide  exercised  an 
accelerating  influence  in  the  production  of  iron  rust.— - 
Iminoethers  corresponding  with  ortho-substituted  benzenoid 
amides,  by  G.  D.  Lander  and  F.  T.  Jewson.  The  authors 
find  that  they  get  better  yields  of  iminoethers  by  alkylation 
in  an  ethereal  solution  than  in  an  alcoholic  one,  but  even 
there  nitriles  are  formed.  They  also  find  that  whilst 
o-toluamide  gives  a  yield  of  only  13-6  per  cent., 
/)-toluamide  gives  70  per  cent,  of  iminoether. — The 
hydrolysis  of  ethyl  mandelate  by  lipase,  by  H.  D.  Dakin. 
It  is  shown  that  i-ethyl  mandelate  is  unequally  hydrolysed 
by  this  enzyme,  the  product  being  J-mandelic  acid. — Iso- 
meric change  in  benzene  derivatives.  The  conditions  in- 
fluencing the  interchange  of  halogen  and  hydroxyl  in 
benzene  diazonium  hydroxides,  by  Dr.  Orton. — The  syn- 
thesis of  ao7-trimethylglutaric  acid  and  its  derivatives, 
by  Dr.  W.  H.  Perkin,  jun.,  and  Miss  A.  E.  Smith.— 
Hexamethyleneoctocarboxylic  acid  and  the  cis-  and  trans- 
modifications  of  hexamethylenetetracarboxylic  acid,  by 
Messrs.  Gregory  and  Perkin. — The  bases  contained  in 
Scottish  shale  oil,  part  ii.,  by  Messrs.  Garrett  and  Smythe. 
— A  direct  method  for  determining  latent  heat  of  evapor- 
ation, by  Dr.  J.  Campbell  Brown.  The  weight  of  liquid 
evaporated  by  a  determinate  amount  of  heat,  applied  at 
the  boiling  temperature  of  the  substance,  is  determined  in 
a  special  apparatus. — The  four  isomeric  hydrindamine-d- 
chlorocamphorsulphonates  and  isomeric  compounds  of  the 
type  NRiRjH,,  by  Dr.  Kipping:.  The  isolation  of  the 
isomeric  hydrindamine  salts  referred  to  in  the  previous  paper 
affords  conclusive  evidence  of  the  occurrence  of  isomerism 
among  quinquevalent  nitrogen  compounds  of  this  type. 
The  author  accounts  for  this  isomerism  by  the  assumption 
that  the  five  valencies  of  the  nitrogen  atom  are  directed 
from  the  centre  to  the  angles  of  a  square  pyramid. 
Paris. 
Academy  of  Sciences,  June  8. — M.  Albert  Gaudry  in 
the  chair. — On  a  new  general  relation  between  electro- 
motive forces  of  saline  solutions,  by  M.  Berthelot.  If  an 
element  formed  by  two  saline  solutions  separated  by  a 
porous  partition  A  and  B  has  an  electromotive  force  E,  the 
element  A+AB,  formed  by  the  two  solutions  A  and  AB, 
with  electromotive  force  «i,  and  the  element  B  and  AB, 
with  electromotive  force  «,,  then  the  relation  E  =  «i  +  «2  is 
found  to  hold  good.  The  relation  concerning  the  union  of 
acids  and  bases,  established  by  earlier  experimenters,  is  a 
corollary  to  this  more  general  case. — The  formation  of 
alcohol  in  the  fermentation  of  plant  juices  containing 
sugar,  by  M.  Armand  Gautier.  An  atteinpt  to  distinguish 
analytically  between  a  naturally  fermented  wine  and  a 
liquid  artificially  fortified  with  alcohol.  Attention  was  paid 
especially  to  the  various  forms  in  which  nitrogen  compounds 
were  present ;  estimations  of  glycerol  and  acidity  were  also 
made.  It  was  found  that  the  best  characteristics  of  a  really 
fermented  liquid  were  the  amount  of  volatile  acid  and  the  com- 
plete absence  of  ammoniacal  nitrogen. — On  the  propagation 
of  waves  in  a  perfectly  elastic  medium  affected  by  finite  de- 
formations, by  M.  P.  Duhem. — Prof.  Lorentz  was  nomin- 
ated a  correspondant  for  the  section  of  physics  in  the  place 
of  M.  Amagat. — On  the  results  obtained  by  cannonading 
against  hail. storms,  by  M.  E.  Vidai. — On  the  integrals  of 
the  equation  s  =  f{x,  y,  z,  p,  q),  by  M.  E.  Goursat. — On 
differential  equations  of  the  third  order  which  admit  of  a 
continuous  group  of  transformations,  by  M.  A.  BouianKer. 
— The  motion  of  a  solid  in  a  gaseous  medium,  by  M.  L. 
Jacob. — An  examination  of  the  conditions  which  deter- 
mine the  sign  and  the  magnitude  of  electrical  osmosis  and 
of  electrification  by  contact,  by  M.  Jean  Porrin,  Electrical 
osmosis  is  intense  only  for  ionising  liquids  ;  thus  a  marked 
effect  was  produced  with  water,  methyl,  ethyl,  and  propyl 
alcohols,  acetone  and  nitrobenzene,  but  was  absent  with 
benzene,  ether  and  turpentine. — On  the  external  thermal 
cnductivity  of  silver  wires  plunged  in  water,  by  M.  E. 
Ragrovsky.  The  wires  were  heated  electrically,  and  a 
steady  current  of  water  passed  at  a  measured  rate  through 
the    tube    surrounding    the    wire,    observations   being   made 


1 68 


NATURE 


[June  i8,  1903 


when  a  stationary  state  was  attained. — Hypothesis  on  the 
nature  of  radio-active  bodies,  by  M.  Fillipo  Re.  An 
•extension  of  the  nebular  theory  to  the  formation  of  atoms. 
It  follows  from  the  hypothe'sis  that  radio-active  bodies 
•should  possess  a  high  atomic  weight,  and  should  give  out 
energy  owing  to  the  contraction  of  their  atoms. — Dissocia- 
tion curves,  by  M.  A.  Bouzat.  From  an  examination  of 
thirty-five  experimental  results  the  following  law  is  de- 
duced : — in  a  group  of  univariant  systems  in  which  a  solid 
body  gives  rise  by  dissociation  to  another  solid  body  and 
a  gas,  the  ratio  of  the  temperatures  corresponding  to  a 
given  dissociation  pressure  in  any  two  systems  of  the  group 
is  constant,  whatever  the  pressure  may  be.  The  law  has 
been  verified  for  a  range  of  temperature  from  238°  to  1065° 
•(absolute),  and  of  pressures  from  300mm.  to  1600mm. — 
O'l  the  action  of  arsenic  on  copper,  by  M.  Albert  Granger. 
When  copper  is  heated  with  arsenic  in  an  inert  gas  at 
440°  for  a  sufficient  length  of  time,  a  definite  crystallised 
copper  arsenide  is  produced,  having  the  composition 
■CU5AS2.  Phosphorus  gives  a  corresponding  compound. — 
On  the  qualitative  and  quantitative  analysis  of  osmiridium 
alloys,  by  MM.  Leidie  and  Quennessen.  The  alloy  is 
attacked  by  fused  caustic  soda  and  sodium  peroxide,  the 
osmium  and  ruthenium  separated  in  the  form  of  the  volatile 
peroxides,  and  the  iridium  as  the  double  nitrite  of 
iridium  and  sodium. — On  the  nutrition  of  plants  deprived 
of  their  cotyledons,  by  M.  G.  Andre.  The  assimilation  of 
organic  material  is  lessened  by  the  removal  of  the  coty- 
ledons, but  the  ratio  of  phosphoric  acid  to  nitrogen  is 
practically  unaffected. — On  the  mechanism  of  the 
saccharification  of  the  mannanes  of  corrozo  by  the  seminase 
of  lucerne,  by  MM.  Ed.  Bourquelot  and  H.  Herissey. 
The  extract  from  Phytelephas  macrocarpa  contains  a  soluble 
ferment  the  hydrolysing  action  of  which  is  complementary 
to  that  of  seminase. — Research  on  indoxyl  in  certain  patho- 
logical urines,  by  M.  Julius  Gnezda. — The  mechanism  of 
the  emission  of  larvae  in  the  female  of  the  European 
lobster,  by  MM.  Fabre-Domerg:ue  and  E.  Bi^trix. — On 
the  iron  ore  of  Troitsk,  by  MM.  L.  Duparc  and  L.  Mrazec. 
— Castration  in  man,  and  the  modifications  which  result 
from  it,  by  M.  Eug.  Pittard. — On  the  kinematography  of 
barometric  movements,  by  M.  P.  Garrigou-Lasrang^e. 
A  series  of  charts  of  isobars,  mapped  out  for  equal  intervals 
of  time,  has  been  studied  by  means  of  the  kinematograph. 
The  examination  of  the  American  charts  has  clearly  shown 
that,  in  spite  of  their  apparent  complication  in  detail,  there 
are  in  i  eality  but  two  general  movements  of  the  atmo- 
sphere. These  two  movements  have  the  effect  of  alternately 
opening  and  closing  the  two  routes  followed  by  American 
depressions.  A  study  of  European  charts  leads  to  similar 
conclusions,  although  the  regularity  is  less  marked  than 
in  America. — On  the  conflagration  of  balloons  during  land- 
ing, by  M.  de  Fonvielle.  The  disaster  of  the  Pannewitz 
was  probably  caused  by  the  electrification  of  the  balloon 
giving  rise  to  a  spark. 

GOTTINGEN, 

Royal  Society  of  Sciences.— The  Nachrichten  (physico- 
mathematical  section),  part  ii.  for  1903,  contains  the 
following  memoirs  communicated  to  the  Society  : — 

February  21. — E.  Riecke  :  Contributions  to  the  theory 
of  atmospheric  electricity,  iii.,  on  the  mass  of  the  ions 
contained  in  the  air. 

F.  Krijgrer  :  The  theory  of  polarisation-capacity. 

March  7. — W.  Nernst :  The  determination  of  molecular 
weights  at  very  high  temperatures. 

F.  Bernstein  :  On  the  associated  domains  (Hilbert's 
Klassenkorper)  of  an  algebraical  domain   {Zahlkorper). 

E.  Riecke  :  Contributions  to  the  theory  of  atmospheric 
electricity,  iv.,  on  the  "  adsorption  "  of  ions  at  the  earth's 
surface. 


DIARY  OF  SOCIETIES. 

THURSDAY,  June  18. 
■'j''  ?T°^\^'^"i''  ,  at  4.30. -(i)  Surface  Flow  in  Crystalline  Solids 
under  Mechanical  Disturbance:  (■2)  The  Effects  of  Heat  and  of 
Solvents  on  Thm  Films  of  Metal :  G.  Beilby.-The  Forces  Acting  on 
a  Charged  Electric  Condenser  Moving  through  Space  :  Prof.  Trouton, 
KK.S.,  and  H.  R.  Noble.-On  the  Discharge  of  Electricity  from 
Hot  Platinum  :  Dr.  H.  A.  Wilson.— The  Bionomics  of  Convoluta 
Koscoffensis,  with  Special  Reference  to  its  Green  Cells  :  Dr.  F.  W. 
Oamble  and  F.    W.   Keeble.— New    Investigations  into    the   Reduction 


NO.  1755,  VOL.  6Z'\ 


Phenomena  of  Animals  and  Plants ;  Preliminary  Communication  : 
Prof.  J.  B.  Farmer,  F.R.S.,  and  /.  E.  S.  Moore.— The  Action  of  Choline, 
Neurine,  Muscarine  and  Betaine  on  Isolated  Nerve,  and  on  the 
Excised  Heart  :  Dr.  A.  D.  Waller,  F.R.S.,  and  Miss  S.  C.  M.  Sowton.— 
The  Physiological  Action  of  Betaine  Extracted  from  Raw  Beet  Sugar  : 
Dr.  A.  D.  Waller,  F.R.S.,  and  Dr.  R.  H.  Aders  Plimmer.-On  the 
Physiological  Action  of  the  Poison  of  the  Hydrophidae  ;  Part  II.  Action 
on  the  Circulatory,  Respiratory  and  Nervous  Systems  :  Dr.  L.  Rogers. 
— The  Spectra  of  Neon,  Krypton  and  Xenon  :  E.  C.  C.  Baly. — And  other 
Papers. 
LiNNBAN  Society,  at  8. — Descriptions  of  New  Chinese  Plants  :  S.  T. 
Dunn. — On  the  Life-history  of  a  New  Indian  Species  of  Monophlebus  : 
E.  P.  Stebbing.  — On  the  Anatomy  of  Leaves  of  British  Grasses:  L. 
Lewton-Brain.  — Scottish  Freshwater  Plankton. 

i^Jf/Z)^K,  JUNE19. 
Royal  Institution,  at  q.— Radium  :  Prof.  Pierre  Curie  (in  French). 
MONDAY,  June  22. 

Royal  Geographical  Society,  at  8.30. — Explorations  in  Bolivia:  Dr. 
Evans. 

WEDNESDAY,  June  24. 

Geological  Society,  at  8.— On  a  Transported  Mass  of  Ampthill  Clay  in 
the  Boulder-clay  at  Biggleswade  :  Henry  Home. — The  Rhsetic  and 
Lower  Lias  of  Sedbury  Cliff,  near  Chepstow  :  L.  Richardson. — Notes  on 
the  Lowest  Beds  of  the  Lower  Lias  at  Sedbury  Cliff:  A.  Vaughan. 

THURSDAY,  June  25. 
University  College  Mathematical  Society,  at  5.30. — Some  Present 
Aims  and  Prospects  of  Mathematical  Research :  E.  T.  Whittaker. 

FRIDAY,  June  26. 

Physical  Society,  at  5.  (University  of  London,  South  Kensington). — 
(i)  Electrical  Effects  of  Light  upon  Green  Leaves ;  (2)  Blaze-Currents, 
{a)  of  a  Vegetable  Tissue,  ifi)  of  an  Animal  Tissue  ;  (3)  Quantitative 
Estimation  of  Chloroform  Vapour  in  Air  by  («)  Oil  Absorption,  (b)  Densi- 
metry:  Dr.  Waller. — The  Temperature  Limits  of  Nerve-Action  in  Cold- 
blooded and  in  Warm-blooded  Animals  :  Dr.  Alcock.— (i)  On  the  Move- 
ment of  Unionised  Bodies  in  Solution  in  an  Electric  Field  ;  (2>  On  the 
Passage  of  Nervous  Impulses  through  the  Central  Nervous  System  :  Dr. 
Hardy. 


CONTENTS.  PAGE 

A  Scheme  of  Vital  Faculty.     By  Sir  Oliver  Lodge, 

F.R.S 145 

School  Geometry  Reform 147 

Ship's  Magnetism,     By  C.  C 148 

Our  Book  Shelf:— 

"  Encyclopaedia  Biblica,  a  Critical  Dictionary  of 
the  Literary,  Political  and  Religious  History, 
the  Archaeology,  Geography  and   Natural    History 

of  the  Bible."— T.  G.   B 148 

Westell :    "  Country  Rambles  :  a    Field    Naturalist's 

and  Country  Lover's  Note  Book  for  a  Year  "   .        .149 
Holleman  :    "Text-book    of  Organic   Chemistry." — 

F.  M.  P 149 

Ingham:  "Education   in   Accordance   with   Natural 
Law.  Suggestions  for  the  Consideration  of  Parents, 
Teachers,  and  Social  Reformers." — A.  T.  S.  ^    .    .     150 
Letters  to  the  Editor  :— 

Psychophysical  Interaction. — Sir  Oliver  Lodge, 
F.R.S.  ;  Edward  P.  Culverwell ;  A.  Bowman  .    150 

Musical  Sands.  — Cecil  Carus-Wilson 152 

The  Study  of  Bacterial  Toxins.     By  Dr.  Allan  Mac- 

fadyen .     152 

Scientific  Kite  Flying.     (///z«/ra/"^^.)  By  W,  H.  Dines    154 

A  National  Diploma  in  Agriculture 155 

The  International  Congress  for  Applied  Chemistry. 

By  Dr.  H,  Borns 156 

Notes 158 

Our  Astronomical  Column  : — 

Connection     between     Sun-spots    and     Atmospheric 

Temperature 162 

The   Crossley    Reflector  of  the    Lick    Observatory. 

{Illustrated.)        162 

The  Relationships  between  Arc  and  Spark  Spectra    .     163 
Radio-active  Processes.      By  Prof.   E.  Rutherford, 

F.R.S 163 

Some  Unsolved  Problems  in  Engineering.     By  W. 

H.  Maw 163 

The  South  African  Association 165 

University  and  Educational  Intelligence 166 

Societies  and  Academies 168 

Diary  of  Societies 168 


NATURE 


169 


THURSDAY.    JUNE   25,    1903. 


SCIENCE  AND  THE  NAVY. 
II. 
TN  a  former  article'  we  referred  at  some  length  to  the 
new  Navy  scheme,  pointing  out  that  in  our  opinion 
the  scientific  education  of  naval  officers,  and  there- 
fore the  whole  naval  service  of  the  country,  must 
be  vastly  improved  by  its  provisions.  Since  this 
article  appeared  there  have  been  debates  in  both  Houses 
of  Parliament,  including  a  most  important  one  on 
May  9,  in  which  Lord  Selborne  in  an  admirable  speech 
gave  some  new  information  concerning  the  proposed 
scheme  of  education,  and  on  the  15th  inst.  a  circular 
letter  was  issued  relating  to  the  selection,  training,  and 
advancement  of  navigating  officers.  There  has  also 
been  much  discussion  in  the  public  Press;  in  this,  as 
was  to  have  been  expected,  scientific  questions  have 
been  only  lightly  touched;  and  when  the  engineer 
question  has  been  broached,  its  relation  to  the  Admiralty 
practice  regarding  the  other  officers  who  must  possess 
high  technical  knowledge  has  not,  in  our  opinion,  been 
pointed  out. 

But  when  we  pass  from  the  criticism  of  the  new 
arrangements  to  the  first  steps  actually  taken  to  give 
effect  to  them,  the  opinion  is  quite  general  that  the 
Admiralty  is  to  be  entirely  congratulated.  Prof. 
Ewing,  who  may  be  looked  upon  as  the  creator  of  the 
admirable  engineering  school  at  Cambridge,  thereby 
showing  that  his  powers  of  administration  and  organ- 
isation are  on  a  par  with  his  scientific  acquirements, 
has  been  selected  to  fill  the  post  of  Director-General 
of  Naval  Instruction  ;  his  duty,  we  take  it,  will,  to  a 
large  extent,  be  to  do  for  the  personnel  what  the 
Director  of  Naval  Construction  does  for  the  matdriel 
of  the  fleet. 

We  may  be  convinced  not  only  that  with  such  a 
strong  man  as  this  at  the  helm  the  complete  scientific 
instruction  of  officers  will  be  insisted  upon,  but  that 
practical  laboratory  instruction  of  the  juniors  in  mathe- 
matics and  pure  science  will  be  secured. 

Indeed,  we  may  go  further,  and  say  that  they  have 
already  been  secured  in  most  admirable  fashion,  for 
Lord  Selborne,  in  the  speech  to  which  we  have  already 
referred,  spoke  as  follows  : — ■ 

"  Without  pledging  myself  to  exact  detail,  I  will 
give  a  general  sketch  of  the  kind  of  education  that  will 
be  given.  It  includes  not  only  that  special  education 
for  which  the  school  will  exist,  but  that  general  educa- 
tion which  every  officer  and  trentleman  ought  to  have. 
Histor}',  geography,  physical  geography,  English  and 
French  will  be  taught.  I  do  not  say  that  other  modern 
languages  will  not  be  taught.  Mathematics,  algebra, 
arithmetic,  trigonometry,  mechanics,  physics,  labor- 
atory work,  seamanship,  drill  and  engineering  will 
be  taught.  There  will  be  laboratories  and  workshops 
in  which  the  boys  will  be  accustomed  to  the  use  of  tools 
from  the  very  commencement.  There  will  be  vessels 
of  all  sorts  for  use  and  demonstration,  from  a  launch 
to  a  battleship,  and  generally  an  effort  will  be  made, 
while  not  neglecting  the  general  education  of  the  boys, 
to  start  them  from  the  moment  of  their  entering  the 
college  on  the  education  of  a  naval  officer." 

1  Vol.  Ixvii.  p.  289. 

NO.    1756,  VOL.  68] 


When  we  compare  this  programme  with  the  one 
hour  a  fortnight  in  physics  in  the  Britannia,  and  no 
laboratory  within  sight,  students  of  science  well  re- 
cognise that  naval  education  for  the  future  will  be 
conducted  on  business  principles,  and  we  may  again 
express  our  regret  that  such  a  system,  mutatis 
mutandis,  is  still  a  thing  to  hope  for  in  some  dim 
distant  future    in  the  case  of  the  Army. 

In  our  former  articlfe  we  pointed  out  how  the  subject 
of  navigation  suffered  generally  from  the  absence  ot 
a  school  afloat  for  practical  work  similar  to  those  pro- 
vided long  ago  for  gunnery  and  torpedo  work.  Not 
only  is  this  defect  in  the  system  to  disappear  in  the  case 
of  the  junior  officers,  but  as  stated  in  the  circular  letter 
to  which  we  have  referred,  the  regulations  for  the  in- 
struction of  navigating  officers  have  been  revised  so 
that  a  definite  course  of  practical  training  may  be  given 
them  in  a  navigation  school  ship  which  is  about  to  be 
established  at  Portsmouth,  with  a  suitable  staff  of  in- 
structors. The  course  of  instruction  while  they  are 
attached  to  the  school  ship  will  last  for  ninety  working 
days,  part  of  the  time  being  spent  at  sea  in  the  ship 
and  the  remainder  on  shore.  While  going  through  the 
course  they  will  live  on  the  school  ship. 

After  the  candidates  have  qualified  in  the  school  they 
will  serve  for  a  short  period  in  the  large  ships  of  the 
Mediterranean,  Home  and  Channel  fleets,  so  as  to 
obtain  experience  under  the  navigating  officers  in  the 
work  of  a  fleet  in  regard  to  navigating  duties. 

It  would  be  difficult  to  overestimate  me  importance 
of  these  new  departures,  about  which  very  little  has 
been  said  in  the  various  discussions  of  the  new 
scheme,  although,  in  our  opinion,  they  are  precisely 
those  by  which  the  greatest  benefit  to  the  service  will 
be  secured  in  the  future. 

Leaving  on  one  side  the  objections  to  the  new 
scheme  which  have  been  based  on  prejudice  or  a 
complete  ignorance  of  the  changes  in  any  naval  service 
which  the  progress  of  science  has  rendered  inevitable, 
we  may  say  that  the  question  of  the  possible  inter- 
changeability  of  the  officers  at  some  distant  date 
has  attracted  most  attention  in  relation  to  the  new 
training  of  the  Engineers.  On  this  point  opinion  has 
rapidly  grown  in  favour  of  the  new  scheme,  since 
inquiry  has  shown  what  a  large  common  basis  of  pure 
science  underlies  the  proper  performance  of  any  one 
of  the  specialised  duties.  The  objections,  in  short, 
have  been  held  by  advocates  of  technical  education 
in  its  worst  sense,  that  is,  the  rule-of-thumb  carrying 
out  of  practical  processes  without  any  inkling  of  the 
scientific  principles  involved. 

We  indicated  in  our  last  article  that,  although  the 
new  scheme  provides  for  a  system  of  interchangeability 
when  once  it  is  in  full  working  order,  the  present 
practice  is  vastly  different,  and  as  we  consider  this 
interchangeability  of  paramount  importance  from  the 
point  of  view  of  utilising  to  the  utmost  the  results  of 
the  complete  scientific  instruction  of  our  naval  officers 
to  be  provided  in  future,  it  is  important  to  return  to 
this  subject  in  somewhat  fuller  detail  to  show  tlic  im- 
portant bearing  of  another  part  of  the  new  circular. 

\\  (■  may  begin  by  saying  that  our  present  naval 
oil".    1^,   so  far  as  their  scientific  training  goes,   may 

I 


170 


NATURE 


[June  25,  1903 


be  divided  into  two  categories,  well  trained  and  less 
trained;  these  are  the  equivalents  of  the  "  specialised  " 
and  "  not  specialised  "  of  the  Admiralty  memorandum 
setting-  forth  the  scheme. 

The  well  trained  or  specialised  officers  have  to  deal 
with  (i)  navigation  (but  so  far  without  a  navigating 
school),  (2)  gunnery  with  a  gunnery  school,  and  (3) 
torpedoes  with  a  torpedo  school.  We  may  say  that 
the  lieutenants  performing  these  specialised  duties 
comprise  roughly  about  one-third  of  the  total  numbers. 
They  get  special  allowances  for  their  special  duties. 

But  it  must  at  once  be  stated  that  there  are  many 
duties  on  board  ship  for  the  proper  performance  of 
which  special  training,  not  of  a  scientific  character  in 
the  ordinary  acceptation  of  the  word,  is  equally  re- 
quired, and,  of  course,  these  duties  have  to  be  provided 
for.  They  are  carried  on  by  the  "  unspecialised  " 
lieutenants,  who  are  roughly  twice  as  numerous  as 
those  who  have  received  a  full  scientific  training. 
These  are  employed  as  watch  keepers  and  in  con- 
nection with  general  ship  duties.  They  are  "  deck 
officers  "  as  opposed  to  the  scientific  officers.  The  less 
scientifically  trained  or  deck  ofificer  gets  little  or  no 
allowance ;  on  the  other  hand  he  Is  expected  to  spend 
money  in  painting  ship.  We  see  then  that  under  the 
present  system  the  officers  performing  each  particular 
piece  of  work,  whether  scientific  or  merely  pro- 
fessional, are  for  the  most  part  in  water-tight  com- 
partments ;  there  are  differences  in  the  amount  of 
special  instruction  they  receive,  the  kind  of  work  they 
do,  and  the  allowances  they  get. 

It  was  pointed  out  In  the  previous  article  that  accord- 
ing to  the  present  practice  the  less  scientifically  trained 
officers  get  the  lion's  share  of  promotions;  that.  In 
fact,  the  promotion  has  been  In  the  Inverse  ratio  of  the 
scientific  nature  of  the  work  done. 

It  has  been  urged  in  defence  of  this  practice  that 
scientific  knowledge  is  of  less  value  in  the  higher 
ranks  than  that  which  is  derived  from  a  complete 
mastery  of  all  the  details  of  a  ship's  general  organ- 
isation, which  can  only  be  gained  by  the  constant 
performance  of  the  "  deck  duties  "  to  which  reference 
has  been  made.  So  that  If  we  take  the  navigator,  the 
most  Important  scientific  officer,  on  the  one  hand, 
and  the  first  lieutenant,  the  most  important  deck 
officer,  on  the  other,  the  thing  works  out  in  this  way. 
The  navigator,  because  his  duties  are  so  onerous 
and  are  never  changed,  knows  nothing  of  deck 
duties.  The  first  lieutenant,  because  his  duties  are 
never  changed,  is  unlikely  ever  to  become  a  competent 
navigator.  The  navigator,  because  he  has  not  had  an 
opportunity  of  learning  deck  duties,  has  his  promotion 
retarded  so  that  he  can  never  get  on  the  active  list  of 
admirals.  The  first  lieutenant,  because  he  is  neces- 
sarily familiar  with  deck  duties,  is  the  first  to  be  pro- 
moted, and  Is  thus  sure  of  employment  on  the  active 
list  of  admirals. 

The  baneful  effects  of  such  a  system  as  this,  which 
are  two-fold,  were  fully  set  out  in  our  previous  article. 
The  Admiralty  indicated  its  contempt  for  scientific  as 
opposed  to  mere  professional  training,  and  the  Ad- 
mirals' list  was  swamped  by  men  who  knew  little  of 
navigation,  although  this,  of  course,  finds  one  of  its 
NO.    1756,  VOL.  68] 


highest  outcomes  in  handling  ships  in  tactical  exercises 
and  in  order  of  battle. 

It  was  next  shown  that  while,  as  determined  by  the 
scheme,  the  interchangeabillty  of  all  officers.  Including 
the  engineer  officers,  must  be  secured  ten  years  hence, 
there  were  reasons  why  the  interchangeabillty  of  at 
least  some  of  the  duties  of  the  existing  executive  officers 
should  be  commenced  at  once.  We  rejoice  to  learn 
from  the  new  circular  that  this  also  is  to  be  done. 

Lieutenants  (N.)  will  in  future  be  placed  on  exactly 
the  same  footing  as  regards  executive  command  and 
ship's  duty  generally  as  gunnery  and  torpedo 
lieutenants,  and  are  not  to  be  excused  from  any  ship's 
duties  except  those  which  interfere  with  the  special 
duties  pertaining  to  them.  They  will  be  appointed  and 
succeed  to  the  position  of  first  lieutenant,  If  a  vacancy 
occurs,  in  all  ships  where  a  commander  is  borne 
exactly  in  the  same  manner  as  any  other  specialist 
officer. 

In  rendering  the  special  report  on  th6  qualifications 
of  a  navigating  officer,  a  further  clause  li  fo  be  added, 
dealing  with  his  capabilities  as  an  executive  officer. 

Further,  midshipmen  who  show  special  aptitude 
are,  whenever  possible  when  the  ship  is  under  way, 
to  be  taken  off  other  duties,  and  to  navigate  the  ship 
Independently  from  the  after  bridge,  fixing  positions 
on  the  chart,  and  bringing  the  result  of  such  work  to 
the  navigating  officer. 

Instead  of  one  commissioned  qfficer  taking  sights 
and  working  the  reckoning  daily,  arrangements  are 
to  be  made,  when  practicable,  for  one  junior  lieutenant 
or  sub-lieutenant  to  be  taken  partially  off  watch-keeping 
so  as  to  work  with  the  navigating  officer  for  ten  work- 
ing days  under  way. 

The  officer  thus  told  off  is  to  be  on  deck  when  coast- 
ing, making  the  land,  going  In  and  out  of  harbour, 
&c.,  and  is  to  be  In  every  way  encouraged  to  get  an 
Insight  into  navigating  duties.  If  at  the  end  of  the 
ten  days  the  captain  is  satisfied  with  his  work,  he 
will  be  relieved  and  another  officer  is  to  be  told  off  for 
this  duty. 

These  Important  changes  can  be  urged  on  two 
grounds.  In  the  first  place,  there  is  the  obvious  bene- 
fit to  the  Service  which  will  be  secured  when  all  cap- 
tains and  admirals  are  made  equally  acquainted  with 
both  their  scientific  and  professional  duties  by  inter- 
changing them  while  they  are  lieutenants  and  com- 
manders. In  the  second  place,  the  preparation  and 
simplification  of  the  carrying  out  of  the  new  scheme, 
by  which  another  class  of  specialised  officers,  the  en- 
gineers, will  be  introduced  in  the  future,  will  be  vastly 
facilitated  by  organising  and  testing  the  best  way  of 
interchanging  duties  on  a  small  scale  over  a  limited 
area. 

We  have  referred  chiefly  to  the  navij^tor  among 
the  scientific  officers,  and  no  doubt  the  Admiralty  has 
dealt  with  him  first,  because  his  duties  are  the  most 
specialised;  but  If  the  interchange  Is  advantageous  In 
his  case,  the  other  specialists  will  follow,  and,  speak- 
ing only  from  the  scientific  side,  knowing  nothing  of 
professional  difficulties  to  be  surmounted,  it  seems  to 
us  that  such  a  preliminary  experimental  study  of  the 


June  25,  1903] 


NATURE 


171 


problem  which  awaits  the  Admiralty  in  the  future,  arid 
which,  if  faced  along  the  whole  line,  at  the  same  time, 
may  prove  of  Herculean  proportions  and  be  fraught 
with  dangers  of  breakdowns,  must  commend  itself 
as  a  scientific  method.  Our  view  of  the  wisdom 
of  such  an  interchangeability  among  the  present  officers 
is  strengthened  by  information  which  has  been  fur- 
nished us  as  to  the  procedure  in  the  German  Navy, 
\\  hich  enables  us  to  compare  the  two  systems,  and  in 
our  opinion  fully  justifies  the  policy  of  the  new  cir- 
cular. 

The  distribution  of  duties  amongst  executive  officers 
of  the  German  Navy  is  as  follows.  As  in  the  British 
Service  every  officer  is  educated  in  seamanship, 
navigation,  gunnery  and  torpedo  service.  In  the 
course  of  their  service  the  various  qualifications  of 
the  officers  are  carefully  noted,  and  especially  if 
they  show  superiority  in  any  one  of  the  above-men- 
tioned branches.  Ships  in  the  German  Navy  are  com- 
missioned for  two  years.  The  list  of  officers  for  any 
given  ship  is  made  out  by  the  Admiralty  at  Berlin. 
The  next  senior  officer  after  the  captain  becomes  the 
executive  officer.  After  him  the  officer  who  is  most 
proficient  (according  to  the  returns)  in  navigation  and 
pilotage  is  appointed  as  navigating  officer,  without  re- 
gard to  seniority  as  lieutenant.  He  who  is  most 
proficient  in  gunnery  is  appointed  "  artillery  officer," 
and  so  with  the  torpedo  officer.  Qualification  regulates 
the  selection  of  each  officer  for  special  duties,  not  his 
seniority  as  lieutenant.  The  specialisation  of  an  officer 
for  any  particular  duty  only  lasts  for  the  two  years' 
commission.  In  the  next  commission  the  navigating 
officer  may  be  artillery  or  torpedo  officer,  or  an  ordinary 
watch  keeper  without  special  duty.  It  is  exceedingly 
rare  for  an  officer  to  be  appointed  for  navigating  duties 
for  more  than  two  years,  as  the  Admiralty  require 
every  officer  to  go  through  a  probation  as  navigator  in 
order  to  ensure  that  captains  who  are  responsible  for 
the  navigation  of  the  ship  shall  know  their  work  in 
that  respect.  An  apparently  weak  point  in  this  system 
is  that  for  a  time  after  the  appointment  of  an  officer 
to  navigating  duties  ships  are  not  so  well  navigated 
as  they  might  be,  since  for  the  first  few  months  of  his 
time  the  navigator  is  really  learning  his  work. 
Gunnery  and  torpedo  work  may  be  learnt  in  harbour, 
but  navigating  can  only  be  learnt  by  actual  practice 
and  experience  at  sea.  But,  on  the  other  hand,  the 
strength  of  this  system  is  that  all  officers  have  practical 
training  at  sea  as  navigators  with  a  captain  who  has 
gone  completely  through  the  navigating  mill,  and 
knows  how  to  detect  any  failure  in  the  navigator  which 
might  endanger  the  ship.  For  squadrons  an  officer 
who  has  shown  good  ability  as  navigator  in  a  single 
ship  is  selected  as  navigator. 

On  this  system,  whilst  ability  in  any  branch  (N.,  G. 
or  T.)  is  recognised,  an  officer  is  not  unduly  specialised 
to  the  detriment  of  his  knowledge  in  other  branches 
of  his  profession.  In  the  British  Navy  the  gunnery 
and  torpedo  officers  are  occupied  with  their  special 
duties  nearly  the  whole  of  their  time  as  lieutenant,  but 
they  go  to  deck  duties  when  promoted  commander, 
although  their  knowledge  of  navigation  and  the  hand- 
ling of  the  larger  ships  is  practically  nil.  But  the 
NO.    1756,  VOL.  68J 


navigator  is  occupied  in  special  duties  when  promoted 
commander  as  well  as  during  his  service  as  lieutenant, 
some  fifteen  years  in  all  at  least,  and  is  allowed  no 
practice  in  other  branches  of  a  naval  officer's  pro- 
fession, and  because  he  has  not  been  allowed  to  have 
any  such  practice,  he  is  discharged  to  the  coast  guard, 
his  naval  career  is  broken,  and  the  Service  loses  a  man 
who  has  had  the  best  possible  training  for  leading 
ships  into  action. 

Surely  this  comparison  shows  that  the  question  ot 
interchangeability  has  already  been  considered  in  the 
German  Navy  on  the  lines  which  we  indicated  as  bene- 
ficial for  our  own ;  and  in  this  we  see  an  additional 
argument  why  the  preliminary  trial  which  we  sug- 
gested on  scientific  grounds  in  our  own  Navy,  and  to 
which  the  Admiralty  now  stands  committed,  should 
at  all  events  be  welcomed  as  a  first  step  to  the  wider 
interchangeability  to  which  the  Admiralty  is  certain  to 
be  forced  in  the  future,  for  of  the  progress  and  need 
of  science  in  the  armed  service  of  a  nation  there  will 
be  no  end. 


THE  DISTRIBUTION  OF  DISEASES. 
The  Geography  of  Disease.    (Cambridge  Geographical 
Series.)       By     Frank     G.     Clemow,     M.D.     Edin., 
D.P.H.     Camb.        Pp.     xiv  +  624.        (Cambridge  : 
University  Press,  1903.)     Price  155.  6d. 

THE  present  writer  had  occasion  recently  to  en- 
deavour to  ascertain,  from  the  literature  avail- 
able in  London,  the  distribution  of  a  particular  tropical 
disease.  After  spending  several  months  on  the  work, 
the  conclusion  left  on  his  mind  was  that  the  task  was 
impossible  in  London  alone,  and  that  similar  work  in 
continental  libraries  would  have  to  be  undertaken 
before  an  accurate  idea  could  be  obtained.  There  is 
another  method  possible  in  the  study  of  distribution, 
viz.  personal  investigation  in  various  countries  into  the 
occurrence  of  a  particular  disease.  The  difficulties  in 
the  way  of  this  method  are  perhaps  not  so  great  as  one 
would  think. 

A  notable  instance  of  what  we  mean  has  lately  been 
afforded  by  Hutchinson  in  his  study  of  the  "  fish  "" 
setiology  of  leprosy.  Not  content  with  accepting  all 
evidence  second-hand,  he  proceeded  to  South  Africa  and 
India  and  inquired  critically  into  the  statements  which 
had  been  made  against  his  view,  with  the  result  that 
many  if  not  all  of  the  "  facts  "  (such  as  p.  229,  "  leprosy 
is  found  to  be  common  in  people  whose  religion  and 
customs  forbid  them  to  touch  fish  ")  quoted  as  opposed 
to  his  views  he  was  easily  able  to  show  were  not  facts 
al  all,  but  mere  hearsay  evidence,  which  by  constant 
repetition  is  at  last  generally  believed.  Many  instances 
of  this  kind  have  come  within  the  writer's  own  ex- 
perience. Thus  when  first  the  mosquito  malaria  theory 
was  definitely  established  on  a  basis  of  fact,  it  was 
asserted  in  print  over  and  over  again  that  no  mosquitoes 
existed  in  such  a  place,  but  that  malaria  was  rife  there. 
As  it  was  important  to  examine  into  these  statements, 
the  circumstances  were  carefully  investigated  in  each 
particular  instance,  with  the  result  that  the  "  facts  '* 
vanished  into  thin  air. 

Another  striking  example    is    Manson's    theory    of 


172 


NATURE 


[June  25,  1903 


Filaria  Persians  as  the  causative  agent  of  sleeping 
sickness  (p.  408).  This  view  had  prevailed  in  the  text- 
books for  some  time,  but  the  Royal  Society's  commis- 
sion has  shown  at  once  that  the  facts  will  not  support 
this  view.  These  then  are  instances  where  a  personal 
acquaintance  of  even  a  few  months'  duration  of 
the  disease  under  consideration  has  considerably 
modified  received  opinions.  But  we  cannot  always 
hope  to  have  critical  inquiries  of  this  kind  by  trained 
observers.  We  are,  unfortunately,  left  with  the  second 
much  inferior  method,  viz.  the  diligent  searching  out 
of  all  that  has  been  written  on  the  diseases  in  question, 
more  especially  in  the  latest  periodical  literature.  Here 
we  are  immediately  confronted  with  the  difficulty  of 
knowing  what  to  believe  amidst  the  mass  of  published 
articles,  and  when  we  see  some  of  the  sources  from 
which  the  author  has  only  too  frequently  quoted,  we 
consider  that  he  has  not  had  a  due  appreciation  of  the 
extremely  untrustworthy  nature  of  much  of  his 
material. 

With  this  qualification  then,  viz.  a  too  ready  willing- 
ness to  admit  the  statements  of  uncritical  writers,  we 
can  only  find  praise  for  the  large  mass  of  material  con- 
densed by  the  author.  To  hope  to  find  any  general  ex- 
planation of  the  distribution  of  diseases  is,  we  think,  at 
present  premature.  We  may  point  out  finally  some 
details  of  particular  diseases  where  the  information  is 
inadequate  or  inaccurately  set  forth.  On  p.  237,  the 
principal  carrier  of  malaria  is  said  to  be  A.  Claviger. 
This  is  a  curious  statement,  seeing  that  it  does  not 
occur  in  tropical  Africa,  India,  Malaysia,  &c.  Possibly 
the  author  had  Europe  alone  in  his  mind.  Nor  should 
we  think  that  Grassi  holds  that  any  species  of  Culex 
can  transmit  malaria.  The  malaria  of  cattle  is  quite 
a  different  disease  from  that  of  man,  and  it  is  not 
accurate  to  use  this  term  in  reference  to  pyroplasma 
bovis  (p.  243).  Again,  the  malarial  statistics  of  India 
have  been,  up  to  the  present,  so  notoriously  untrust- 
worthy that  we  doubt  much  the  value  of  quoting  state- 
ments about  "  an  increased  production  of  the  poison  " 
in  famine  years  (p.  248).  Nor  is  it  true  that  the 
Central  Provinces  are  among  the  most  malarious 
territorial  divisions  of  India. 

Turning  now  to  that  peculiar  manifestation  of 
malaria,  blackwater  fever  (p.  44),  we  note  the  omission 
of  Palestine  as  an  important  focus  of  this  disease.  So 
virulent  is  it  there  among  the  Jews  that  some  villages 
have  been  deserted.  On  p.  51  the  author  writes, 
"  whether  haemoglobinuric  fever  in  man  is  due  to  the 
same  organism  as  the  red  water  fever  of  cattle  is 
uncertain."  In  our  opinion  it  is  absolutely  certain 
that  it  is  not,  for  the  simple  reason  that  this  organism 
(pyroplasma)  of  cattle  has  a  characteristic  and  easily 
recognised  appearance,  and  exists  in  abundance  in  the 
blood  and  organs,  but  has  never  been  seen  or  described 
by  anybody  in  the  blood  or  organs  of  blackwater 
patients.  The  recent  commission  on  malaria  appointed 
by  the  Royal  Society  has  likewise  shown  that  in  the 
Duars  (India)  it  is  as  common  as  in  tropical  Africa. 
Nor  do  we  consider  that  an  abundance  of  observations 
has  been  published  tending  to  disprove  Koch's  views 
of  blackwater;  on  the  contrary^  the  Royal  Society's 
NO.    1756,  VOL.   68]       - 


commission  was  of  precisely  the  same  view  as 
Koch. 

Sprue  (p.  127)  undoubtedly  exists  in  India,  as  a 
typical  case  from  there  in  a  lady  came  recently  within 
our  knowledge.  It  is  quite  certain,  however,  that  the 
aetiology  and  differentiation  of  hill-diarrhceas  in 
India  is  completely  obscure  at  present.  We  have 
already  referred  to  the  work  of  the  sleeping  sickness 
commission,  but  it  seems  probable  that  when  its  com- 
plete reports  are  published  our  knowledge  of  the  dis- 
tribution of  Filaria  will  be  considerably  modified. 

While  we  have  pointed  out  in  what  respect  we  con- 
sider this  book  deficient,  yet  it  must  not  be  thought 
that  we  have  not  a  full  appreciation  for  the  industry 
which  it  must  have  necessitated ;  and  those  students 
who  wish  to  possess  a  well-arranged  book  of  reference 
on  the  distribution  of  diseases  ought  to  be  exceedingly 
grateful  to  the  author,  but  when  consulting  it  they 
should  remember  that  the  subject  is  hardly  yet  capable 
of  accurate  treatment.  J.  W.  W.  S. 


HYDRODYNAMICAL   FIELDS    OF   FORCE. 

Vorlesungen  uber  hydrodynamische  Fernkrafte  nach 
C.  A.  Bjerknes'  Theorie.  Von  V.  Bjerknes.  Band 
ii.  Pp.  xvi  +  316.  (Leipzig:  Johann  Ambrosius 
Barth,  1902.)  Price  10  marks,  or  11.50  marks  bound. 

THE  first  volume  of  this  book,  which  was  reviewed 
in  Nature  for  November  3,  1900,  is  of  a  theoret- 
ical character,  and  deals  with  the  stream  lines  in  a  per- 
fect liquid  considered  especially  with  reference  to  the 
motions  set  up  by  moving  solids  and  in  particular  pul- 
sating, oscillating,  or  moving  spheres.  In  it  were  ob- 
tained results  now  well  known  to  students  of  hydro- 
dynamics showing  the  existence  of  attractions  and  re- 
pulsions between  the  spheres,  bearing  a  considerable 
analogy  to  the  forces  occurring  in  gravitation  and  other 
physical  phenomena. 

The  interest  of  these  results  is  greatly  enhanced  by 
the  experiments  described  in  the  present  volume.  These 
experiments  were  commenced  in  the  summer  of  1875 
by  the  late  Prof.  C.  A.  Bjerknes,  who  observed  that  if 
two  spheres  lighter  than  water  (croquet-balls  were  used 
in  the  first  instance)  are  allowed  to  fall  into  a  tank  of 
water  from  the  same  height,  so  as  to  set  up  vertical 
oscillations  at  the  surface,  they  will  approach  each 
other  if  let  fall  simultaneously,  and  will  recede  from 
each  other  if  let  fall  so  that  their  oscillations  are  oppo- 
site in  phase.  From  the  fact  that  the  volumes  dis- 
placed by  the  spheres  vary,  the  conditions  are  in  many 
ways  analogous  to  those  produced  in  an  infinite  liquid 
by  "  pulsating  "  rather  than  oscillating  spheres. 
From  this  beginning  more  elaborate  experiments  were 
devised.  A  sphere  falling  in  liquid  in  the  neighbour- 
hood of  a  vertical  wall  in  which  its  image  could  be 
seen  by  reflection  was  found  to  reproduce  the  attrac- 
tions and  repulsions  indicated  by  theory  for  a  pair.  Of 
spheres  moving  symmetrically.  The  next  experiments 
were  conducted  with  spheres  so  fixed  as  to  perform 
pendulum  oscillations  below  the  surface.  The  experi- 
ments were  first  performed  at  home,  but  from  1876  to 
1880  Prof.  Schiotz  arranged  for  their  continuation  in 


June  25,  1903] 


Ir 

^^B  Physical   Laboratory  of  Christiania,   and  during 
^^Blast  two  years  Mr.  S.  Svendsen  assisted  in  the  work. 
^^But  1880,   Prof.   C.  A.   Bjerknes  received  from  the 
^^Brwegian   Government  a  private   laboratory,   where 
^H^  experiments  were  arranged  by  the  author  with  the 
IRssistance  of  Mr.  J.  L.  Andersen.     The  result  of  these 
facilities  was  the  construction  of  an  elaborate  instru- 
ment for  measuring  the  attractions  and  repulsions  of 
bodies  pulsating  in  liquid.     The  generator  consists  of 
a  system  of  pumps  or  drums  operated  on  as  bellows  by 
cranks  worked  by  a  handle.     These  alternately  force 
air  in  and  out  of  the  "  pulsators,"  which  may  consist 
I  ither  of  elastic  balls,  drums,  or  similar  arrangements 
>uspended  in  the  water  by  a  "  pulsation  balance,"  and 
tlie   whole   apparatus   is   now   supplied  by   Ferdinand 
Ernccke,   of   Berlin.       Another   form   of  apparatus   is 
described   suitable   for   studying   bodies   oscillating   in 
Aater  without  change  of  volume.     Methods  are  also 
described  of  rendering  the  stream  lines  visible,   and 
diagrams  are  shown   illustrating  the  resemblance  of 
these  lines  to  magnetic  lines  of  force. 

The  description  of  the  experiments  occupies  the 
second  part  of  the  book.  The  first  part  consists  of  a 
summary  of  the  main  results,  both  quantitative  and 
qualitative,  which  were  established  in  vol.  i.,  treated 
by  elementary  methods  only,  and  it  serves  the  purpose 
of  enabling  the  physicist  to  read  the  present  volume 
without  studying  its  more  mathematical  predecessor. 
F'or  such  a  reader  the  third  part  will  have  consider- 
able interest,  for  it  deals  with  the  analogy  of  hydro- 
dynamical  phenomena  with  those  of  electrostatics  and 
magnetism.  Prof.  C.  A.  Bjerknes 's  original  discus- 
sions of  these  analogies  having  been  given  at  a  transi- 
tion period  in  the  development  of  electrical  science,  the 
writer  of  the  present  volume  has  largely  remodelled 
the  arguments  in  order  that  they  may  be  studied  in  the 
light  of  modern  electrical  views.  Between  hydro- 
dynamical  and  electric  or  magnetic  fields  of  force,  a 
close  analogy  exists  except  in  regard  to  the  sign  of 
the  force.  The  stream  lines  due  to  spheres  executing 
pulsations  of  the  same  phase  are  identical  with  the 
lines  of  force  due  to  like  charges,  but  the  pulsating 
spheres  attract  one  another  while  the  electrified 
spheres  repel  one  another.  If  the  pulsations  are  of 
opposite  phases,  the  stream  lines  are  the  same  as  the 
lines  of  force  of  oppositely  charged  bodies,  but  the 
force  is  repulsive  instead  of  attractive.  Owing  to  this 
difference,  the  hydrodynamical  field  is  to  be  regarded 
as  affording  a  representation  rather  than  an  explan- 
ation of  electric  and  magnetic  fields,  and  as  Prof.  V. 
Bjerknes  points  out,  a  negative  representation  is  still 
a  representation,  and  it  may  admit  of  all  the  uses  of  a 
positive  one. 

Prof.  V.  Bjerknes  has  uniformly  adopted  the  Heavi- 
side  system  of  "  rational  "  electrical  units,  and  he 
points  out  the  great  simplifications  that  arise  from  the 
use  of  this  system,  expressing  his  regret  that  the  exist- 
ing units  were  adopted  before  the  advantages  of  the 
rational  system  had  been  fully  appreciated. 

The  book  will  be  read  with  much  interest  by 
physicists,  and  the  reproduction  of  some  of  the  experi- 
ments in  the  lecture  room  suggests  a  useful  aid  to  the 
teaching  of  electricity.  G.  H.  Brvan. 

NO.    1756,  VOI-.  68] 


NATURE 


^n 


FARM   ACCOUNTS. 
The  Farmer's  Business  Handbook.     By  I.  P.  Roberts. 
Rural  Science  Series.     Pp.  xiii  +  300.     (New  York  : 
The  Macmillan  Company ;  London  :  Macmillan  and 
Co.,  Ltd.,  1903.)     Price  4s.  6J.  net. 

THIS  volume  of  the  Rural  Science  Series  consists 
firstly  of  an  elementary  account  of  book-keeping 
suitable  to  a  small  farm,  and  secondly  a  discussion  of 
such  legal  questions  as  leases,  tenant  right,  highways,, 
fences,  mortgages,  taxes,  &c.,  with  which  an  ordinary 
farmer  is  likely  to  become  conveisant  in  the  course 
of  his  business.  This  latter  portion  of  the  book  is. 
naturally  only  applicable  to  the  United  States,  and 
though  succinctly  and  clearly  written,  can  be  of  little 
service  to  the  English  reader.  In  the  earlier  section 
of  the  book  a  system  of  book-keeping  is  set  out  by 
which  the  farmer  can  ascertain  not  only  his  profit  or 
loss  as  a  whole,  but  the  result  of  his  operations  on  each 
field  or  in  each  section  of  his  business.  The  usual 
method  of  double  entry  is  employed,  though  only  day 
book  (for  which  the  American  equivalent  is  apparently 
"  blotter  ")  and  ledger  are  kept.  The  explanations  are 
clear  and  simple,  and  may  be  read  with  profit  by 
students  who  are  beginning  formal  book-keeping,  and 
are  getting  confused  over  the  problem  of  Dr.  and  Cr. 
But  we  are  by  no  means  convinced  that  the  ordinary 
system  of  double  entry  is  the  best  method  of  handling 
farm  accounts;  naturally  it  can  be  made  to  deal  with 
them,  and  for  the  cash  account  nothing  different  is 
wanted,  but  it  is  an  extremely  cumbrous  means  of 
ascertaining  the  profit  or  loss  on  individual  crops  or 
classes  of  live  stock.  Farmers  are  often  reproached, 
and  justly  enough,  with  not  keeping  proper  accounts, 
but  it  is  not  quite  so  easy  a  matter  as  in  a  business 
where  all  the  items  are  in  sight.  So  many  of  the 
figures  must  be  estimates  depending  upon  the  judg- 
ment of  the  farmer ;  first  of  all  the  annual  stock-taking 
has  to  be  a  valuation,  in  which  market  fluctuations 
have,  or  have  not,  to  be  considered,  according  to  the 
purpose  of  the  account.  For  example,  a  man  has  a 
breeding  flock  the  number  of  which  remains  constant ; 
in  ascertaining  his  profits  upon  sheep-breeding  it  is 
best  to  take  the  value  of  the  flock  as  constant,  but  in 
ascertaining  his  financial  position  at  a  given  moment,, 
he  must  re-value  the  flock  at  current  rates.  Again,, 
many  operations  upon  a  farm  are  performed  as  much 
for  their  contingent  advantages  as  for  immediate  re- 
turn ;  the  dung  and  cultivations  given  to  the  root  cropi- 
have  their  value  throughout  the  rest  of  the  rotation ; 
cattle  are  fattened  for  the  sake  of  the  manure  they 
produce. 

To  one  point  the  author  of  this  book  very  properly 
gives  special  prominence,  the  item  of  household  ex- 
penses; the  house  rent,  the  milk,  potatoes,  &c.,  con- 
sumed, the  labour  spent,  are  very  otten  not  taken  into 
account  at  all,  and  the  farmer  sometimes  comes  to  the 
conclusion  that  his  farm  is  not  paying  when  he  is 
really  living  beyond  his  income.  On  the  whole  we 
believe  that  the  ideal  system  is  to  open  a  ledger  account 
for  all  cash  transactions  and  for  the  house,  and  tQ. 
keep  separate  running  or  progress  accounts  against 
the  main  branches  of  his  business,  such  as  the  dairy 


174 


NATURE 


[June  25,  1903 


herd,  sheep,  crops,  the  latter  account  being  occasion- 
ally  specialised  for  a  few  years  in  order  to  ascer- 
tain whether  a  particular  crop  or  field  is  paying 
its  way.  But  we  commend  to  the  teachers  of  book- 
keeping in  such  of  our  agricultural  colleges  as  posses? 
a  farm  the  problem  of  devising  with  an  open  mind 
an  improved  system  of  farm  accounts,  which  shall  be 
simple,  actual,  and  helpful. 


OUR    BOOK   SHELF. 

The  RSle  of  Diffusion  and  Osmotic  Pressure  in  Plants. 
By  B.  E.  Livingston.  Pp.  xiii+149.  (The  Univer- 
sity of  Chicago  Press,  1903.) 

Biologists  who  attach  importance  to  the  bearing  of 
physics  on  their  science  must  be  gratified  with  the  in- 
creasing number  of  books  now  appearing  on  such  sub- 
jects as  are  treated  in  the  book  before  us. 

Mr.  Livingston's  short  book  is  clear  and  readable, 
and  contains  a  simple  and  concise  sketch  of  much  of  the 
physics  of  diffusion  and  solution.  The  matter  is  well 
put,  and  difficulties  are  avoided.  But  concise  treat- 
ment has  its  disadvantages,  and,  in  one  or  two  places, 
a  false  conception  might  be  obtained  from  the  author's 
descriptions.  Thus  there  are  notable  exceptions  to  the 
rule  that  the  particles  of  substances  are  brought  closer 
together  during  the  change  from  the  liquid  to  the 
solid  state.  And  it  is  scarcely  fair  to  assume  that  the 
greater  closeness  of  the  particles  is  the  cause  of  the 
greater  rigidity  of  solids. 

The  limited  space  available  in  the  book  has  apparently 
led  to  the  exclusion  of  matter  which  it  would  be  essential 
for  the  biologist  to  be  acquainted  with,  and  he  should 
supplement  it  with  the  study  of  some  text-book  of 
physical  chemistry.  With  regard  to  recent  work,  it 
must  be  regarded  as  unfortunate  that  the  writer  leaves 
out  all  mention  of  Brown  and  Escombe's  work  on  dif- 
fusion through  perforated  septa  from  the  physical  part 
of  the  book,  while  in  part  ii.,  on  physiological  consider- 
ations, this  investigation  receives  a  bare  mention  by 
name  in  a  small  footnote.  One  would  have  thought 
that  these  authors'  results  would  have  been  fully  dis- 
cussed as  having  a  most  Intimate  connection  with  the 
subject,  and  as  bringing  a  completely  new  light  to  bear 
on  our  ideas  of  the  diffusion  of  gases  and  of  dissolved 
substances  in  plants. 

The  chapter  on  the  terminology  applied  to  solutions 
of  different  concentrations  is  very  lucid,  and  should 
prove  most  useful  to  biologists. 

In  part  ii.  an  account  of  turgidity  and  of  absorption 
and  transmission  of  dissolved  substances  in  plants  is 
given.  Much  information  is  imparted  in  a  small  space 
considering  how  nebulous  are  our  ideas  on  the  actual 
part  played  by  the  vital  osmotic  membranes  of  plants. 

In  the  reviewer's  opinion,  far  too  much  weight  is 
accorded  to  Wester meier's  and  Godlewski's  hypothesis 
explaining  the  ascent  of  water  in  trees.  These  writers 
assumed  that  the  elevating  force  is  to  be  found  in  the 
exudation  pressure  of  the  cells  of  the  wood,  cortex,  and 
medullary  rays.  The  physical  relations  of  these  cells 
to  the  water  capillaries  of  the  plant  render  the  idea  that 
the  cells  at  different  levels  act  as  relay  pumps  im- 
possible. 

The  theory  of  a  tensile  transpiration  current  is  alluded 
to,  but  unfortunately  it  is  criticised  in  the  light  of  Cope- 
land's  undoubtedly  misleading  experiment. 

The  later  chapters  of  the  book  are  devoted  to  the 
osmotic  effects  of  the  medium  on  plants,  and  sum- 
marise most  interestingly  the  recent  results  of  osmotic 
and  chemical  fertilisation.  H.  H.  D. 


NO.    1756,  VOL.  68] 


Mechanical  Refrigeration.  By  Hal  Williams 
A.M.I.Mech.E.,  A.M.I. E.E.  Pp.  xiii  +  406.  (Lon- 
don :  Whittaker  and  Co.,  1903.)  Price  los.  6d. 
This  book,  which  is  devoted  mainly  to  practical  studv 
of  mechanical  refrigeration  and  cold  storage,  should 
have  a  wide  circulation,  dealing  as  it  does  with  a  grow- 
ing industry  of  which  the  literature,  so  far  as  text- 
books are  concerned,  is  remarkably  scanty.  It  open> 
with  two  chapters  on  the  theory  of  heat  engines  and  n  - 
frigerating  machines.  The  first  of  these  might  well 
have  been  omitted,  as  it  merely  contains  a  series  oi 
definitions  which  can  only  be  intended  for  a  tradi  r 
who  is  totally  ignorant  of  the  elementary  theory  of  heat, 
and  are  somewhat  apt  to  convey  a  wrong  impression. 
The  second  chapter,  on  thermodynamics,  is  carefully 
worked  out,  the  section  dealing  with  the  heat  chan.i_;( 
consequent  on  the  performance  of  internal  work  by 
the  fluid  being  particularly  Interesting.  A  chapter 
devoted  to  the  history  of  the  subject  leads  to  a  short 
study  of  the  methods  of  preparing  the  modern  refriger- 
ants, liquid  carbonic  acid  and  ammonia,  and  a  descrip- 
tion of  the  more  important  type  of  refrigerating 
machinery.  In  the  latter  section  the  author  has  con- 
fined himself  to  an  account  of  ammorivJ,  and  carbonic 
acid  plant,  and  in  this,  considering  the  dimensions  of 
the  work,  he  Is  undoubtedly  justified.  Fifty  pages 
of  the  book  deal  with  the  auxiliary  plant  necessary  in 
a  cold  storage  works.  Finally,  insulation,  ice  making, 
the  construction  and  arrangement  of  cold  storage 
works,  and  the  application  of  methods  of  refrigeration 
to  commercial  processes  are  fully  dealt  with.  The 
author  wisely  omits  all  mention  of  liquid  air  and  its 
problematical  applications.  The  book  is  well  illus- 
trated by  means  of  photographs  and  diagrams,  and 
the  text  is  clear  and  concise.  M.  W.  T. 

Oie  stammgeschichtliche  Entstehung  des  Bienenstaaies 

sowie    Beitrdge    zur   Lebensweise    der    solitdren   it. 

sozialen     Bienen     {Hummeln,     Meliponinen,     8iC.). 

Herausgegeben    von    Dr.     H.    von    Buttel-Reepen. 

Pp.  xIi-l-138.  (Leipzig,  1903.)  Price  2.40  marks. 
This  is  a  book  that  should  not  be  overlooked  by  those 
who  are  Interested  in  the  many  important  questions 
that  are  opened  up  by  the  habits  of  social  Insects.  The 
author  points  out  that  the  highly  developed  organisa- 
tion of  the  life  of  the  hive-bee  does  not  stand  alone, 
but  may  be  traced  up  from  the  commencement  of  mere 
association  of  solitary  species,  through  the  less  organ- 
ised communities  of  humble-bees,  &c.,  to  Its  perfection 
in  the  hive-bee.  A  great  number  of  outlying  questions 
respecting  parasitic  bees,  wax-secretion,  &c. ,  are  also 
more  or  less  fully  discussed.  The  author  is  very 
anxious  to  eliminate,  so  far  as  possible,  the  natural 
tendency  to  anthropomorphlse  the  actions  of  bees  to 
too  large  an  extent,  and  appears  to  take  the  view  that 
Inherited  tendencies  have  to  a  large  extent  rendered 
their  actions  subjective  and  automatic.  The  Index  Is 
very  full,  and  Is  preceded  by  a  list  of  nearly  200  books 
and  papers  dealing  with  the  subject,  which  cannot  fail 
to  be  of  great  value  to  any  serious  student  of  bee-life. 

The  Mind  of  Man.     By  Gustav  Spiller.     Pp.  xIv-l-552. 

(London:     Swan      Sonnenschein     and     Co,,     Ltd.. 

1902.) 
Mr.  Spiller  suffers  apparently  from  the  constitutional 
defects  of  extreme  prolixity,  and  a  marked  contempt 
for  the  views  of  psychologists  who  have  the  misfortune 
to  prove  themselves  "  unscientific  "  by  disagreeing 
with  himself.  The  reader  who  Is  ready  to  overlook 
these  deficiencies  will  find  much  Interesting  discussion 
of  the  principal  problems  of  psychology  In  his  book, 
though  scarcely,  I  think,  any  considerable  fresh  con- 
tributions to  the  science.  The  author's  fundamental 
point  of  view  may  be  indicated  by  his  definition  of 


June  25,  1903] 


NATURE 


175 


psychology  as  the  study  of  the  functional  needs  of  the 
.    iitral    nervous    system.     His    book    exhibits    great 
vchological  learning,  but  is  marred,  I  believe,  by  an 
radicable  inconsistency  of  principle.     He  does  not 
m  to  have  definitely  made  up  his  mind  whether  the 
(icesses  of  mental  life  are  truly  teleological  (as  he 
1  bally  asserts)  or  purely  mechanical  (as  he  frequently 
implies).       Thus  he   exalts   the  significance  of  habit, 
or,   as  he  calls   it,    "organised  reaction,"  and   mini- 
mises that  of  pleasure,  pain  and  volition  in  determin- 
ing action  to  a  degree  which  leaves  it  a  mystery  how 
a  new  purposive  reaction  ever  gets  established. 

A.  E.  T. 

Heredity  and  Social  Progress.  By  Simon  N.  Patten, 
University  of  Pennsylvania.  Pp.  i  +  214.  (New 
York  :  the  Macmillan  Company ;  London  :  Macmillan 
and  Co.,  Ltd.,  1903.)     Price  5s.  net. 

Useful  as  analogy  may  be  for  purposes  of  illustra- 
tion, it  forms  a  precarious  basis  for  scientific  argu- 
ment. Dr.  Patten's  book  exemplifies  the  danger  of 
attempting  to  formulate  general  laws  on  the  strength 
of  more  or  less  superficial  resemblances  between 
phenomena  belonging  to  diverse  natural  conditions. 
Such  first-sight  correspondences  may  legitimately  be 
employed  in  the  way  of  suggesting  or  indicating  an 
underlying  law,  but  in  the  absence  of  verification  by 
comparison  with  all  related  facts,  they  are  incapable 
of  carrying  an  induction  beyond  its  preliminary  stages. 
These  principles,  which  would  seem  to  be  sufficiently 
obvious,  are  practically  ignored  in  the  present  work, 
which  accordingly,  in  spite  of  some  clever  reasoning, 
is  vitiated  throughout  by  its  faulty  method.  The 
author's  premises  being  unsound  from  the  outset,  his 
arguments  cease  to  be  of  interest  except  as  exercises 
of  logical  ingenuity.  A  few  examples  will  show  the 
kind  of  biological  doctrine  to  which  Dr.  Patten  asks 
our  as-sent.  It  is  not  such  as  to  justify  confidence  in 
either  his  facts  or  his  method.  *'  The  germ  cell.  .  . 
has,  therefore,  the  conditions  of  consciousness  and 
more  readily  may  be  assumed  to  be  the  seat  of  con- 
ousness  than  any  other  part  of  the  body.  In  fact, 
a  process  of  exclusion  it  would  seem  to  be  the  only 
possible  seat  of  consciousness."  "The  nerve,  in  its 
effort  to  emit  its  sex  products,  presses  against  the  skin 
and  partially  breaks  through.  The  skin  hardens  over 
the  injured  part  and  the  tooth  results,  which  holds  the 
nerve  in."  "The  brain  ...  is  a  sex  organ  that 
never  attains  its  elementary  functions."  "The  play 
of  the  emotions  is  sufficient  to  account  for  the  reduc- 
tion and  disappearance  of  organs."  It  will  be  seen 
that  the  author  is  not  to  be  taken  seriously.  His  book 
is  simply  a  monument  of  misapplied  ingenuity. 

The  Educational  Systems  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland. 
By  Graham  Balfour,  M.A.  Second  edition.  Pp. 
xxxi  +  307.  (Oxford  :  Clarendon  Press,  1903.)  Price 
75.  6d.  net. 

The  first  edition  of  Mr.  Balfour's  book  was  published 
five  years  ago,  and  since  that  time  events  of  the 
greatest  importance  have  taken  place  in  English  and 
Irish  education.  The  consequence  is  that  the  present 
issue  differs  in  many  respects  from  the  previous  one. 
To  students  of  education  the  volume  is  already  well 
known,  at  least  by  name,  and  in  its  enlarged  form 
it  should  prove  of  great  assistance  to  members  of  the 
new  education  authorities  being  formed  in  all  parts 
of  the  country  as  a  consequence  of  the  passing  of  the 
Education  Act,  1902. 

The  education  of  the  British  Isles  is  considered  under 
the  three  headings — elementary,  secondary,  and  higher, 
but,  as  Mr.  Balfour  says,  this  is  likely  to  be  increasingly 
difficult,  as  the  three  grades  are  becoming  parts  of  that 
organic   educational    whole   which   it   is   essential    to 

NO.    1756,  VOL.  68] 


form  in  this  country.  There  is  one  direction  in  which 
the  value  of  the  book  might  be  much  enhanced,  and 
that  is  in  showing  what  has  been  done  in  this  country 
by  private  effort  for  higher  education.  No  educationist 
has  yet  instituted  an  exhaustive  comp.;nson  between 
the  extent  of  private  munificence  in  aid  of  higher 
education  in  this  country  and  in  the  United  States, 
though  a  beginning  was  made  in  Nature  (No.  1750). 
Such  a  comparison  would  do  much  to  quicken  public 
interest  in  higher  education.  The  book  may  be  re- 
commended to  all  who  wish  to  obtain  an  accurate 
and  comprehensive  idea  of  the  present  state  of  educa- 
tion in  the  British  Isles.  A.  T.  S. 

Alpine  Flora.     By  D.  J.  Hoffman,  translated  by  E.  S. 

Barton.     Pp.  xii+112.    (London:  Longmans,  Green 

and  Co.,  1903.)  Price  75.  6d.  net. 
It  is  a  notable  fact  that  many  travellers  who  have  little 
or  no  knowledge  of  their  native  flowers  often  become 
keenly  interested  in  the  flora  of  the  Alpine  regions,  and 
the  reason  is  not  far  to  seek,  for  the  attraction  lies  in 
the  richness  of  colour  and  lavish  abundance  which 
characterise  the  flowers  growing  on  the  mountains. 
There  is  therefore  a  demand  for  a  book,  with  illustra- 
tions, preferably  coloured,  and  written  in  fairly  simple 
language,  vv^hich  will  enable  the  amateur  or  novice  to 
name  his  botanical  specimens.  Such  is  mainly  the 
object  of  the  present  book,  originally  written  in  German 
and  translated  for  the  benefit  of  English  travellers.  It 
is  naturally  a  difficult  matter  to  decide  which  flowers 
to  represent  in  a  small  book  of  moderate  price,  the 
limitations  of  which  are  imposed  by  the  cost  of  produc- 
tion of  coloured  plates,  and  the  selection  is  on  the 
whole  judicious.  There  are  a  few  plants,  such  as 
Hacquetia  epipactis,  Lilium  carniolicum,  which  are  not 
found,  or  rarely  so,  in  Switzerland  and  the  Tyrol,  which 
might  have  been  excluded  in  favour  of  others  of  more 
common  occurrence.  The  colour  contrasts  are  good, 
excepting  for  a  weakness  in  the  tone  of  the  pinks,  and 
a  similarity  of  blue  in  the  gentians.  Mrs.  Gepp  has 
introduced  more  precise  terms  in  the  English  edition, 
which  add  to  its  scientific  value,  and  yet  should  not 
offer  any  difficulty  to  the  amateur,  since  a  glossary  is 
provided.  The  book  may  advantageously  be  used  with 
Gremli's  "  Flora  fiir  die  Schweiz,"  and  will  be  a 
material  help  to  those  botanists  who  have  not  pre- 
viously visited  the  European  Alpine  ranges. 

Arnold's   Country-Side   Readers.     Book   i.,    pp.    144; 

price  lod.     Book  ii.,  j  p.    176;  price   15,     Book  iii., 

pp.    214;    price    15.    2d.     Book   iv.,    pp.    236;    price 

15.  4^.     (London  :   Edward  Arnold,  n.d.) 

Arnold's  Seaside  Reader.     Pp.  264.     (Same  Publisher.) 

Price  IS.  6d. 
The  title  of  the  first  four  of  these  reading  books  for 
schools  suggests  that  the  reading  lesson  should  be 
utilised  to  give  the  pupil  some  knowledge  of  the  natural 
objects  of  the  country  at  the  same  time  that  he  is 
learning  to  read,  and  there  is  much  to  be  said  for  such 
a  plan.  An  examination  of  the  contents  of  the  volumes 
shows  that  much  interesting  information  about 
common  plants  and  animals  is  placed  before  the  young 
learner ;  but  there  is  so  bewildering  a  medley  of  fairy 
tale  with  descriptive  natural  history  that  the  boys  and 
girls  who  are  set  to  learn  from  the  books  will  scarcely 
be  able  to  decide  where  fancies  end  and  facts  begin. 
The  same  diversity  of  contents  characterises  the  "  Sea- 
side Reader  ";  instructive  lessons  on  fishes  and  other 
sea  animals  are  interspersed  with  accounts  of  naval 
battles  and  biographical  sketches  of  naval  heroes.  On 
the  whole  it  would  be  wiser  in  such  books  to  exclude 
the  fairy  tales  and  historical  chapters ;  there  is  romance 
enough  about  natural  science  without  other  aid  being- 
necessary.  The  books  are  well  printed  and  attractively 
illustrated. 


176 


NATURE 


[June  25,  1903 


LETTERS    TO    THE    EDITOR. 

\7"/ie  Editor  does  not  hold  himself  responsible  for  opinions 
expressed  by  his  correspondents.  Neither  can  he  undertake 
to  return,  or  to  correspond  with  the  writers  of,  rejected 
■manuscripts  intended  for  this  or  any  other  part  of  Nature. 
No  notice  is  taken  of  anonymous  communications .] 

FcEtal  or  New-born  Giraffes  Wanted. 
Will  you  give  me  the  opportunity  of  making  a  request 
through  your  columns  to  museum  curators  and  African 
sportsmen?  I  am  especially  anxious  to  obtain  for  study, 
preserved  in  spirit  or  dry,  the  head  (not  the  prepared  skull) 
of  a  new-born  giraffe  or  of  a  late  foetal  individual  in  which 
the  boney  ossicusps  of  the  horns  are  already  formed.  I 
should  be  able  to  return  the  specimen  after  examination  to 
the  owner  if  desired.  I  should  be  glad  to  examine  several 
such  heads  were  it  possible  to  procure  them.  All  expenses 
of  transport  would  be  paid  by  me.  I  venture  to  ask  those 
who  can  help  me  to  communicate  with  me  without  delay. 

E.  Ray  Lankester. 
Natural     History     Museum,     Cromwell     Road,     London, 
June  23. 


Seismometry  and  Geite. 
Before  making  a  few  comments  on  Prof.  Milne's  secona 
letter  under  the  above  title  (Nature,  June  12,  p.  127),  I 
should  like  to  express  my  warm  appreciation  of  his  devotion 
to  seismological  research,  and  the  great  impetus  it  has 
given  to  observational  work.  In  pure  seismology — apart 
from  applications  of  elastic  solids  to  earth  problems — 
Prof.  Milne's  reading  is  doubtless  more  extensive  than 
mine,  but  if  he  is  correct  in  regarding  my  first  letter  as 
containing  nothing  new  to  seismologists,  they  must,  as  a 
class,  be  singularly  prone  to  a  policy  of  meliora  scio 
deteriora  sequor.  Novelty  in  results  is,  of  course,  much  a 
matter  of  opinion.  When  Prof.  Milne  says,  however,  that 
there  is  no  occasion  for  my  warning  as  to  Young's  modulus, 
I  must  in  reply  give  a  quotation  from  his  first  letter,  re- 
lating to  the  material  of  his  hypothetical  core,  "  it 
follows  that  the  density  ...  is  596,  or  approximately  6. 
The  elastic  modulus  for  a  core  of  this  density  which  con- 
veys vibrations  with  a  speed  of  at  least  9Skm.  per  second 
is  451X10^°  C.G.S.,  or  roughly  speaking,  a  little  more  than 
twice  the  Young's  modulus  for  Bessemer  steel."  The 
italics  are  mine.  If  "  the  modulus  "  is  not  Young's 
modulus,  E,  a  comparison  between  it  and  the  E  for  steel  is 
misleading,  because  a  comparison  of  numerical  results 
naturally  implies  that  they  refer  to  the  same  physical 
quantity.  On  this  view  the  statement  is  doubly  mislead- 
ing, because  there  are  two  wave  moduli,  viz.  m+n  and  n. 
If,  as  one  would  infer  from  Prof.  Milne's  second  letter, 
*'  the  "  modulus  was  intended  for  the  wave  modulus  m  +  n, 
the  futility  of  the  comparison  becomes  obvious  when  we 
remember  that  on  the  ordinary  theory  (m-fn)/E  may  have 
any  value  between  i  and  00,  according  to  the  value  of 
Poisson's  ratio.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  "the"  modulus 
must,  I  think,  have  been  intended  at  the  time  for  Young's, 
though  this  must  have  escaped  Prof.  Milne's  memory.  If 
it  were  meant  for  m  +  n,  we  should  have  (4514-5-96)*  "  at 
least  "  95,  whereas  it  is  really  only  87.  If,  however,  we 
multiply  451x10"  by  6/5 — which  would  be  correct  if 
451X10"'  were  a  Young's  modulus  in  a  material  where 
Poisson's  ratio  had  the  uniconstant  value  025 — and  sub- 
stitute this,  we  deduce  a  wave  velocity  of  9-53km.  per 
second. 

Prof.  Milne  seems  to  have  misunderstood  my  treatment 
of  the  two  wave  velocities  in  the  Phil.  Mag.  (March,  1897, 
p.  199),  and  as  it  bears  directly  on  the  question  at  issue,  I 
should  like  to  make  it  clear.  In  previous  papers  I  had 
■advanced  a  variety  of  considerations-  pointing  to  the  con- 
clusion that,  whilst  all  applications  of  elastic  equations  to 
the  earth  are  more  or  less  speculative,  the  mathematical 
and  physical  difficulties  are  enormously  reduced  when  we 
suppose  that  the  deep-seated  material — about  which  we 
have  no  direct  information — is  nearly  incompressible,  i.e. 
has  a  Poisson's  ratio  approaching  05.  Such  a  hypothesis, 
for  one  thing,  rendered  it  unnecessary  to  assign  to  the 
rigidity  and  Young's  modulus  values  largely  in  excess  of 
anything  yet  encountered  at  the  earth's  surface.  There 
remained,  however,  the  fact  of  the  high  velocities  observed 
in  the  more  rapid  earthquake  waves,  which  had  been  gener- 

NO.    1756,  VOL.  68] 


ally  supposed  to  imply  enormously  large  Young's  modul 
such,  for  instance,  as  the  value  45x10"  given  by  Proi 
Milne.     The  problem  stood  as  follows  : — 

In  an  infinite  isotropic  elastic  medium  there  are  neces- 
sarily two  wave  velocities.  If  we  know  them  both  we  can 
deduce  all  the  elastic  properties  of  the  medium,  provided 
we  know  the  density ;  if  we  do  not  know  the  density,  wi- 
can  still  deduce  Poisson's  ratio.  If  the  medium  is  not 
infinite,  but  is  bounded  by  a  plane  surface,  then,  as  shown 
by  Lord  Rayleigh,  there  is  a  special  type  of  surface  wave  the 
velocity  of  which,  especially  when  the  material  is  nearly  in- 
compressible, approaches  closely  to  that  of  the  slower  or 
rigidity  body  wave  natural  to  the  material.  If  the  bound- 
ing surface  be  not  plane,  but  spherical  or  spheroidal,  thfi - 
is  doubtless  a  wave  answering  to  the  Rayleigh  wav 
which  within  moderate  distances  of  its  origin  may  1 
expected  very  closely  to  resemble  the  Rayleigh  wave  in  typi-, 
when  the  depth  to  which  it  penetrates  and  the  wave-length 
are  both  very  small  compared  to  the  central  radius.  If  the 
medium  have  a  Poisson's  ratio  of  025,  the  velocities  of  th<> 
two  body  waves  must  be  in  the  ratio  of  ■s/3(or  1-73)  :  i. 

In  the  earth  there  seems  distinct  evidence  of  only  two 
types  of  waves.  For  the  more  rapid,  supposing  them  to 
travel  straight  through.  Prof.  Milne  himself  would 
apparently  take  lokm.  as  the  most  probable  value  at  depths 
below  the  immediate  heterogeneous  crust.  It  was  important 
for  my  object  not  to  understate  this  veloc;jty,  and  I  took 
the  somewhat  higher  figure  of  i2-5km.  The  second  type— 
which  Prof.  Milne  terms  the  "  large  "  waves — travel  much 
slower.  If  they  go  straight  through,  their  velocity  is  less, 
of  course,  than  if  they  travel  along  the  surface.  On  the 
former  hypothesis.  Prof.  Milne  might  make  them  a  trifle 
slower  than  the  value  I  took,  viz.  2-5km.  per  second.  If, 
instead  of  12-5  and  2-5,  we  took  10  and  2,  we  should  obtain, 
of  course,  the  same  value  of  Poisson's  ratio  as  before, 
0-48  approximately,  with  a  value  for  E  somewhat  less  even 
than  the  very  moderate  value  (about  10x10"  C.G.S.) 
obtained  in  my  paper.  If  we  took  10  and  2-5,  or  even  10 
and  3,  for  the  two  velocities,  we  should  get  047  and  045 
for  the  values  of  Poisson's  ratio. 

The  uncertainty  as  to  whether  the  "  large  "  waves  were 
body  waves  or  surface  waves — or,  as  I  thought  more  likely, 
a  combination  of  the  two — was  not  overlooked,  as  Prof. 
Milne's  letter  might  suggest,  but  was  dwelt  on  at  some 
length  in  the  paper.  If  they  are  entirely  surface  waves,  the 
heterogeneous  nature  of  the  earth's  crust,  and  the  irregu- 
larities of  mountain  and  ocean,  are  such  as  to  introduce 
extreme  uncertainty  into  any  mathematical  calculations. 
In  this  event  it  is  doubtful  whether  any  conclusion  can  be 
drawn  either  for  or  against  the  hypothesis  of  great  in- 
compressibility  in  the  core ;  its  explanation  of  the  high 
velocity  in  the  faster  waves  would,  however,  be  unaffected. 
The  discussion  of  magnetograph  results  by  Prof.  Milne 
in  the  B.A.  Reports  for  1898  and  1899  (1888  is  surely  a 
misprint)  was  familiar  to  me  as  a  contributor  of  data,  but 
it  did  not  seem  to  render  my  letter  unnecessary.  I  suspect, 
however,  that  I  partly  misunderstood  Prof.  Milne's  letter 
on  this  part  of  the  subject,  as  I  did  not  fully  realise  that 
he  did  not  recognise  the  distinction  between  anomalous  and 
merely  high  values  of  the  horizontal  force  H.  The  fact 
that  H  is  nearly  twice  as  large  at  Batavia  or  Bombay  as 
at  Kew  is  natural,  owing  to  their  proximity  to  the  mag- 
netic equator.  Whether  the  values  at  these  stations  are 
higher  or  lower  than  one  would  expect  from  their  geo- 
graphical position  cannot  be  said  with  certainty  until  the 
completion  of  magnetic  surveys.  What  my  letter  suggested 
was  the  advantage  for  critical  purposes  of  records  at  a 
station  where  there  is  known  to  be  a  true  large  magnetic 
anomaly— e.^.  in  N.E.  Ireland  or  the  Scottish  Highlands. 
Variations  in  the  value  of  g  are,  relatively  considered, 
trifling  compared  to  those  in  H,  and  the  larger  gravitational 
anomalies  present  systematic  features  to  wj^ich  there  seems 
no  parallel  in  magnetics  (c.f.  Bourgeois'  discussion  of  g 
in  the  "  Rapports  pr^sent^s  au  Congr^s  International  de 
Physique,"  Tome  iii.,  Paris,  1900).  Apart  from  the  ques- 
tion of  the  unit,  I  am  a  little  puzzled  by  Prof.  Milne's 
gravitational  data  for  Kew,  and  I  should  warn  him  that 
there,  as  at  some  other  stations,  the  agreement  between 
different  observers  at  different  times  has  not  been  such  as 
to  warrant  much  reliance  in  any  one  observer's  value  for 
g  —  y  {i.e.  gravity  observed  less  calculated).         C.  Chree. 


June  25,  1903] 


NATURE 


77 


Phenomena  of  Visioii. 

Your  correspondent,  Mr.  W.  Betz,  refers  in  his  letter 
of  May  7  to  the  fact  that  an  object  just  screened  from 
direct  "vision  by  the  nose  (or  by  any  other  obstruction) 
becomes  visible  if  we  rotate  the  eye  in  a  direction  away 
from  the  object.  This  is  a  well-known  phenomenon,  and 
a  very  interesting  one  on  account  of  the  curious  facts  with 
regard  to  vision  that  can  be  deduced  from  it ;  but  it  is  not 
in  any  way  due  to  spherical  aberration.  It  is  rather  a 
perspective  effect,  being  caused  simply  by  the  shifting  of 
the  point  of  sight,  which,  being  situated  near  the  crystal- 
line .lens,  moves  laterally  as  the  eye  is  rotated  about  its 
centre.  There  are  several  ways  of  demonstrating  the 
movement  of  the  point  of  sight,  but  the  experiment  de- 
scribed by  Mr.  Betz  is  perhaps  the  most  convincing. 

An  interesting  corollary  of  this  experiment  is  the  generally 
unfamiliar  fact  that  we  employ,  two  points  of  sight  simul- 
taneously in  the  act  of  vision,  though  we  may  use  one 
eye  alone.  Speaking  generally,  the  eye  wanders  over  any 
object  we  may  be  examining  with  slight  pauses  at  each 
point  of  interest.  Only  at  each  pause  do  we  really  see, 
and  our  final  mental  impression  of  the  whole  object  may  be 
described  as  a  mentally  combined  image  of  a  series  of 
"  snap-shots."  The  retinal  image  produced  at  each  "  snap- 
shot "  is  a  perspective  view  with  the  node  of  the  crystalline 
lens  as  the  station  point.  The  final  mental  picture  is,  how- 
ever, a  view  with  the  centre  of  the  eyeball  (or  its  centre 
of  rotation)  as  a  station  point.  This  latter  view  is  smaller 
than  the  other,  by  reason  of  the  fact  that  the  centre  of 
rotation  is  some  little  way  behind  the  crystalline  lens,  hence 
the  apparent  size  of  an  object  varies  as  we  study  it.  The 
general  effect  is  further  complicated  by  the  lateral  move- 
ment of  the  crystalline  lens,  which  causes  each  momentary 
snapshot  to  be  taken  from  a  different  station  point ;  also  the 
final  impression  is  more  or  less  influenced  by  the  impression 
gained  during  the  last  fixed  glance.  Therefore  we  may 
conclude,  with  a  considerable  amount  of  reason,  that  we  do 
not  see  objects  exactly  as  they  are.  Really  we  only  see 
a  combination  of  a  number  of  views  taken  from  different 
points,  and  to  arrive  at  a  true  understanding  of  what  we 
see  we  must  employ  our  capacity  of  reasoning.  The  extra- 
ordinary complexity  of  our  mental  visual  conception  is  often 
deceptive,  though  unconsciously  so  to  many  people  who 
have  no  idea  of  the  peculiarities  of  vision. 

The  various  effects  of  the  employment  of  the  two  station 
points  are  not  likely  to  be  appreciated  unless  looked  for, 
but  once  you  realise  the  fact,  evidence  is  easily  collected. 
One  of  the  most  striking  effects  is  the  apparent  movement 
of  fixed  points.  In  the  experiment  described  by  Mr.  Betz 
the  object  point  seems  to  play  hide  and  seek  with  you, 
popping  out  from  behind  the  screen  when  you  look  in 
another  direction,  and  dodging  back  again  when  you  try 
to  look  straight  at  it.  It  seems  to  move  with  the  eye,  but 
this  effect  is  due  mainly  to  the  presence  of  the  screen,  for 
under  other  conditions  it  will  generally  be  found  that  the 
apparent  movement  is  -opposite  to  that  of  the  eye.  The 
following  experiment  illustrates  both  the  illusion  of  move- 
ment and  also  the  dependence  of  apparent  size  upon  the 
direction  of  vision. 

Place  two  objects  at  different  distances  from  the  eye  and 
ibtending  a  moderate  angle  at  the  eye  so  that  both  can  be 
-on  when  one  is  directly  looked  at.  Look  fixedly  at  one 
object  and  estimate  the  distance  between  the  two.  Then 
traverse  the  eye  slowly  on  to  the  other  object,  and  the  dis- 
tance between  them  most  distinctly  alters,  the  effect  being 
apparently  due  to  a  shifting  of  one  or  both  of  the  objects. 
You  will  find  it  somewhat  puzzling  to  account  for  all  the 
various  effects  of  movement  that  can  be  detected  under 
different  conditions,  but  if  you  take  all  factors  into  con- 
sideration, you  will,  I  think,  eventually  find  that  the  shift- 
ing of  the  station  point  is  primarily  responsible  for  all  the 
effects  produced;  other  than  those  due  to  spherical  aberra- 
tion. C.  Welborne  Piper. 
May  15. 


Mr.  Piper's  explanation  of  the  curious  phenomenon 
pointed  out  by  Mr.  Betz  is  presumably  correct ;  that  there 
are  two  station  points  used  in  vision  can,  however,  scarcely 
be  demonstrated.  The  positions  of  the  nodal  points  of 
the  eye  are  shifted  during  accommodation  for  near  vision, 
and  perhaps  this  displacement  is  what  Mr.  Piper  refers  to. 

NO.    1756,   VOL.    68] 


In  general  it  is  difficult  to  observe  the  apparent  niotions 
of  objects  which  Mr.  Piper  mentions,  and  it  is  still  more 
difficult  to  trace  such  motions  to  the  optical  properties  of 
the  eye,  since  we  are  here  dealing,  not  with  optical  images 
which  can  be  directly  examined,  but  with  mental  im- 
pressions* Thus  Konig  pointed  out  {Wied.  Ann.,  xxviii.  pp." 
367-368',  1886;  "  Gesammelte  Abhandlungen  zur  physio- 
logischen  Optik,"  xiii.  p.  58,  Leipzig)  that  patients,  on 
first  being  provided  with  strong  divergent  spectacles,  corn- 
plain  that,  on  moving  their  eyes  without  turning  their 
heads,  stationary  objects  appear  to  move.  After  a  time 
this  apparent  motion  ceases  to  be  observed,  or,  indeed,  to 
be  observable,  but  on  removing  thfe  spectacles  stationary 
objects  appear  to  move  in  a  sense  opposite  to  that  previously 
observed  with  the  spectacles.  In  this  case  a  readjustment 
of  judgment  respecting  visual  impressions  has  been  effected  ; 
the  result  shows  to  what  a  great  extent  judgment  enters 
into  the  act  of  vision.  Edwin   Edser. 

June  13. 

School  Geometry  Reform. 

In  the  unsigned  review  of  Prof,  barrel! 's  "  Elementary 
Geometry  "  appearing  in  the  issue  of  June  18,  the  following 
sentence  occurs: — "A  feature  to  be  noticed  is  that  the 
author  gives  three  meanings  of  a  plane  angle,  in  the  last 
of  which  the  angle  is  regarded  as  the  plane  space  swept' 
out  by  a  line  of  indefinite  length  (one  way)  turning  about 
one  end."  It  is  unsafe  to  say  that  such  a  definition  is 
wrong,  but  it  is  certainly  most  undesirable  in  a  school 
book.  The  apprehension  of  the  true  nature  of  an  angle  is 
one  of  the  greatest  difficulties  that  the  beginner  has  to 
encounter,  and  the  way  is  not  smoothed  by  the  introduc- 
tion of  the  idea  of  an  infinitely  extended  space.  It  is 
true,  as  Mr.  Russell  points  out  ("  Principles  of  Mathe^ 
matics,"  p.  416),  that  the  definition  can  be  made  logically 
satisfactory  if  the  axiom  of  the  whole,  being  greater  than 
its  part,  be  rejected  ;  but  this  is  an  intolerable  objection. 
The  best  course  for  an  educational  book  is  that  adopted  by 
Ronch^  and  De  Comberousse  ("  Trait6  de  Geometrie," 
189 1,  p.  5),  who  say  : — "  La  consideration  de  deux  droites 
qui  se  rencontrent  conduit  k  une  id^e  nouvelle,  qui  est  celle 
A'incUnaison  mutuelle  ou  d^angle,  et  qui,  comme  rid6e 
de  longueur,  ne  saurait  6tre  d^finie,  c'est-a-dire  ramen^e  k 
une  id6e  plus  simple."  R.  W.  H.  T.  Hudson. 

June  22. 


RECENT    EXCAVATIONS   AT    NIPPUR. 

IT  was  in  1884,  at  a  meeting  of  the  American  Oriental 
Society,  that  the  first  plans  of  an  expedition  to 
Southern  Babylonia  were  projected,  and  from  that  year 
dates  the  beginning  of  the  systematic  scientific  work 
which  is  being  carried  on  by  the  Americans  at  the 
mounds  of  Nuffar,  the  ancient  Nippur,  with  all  possible 
thoroughness.  Since  the  year  1888,  there  have  been 
four  expeditions  sent  out  to  excavate  this  ancient  site, 
and  there  is  still  much  to  be  done  there.  The  first 
resulted  in  the  discovery  of  a  Parthian  palace,  and 
many  "  finds  "  from  systematic  diggings  in  the 
Temple  of  Bel,  the  cuneiform  tablets  alone  numbering 
two  thousand;  but  ill-luck  overtook  the  members  of 
the  party,  and,  owing  to  trouble  with  the  Arabs,  the 
camp  was  burnt  and  they  themselves  were  robbed. 
However,  the  next  year,  on  reopening  the  works,  there 
was  no  opposition,  and  the  labours  of  the  expedition 
were  rewarded  with  eight  thousand  tablets  of  the 
second  and  third  millennium  B.C.,  and  in  the  third 
campaign  many  pre-Sargonic  ruins  were  discovered, 
besides  more  than  twenty  thousand  tablets.  The  last 
expedition,  which  came  to  an  end  in  1900,  was  the 
most  successful  of  all ;  the  Parthian  palace  was  com- 
pletely explored,  and,  what  was  more  important,  the 
great  library  of  the  Temple  of  Bel  was  located,  and 
twenty-three  thousand  clay  tablets  were  excavated 
therefrom,  thus  bringing  the  total  number  found  up 
to  more  than  fifty  thousand. 


178 


NATURE 


[June  25,  1903 


Looking  at  the  results  of  the  four  expeditions,  we 
are  struck  with  the  careful  way  in  which  all  operations 
have  been  conducted,  especially  towards  the  end  of 
the  period.  The  mounds  were  carefully  surveyed,  and 
even  a  relief  map  of  them  was  made  in  plaster,  the 
buildings  which  were  discovered  were  accurately 
mapped,  numerous  photographs  were  taken  of  the 
various  phases  of  the  diggings,  and  as  time  went  on 
those  in  command  became  even  more  methodical  in 
their  diggings.  The  manner  in  which  the  excavations 
were  carried  on  merits  the  highest  praise. 

The  "  section  "  of  the  shafts  dug  through  the 
mounds,  as  figured  by  Prof.  Hilprecht  in  his  latest 
work,  "  Explorations  in  Bible  Lands  "  (p.  549),  shows, 
as  is  common  in  ancient  mounds,  that  the  city  was 
occupied  from  a  very  early  period,  and  that  from  time 
to  time  new  builders  superimposed  their  pavements 
and  dwellings  upon  those  of  an  earlier  period,  so  that 
the  mounds  are  made  up  of  successive  layers,  each 
marking  an  earlier  building  as  the  shafts  sink  lower. 
The  diggers  first  cut  through  soil  containing  Sassanian 
and  early  Arabic  remains.  Then  came  the  great 
Parthian  fortress  of  the  second  or  third  century  B.C. 
Next  were  found  in  six  successive  strata  the  pavements 
of  buildings  of  (a)  Ashurbanipal,  who  restored  the 
great  ziggurat,  or  temple-tower  (c.  668-626  B.C.);  (b) 
Kadashman-turgu  (c.  1350  B.C.);  (c)  Ur-ninib  (c.  2500 
B.C.);  (d)  Ur-gur  (c.  2700  B.C.);  (e)  Lugal-surzu  (c. 
3500  B.C.);  (/)  Sargon  and  Naram-Sin  (c.  3750  B.C.). 
Below  these,  and  beneath  the  level  of  the  surrounding 
plain,  a  vaulted  drain  came  to  light,  of  a  period  dis- 
tinctly before  Sargon,  and  in  the  heart  of  the  mound, 
on  a  slightly  higher  level,  was  a  pre-Sargonic 
ziggurat.  Straight  down  through  these  layers,  from 
almost  the  top  to  the  very  water-level,  a  Parthian  well 
had  been  sunk,  a  total  distance  of  about  seventy  feet 
in  depth.  The  mound  of  Nippur  is  therefore  similar 
to  Hissarlik  and  Tel-el-Hesy  in  the  superimposition 
of  cities. 

The  larger  of  the  two  Parthian  buildings  was  a 
palace  and  fortress  occupying  what  had  been  the  centre 
part  of  the  old  Babylonian  temple,  and  was  an  almost 
rectangular  building  surrounded  by  an  enormous 
double  wall,  five  hundred  and  sixty  feet  long  on  its 
south-eastern  front.  From  the  discovery  of  great 
masses  of  water-jars  piled  together  in  the  southern 
part,  as  well  as  various  fire-places  and  other  kitchen 
arrangements  close  to  them,  it  is  clear  that  these  were 
the  servants'  quarters,  storehouses  and  bakeries.  In 
the  centre  of  the  whole  building  rose  the  citadel,  built 
over  the  ancient  ziggurat,  and  it  was  through  this 
that  the  only  well  of  the  whole  building  had  been  dug, 
evidently  with  the  idea  of  the  garrison  holding  out 
against  a  long  protracted  siege. 

The  smaller  Parthian  palace,  west  of  the  Chebar, 
which  has  been  completely  excavated,  was  a  square 
building,  measuring  each  side  about  170  feet.  It 
apparently  had  but  one  entrance,  which  was  situated 
in  the  centre  of  the  north-west  facade.  The  walls 
varied  in  thickness  from  three  to  eight  and  a  half  feet, 
and  the  material  used  in  the  construction  was  brick, 
baked  and  unbaked.  The  roof,  as  the  pieces  of 
charred  wood  discovered  in  the  ruins  plainly  show, 
was  of  palm  logs,  matting  and  earth.  Prof.  Hilprecht 
divides  the  building  into  two  almost  equal  parts,  the 
one  for  public  functions  and  the  other  for  the  family 
life. 

But  important  as  these  two  buildings  were,  their 
interest  cannot  compare  with  the  discoveries  of  earlier 
Babylonian  ruins.  Of  these  the  huge  ziggurat,  or 
tower  of  the  Temple  of  Bel,  stands  out  pre-eminent, 
a  huge  brick  building,  the  origin  of  which  dates  back  to 
pre-Sargonic  times,  and  shows  in  its  various  strata 
traces  of  the  handiwork  of  the  many  kings  who  re- 
stored and  added  to  it.     According  to  Prof.  Hilprecht, 

NO.    1756,  VOL.  68] 


the  Temple  o"  Bel  (called  Ekur  in  the  cuneiform  in- 
scriptions) was  divided  into  two  principal  buildings,  the 
ziggurat  or  great  tower,  and  the  "  House  of  Bel." 
The  whole  was  surrounded  by  the  great  wall  called 
Imgur-Marduk.  It  is  to  this  temple  that  the  energies 
of  the  excavators  have  been  principally  directed,  and 
from  it  have  come  the  majority  of  the  tablets  found. 
The  temple  in  Babylonia  was  not  only  a  place  wherein 
the  gods  might  be  worshipped,  but  was  also  a  college 
at  which  priests  were  trained,  and  for  this  a  reference 
library  was  essential.  Consequently,  it  is  not  going 
too  far  to  say  that  probably  every  important  temple 
in  Assyria  and  Babylonia  had  its  own  library  of  clay 
tablets.  An  excellent  idea  of  what  the  temple  rooms 
looked  like  may  be  gained  from  the  photograph  in 
Prof.  Hilprecht's  book,  "  Explorations  in  Bible 
Lands,"  p.  509. 

In  the  remains  of  this  Babylonian  city  many  dis- 
coveries were  made  which  add  considerably  to  our 
knowledge  of  the  daily  life  of  the  inhabitants.  One 
of  the  most  remarkable  things  found  was  a  baking 
furnace  made  of  brick,  dating  back  to  the  third 
millennium  B.C.,  composed  of  a  series  of  seven  (origin- 
ally nine)  parallel  arches  over  a  fire-box  which  ran 
lengthwise  through  the  whole  kiln.  Ife  was,  in  fact, 
very  similar  to  the  military  field-ovens  in  use  at  the 
present  day.  Still  earlier  is  the  specimen  of  the 
elliptical  arch  which  Haynes  discovered,  which  Prof. 
Hilprecht  assigns  to  the  fifth  millennium  B.C.  This  is 
undoubtedly  the  first  Babylonian  arch  known,  and  will 
go  far  to  prove  the  much-disputed  question  of  the 
origin  of  the  arch. 

Up  to  the  present  comparatively  few  of  the  tablets 
discovered  in  the  ruins  have  been  published,  so  that 
it  is  impossible  to  speak  of  the  possibilities  of  the  great 
temple  library.  We  may  notice,  however,  an  im- 
portant clay  map  of  Nippur,  photographed  in  Prof. 
Hilprecht's  book  (p.  518),  which  gives  the  environ- 
ments of  that  ancient  city  as  they  were  about  two 
thousand  five  hundred  years  ago.  Interesting,  also, 
are  the  "  practice  "  tablets,  written  by  the  pupils  in 
the  schools  during  their  study  of  the  Babylonian 
language.  Indeed,  it  is  to  this  class  of  tablet  that  we 
owe  much  of  our  knowledge  of  the  classical  works  in 
cuneiform,  for  many  similar  are  preserved  in  the 
British  Museum  which  are  inscribed  with  excerpts 
from  the  Creation  legends,  syllabaries,  and  incanta- 
tions. 

Much  remains  to  be  done  at  Nippur,  and  it  is  to 
be  hoped  that  the  Americans  will  continue  and  com- 
plete the  great  work  they  have  begun.  There  is  little 
doubt  that  when  the  mounds  of  Assyria  and  Babylonia 
have  yielded  up  their  hoards  of  cuneiform  tablets 
stored  up  in  the  palace  and  temple  libraries,  our  know- 
ledge of  those  countries  will  equal,  if  not  surpass, 
what  we  know  of  the  archaeology  of  Greece  and  Rome. 


MATHEMATICAL  REFORM  AT  CAMBRIDGE. 

THE  syndicate  appointed  in  December,  1902,  to 
consider  what  changes,  if  any,  should  be  made 
in  the  regulations  affecting  the  mathematical  portions 
of  the  pass  examinations  of  the  University  of  Cam- 
bridge has  recently  presented  a  report  A^hich  has  just 
been  adopted  by  the  Senate,  and  will  prpfoundly  and 
beneficially  affect  the  teaching  of  the  subject  in  our 
public  schools  and  throughout  the  country. 

Recognising  the  widespread  desire  for  reform, 
noting  the  changes  that  have  already  been  made  in  the 
schedules  of  important  examining  bodies,  and  having 
examined  the  recommendations  of  various  committees, 
the  syndicate  is  convinced,  that  changes  are  desir- 
able, and  that  a  "  modification  of  the  requirements  of 


June  25,  1903] 


NATURE 


179 


examinations  is  a  necessary  preliminary  to  any  sub- 
stantial  improvement   in    teaching." 

The  syndicate  has,  therefore,  made  recommend- 
ations affecting  the  subject-matter  of  the  Previous  Ex- 
amination. The  alterations  will  begin  to  operate  in 
the  Lent  term  of  1904,  and  will  finally  supersede  the 
present  regulations  after  October,  1905.  The  principal 
changes  may  be  summarised  as  follows  : — 

(i)  In  demonstrative  geometry,  Euclid's  Elements 
shall  be  optional  as  a  text-book,  and  the  sequence  of 
Euclid  shall  not  be  enforced.  The  examiners  will 
accept  any  proof  of  a  proposition  which  they  are  satis- 
fied forms  part  of  a  systematic  treatment  of  the  subject. 

(2)  Practical  geometry  is  to  be  introduced,  along  with 
deductive  geometry,  and  questions  will  be  set  re- 
quiring careful  draughtsmanship  and  the  use  of 
efficient  drawing  instruments. 

(3)  In  arithmetic,  the  use  of  algebraical  symbols  and 
processes  will  be  permitted. 

(4)  In  algebra,  graphs  and  squared  paper  work  will 
be  introduced ;  and  a  knowledge  will  be  required  of 
fractional  indices  and  the  use  of  four  figure  tables  of 
logarithms. 

The  scopetbf  the  subject-matter  in  geometry  is  set 
out  in  tww  ^dhedules.  The  first  gives  a  list  of  con- 
structions in  practical  geometry.  We  venture  to  take 
exception  to  one  detail  in  this  list,  that  of  requiring  a 
construction  for  drawing  a  common  tangent  to  two 
circles.  Why  insist  on  first  finding  the  points  of  con- 
tact? This  may  have  been  necessary  under  Euclid's 
postulates,  but  it  should  now  be  discarded;  it  is  not 
practical  geometry. 

The  second  schedule  indicates  the  amount  of  book 
work  necessary  in  preparing  for  the  Previous  Examin- 
ation. The  propositions  enumerated  are  nearly  all 
contained  in  the  Elements,  but  a  judicious  amount  of 
pruning  has  been  effected  in  the  latter.  Hypothetical 
constructions  are  permitted.  The  theory  of  incom- 
mensurables  is  not  required. 

The  increase  of  freedom  now  being  given  to  teachers 
should  lead  to  further  developments  in  the  reform  as 
experience  is  gained.  It  will  be  one  great  advantage 
to  have  the  several  branches  of  the  subject  brought  into 
closer  association  and  reacting  on  one  another. 

Geometry  will  be  made  generally  interesting  and 
will  at  last  have  a  chance  of  being  taught  in  a  manner 
suited  to  boys.  In  looking  out  for  suitable  numerical 
examples  in  geometry,  we  predict  that  a  good  teacher 
will  not  fail  to  make  use  of  functions  of  angles.  Pro- 
bably three  figure  tables  of  chords,  sines,  cosines  and 
tangents  will  be  sufficient,  reading  to  tenths  of  a 
degree,  and  occupying  a  very  modest  space.  A  boy's 
interest  will  be  stimulated  when  he  discovers  the  latent 
power  residing  in  these  innocent  looking  tables.  And 
in  checking  his  graphical  results,  he  may  be  led  on 
to  the  numerical  solution  of  right-angled  triangles 
before  he  has  heard  of  trigonometry,  and  will  never 
■        afterwards  be  repelled  by  the  symbols  sin,,  cos.,  tan. 

The  employment  of  logarithms  is  most  important. 
Their  use  illustrates  the  significance  of  fractional 
indices.     And  here  again  the  interest  of  a  boy  must 

r  surely  be  aroused  when  he  finds  himself  in  possession 

of  a  new,  unforeseen,  and  most  valuable  means  of 
calculation. 

The  introduction  of  graphs  is  of  great  value.  The 
fundamentar  idea  of  the  representation  of  position  and 
change  of  position  by  means  of  rectangular  coordinates 
is  thus  acquired  early  and  in  an  agreeable  manner. 
Some  teachers  find  that  it  is  quite  possible  to  go  on 
without  much  delay  to  easy  illustrations  of  the  cal- 

I         cuius. 

I         ^   Looking  ahead  to  possible  developments,  the  graph- 

'  ical  use   of  polar  coordinates    to  mark  position    and 

change  of  position,   by   the  plotting  of  lengths    and 

NO.   1756,  VOL.  68] 


angles,  might  serve  as  an  introduction  to  the  study  of 
vectors,  a  subject  of  first  importance,  and  at  present 
so  woefuUv  neglected. 

We  regaVd  this  reform  at  Cambridge  as  an  important 
step  in  the  movement  now  in  progress  throughout  the 
country,  and  we  hope  to  see  it  carried  much  farther 
before  crystallisation  takes  place. 


THE   UNIVERSITY  OF  LONDON. 

THE  presentation  for  degrees  of  the  University  of 
London,  which  is  to  take  place  in  the  Albert  Hall 
as  we  go  to  press,  under  the  presidency  of  the  Chan- 
cellor, Lord  Rosebery,  is  noteworthy  in  several  respects. 
For  the  first  time  in  the  history  of  the  university, 
honorary  degrees  are  to  be  conferred,  the  recipients 
being  their  Royal  Highnesses  the  Prince  and  Princess 
of  Wales,  Lord  Kelvin,  and  Lord  Lister.  The  Prince 
is  to  receive  the  honorary  degree  of  Doctor  of  Laws, 
the  Princess  that  of  Doctor  of  Music,  and  Lord  Kelvin 
and  Lord  Lister  that  of  Doctor  of  Science.  Ordinary 
degrees  are  also  to  be  conferred  on  414  persons  who 
have  obtained  them  during  the  past  year.  Moreover, 
the  occasion  is  remarkable  as  being  the  first  gathering 
of  representatives  of  all  the  different  institutions  and 
groups  of  persons  connected  with  the  university. 

The  reconstituted  university  has  opened  up  new 
avenues  of  work  in  connection  with  schools,  with  uni- 
versity extension,  with  the  colleges,  medical  schools, 
and  polytechnics;  students  are  entering  both  for  the 
ordinary  matriculation  examination  and  for  post- 
graduate study  and  research  in  unexpected  numbers. 
The  educational  forces  of  London  have,  in  fact,  been 
organised  by  the  university,  and  public  interest  is  being 
shown  in  the  work.  But,  as  Sir  Arthur  Rucker,  the 
principal,  has  pointed  out,  while  there  are  many 
grounds  for  hope,  and  while  the  university  is  doing  its 
best  to  make  itself  worthy  of  public  support,  it  can 
never  fulfil  its  duties  without  the  supply  of  funds  from 
public  or  private  sources  on  a  very  large  scale.  We 
trust  that  one  result  of  the  brilliant  ceremony  on  Wed- 
nesday evening  will  be  an  increase  of  the  endowment 
of  the  university  sufficient  to  secure  the  full  develop- 
ment of  the  scheme  which  has  already  produced  such 
satisfactory  results. 


NOTES. 

For  the  first  time  for  about  forty  years  the  Royal  Society 
of  Edinburgh,  on  the  evening  of  June  6,  held  a  conversazione. 
Lord  and  Lady  Kelvin  and  Sir  William  Turner  received 
the  guests.  There  were  many  interesting  exhibits  from 
several  departments  of  the  Universities  of  Edinburgh,  Glas- 
gow, and  St.  Andrews,  from  the  Geological  Survey  of 
Scotland,'  the  Scottish  Antarctic  Expedition,  &c.  Prof. 
Mcintosh,  of  St.  Andrews,  sent  over  a  large  collection 
of  pearl  shells  and  animals,  living  and  dead,  and  great 
interest  was  taken  in  Prof.  Ewart's  exhibition  of  hybrid 
ponies.  Some  of  the  lantern  exhibits  were  particularly 
attractive,  notably  the  projection  on  the  screen  of  tanks  of 
living  worms,  Crustacea,  &c.,  and  a  fine  selection  of  slides 
made  from  Piazzi  Smyth's  "  cloud  "  negatives.  Among 
the  inventions  and  novelties  exhibited,  Dr.  Halm's  instru- 
ments for  mechanically  correcting  stellar  observations  and 
for  solving  Kepler's  problem  in  any  given  case,  and  Dr. 
Hugh  Marshall's  petrol  incandescence  lamp  are  worthy  of 
mention. 

Captain  Ammundsen's  Magnetic  North  Pole  Expedition 
left  Christiania  on  June  16  on  board  the  ship  Gjoa. 


i8o 


NATURE 


[June  25,  1903 


We  regret  to  announce  the  death,  on  June  lo,  of  Prof. 
Luigi  Cremona,  director  of  the  engineering  school  of  the 
University  of  Rome. 

The  summer  meeting  of  the  Institution  of  Naval ,  Archi-. 
tects  was  opened  at  Belfast  on  Tuesday,  and  Lord  Glasgow 
delivered  his  presidential  address. 

The  retirement  of  Sir  James  Hector,  K.C.M.G.,  from  the 
directorship  of  the  Geological  Survey  of  New  Zealand  and 
of  the  Colonial  Observatory  is  announced  by  the  Victorian 
N^aturalist. 

Mr.  Marconi's  manager  at  Glace  Bay,  Nova  Scotia, 
states  that  the  company  is  transmitting  daily  wireless 
messages  from  Table  Head  to  Poldhu,  but  the  replies  are 
being  cabled  pending  the  installation  of  machinery  at  Corn- 
wall. 

The  Times  announces  that  Commander  Don  Julian  Irizar, 
Naval  Attach^  to  the  Argentine  Legation  in  London,  has 
been  appointed  to  comrnand  the  vessel  Uruguay,  which  will 
bs  sent  by  the  Argentine  Government  in  October  to  the 
Antarctic  regions  in  search  of  Dr.  Otto  Nordenskjold's 
South  Polar  expedition,  which  was  joined  at  Buenos  Ayres 
in  1901  by  an  officer  of  the  Argentine  Navy. 

A  GRANT  of  5000  dollars,  and  travelling  expenses  to  the 
amount  of  1500  dollars,  has  been  made  to  Prof.  Arthur 
Gamgee  by  the  Carnegie  Institution  for  the  preparation 
of  a  report  on  the  physiology  of  nutrition,  the  object 
being  to  enable  him  to  secure  information  which  may  lead 
to  the  organisation  in  the  laboratories  of  various  countries 
of  cooperative  research  in  the  important  problem  of  human 
nutrition,  &c. 

Prof.  Steinmann,  of  Freiburg,  and  two  of  his  fellow- 
geologists  of  the  same  University,  have  arranged  an  ex- 
pedition to  the  Central  Andes  of  Bolivia.  The  party  will 
start  in  August  for  Buenos  Ayres,  whence  the  route  to  be 
taken  is  via.  Jujuy,  Tarija,  Sucre,  to  Cochabamba.  After 
a  prolonged  stay  in  the  mountains  the  explorers  will  prob- 
ably work  their  way  to  Antofagasta  vid  La  Paz.  The  outfit 
is  of  the  most  modern  description,  and  Dr.  Hoek,  who  is 
a  member  of  the  expedition,  is  one  of  the  most  capable 
German  mountaineers. 

The  International  Fire  Prevention  Congress  convened 
by  the  British  Fire  Prevention  Committee  will  be  opened 
at  Earl's  Court  on  Monday,  July  6,  by  the  Lord  Mayor  of 
London,  who  will  be  accompanied  by  the  Burgomaster  of 
Brussels.  The  general  and  sectional  discussions  will  be  held 
on  the  forenoons  of  July  7,  8,  and  9.  The  testing  opera- 
tions and  inspections  are  fixed  for  the  afternoons  of  these 
days. 

The  Royal  Statistical  Society  announces  the  ijext  .com- 
petition for  the  Howard  medal  (1903-1904).  The  essays 
must  be  sent  in  on  or  before  June  30,  1904.  In  addition  to 
the  medal,  a  grant  of  20I.  will  be  awarded  to  the  writer 
who  may  be  the  successful  competitor.  The  subject  is 
"  The  Effect,  as  Shown  by  Statistics,  of  British  Statutory 
Regulations,  Directed  to  the  Improvement  of  the  Hygienic 
Conditions  of  Industrial  Occupations."  Full  particulars 
may  be  obtained  at  the  office  of  the  Society,  9  Adelphi 
Terrace,  Strand. 

The  concluding  meeting  of  the  thirty-eighth  session  of 
the  Aeronautical  Society  of  Great  Britain  will  be  held  on 
the  Sussex  Downs  this  afternoon.  On  this  occasion  will 
take  place  the  international  kite  competition  (wind  and 
weather  permitting)  for  the  silver  medal  of  the  Society,  in 
accordance  with  the  rules  and  regulations  drawn  up  by  the 
NO.   1756,  VOL.  68] 


council  of  the  Society  and  the  jury  of  the  competition.. 
Amongst  those  who  have  consented- to  act  on  the  jury  are 
Dr.  W.  N.  Shaw,  F.R.S.,  Prof.  C.  V.  Boys,  F.R.S.,  Mr. 
E.  P.  Frost,  Sir  Hiram  Maxim,  Dr.  H.  R.  Mill,  Mr.  E.  A. 
Reeves,  and  Mr.  Eric  Stuart  Bruce. 

We  learn  from  the  Lancet  that  Dr.  Loudon,  of  St.  Peters- 
burg, has  published  some  interesting  observations  relative 
to  the  action  of  the  Becquerel  rays  on  the  nervous  system 
and  on  the  eye.  He  found  that  when  a  box  containing 
bromide  of  radium  was  placed  in  a  cage  in  which  mice 
were  kept  the  animals  became  paralysed  and  comatose,  and 
died  in  five  days.  He  also  found  that  persons  who  are 
either  totally  blind,  or  have  only  the  feeblest  possible  per- 
ception of  light,  are  peculiarly  sensitive  to  the  Becquerel 
rays,  and  are  able  to  form  visual  conceptions  of  the  contour 
of  objects  the  shadows  of  which  are  shown  on  a  screen 
by  means  of  the  rays. 

The  following  note  referring  to  observations  of  sunrise 
at'  Stonehenge  on  Sunday  appeared  in  Monday's  Times  : — 
For  the  first  time  for  nearly  ten  years  visitors  to  Stone- 
henge yesterday  morning  saw  the  sun  rise  over  the  altar- 
stone.  There  was  an  almost  cloudless  sky, '-and  at  forty- 
three  minutes  past  three  the  sun  appeared  above  the  horizon 
and  rose  in  a  'direct  line  over  the  altar-stone.  It  was  a 
magnificent  sight,  and  after  a  moment's  silence  the  crowd 
gave  a  mighty  cheer.  There  were  some  hundreds  of  people 
present,  many  of  them  having  travelled  in  previous  years 
many  miles  during  the  night  preceding  the  longest  day 
iq  the  hope  of  seeing  the  sight  which  was  seen  under  such 
favourable  conditions  yesterday  morning. 

Slight  earthquake  shocks  were  felt  in  North  Wales  and 
Anglesey  on  the  morning  of  June  19.  Mr.  Fred.  C.  Carey, 
of  the  County  School,  Bethesda,  writes  to  us  that  the  first 
shock  was  felt  by  him  in  the  county  school  at  10.8  a.m. 
precisely,  when  a  distant  rumbling  noise,  lasting  about 
a  minute,  was  heard,  and  the  whole  building  shook. 
Slighter  tremors  followed  at  10.12-5,  10.16,  10.19-5,  10.27, 
and  II. II -5.  At  Carnarvon  the  buildings  trembled  violently. 
At  Bangor  the  shocks  were  felt  at  about  the  same  time. 
The  bells  rang  at  the  railway  station."  The  post  office  at 
Llanrug  was  much  shaken.  The  shocks  were  general 
throughout  Carnarvonshire,  and  were  felt  as  far  as  the 
southern  part  of  the  Isle  of  Man.  The  vibration  appeared 
to  travel  in  a  north-westerly  direction.  In  Anglesey  the 
shock  was  comparatively  slight. 

In  connection  with  the  meeting  of  the  International 
Meteorological  Committee  at  Southport  during  the  British 
Association  week  in  September  next,  it  is  proposed  to  make 
arrangements  for  an  exhibition  of  meteorological  appli- 
ances and  other  objects  of  meteorological  interest.  Upon 
the  initiative  of  the  Meteorological  Council,  with  the  co- 
operation of  the  Royal  Meteorological  Society  and  the 
Scottish  Meteorological  Society,  a  committee  has  been 
formed  to  carry  out  this  proposal.  It  is  proposed  to  group! 
the  exhibits  into  four  classes  : — (A)  meteorological  statistics ; 
(B)  weather  telegraphy  ;  (C)  atmospheric  physics,  including 
(a)  meteorological  photography ;  (b)  instruments  and  in- 
strumental records ;  (c)  high  level  stations,  balloons  and 
kites,  observations  and  records;  (d)  experimental  illustra- 
tions ;  {D)  the  relation  of  meteorology  to  other  branches  of 
physics. 

The  weekly  weather  report  issued  by  the  Meteorological 
Office  for.  the  week  ended  June  20  shows  that  oyer  the 
southern  part  of  England  the  rainfall  was  three  times  as 
much  as  the  mean,  while  in  the  east  of  England  it  was 
more  than   seven   times  as  great.     Further,   that  the  rain- 


June  25,  1903] 


NATURE 


181 


fall  since  the  beginning-  of  the  year  is  in  excess  of  the 
average  in  all  districts,  varying  from  more  than  lo  inches 
in  the  north  of  Scotland  to  09  inch  in  the  north-east  of 
England.  During  the  first  three  weeks  of  this  month  the 
amount  measured  near  London  was  upwards  of  6  inches; 
the  Greenwich  records  for  the  last  60  years  show  that  the 
heaviest  previous  fall  in  June  was  5.80  inches,  in  the  year 
i860.  At  Malin  Head  the  fall  in  the  sarn^  three  weeks  was 
only  005  inch,  and  at  Holyhead  only  04  inch.  But  on 
June  22  an  area  of  low  barometric  pressure  reached  our 
western  coasts  and  occasioned  heavy  rain,  amounting  to 
an  inch  and  three  quarters  at  Valencia  in  the  forty-eight 
hours  ending  8h.  a.m.  on  June  24. 

The  cleanliness  of  electric  lighting  has  always  been  urged 
as  one  of  the  great  claims  in  its  favour,  and  it  has  been 
justly  pointed  out  that  the  saving  effected  in  redecoration 
partly  balances  its  extra  cost.  Although  this  is  true, 
electric  light  cannot  be  regarded  as  perfectly  clean  ;  it  has 
long  been  noticed  that  there  is  a  marked  tendency  for  dust 
to  accumulate  on  electric  light  fittings  and  wires,  and  on 
the  walls  and  ceilings  in  their  immediate  neighbourhood. 
This  is  partly,  no  doubt,  due  to  the  air  currents  produced 
by  the  local  heating,  but  it  is  also  partly  an  electrical 
phenomenon.  The  dust  particles  floating  in  the  air  are 
presumably  at  air  potential,  and  are  consequently  attracted 
to  the  conductors  on  the  non-earthed  side  of  an  earthed 
system  ;  they  either  stick  to  these  permanently,  or  remain 
on  them  until  charged,  when  they  are  projected  on  to  and 
stick  to  the  walls.  The  defect  has  naturally  become  more 
marked  with  the  increased  use  of  200-volt  systems.  If 
switches  are  always  put,  as  they  should  be,  in  the  non- 
earthed  wire,  the  deposition  of  dust  will  only  occur  during 
ihe  time  the  lamps  are  alight,  and  will  be  minimised.  Mr. 
n.  S.  Munro,  writing  in  the  Electrical  Review,  points  out 
that  a  still  further  improvement  can  be  effected  by  using 
concentric  flexible  conductors  instead  of  the  ordinary  twisted 
cord,  the  outer  conductor  being  connected  to  the  earthed 
side  of  the  system. 

Dr.  Edington  read  a  paper  at  the  recent  meeting  of  the 
South  African  Science  Association  upon  the  occurrence  of 
an  epidemic  among  domesticated  animals  in  Mauritius,  in 
which  trypanosomata  were  found  in  the  blood.  It  attacked 
rattle,  mules,  horses,  and  donkeys,  among  which  it  caused 
an  alarming  mortality,  and  seemed  to  be  allied  either  to 
nagana  or  to  surra. 

The  commemoration  day  proceedings  of  the  Livingstone 
(  ollege  were  held  at  Leyton  on  June  10.  The  College 
trains  missionaries  in  the  elements  of  medicine  and  surgery. 
The  Bishop  of  St.  Albans,  who  presided,  stated  that  there 
lould  be  little  doubt  that  the  average  life  of  a  man  abroad 
was  considerably  extended  when  due  care  was  taken  to 
observe  the  rules  of  health.  He  referred  to  the  importance 
of  training  women  as  medical  missionaries  for  work  in 
India,  and  to  the  moral  eff'ect  exerted  upon  native  races 
by  curing  their  bodily  ailments. 

The  annual  return  showing  the  number  of  experiments 
performed  on  living  animals  in  the  United  Kingdom  during 
1902  has  been  issued  as  a  Parliamentary  paper  (186).  In 
England  and  Scotland  the  number  of  licensees  was  319,  of 
whom  112  performed  no  experiments.  The  total  number 
of  experiments  performed  by  these  was  14,906,  of  which 
2130  were  carried  out  under  anaesthetics,  and  the  remainder, 
'2,776,  were  of  the  nature  of  hypodermic  inoculations.  The 
inspector,  in  his  report,  directs  attention  to  the  large 
number  of  experiments  performed  for  the  preparation  of 
remedies  and  on  behalf  of  various  public  authorities.  Five 
NO.    1756,   VOL.   68] 


licensees  alone  performed  3857  inoculation  experiments  for 
testing  anti-toxins,  and  fifteen  licensees  3997  inoculations 
for  public  bodies  for  the  purpose  of  testing  milk  for  tubercu- 
losis, for  the  examination  of  sewage  and  of  air,  and  the 
like.  As  regards  Ireland,  13  licences  were  in  existence 
during  the  year,  and  65  experiments  were  performed  under 
them. 

We  have  received  from  the  director  of  the  Survey  Depart- 
ment, Cairo,  a  report  on  the  meteorological  observations 
made  at  the  Abbassia  Observatory  during  the  year  1900, 
together  with  mean  values  for  Alexandria  for  the  previous 
ten  years  •  also  monthly  results  for  Port  Said,  Assiut  and 
Omdurman  for  part  of  the  year  1900.  The  report  is  a 
very  valuable  contribution  to  Egyptian  climatology,  and 
bears  evidence  of  every  care  having  been  taken  in  the 
selection  of  trustworthy  instruments  and  in  the  reduction  of 
the  observations.  The  observatory  is  now  well  supplied 
with  automatically  registering  instruments  of  the  best 
patterns,  including  Dines 's  anemometer,  Callendar's  electric 
recorders  for  dry-  and  wet-bulb  platinum  wire  thermo-' 
meters,  Campbell-Stokes's  sunshine  recorder,  and  Milne's 
seismometer.  For  Abbassia  hourly  observations  are  given, 
and  the  results,  with  daily  and  annual  variations  and  other 
data,  are  shown  in  clearly  drawn  diagrams,  both  for  this 
station  and  for  Alexandria.  From  the  latter  ten-year  series 
we  note  that  the  mean  of  the  highest  temperatures  recorded 
in  each  month  was  36°-6  C.  in  May,  and  of  the  lowest 
maxima  2i°-6  in  January;  the  mean  of  the  highest  minima 
was  22°-7  in  August,  and  of  the  lowest  7°o  in  January. 
The  extreme  values  were  40°  and  5°-4.  The  mean  annual 
rainfall  is  only  953  inches ;  most  of  this  falls  between 
November  and  January.  No  measurable  quantity  falls  in 
June,  July  and  August,  and  only  three-tenths  of  an  inch,  on 
the  average,  in  September. 

In  our  recent  notice  of  Messrs.  Burroughs  Wellcome  and 
Co.'s  "  tabloid  "  preparations  for  photographers,  we  re- 
marked that,  among  a  very  large  assortment  of  reagents 
and  mixtures,  mercuric  chloride  and  ferrous  oxalate 
appeared  to  have  been  overlooked.  The  firm  informs  us  that 
the  mercuric  iodide  and  sodium  sulphite  intensifier  is  so 
efficient  that  it  does  not  consider  the  issue  of  mercuric 
chloride  tabloids  as  desirable.  We  would  point  out  that 
intensification  is  the  only  process  subjected  to  such  a  limit- 
ation, and  that,  although  the  iodide  of  mercury  method  is 
easily  applied  and  the  tabloids  are  excellent  for  the  purpose, 
there  is  no  method  of  intensification  that  is  so  simple  in 
its  chemical  and  physical  effects,  and  so  trustworthy  as  to 
the  amount  of  change  produced  and  the  permanency  of  the 
resulting  negative,  as  the  use  of  mercuric  chloride  followed 
by  ferrous  oxalate.  The  same  advantages  that  we  have 
indicated  in  connection  with  photographic  "  tabloids  " 
apply  also  to  the  same  firm's  "  '  soloid  *  microscopic  stains." 
A  dozen  or  more  varieties  are  already  issued,  the  most 
recent  addition  being  Leishman's  modification  of  Roman- 
owsky's  stain  for  blood  films.  Microscopists  will  appreciate 
not  only  the  convenience  of  being  able  to  prepare  staining 
solutions  without  having  to  weigh  the  solid  substances,  but 
also  the  fact  that  these  preparations  are  made  from  materials 
specially  selected  for  the  purpose. 

In  Science  for  May  29,  Mr.  C.  A.  Chant  discusses  certain 
questions  connected  with  theories  of  colour  vision,  and  in 
particular  a  view  put  forward  by  Dr.  Kirschmann  accord- 
ing to  which  colour  sensation  may  not  be  due  to  the  effect 
of  rays  of  one  particular  wave-length,  but  rather  to  the 
superposition  of  rays  of  different  lengths  the  combination  of 
which  produces  the  effect  of  colour.  That  the  theory  in 
question  is  a  possible  one  arises  from  the  fact  that  "  nobody 


l82 


NATURE 


[June  25,  1903 


ha^  seen  light  of  one  wave-length,"  and  even  in  the 
narrowest  band  obtainable  by  a  pure  spectrum,  differences 
of  frequency  amounting  to  many  millions  of  wave-lengths 
may  occur.  Mr.  Chant,  on  the  other  hand,  refers  to  the 
experiments  of  Rowland,  Michelson  and  Morley,  Perot  and 
Fabry  in  obtaining  interference  effects  with  very  long 
differences  of  path  (other  experiments  in  this  direction  were 
recently  noted  in  Nature),  and  to  the  fact  that  not  only  was 
there  no  sign  of  the  colour  disappearing  when  the  light 
approached  perfect  homogeneity,  but  the  intensity  of  the 
sensation  was  slightly  increased. 

The  article  on  the  infection-power  of  ascospores  in  the 
Erysipheaj  is  continued  in  the  Journal  of  Botany  (June)  by 
Mr.  E.  S.  Salmon.  The  ascospores  of  Erysiphe  graminis 
growing  on  barley  were  found  to  be  capable  of  infecting 
two  allied  species,  but  failed  when  sown  on  four  other 
species  of  Hordeum,  as  well  as  on  wheat,  oats  and  rye. 
This  establishes  the  existence  of  biologic  forms  in  the 
ascospore  stage  similar  to  those  known  for  the  conidial 
stage.  In  the  case  of  the  form  under  investigation,  the 
same  species  of  Hordeum  are  proof  against  infection 
whether  by  ascospores  or  conidia. 

The  announcement  was  recently  made  of  the  discovery 
of  a  new  source  of  indiarubber,  the  peculiarity  being  that 
the  latex,  which  has  been  found  to  yield  a  good  market- 
able caoutchouc,  is  obtained  from  the  underground  portion 
of  the  tree,  a  Landolphia.  The  genus  is  confined  to  Africa, 
more  especially  to  the  tropical  regions,  and  is  characterised 
by  the  presence  of  latex  in  the  stem,  but  the  latex  only 
furnishes  caoutchouc  in  a  few  species.  Of  these  the  three 
best  known,  Landolphia  Kirkii,  L.  owariensis,  and 
L.  florida,  are  llianes  climbing  by  means  of  tendrils. 
Recently  the  new  species  Landolphia  Thalloni  has  been 
exploited  in  the  French  Congo  ;  the  aerial  portions  of  this 
species  persist  only  for  one  or  two  seasons,  and  the  latex  is 
stored  in  the  rhizome. 

The  whole  of  vol.  Ixxiv.  part  ii.  of  the  Zeitschrift  fUr 
wissenschaftliche  Zoologie  is  occupied  by  the  first  instal- 
ment of  a  dissertation,  by  Prof.  A.  Schuberg,  on  the  nature 
of  intercellular  tissue.  Among  other  results,  it  is  demon- 
strated that  the  tissue  between  the  cells  of  the  epidermis 
is  readily  distinguishable  from  the  corresponding  structure 
in  the  true  skin. 

In  the  April  number  of  the  American  Naturalist,  Prof.  W. 
Patten  describes  certain  fragmentary  remains  which,  in 
his  opinion,  justify  the  conclusion  that  the  primitive  fish- 
like creature  Tremataspis  (previously  known  only  by  the 
dorsal  shield)  was  furnished  with  a  pair  of  oar-like  swim- 
ming appendages  attached  to.  the  head,  and  resembling 
those  of  Pterichthys  and  Bothriolepis.  If  this  be  so,  it  is 
probable  that  similar  appendages  likewise  existed  in 
Pteraspis,  Cyathaspis,  and  Polyaspis. 

In  an  article  entitled  "  The  Ways  of  Nature,"  published 
in  the  June  number  of  the  Century  Magazine,  Mr.  J. 
Burroughs  discourses  in  a  popular  style  on  the  question 
whether  the  lower  animals  really  possess  self-consciousness. 
Probably,  he  argues,  they  think  without  knowing  that  they 
think,  and  thus  the  faculty  in  question  is  restricted  to  man. 
Later  on  reference  is  made  to  incidents  quoted  in  well- 
known  works  which  seem  to  show  that  animals  are  really 
possessed  of  reasoning  powers,  but  it  is  pointed  out  that 
since  these  incidents  were,  in  most  cases,  at  any  rate,  not 
recorded  by  trained  scientific  observers,  their  value  must 
be  largely  discounted. 

NO.    1756,  VOL.  68] 


In  the  report  of  the  Marlborough  College  Natural  History 
Society  for  1962,  the  secretary  states  that,  notwithstanding 
the  season  having  been  unfavourable  for  field-work,  there 
are  no  reasons  to  be  dissatisfied  with  the  results  of  the 
year.  The  collections  which  have  been  most  largely  in- 
creased are  those  of  the  various  groups  of  insects,  especially 
Diptera.  The  members,  it  is  stated,  have  been  urged  to 
specialise  their  studies,  as  it  is  considered  that  by  this 
method  the  best  results  are  ensured  for  future  years. 
Whether  this  is  really  so  there  may,  however,  be  two 
opinions. 

According  to  the  annual  report  of  the  Cambridge 
Museums  and  Lecture  Rooms  Syndicate  for  the  past  year, 
considerable  progress  has  been  made  in  transferring  the 
collections  of  the  Woodwardian  Museum  to  the  Sedgwick 
Memorial  Museum  in  Downing  Street,  where  the  geo- 
logical lectures  have  been  delivered.  Amongst  the  more 
important  additions  to  the  University  collections,  special 
attention  is  directed  to  a  valuable  series  of  human  skulls 
obtained  from  various  sources,  also  to  the  skeleton  of 
a  humpback  whale,  presented  by  Mr.  Rothschild,  and  to 
specimens  of  the  whale-headed  stork  (Balaeniceps  rex),  the 
gift  of  Sir  Reginald  Wingate.  During  the  twelvemonth 
the  Zoological  Museum  has  likewise  been  enriched  by  the 
gift,  from  Prof.  Newton,  of  several  collections  of  birds  and 
eggs  of  exceptional  value. 

M.  6.  Reclus  has  reprinted  his  interesting  little  book 
"  Les  Primitifs, "  which  was  originally  published  in  1885. 
The  book  is  well  known  to  English  readers  under  the  title 
"  Primitive  Folk :  Studies  in  Comparative  Ethnology  " 
(The  Contemporary  Science  Series) ;  it  deals  with  the 
Eskimo,  Apaches,  and  various  tribes  of  southern  India. 
Nothing  new  has  been  added  to  the  original  edition. 

Dr.  Franz  Boas  has  published  as  Bulletin  27  of  the 
publications  of  the  Bureau  of  American  Ethnology  the 
Tsimshian  texts  he  collected  at  the  mouth  of  the  Nass  River 
in  1894  while  he  was  engaged  in  researches  under  the 
auspices  of  the  British  Association  Committee  on  the  North- 
western Tribes  of  Canada.  By  far  the  greater  number  of 
these  are  myths  of  the  tribes  in  which  the  miraculous  is 
blended  with  the  actual ;  it  is  not  difficult  to  eliminate  the 
former.  The  remainder  gives  a  good  insight  into  the 
everyday  life  of  the  people.  The  texts  are  printed  as  they 
were  taken  down  by  Dr.  Boas  from  his  informants,  and 
a  literal  word  for  word  translation  is  given,  as  well  as  a 
more  free  rendering.  In  addition  to  their  linguistic  value 
these  texts  afford  the  reader  a  good  idea  of  the  literary 
style  and  the  sentence-building  of  the  Tsimshian  Indians 
without  a  previous  knowledge  of  the  language  being 
necessary. 

A  REPORT  on  the  Kangaroo  Hills  Mineral  Field,  by  Mr. 
W.  E.  Cameron,  has  been  issued  by  the  Queensland  Geo- 
logical Survey.  The  district  is  one  of  altered  sedimentary 
rocks  and  granite,  in  which  tin,  copper,  and  silver  mining 
has  been  carried  out.  A  report  on  Yorkey's  Gold  Field 
and  the  Marodian  Gold  and  Copper  Field  in  the  district 
of  Wide  Bay,  Queensland,  has  been  prepared  by  Mr.  L.  C. 
Ball.  Yorkey's  Gold  Field  lies  in  an  area  of  slates  assigned 
with  doubt  to  the  Gympie  (permo-Carboniferous)  form- 
ation, with  intrusive  masses  of  granite  and  diorite,  and 
the  auriferous  quartz  reefs  occur  in  or  adjacent  to  the 
diorite.  The  other  districts  referred  to  are  in  the  pro- 
specting stages.  A  report  on  the  west  coast  of  the  Cape 
York  Peninsula  and  on  some  islands  of  the  Gulf  of  Carpen- 
teria  has  been  drawn  up  by  Mr.  C.  F.  V.  Jackson.  In- 
teresting particulars  and  photographic  views  are  given  of 


June  25,  1903J 


NATURE 


83 


this  little  known  region,  including-  notes  on  the  mangrove 
trees  and  their  influence  on  the  coast  line.  The  gold-field 
of  Horn  Island  is  described,  the  reefs  occurring  in 
porphyritic  granite.  The  works  are  now  abandoned,  but 
apparently  they  were  started  before  adequate  investigations 
had  been  made,  and  even  now  it  is  doubtful  whether  the 
trials  were  exhaustive. 

We  have  received  a  copy  of  the  illustrated  catalogue  of 
chemical  apparatus  and  laboratory  fittings  supplied  by 
Messrs.  Max  Kaehler  and  Martini,  of  Berlin,  W.  The 
catalogue  runs  to  500  pages,  and  will  be  sent  post  free  to 
schools  and  colleges  where  there  are  chemical  laboratories. 
The  sole  agent  for  the  United  Kingdom  is  Mr.  S.  Bornett, 
^2  King  William  Street,  London,  E.C. 

Prof.  Wyndham  R.  Dunstan,  F.R.S.,  was  recently  ap- 
pointed by  the  Board  of  Trade  to  be  director  of  the  Imperial 
Institute,  and  one  of  the  results  appears  to  be  the  publication, 
as  a  supplement  to  the  Board  of  Trade  Journal,  of  a 
■"  Bulletin  of  the  Imperial  Institute."  The  first  issue  of 
the  bulletin  contains  much  useful  information  as  to  the 
experiments  and  inquiries  which  have  been  carried  out  in 
the  scientific  and  technical  department  of  the  Institute. 
Reports  on  the  following  investigations,  amongst  others, 
are  included  : — poisonous  fodder  plants  and  food  grains ; 
analyses  and  e.xaminations  of  coal  from  Trinidad ;  kaolin 
from  St.  Vincent ;  tin  ore  from  the  Bautshi  tin  fields. 
Northern  Nigeria ;  fibres  from  Sierra  Leone  and  Brazil ; 
and  nuts  from  British  Honduras  and  Portuguese  East 
Africa.  The  second  part  of  the  bulletin  consists  of  general 
notices  prepared  by  the  scientific  department  on  a  variety 
of  questions,  as  different  as  the  chemical  analysis  of  gutta- 
percha as  a  guide  to  its  cultivation  and  valuation,  and 
cotton  cultivation  in  Asia  Minor.  The  work  of  the  scientific 
and  technical  department  is  chiefly  initiated  by  departments 
of  the  Governments  of  India  and  the  Colonies.  Arrange- 
ments have  been  also  made  by  the  Foreign  Office  whereby 
British  Consuls  may  transmit  for  investigation  such  natural 
products  of  the  countries  in  which  they  are  appointed  to 
reside  as  are  likely  to  be  of  use  to  British  manufacturers 
and  merchants.  Materials  are  first  chemically  investigated 
in  the  laboratories  of  the  department,  which  includes  a  staff 
of  skilled  assistants,  and  are  afterwards  submitted  to 
technical  trials  by  experts,  and  finally  are  commercially 
valued.  Manufacturers,  and  dealers  in  natural  products, 
ought  to  be  keenly  alive  to  the  advantages  to  be  derived 
from  work  and  inquiries  of  this  character. 

The  additions  to  the  Zoological  Society's  Gardens  during 
the  past  week  include  an  Indian  Elephant  {Elephas 
indicus,  9 )  from  India,  presented  by  the  Maharaja  of 
Benares ;  a  Mozambique  Monkey  {Cercopithecus  pygery- 
thrtts)  from  East  Africa,  presented  by  Mr.  J.  R.  E.  Stans- 
feld,  D.S.O.  ;  a  Crested  Porcupine  {Hystrix  cristata),  a 
DIack-backed  Jackal  {Canis  mesomelas),  a  Puff  Adder  (Bitis 
arictans),  a  Cape  Bucephalus  {Dispholidus  typus),  a  Smooth- 
bellied  Snake  {Homalosoma  lutrix)  from  South  Africa,  pre- 
sented by  Mr.  Barry  McMillan  ;  two  Puff  Adders  {Bitis 
arictans)  from  South  Africa,  presented  by  Mr.  A.  W. 
Guthrie  ;  two  Black  Lemurs  (Lemur  macaco)  from  Mada- 
gascar, a  New  Zealand  Owl  (Ninox  novae-seelandiae),  four 
\"ariegated  Sheldrakes  {Tadorna  variegata)  from  New  Zea- 
land, five  Nutmeg  Fruit  Pigeons  {Myristicivora  bicolor) 
from  Moluccas,  six  Nicobar  Pigeons  (Caloenas  nicobarica) 
from  the  Indian  Archipelago,  a  Glossy  Calornis  (Calornis 
chalybeus),  a  Hamadryad  {Naia  bungurus)  from  India, 
seven  Large  Andaman  Parrakeets  {Palaeornis  magnirostris), 
an  Andaman  Starling  {Poliopsar  andamanensis),  six  Anda- 
man Teal  (Querquedula  albigularis)  from  the  Andaman 
NO.    1756,  VOL.  68] 


Islands,  two  Canadian  Cranes  (Grus  canadensis),  four 
Prickly  Trionyx  (Trionyx  spinifer)  from  North  America, 
four  Ceylonese  Terrapins  {Nicoria  trijuga)  from  Ceylon,  two 
Adanson's  Sternotheres  {Sternothoerus  adansoni)  from  West 
Africa,  deposited ;  a  Brush  Turkey  {Talegalla  lathami), 
bred  in  the  Gardens. 


OUR  ASTRONOMICAL  COLUMN. 

Astronomical  Occurrbncks  in  July:  — 
I.    loh,  40m.     Minimum  of  Algol  (j8  Persei). 
5-6.  Venus  very  near  Regulus  (o  Leonis). 
9.     8h.  4m.    to    gh.   iim.      Moon   occults  />'  Sagittarii 
(mag.  3-9). 


I5h.     Venus  at  greatest  elongation,  45°  30'  E 
lated     portion    of    disc  =  o 
Mars  =  ••873, 


15.     Venus.      Illuminated     portion 


459    of 


20.  I3h.    56m.     Moon   in    conjunction  with    Aldebaran 

(a  Tauri). 

21.  I2h.  23m.     Minimum  of  Algol  {0  Persei). 

23.  Mars  ii°  N.  of  Spica  (a  Virginis). 

24.  9h.  12m.     Minimum  of  Algol  ()3  Persei). 

26.     8h.      Moon    in    conjunction    with    Pallas.      Pallas 
0°  47'  N. 

29.  2oh.     Saturn  in  opposition  to  the  sun. 

30.  Uranus  i"  N.  of  51  Ophiuchi  (mag.  4-9). 

New  Comet,  1903  c. — A  Kiel  Centralstelle  telegram 
announces  that  M.  Borelly,  observing  at  Marseilles,  dis- 
covered a  new  comet,  1903  c,  on  June  21.  Its  position 
for  iih.  36-5m.  (M.T.  Marseilles)  on  June  21  was 

R.A.  =  2ih.  52m.  S2S.,  Dec.  =8°  10'  south, 

and  its  daily  movements  in  R.A.  and  Declination  are  —28s. 
and  -1-44'  respectively. 

The  telegram  states  that  a  nucleus  and  a  tail  have  been 
observed,  but  it  does  not  state  the  magnitude  of  the  object. 

A  later  telegram  states  that  Herr  Wirtz,  Strasburg, 
observed  this  comet  at  22h.  8-8m.  (M.T.  Strasburg)  on 
June  22,  and  determined  its  position  as  follows  : — 

R.A.=2ih.  51m.  S373S. 
Dec.  =  7°  17'  11*  south. 

Photographic  Observations  of  Comet  1902  iii. — Prof. 
Sykora,  of  Jurjew,  has  communicated  to  No.  3871  of  the 
Astronomische  Nachrichten  the  results  of  the  photographic 
observations  of  Comet  1902  iii.  made  by  him  during 
September  and  October  of  last  year. 

Reproductions  of  drawings  made  from  the  photographs 
show  that  on  September  26  the  comet  possessed  two  tails 
of  Bredichin's  second  and  third  types  respectively,  and  the 
measurements  showed  that  the  longer  tail  was  about  2°  in 
length.  On  October  7  this  length  was  increased  to  3°,  and 
the  tail  was  more  like  Bredichin's  first  type,  whilst  the 
shorter  third-type  tail  had  decreased  in  length.  On  the 
photograph  taken  on  October  9  this  difference  was  further 
accentuated. 

The  Mirror  of  the  Crossley  Reflector. — Dr.  G.  John- 
stone Stoney  writes  to  correct  a  misapprehension  referring 
to  the  mirror  of  the  Crossley  reflector  in  use  at  the  Lick 
Observatory.  The  figuring  of  this  mirror  is  usually 
attributed  to  the  late  Dr.  Common,  and  has  been  ascribed 
to  him  in  these  columns  (pp.  132,  162).  It  appears,  how- 
ever, from  a  correspondence  between  Mr.  J.  Gledhill  and 
Prof.  Campbell  that  Mr.  Crossley 's  gift  to  the  Lick  Observ- 
atory included  two  mirrors,  described  as  A  and  B,  essentially 
of  the  same  diameter  and  focal  length.  One  of  these,  B, 
was  refigured  by  Sir  Howard  Grubb,  and  was  sent  to 
America  as  it  came  from  his  workshop.  "It  is  the  B 
mirror,"  Prof.  Campbell  states,  "which  has  been  used  in 
all  the  work  with  the  Crossley  Reflector  at  the  Lick  Observ- 
atory."  Dr.  Stoney  adds: — "  In  any  enumeration  of  note- 
worthy instruments  made  by  Dr.  Common,  it  would  appear 
desirable  to  include  the  very  remarkable  flat  mirrors  of  large 
size  which  he  produced  of  late  years,  some  of  them  for  the 
coelostats  of  the  Joint  Solar  Eclipse  Committee  of  the  Royal 
and     Royal    Astronomical     Societies.     The    production    of 


84 


NATURE 


[June  25.  1903 


optically  flat"  mifrors  of  such  size  and  so  great  perfection 
was  a  very  great  achievement." 

Radiant  Points  of  July  and  August  Meteors. — A  paper 
by  Mr-  Denning  in  No.  3874  of  the  Astronomische  Nach- 
richten  describes  the  meteor  showers  which  occur  about 
the  same  time  of  the  year  as  the  splendid  Perseid  shower, 
and  it  gives,  in  tabular  form,  the  radiant  points  of  more 
than  one  hundred  showers  that  have  been  observed  at 
Bristol,  during  1876-1902,  in  the  months  of  July  and 
August,  dividing  the  epochs  of  appearanceinto  three  periods, 
viz.  July  6-16,  July  20-August  16,  and  August  19-25. 
Many  of  the  displays  are  feeble,  and  a  prominent  feature 
of  these  is  that  they  appear  foir  a  long  period  from  the  same 
fixed  radiant.      ,  " 

;]_The  Perseid  swarm  varies  greatly  in  intensity  ;  at  some 
apparitions  as  many  as  156  to  200  shooting  stars  are 
observed  per  hour,  whereas  at  other  appearances  the  hourly 
rate  may  decline  to  20  or  30.  From,  a  careful  survey  of  the 
records,  Mr.  Denning  thinks  that  there  is  evidence  of  this 
shower  having  a  periodicity  of  betA^een  104  and.  123  years. 
The  maximum  is  now  reached  on  the  morning'of  August 
12  or  13. 

Sun-spots  and  Terrestrial  Temperature. — In  discussing 
the  statement  recently  made  by  M.  C.  Nordmann  -  in  its 
application  to  the  temperatures  observed  at  the  Jacob  camp 
(Guadeloupe),  M.  Alfred  Angot  finds  that  approximately 
the  same  law  holds  good,  and  may  be  represented  by  the 
formula 

t  =  t^  +  ar, 

where  t  is  the  actual  temperature,  r  is  Wolf's  frequency 
number,  and  t„  and  a  are  constants  for  each  station,  a  being 
a  negative  quantity.  On  calculating  the  temperatures  for 
the  Jacob,  station  from  this  formula,  first  determining  the 
constants  for  that  place,  it  is  found  that  they  vary  but 
slip-htly  from  the  observed  values,  the  mean  variation  being 
+  o°-o6  C,  and  M.  Angot  suggests  that  an  analysis  of  the 
annual  variations  at  a  number  of  stations  might  reveal  the 
presence  of  further  periodical  variations  {Comptes  rendus, 
No.  21). 

The  Satellites  of  Saturn. — Bulletin  No.  34  of  the  Lick 
Observatory  contains  the  results  of  a  second  series  of 
observations  of  the  satellites  of  Saturn  made  by  Mr.  W.  J. 
Hussey  of  that  observatory. 

Mr.  Hussey  measured  the  position  angles  and  distances 
of  each  satellite  in  respect  to  one  of  the  others,  and  gives 
a  table  containing  all  the  details  of  each  observation  ;  he 
concludes  from  estimations  of  their  respective  light  values 
that  Mimas  is  probably  larger  than  Hyperion,  and,  from 
hi;-,  measurements,  that  the  generally  accepted  diameter  of 
Titan  is  undoubtedly  too  large  ;  2500  miles  is,  according  to 
him,  a  much  nearer  approximation  to  the  true  value  than 
the  values  given  in  most  text-books. 


HE  ROYAL  SOCIETY  CONVERSAZIONE. 


M 


ANY  of  the  objects  on  view  at  the  Royal  Society  con- 
versazione on  Friday  last  were  shown  at  the  gentle- 
men's conversazione  held  on  May  15,  and  have  already  been 
described  in  these  columns  (p.  59)'.  There  was,  however, 
a  number  of  additional  exhibits  illustrating  methods  and 
results  of  recent  work  in  many  branches  of  science,  and 
these  are  mentioned  below. 

The  condensation  of  the  radio-active  emanations  of  radium 
and  thorium  by  liquid  air  formed  the  subject  of  an  exhibit 
by  Prof.  E.  Rutherford,  F.R.S.,  and  Mr.  F.  Soddy.  The 
radio-active  emanations  of  thorium  and  radium  appear  to 
be  the  residues  of  the  thorium  atom  and  radium  atom  re- 
spectively after  the  heavy  positively  charged  particles, 
known  as  the  "  o  rays,"  have  been  projected.  They  have 
all  the  properties  of  inert  gases  of  the  argon  family,  and 
diffuse  away  from  the  radium  and  thorium  compounds  pro- 
ducing them.  They  can  be  condensed  at  the  temperature 
trf  liquid  air,  and  are  again  volatilised  on  raising  the  tempera- 
ture. Their  actual  quantity  is  almost  infinitesimally  small, 
being  quite  invisible  and  unweighable,  but  their  presence 
can  be  detected  by  their  property  of  radio-activity. 

NO.    1756,   VOL.   ^8] 


A  method  for  the  rapid  determination  of  the  specific' 
gravity  of  blood,  taken  from  a  single  drop,  was  shown  by 
Prof.  W.  J.  Sollas,  F.R.S.  A  fluid  heavier  than  the  blood 
(chloroform  and  benzole  sp.  gr.  107),  and  another  lighter 
(benzole  and  chloroform  sp.  gr.  1-04),  are  introduced  into 
a  tube,  the  heavier  first,  so  that  the  lighter,  added  sub- 
sequently, floats  upon  it.  The  two  fluids  mix  by  diffusion 
so  as  to  produce  a  column  in  which  the  specific  gravity 
varies  continuously  from  a  higher  to  a  lower  value  up- 
wards. A  drop  of  blood  obtained  from  a  pin  prick  is  then 
added,  and  sinks  in  the  column  until  it  reaches  a  level 
where  the  specific  gravity  is  identical  with  its  own.  Two 
glass  floats  of  known  specific  gravity  are  now  introduced, 
one  of  higher  and  the  other  of  lower  specific  gravity  than 
the  blood.  The  distances  of  these,  when  floating  in  the 
column,  from  the  drop  of  blood  are  proportional  to  the 
difference  in  specific  gravity. 

Mr.  J.  Y.  Buchanan,  F.R.S.,  exhibited  a  copper  sphere 
and  brass  tube  in  illustration  of  an  effect  produced  by  the 
momentary  relief  of  great  pressure.  Experiments  were' 
made  during  the  cruise  of  the  Challenger  and  on  board  the 
Princess  Alice.  The  copper  sphere  contained  a  glass 
spherical  flask  of  about  i|  inches  in  diameter  hermetically 
sealed,  and  the  sea  water  had  free  access  through  the  two 
holes  at  the  poles.  The  brass  tube  contained  a  glass  tube 
of  50  cubic  centimetres  in  capacity,  hermetically  sealed,  and 
the  sea  water  had  free  access  at  both  ends  of  the  brass  tube. 
The  brass  tube  was  sent  to  a  depth  of  3000  metres,  and  at 
some,  probably  less,  depth  the  internal  glass  tube  gave  way 
to  the  pressure  and  collapsed  suddenly.  The  enclosing 
brass  tube  was  pinched  up  by  the  external  pressure.  The 
experiment  shows  that,  in  the  time,  it  was  easier  to  pinch 
the  envelope  of  brass  than  to  shove  in  the  plugs  of  water 
at  both  ends.  The  copper  sphere  was  sent  first  to  300a 
metres,  but  was  pulled  up  without  showing  any  effect.  It 
was  then  sent  to  6000  metres,  and  the  internal  glass  flask 
collapsed  at  some  depth  between  3000  and  6000  metres,  and 
the  creasing  which  is  visible  on  the  copper  sphere  was  pro-* 
duced.  These  experiments,  whether  made  with  the  copper 
ball  or  with  the  brass  tube,  furnish  striking  demonstrations 
of  the  importance  of  the  element  of  time  in  all  physical 
considerations. 

Photographs  of  the  paths  of  aerial  gliders  were  shown- 
by  Prof.  G.  H.  Bryan,  F.R.S. ,  and  Mr.  W.  E.  Williams. 
These  photographs  weie  taken  by  attaching  a  piece  of 
magnesium  wire  to  gliders  of  cardboard,  and  show  the  path 
taken  during  their  descent  through  the  air.  By  fixing  a 
rotating  wheel  in  front  of  the  camera  so  as  to  give  a  series 
of  exposures  instead  of  a  continuous  exposure,  dotted  traces 
were  obtained,  the  distance  between  the  dots  enabling  the 
velocity  at  different  points  to  be  compared. 

The  solar  disc  in  monochromatic  (k)  light  was  exhibited 
by  the  Solar  Physics  Observatory,  South  Kensington.  The 
glass  positive  and  negative  shown  was  a  specimen  of  one 
of  the  trial  plates  taken  for  adjustment  of  the  new  photo- 
spectroheliograph.  Large  belts  of  prominences  could  be 
seen  stretching  across  the  solar  disc. 

The  Solar  Physics  Observatory  also  exhibited  photographs 
of  the  spectrum  of  lightning.  The  spectra  were  secured  by 
Dr.  William  J.  S.  Lockyer  on  the  early  morning  of  May  31. 
Small  cameras  were  employed  fitted  with  Thorpe's  trans- 
parent gratings  in  front  of  the  lenses. 

A  reproduction  of  the  hydraulic  organ  of  the  ancients 
was  shown  by  Mr.  John  W.  Warman.  This  instrument, 
originally  invented  by  Archimedes  about  250  B.C.,  has 
furnished  a  problem  for  at  least  600  years,  and  has  been 
the  subject  of  endless  speculation.  The  only  real  difference 
between  the  hydraulic  and  the  ordinary  or  "  pneumatic  " 
organ  is  that,  in  the  former,  the  wind-pressure  is  derived 
from  the  weight  of  an  annular  mass  of  water,  instead  of 
from  the  loaded  top  of  a  folded  air-bellows. 

Mr.  W.  N.  Shaw,  F.R.S.,  had  on  view  the  July  number 
of  the  Monthly  Pilot  Charts  of  the  North  Atlantic  and 
Mediterranean,  issued  by  the  Meteorological  Council.  The 
chart  was  exhibited  to  show  the  modifications  introduced 
since  the  commencement  of  the  series  in  April,  1901. 

Bactericidal  emanations  from  radium  were  demonstrated 

by  Mr.  Henry  Crookes,  who  also  showed  photographs  of  » 

;  box  of  instruments,    (a)   taken  by   ordinary   Rontgen   rays, 

I  (b)  taken  by  radium  emanations  at  a  distance  of  eighteen 

:  inches. 


June  25,  1903] 


NATURE 


18s 


Other  subjects  of  exhibits  belonging  to  the  physical 
sciences  were  : — photographs  illustrative  of  the  Coronation 
Naval  Review,  1902,  Dr.  W.  J.  S.  Lockyer ;  the 
Cooper-Hewitt  mercury  vapour  lamp  of  the  British  Westing- 
house  Electric  and  Manufacturing  Company,  Ltd.,  by  Prof. 
Ernest  Wilson ;  an  automatic  mercury  vacuum  pump,  by 
Dr.  S.  R.  .Milner;  (i)  stereoscopic  fluoroscope,  (2)  stereo- 
scopic X-ray  photographs,  Mr.  J.  Mackenzie  Davidson  ; 
detonation  of  small  shells,  Dr.  O.  J.  Silberrad  ;  (i)  appar- 
atus for  obtaining  monochromatic  illumination  with  the 
microscope,  (2)  a  new  turbidimeter,  for  determining  the 
turbidity  of  water,  by  Mr.  Charles  Baker ;  controlling  and 
regulating  spark  discharges,  experiments  in  illustration, 
by  Mr.  Alfred  Williams. 

Prof,  E.  B.  Poulton,  F.R.S.,  illustrated  the  protective 
resemblance  of  butterflies  to  dead  leaves  and  fragments  of 
dead  leaves.  \  resemblance  to  entire  dead  leaves  with  mid- 
rib, traces  of  oblique  veining,  and  often  attacked  by  fungi, 
is  found  in  many  genera  of  tropical  butterflies.  Holes, 
when  represented,  appeared  to  have  been  gnawed  by  insects, 
&c.  There  are  three  stages  in  the  representation  of  such 
holes  : — (i)  by  opaque  strongly  reflecting  "  body  colour  "  ; 
(2)  by  transparent  windows;  (3)  by  actual  apertures.  In 
the  Holarctic  region,  with  its  deciduous  trees,  a  genus 
(Polygonia  =  Giapta)  which  is  defended  by  the  same  kind 
of  concealment  resembles,  not  entire  leaves,  but  weather- 
beaten  and  ragged  fragments,  and  it  is  not  a  gnawed  hole 
which  is  represented  on  the  butterfly,  but  a  curved  crack 
due  to  chemical  and  mechanical  changes  in  a  dead  leaf 
fragment. 

The  director,  Royal  Botanic  Gardens,  Kew,  showed  three 
interesting  instances  of  plant  adaptations,  namely,  (i)  a 
sensitive  orchid  (Masdevallia  muscosa)  from  New  Grenada. 
The  lip  closes  when  an  insect  lights  on  it ;  the  insect,  in 
brawling  out,  is  compelled  to  carry  the  pollen  masses  away 
with  it.  (2)  A  case  of  commensalism  (Dischidia  rafflcsiana) 
from  Java.  Leaves  become  converted  into  bags  which 
ants  fill  with  soil ;  the  plant  sends  roots  into  the  "  flower 
pots  "  thus  formed.  (3)  A  possible  case  of  protective 
mimicry  (Mesembryanthemum  Bohisii)  from  South  Africa. 
The  fleshy  leaves  simulate  the  lichen-covered  fragments  of 
rock  amongst  which  thev  grow. 

An  exhibit  by  Dr.  D.  H.  Scott,  F.R.S.,  and  Prof.  F.  W. 
Oliver  illustrated  Lyginodendron  and  its  seed  Lagenostoma. 
Lyginodendron  is  a  characteristic  member  of  the  Palaeozoic 
group  Cycadofilices,  a  group  recognised  as  occupying  an 
intermediate  position  between  ferns  and  gymnosperms. 
Hitherto  no  certain  knowledge  of  the  reproductive  organs 
of  these  plants  has  been  available.  A  reinvestigation  of  the 
detached  Coal-measure  seeds  belonging  to  Williamson's 
genus  Lagenostoma  has  furnished  evidence  which  leads  to 
the  conclusion  that  one  of  them  {Lagenostoma  Lomaxi)  was 
borne  by  Lyginodendron. 

Fossil  vertebrata  from  the  Fayum,  Egypt,  were  exhibited 
by  the  director,  British  Museum  (Natural  History).  The 
most  important  of  the  specimens  were  portions  of  the  skull 
of  the  remarkable  horned  mammal,  Arsinoitherium,  from 
the  Upper  Eocene.  Specimens  of  the  upoer  and  lower 
dentition  of  the  primitive  elephants  Palaeomastodon  and 
Maeritheriym  were  also  exhibited ;  these  showed  that  the 
teeth  are  comparatively  simple,  and  that  the  premolars  and 
molars  are  in  use  simultaneously  as  in  the  ordinary  mammal. 
Remains  of  the  elephant  and  antelopes  associated  with  flint 
implements  from  the  lake  beds  of  the  lake  Birket-el-Kerun 
were  also  shown. 

A  chart  representing  the  first  results  of  experiments  on  the 
migrations  of  plaice  in  the  North  Sea  was  shown  by  the 
Marine  Biological  Association.  The  distances  travelled  by 
some  of  the  fishes  have  been  very  great,  amounting  in  one 
casi»  to  160  miles  in  six  weeks.  The  Association  also  had 
on  view  a  new  British  species  of  the  Pblychajte  family 
Sabellaridoe,  and  living  representatives  of  the  Plymouth 
marine  fauna. 

The  following  were  also  among  the  objects  on  view  : — 
mounted  specimen  of  newly-born  Indian  elephant  {Elephas 
tnaximus),  born  in  the  Zoological  Society's  Gardens,  show- 
ing the  hairy  nature  of  the  skin,  as  in  the  mammoth,  by 
the  director,  British  Museum  (Natural  History).  A 
series  of  spear-heads,  manufactured  by  the  existing 
Aborigines  of  the  north-west  territories  of  Western 
Australia,  by  Dr.   Henry  Woodward,    F.R.S.     Remains  of 


NO.    1756,  VOL.   68] 


fossil  mammals  from  an  ossiferous  cavern  of  Pliocene  age 
at  Doveholes,  near  Buxton,  Derbyshire,  by  Prof.  W.  Boyd 
Dawkins,  F.R.S.  Colour  photographs  of  living  insects  to 
illustrate  protective  coloration  and  resemblance,  by  Mr.  F. 
Knock,  (i)  Tail  feathers  from  a  common  male  pheasant, 
illustrating  sexual  transformation  of  plumage ;  (2)  a  wild 
duck  bred  in  captivity  showing  a  converse  change,  by  Mr. 
S.  G.  Shattock  and  Mr.  C.  G.  Seligmann. 

During  the  evening  Prof.  E.  B.  Poulton  gave  an  account 
of  the  discoveries  of  Mr.  Guy  A.  K.  Marshall  upon  the  wet 
season  and  dry  season  forms  of  Rhodesian  butterflies.  Mr. 
Marshall  has  proved,  in  three  cases,  by  breeding  the  one 
from  the  other,  that  butterflies  which  are  entirely  different 
in  colour,  pattern,  shape,  relation  of  upper  side  to  under 
side  of  wings,  and  even  habits,  and  the  selection  of  a  certain 
type  of  country,  are  only  the  summer  and  winter  forms  of 
one  species.  The  winter  forms  are  always  the  better  con- 
cealed in  these  cases,  probably  because  the  butterfly  passes 
a  much  larger  proportion  of  its  life  in  a  state  of  complete 
repose. 

The  Bioscope  Company  gave  a  lantef.i  demonstration 
illustrating  the  scientific  and  educational  applications  of  the 
bioscope. 


THE   ENGINEERING   CONFERENCE, 

T  AST  week  the  Institution  of  Civil  Engineers  held  the 
^^  bi-annual  engineering  conference  for  the  present 
year,  under  the  presidency  of  Mr.  John  Clarke  Hawkshaw, 
president  of  the  Institution. 

The  proceedings  commenced  on  the  evening  of  Tuesday, 
June  16,  when  Mr.  W.  H.  Maw,  past-president  of  the  Insti- 
tution of  Mechanical  Engineers,  delivered  the  eleventh 
"  James  Forrest  "  lecture  in  the  theatre  of  the  Institu- 
tion, his  subject  being  "  Some  Unsolved  Problems  in 
Engineering."  We  published  an  abridgment  of  Mr.  Maw's 
address  last  week  (p.  163).  On  the  following  day,  Wednes- 
day, June  17,  the  chief  business  of  the  meeting  commenced, 
and  was  continued  over  the  Thursday  and  Friday  following. 
The  conference  was  divided  into  seven  sections,  the  members 
of  which  met  in  various  rooms  near  the  Institution  house 
in  Great  George  Street.  These  sections  were  as  follow  : — 
Section  i.,  railways,  chairman,  Sir  Guilford  Molesworth ; 
section  ii.,  harbours,  docks  and  canals,  chairman,  Sir 
Leader  Williams;  section  iii.,  machinery,  chairman.  Dr. 
Alex.  B.  W.  Kennedy  ;  section  iv.,  mining  and  metallurgrv, 
chairman,  Mr.  E.  P.  Martin ;  section  v.,  shipbuilding, 
chairman.  Sir  John  I.  Thornycroft ;  section  vi.,  water- 
works, sewerage  and  gasworks,  chairman.  Sir  Alexander 
Binnie ;  section  vii.,  applications  of  electricity,  chairman, 
Mr.  Alexander  Siemens. 

Before  proceeding  to  the  various  section  rooms,  members 
of  the  congress  assembled  in  the  theatre  of  the  Institution 
of  Mechanical  Engineers  to  hear  an  introductory  address 
from  the  president  of  the  Institution  of  Civil  Engineers, 
Mr.  J.  C.  Hawkshaw.  The  address  alluded  to  the  work 
done  at  past  conferences,  and  subsequently  referred  to  the 
Engineering  Standards  Committee,  which  had  been 
organised  by  the  Institution  in  conjunction  with  various 
other  technical  bodies.  The  subject  of  the  education  and 
training  of  engineers  was  also  touched  upon,  and  in  con- 
nection with  the  Admiralty  scheme  of  training,  the  presi- 
dent pointed  out  that  a  similar  plan  of  operations  was 
devised  by  the  Institution  for  the  admission  of  students  and 
associate  members.  Referring  to  the  pollution  of  the  town 
by  smoke,  the  president  said  that  "  neglect  to  deal  with  it 
is  yearly  costing  the  growing  population  of  London  a  large 
sum,  and  a  Royal  Commission  had  been  appointed  to  inquire 
into  the  subject."  The  problems  of  locomotion  and  trans- 
port, timber  supplies,  and  motor-car  traffic  were  also  dwelt 
upon  briefly. 

Railways. 

The  section  devoted  to  railways  met  on  the  first  and 
second  days  of  the  meeting,  five  papers  being  read  in  all. 
The  first  paper  was  on  "  The  Assimilation  of  Railwav 
Practice  as  Regards  Loads  on  Bridges  up  to  200  feet  Span,  ' 
the  subject  being  introduced  by  Mr.  A.  Ross.  It  was 
pointed  out  that  it  was  undesirable  to  carry  standardisation 


i86 


NATURE 


[June  25,  1903 


to  such  an  extent  as  might  tend  to  arrest  advancement  in 
type  or  design,  although  it  was  of  the  utmost  importance 
that  uniformity  should  be  arrived  at  with  regard  to  the 
loads  to  which  such  structures  might  be  subjected.  In  the 
discussion  it  was  suggested  that  loads  on  bridges  were 
nearing  a  limit,  as  electric  traction  would  probably  come 
into  use,  and  this  would  do  away  with  the  need  for  the 
heavy  steam  locomotive. 

In  a  contribution  on  "  The  Design  of  Permanent  Way 
and  Locomotives  for  High  Speeds,"  by  Mr.  J.  C.  Inglis, 
it  was  pointed  out  that  the  increase  in  train  mileage  of 
British  railways  was  mostly  on  long  distance  traffic,  which 
meant  heavy  trains  with  heavy  axle  loads  hauled  at  a 
relatively  high  speed.  For  express  running,  up  to  60  miles 
an  hour,  no  curves  should  be  less  than  40  chains  radius. 
Heavy  rails  gave  smoother  running,  and  90  to  100  lbs.  per 
yard  was  often  the  practice.  Four-coupled  engines,  with 
the  front  wheels  coupled  and  a  bogie  under  the  foot-plate, 
formed  an  undesirable  class  of  engine  for  high  speed 
running,  whilst  engines  with  single  drivers,  and  only  one 
axle  in  front  and  one  behind,  were  likewise  unsatisfactory, 
and  plunged  considerably,  even  on  good  roads.  Equalising 
levers  had  much  to  recommend  them,  and  recent  practice 
had  been  in  the  direction  of  raising  the  centre  of  gravity 
of  the  locomotive. 

Mr.  W.  J.  Cudworth  read  an  interesting  paper  on 
"  Automatic  Signalling,"  giving  particulars  of  applications 
that  had  been  made  on  the  London  and  South-Western  Rail- 
way and  on  the  North-Eastern  Railway.  Mr.  Jacomb- 
Hood,  in  the  discussion,  said  he  was  convinced  that  auto- 
matic signalling  had  a  great  future  before  it. 

Lieut. -Colonel  Yorke,  R.E.,  introduced  the  subject  of 
"  The  Organisation  and  Administration  of  an  American 
Railway,"  which  he  dealt  with  in  some  detail.  He  advo- 
cated the  separation  of  the  traffic  or  commercial  depart- 
ment from  the  operating  or  working  department,  as 
followed  in  America,  although  unusual  in  this  country. 
The  value  of  keeping  accurate  statistics  was  dwelt  upon 
during  the  discussion. 

"  The  Relative  Advantages  of  Overhead,  Deep-level,  and 
Shallow  Subway  Lines  for  the  Accommodation  of  Urban 
Railway  Traffic  "  was  the  subject  brought  forward  by  Mr. 
S.  B.  Cottrell,  who  discussed  the  respective  advantages  and 
disadvantages  of  the  different  systems. 


Harbours,  Docks,  and  Canals. 

This  section  met  on  the  first  and  last  days  of  the  congress, 
Wednesday  and  Friday,  and  five  papers  were  read  in  all. 
The  first  paper  was  on  "  Dredging  in  New  South  Wales," 
Mr.  C.  W.  Harley  being  the  author.  He  pointed  out  that 
rivers  were  the  natural  means  for  conveying  produce,  and 
the  New  South  Wales  Government  had  expe.ided  consider- 
able sums  on  improving  its  navigation.  Particulars  of 
the  extensive  plant  that  was  used  for  this  purpose  were 
given. 

The  second  paper  on  the  "list  was  "Dredging,  with 
Special  Reference  to  Rotary  Cutters,"  by  Mr.  J.  H.  Apjohn. 
The  value  of  hydraulic  dredgers,  and  the  results  achieved 
on  the  bar  of  the  Mersey  and  other  rivers,  were  first  referred 
to.  In  dealing  with  rotary  cutters,  the  author  pointed  out 
that  the  form  of  the  blades  and  the  angle  at  which  they 
were_  set,  whether  they  were  straight  or  spiral,  and  the 
openings  between  them  at  the  bottom,  were  the  points  to 
be  determined.  Different  descriptions  of  material  needed 
different  forms  of  cutters.  These  two  papers  were  discussed 
together,  Sir  Leader  Williams,  Prof.  Vernon  Harcourt,  Mr. 
Wheeler,  Mr.  Matthews,  and  others  speaking.  The 
question  of  "  Foreshore  Protection  and  Travel  of  Beaches  " 
was  next  taken,  the  subject  being  introduced  by  Mr.  W.  T. 
Douglass.  This  matter  was  discussed  at  a  conference  at 
Norwich,  held  last  January,  and  the  author  dealt  with  the 
various  points  raised  in  connection  with  the  subject,  such 
as  direction  of  current,  depth  of  water,  effect  of  flood  tides 
on  the  travel  of  the  beach,  angle  and  length  of  groynes, 
&c.  In  the  course  of  discussion,  Mr.  Matthews  pointed 
out  that  often  the  value  of  land  reclaimed  was  not  equal 
to  the  cost  of  saving  it. 

The  other  papers  read  in  this  section  were  "  The  Modern 
Equipment  of  Docks,  with  Special  Reference  to  Hydraulic 
and  Electric  Appliances,"  by  Mr.  Walter  Pitt;  and  "  Recent 


NO.   1756,  VOL.  68] 


Improvements    in    Canal     Engineering,"    by    Mr.     Gerald 
FitzGibbon. 

Machinery. 

In  the  machinery  section  sittings  were  held  on  the 
Wednesday  and  Thursday.  The  first  subject  was  intro- 
duced by  Mr.  Archd.  P.  Head,  and  was  on  "  The  Speed  of 
Overhead  and  other  Cranes  as  a  Factor  in  the  Economic 
Handling  of  Material  in  Working."  The  author  favoured 
continuous  current  for  crane  work  at  220  to  500  volts.  He 
preferred  this  to  alternate  current  on  account  of  the  greater 
starting  torque  and  acceleration  which  it  gave  ;  although 
alternating  current  motors  were  efficient  at  full  loads,  they 
could  only  have  a  strong  starting  torque  at  the  expense  of 
efficiency.  Continuous  current  also  admitted  of  easier 
regulation,  was  cheaper  in  wiring,  and  could  be  stored  in 
batteries  to  equalise  a  variable  load.  Series-wound  motors 
automatically  ran  faster  with  lighter  loads,  and  should  be 
used  coupled  permanently  to  the  gear.  They  could  with- 
stand 100  per  cent,  overload  for  short  periods,  and  higher 
overloads  momentarily,  without  damage.  Motors  running 
continuously  with  clutch  connections  to  the  gearing  should 
be  shunt-wound.  Quick  stopping  could  be  achieved  by  an. 
electric  brake  working  on  the  armature  shaft,  operated  by 
a  weight  or  spring,  and  taken  off  by  a  solenoid  in  series 
with  the  motor.  \  som-jwhat  lively  discussion  followed  the 
reading  of  Mr.  Head's  paper,  Mr.  Tannett  Walker  and 
Mr.  Ellington  advocating  the  use  of  hydraulic  cranes,, 
although  the  latter  allowed  that  electricity  was  the  best 
source  of  motive  power  for  overhead  travellers. 

A  valuable  paper  by  Mr.  H.  J.  Marshall,  "  Gauges  and 
Standards  as  Affecting  Shop  and  Manufactory  Administra- 
tion," followed.  The  subject  is  one  which  does  not  well 
lend  itself  to  being  abstracted  in  a  few  words,  but  Mr.^ 
Marshall's  paper  is  the  more  valuable  because  it  represents' 
actual  experience  in  large  works. 

Mr.  H.  A.  Humphrey's  paper  on  "  Internal  Combustion 
Engines  for  Driving  Dynamos  "  was  also  one  of  consider- 
able interest,  and  attracted  a  good  many  of  the  electrical 
engineers  from  section  vii.  The  author  dealt  with  the 
large  gas-engines  which  have  quite  recently  come  into  use, 
and  the  design  of  which,  unfortunately,  we  largely  owe  to 
the  Continent,  where  the  application  of  blast  furnace  gas 
to  internal  combustion  engines  has  given  an  impetus  to 
this  branch  of  industry.  The  author  stated  that  there  were 
about  fifty  firms  manufacturing  large  gas  engines  of  200 
horse-power  and  upwards.  The  engines  completed  or  on 
order  numbered  515,  having  an  aggregate  capacity  of 
328,065  horse-power ;  of  these,  398  engines  were  for 
dynamos,  and  gave  collectively  206,805  I.H.P.  The  gas 
producer  and  gas  engine  constituted  the  cheapest  means 
of  generating  electric  power,  where  coal  was  the  basis  of 
energy,  and  the  gas  engine  had  proved  quite  trustworthy 
for  driving  alternators  in  parallel.  He  considered  that 
ultimately  the  gas  engine  would  entirely  take  the  place  of 
steam  plant  in  large  central  electric  stations.  A  long 
discussion  followed  the  reading  of  this  paper,  in  which  the 
views  of  the  author  were  upheld  by  some  speakers.  Dr. 
Kennedy  (who  occupied  the  chair),  however,  said  that  be- 
fore he  advised  the  application  of  internal  combustion 
engines  for  the  generation  of  electrical  energy  he  would 
like  to  feel  more  confidence,  or  have  more  experience  on 
the  subject.  Mr.  Crossley  and  Dr.  Hopkinson,  who  both 
spoke,  gave  some  remarkable  figures,  showing  the  advan- 
tage of  gas  engines  over  steam  engines  in  regard  to 
economy. 

"  The  Use  of  Petrol  Motors  for  Locomotion  "  was  the 
subject  introduced  by  M.  E.  Sauvage,  the  well-known 
French  locomotive  engineer,  who  gave  in  detail  the  points 
that  should  be  observed  in  designing  a  successful  petrol 
motor.  In  the  discussion,  Mr.  Aspinall  and  other  loco- 
motive engineers  pointed  out  that  though  the  single  unit 
vehicle  had  advantages,  and  appeared  very  attractive  at 
first  sight,  practical  considerations  militated  against  it, 
and  where,  in  the  past,  the  system  had  been  tried,  it  had 
been  abandoned  sooner  or  later. 

The  chief  feature  in  this  section  was  the  last  paper  read, 
which  was  on  "  Apprenticeship  in  Engineering  Education," 
by  Prof.  J.  D.  Cormack.  The  subject  is  too  long  and  too 
important  to  treat  in  a  brief  report  of  this  nature.  Prof. 
Cormack  merely  set  forth  the  chief  aspects  of  the  question, 
without       pretending       to       arrive       at       any       conclusion. 


JUNt  25,    1903] 


NATURE 


87 


leaving  the  latter  task  to  the  speakers  in  the  discussion  ;  of 
these  there  were  no  less  than  twenty-five.  They  included 
Sir  W.  H.  White,  Prof  Kennedy,  Colonel  Crompton,  Cap- 
tain Sankey,  Profs.  Ayrton,  Burstall  and  Capper,  the  Hon. 
R.  C.  Parsons,  and  Messrs.  D.  Drummond,  A.  K.  Yarrow, 
E.  B.  Ellington,  Bertram  Hopkinson  and  Mark  Robinson. 
Most  diverse  opinions  were  expressed  by  the  various 
speakers,  but  it  may  be  said  generally  that  some  system  in 
which  a  college  course  would  alternate  with  practical  ex- 
perience, in  periods  of  greater  or  less  duration,  received 
acceptation.  Sir  William  White,  in  closing  the  discussion, 
gave  a  promise  that  the  matter  would  be  considered  by  the 
council  of. the  Institution  of  Civil  Engineers,  which  would 
take  into  consideration  what  had  been  said  in  the  section, 
as  well  as  the  proceedings  before  the  Institution  of 
Mechanical  Engineers  and  the  Institution  of  Naval  Archi- 
tects, both  of  which  had  had  presented  to  them  papers  on 
this  subject  by  Prof.  W.  E.  Dalby,  who  recently  made  a 
tour  in  .America  and  on  the  Continent  to  study  this  question. 

Mining  and  Metallurgy. 

Seven  papers  were  read  in  this  section.  The  first  taken 
was  by  Sir  Thomas  Wrightson,  Bart.,  M.P.,  and  Mr.  John 
Morison,  the  subject  being  "  Notes  on  Percussive  Coal 
Cutters."  Details  of  the  machinery  were  given,  the  authors 
arriving  at  the  conclusion  that  in  America  machine  coal- 
cutting  had  been  successful,  but  in  this  country,  up  to  the 
present,  almost  the  opposite  experience  had  been  the  result 
of  the  adoption  of  machinery,  the  economy,  except  in  special 
cases,  being  doubtful. 

"  Recent  Improvements  in  Gold-mining  Machinery  on  the 
Rand,"  by  Mr.  A.  E.  T.  Lees,  followed.  He  dealt  with 
the  labour  difficulty  and  its  effect  on  the  introduction  of 
labour-saving  devices.  Considerable  progress  has  recently 
been  made  in  surface  works,  as  well  as  certain  improve- 
ments in  mining  machinery  generally. 

Mr.  J.  H.  Harrison  read  a  paper  on  "  Equalising  the 
Temperature  of  the  Blast  for  Blast-furnaces,  and  its  Effect 
on  the  Melting  Zone."  He  gave  particulars  of  the  practice 
followed  in  America  for  preventing  "  scaffolds." 

"  Notes  on  Steam-driven  and  Gas-driven  Blowing 
Engines  "  were  contributed  by  Mr.  Tom  Westgarth,  who 
had  no  hesitation  in  saying  that  the  gas  engine  generally 
was  more  suitable  for  blast-furnace  work,  provided  always 
that  the  gas  saved  by  the  use  of  the  gas  engine  could  be 
readily  employed. 

The  remaining  three  papers  read  in  this  section  were  : — 
"The  Continuous  Method  of  Open-hearth  Steel-making," 
by  Mr.  B.  Talbot;  "Alloys  of  Iron,  Nickel  and  Man- 
ganese," by  Mr.  R.  A.  Hadfield ;  and  "The  Dangerous 
Crystallisation  of  Mild  Steel  and  Wrought  Iron,"  by  Prof. 
J.  O.  Arnold. 

Shipbuilding. 

Section  v.  had  five  papers  before  it.  The  first  was  by 
Mr.  A.  F.  Yarrow  on  "  The  Comparative  Merits  of  Drilling 
and  Punching  in  Steel  for  Shipbuilding."  The  author  gave 
particulars  of  the  British  Aciniiralty  regulations,  which  re- 
quire drilling  in  place  of  punching  for  light  vessels.  He 
had  found  by  experience  that  this  was  a  wise  provision, 
although  it  had  been  objected  to  by  some  contractors.  In 
the  discussion  which  followed,  it  was  allowed  that  a  drilled 
hole  was  better  than  a  punched  hole  for  light  vessels,  such 
as  torpedo  craft.  For  merchant  ships,  however,  the  greater 
expense  of  the  drilling  might  be  objected  to. 

Mr.  John  List  read  a  paper  on  "  Screw  Shafts,"  pointing 
out  the  severe  effects  set  up  in  them  by  racing  in  light 
vessels.  He  referred  to  the  growing  use  of  nickel  steel  for 
propeller  shafts. 

Mr.  A.  E.  Seaton  also  read  a  paper  on  "  The  Modern 
Express  Steamer  for  Short  Passages,"  whilst  Prof.  A. 
Rateau  dealt  with  "  Steam  Turbines."  Mr.  H.  H.  West 
contributed  a  paper  on  "  Harbour  Dues  and  Charges." 

Water-works,  Sewerage  and  Gas-works. 

\  Five   papers   also   were   read    in   this   section.     The   first 

was  by  Mr.  G.  T.  Beilby  on  "  Smoke  Abatement."  The 
author  looked  forward  to  the  spread  of  the  internal  com- 
bustion engine  and  electric  transmission  of  power  to  pro- 
duce   a    better    state    of    the    atmosphere    in    large    towns. 

NO.    1756,  VOL.  68] 


He   also   considered    that    the    firing   of   steam-boilers    with 
washed  gas  would  prove  advantageous. 

The  next  paper  read  was  by  Dr.  S.  Rideal,  and  was  on 
"  Coal-gas  Standards."  The  subject  is  not  one  that  lends 
itself  to  compression.  The  same  may  be  said  of  Prof. 
Percy  F.  Frankland's  paper  on  "  The  Bacterial  Treatment 
of  Water  and  Sewage."  The  other  papers  read  in  this 
section  were  : — "  Steam  Turbine-driven  Centrifugal  Pumps 
for  High  Lifts,"  by  Mr.  C.  W.  Darley  ;  and  "  The  Raising 
of  W'ater  by  Compressed  Air,"  by  Mr.  Percy  Griffith. 

Applications  of  Electricity. 
Five  papers  were  read  in  section  vii.  The  first  was  on 
"  Wireless  Telegraphy,"  introduced  by  Mr.  E.  A.  N. 
Pochin,  who  gave  a  review  of  the  principles  involved  in 
this  subject  and  of  recent  developments.  Among  important 
facts  which  have  lately  been  established  are  : — (i)  up  to 
considerable  ranges  earth-curvature  is  not  a  fatal  obstacle, 
but  hills  may  exercise  a  serious  influence ;  (2)  the  ether 
exhibits  what  we  may  provisionally  call  a  variable  trans- 
parency to  Hertzian  waves,  sunlight  being  an  important 
factor.  With  regai'd  to  both  these  phenomena,  it  is 
probable  that  certain  wave-lengths  offer  special  advantages, 
whilst  the  second  affords  a  faint  clue  to  the  relative  share 
of  earth  and  ether  in  transmission.  Amongst  problems, 
that  of  isolation  is  undoubtedly  the  most  important,  and  in 
this  direction  two  methods  have  been  employed,  which  may 
be  termed  respectively  syntonic  and  optical  methods,  both 
of  which  were  described  as  regards  performance  and 
promise.  During  the  discussion  which  followed,  Mr. 
Gavey  expressed  the  opinion  that  syntony  in  installations 
of  wireless  telegraphy  of  from  60  to  100  miles  could  be 
established,  and  maintained  with  certainty  and  regularity  ; 
but  for  long  distances  transmission  was  uncertain,  owing 
to  causes  which  were  not  apparent.  The  remaining  papers 
read  in  this  section  were  on  the  "  Applications  of  Electricity 
to  Driving  Carriages  in  Towns,"  by  Lieut.-Colonel  R.  E.  B. 
Crompton,  C.B.  ;  "  The  Transmission  and  Distribution  by 
Single-phase  Alternating  Current,"  by  Mr.  E.  W.  Monk- 
house;  "High-speed  Electric  Traction  on  Railways,"  by 
J.  W.  Jacomb-Hood;  and  "The  Position  and  Protection 
of  the  Third  Rail  on  Electric  Railways,"  by  Mr.  W.  E. 
Langdon. 


liEW  CASE  OF  PROTECTIVE  MIMICRY 
IN  A  CATERPILLAR. 
T  T  is  well  known  that  the  larvae  of  many  insects,  such 
•^  as  those  of  the  case  moths,  clothes  moths,  caddis  flies, 
tortoise  beetles,  and  the  masked  bug,  construct  for  them- 
selves cases  or  artificial  coverings  either  for  protection  or 
concealment,  and  a  new  and  somewhat  remarkable  instance 
is  described  by  Mr.  R.  Shelford,  the  curator  of  the  Sarawak 
Museum,  in  the  Zoologist  for  May.  We  are  indebted  to 
the  publishers  for  the  accompanying  illustration  of  the 
caterpillar  described. 

On  May  16,  1900,  a  native  collector  brought  in  a  quantity 
of  a  Spiroea-like  plant,  intended  for  the  food  of  butterfly- 
caterpillars.  It  bore  numerous  pale  green  cymose  in- 
florescences which  were  still  in  bud,  and  presently  one  of 
the  branchlets  was  noticed  to  be  moving.  This  proved  to 
be  due  to  the  presence  of  a  small  Geometer  caterpillar  (only 
9  millimetres  in  length)  covered  with  buds  from  the  in- 
florescence on  which  it  was  feeding.  This  "  bore  the  follow- 
ing spine-like  processes,  a  dorsal  pair  on  the  4th  segment, 
a  dorso-lateral  pair  on  segments  5,  6  and  7,  a  lateral 
pair  on  the  8th  segment,  and  a  short  dorsal  pair  on  the 
nth;  there  were  also  some  small  tubercles  in  the  positions 
shown  in  the  accompanying  sketch."  To  these  spines 
strings  of  buds,  connected  by  silk,  were  fastened  in  a 
similar  manner,  and  when  the  green  buds  faded,  or  were 
removed,  they  were  immediately  replaced  by  fresh  ones. 
"  A  bud  would  be  shorn  off  with  the  mandibles,  then  held 
in  the'two  front  pairs  of  legs,  and  covered  all  over  with 
silk  issuing  from  the  mouth  of  the  larva  ;  the  larva  then 
tvvisted  round  the  anterior  part  of  the  body,  and  attached 
with  silk  the  bud  to  one  of  the  spinous  processes,  and 
another  bud  would  then  be  attached  to  this,  and  so  on,  until 
a  sufficiently  long  string  (generally  three  or  four  buds)  was 
made,    when   operations  on   another   spine   would   be   com- 


i88 


NATURE 


[June  25,  1903 


menced."  The  larva  fed  on  the  buds  of  the  inflorescence, 
scooping  out  the  interior,  and  (when  not  hurried)  using  the 
empty  shells  in  preference  to  whole  buds  for  its  covering. 
"  When  irritated,  the  larva  curled  up  in  the  attitude  repre- 
sented in  the  sketch,  and  it  remained  in  this  position  for 
fifteen  or  twenty  minutes."  At  other  times  it  would  sway 
about,  looking  like  a  branchlet  blown  by  the  breeze.  The 
larva  spun  up  on  May  28,  forming  a  silk  cocoon  covered 
with  green  buds,  but  it  was,  unfortunately,  destroyed  by 
ants,   and  as  no  other  specimen  could  be  discovered,   it   is 


supposed  that,  as  is  well  known  to  be  frequently  the  case 
with  specially  protected  insects,  the  species  must  be  very 
rare.     The  perfect  insect  is,  of  course,  at  present  unknown. 


UNIVERSITY    AND    EDUCATIONAL 
INTELLIGENCE. 

Cambridge. — The  Harkness  geological  scholarship  has 
been  awarded  to  Mr.  R.  H.  Rastall,  Christ's,  and  the  Wilt- 
shire prize  in  palaeontology  to  A.  Blackie,  Peterhouse,  and 
H.  H.  Hodgson,  Trinity,  equal. 

The  Museum  of  Zoology  has  received  an  important 
addition  through  the  bequest  of  the  late  Mr.  T.  E.  Buckley, 
of  Trinity  College.  The  collections  include  some  440 
volumes  of  books,  and  about  400  birds. 

In  the  natural  sciences  tripos,  part  i.,  thirty  men  and  one 
woman  gain  first  classes.  In  part  ii.  thirteen  men  and  one 
woman  appear  in  the  first  class. 

The  Raymond  Horton-Smith  prize  for  the  best  M.D. 
thesis  of  the  year  is  awarded  to  the  Hon.  G.  H.  Scott, 
Trinity. 

At  St.  John's  College  the  Hockin  prize  for  experimental 
physics  is  gained  by  Mr.  J.  H.  Field,  late  Lieut.  R.E. 
The  Adams  memorial  prize  in  astronomy  is  awarded  to 
Messrs.  Gold  and  Phillips,  equal.  The  Hutchinson  student- 
ship for  research  in  botany  goes  to  Mr.  R.  P.  Gregory, 
University  demonstrator. 


^  Dr.    A.    F.    Dixon,    professor   of   anatomy    in    University 
College,  Cardiff,  has  been  appointed  to  the  chair  of  anatomy 

NO.    1756,  VOL.   681 


in      Dublin     University,      lately     held     by     Prof.      Daniel 
Cunningham. 

Mr.  J.  Stuart  Thomson,  lecturer  on  biology  at  the 
Municipal  Technical  School,  Plymouth,  has  been  appointed 
to  the  post  of  assistant  to  the  Government  Marine  Biologist 
at  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope. 

Dr.  K.  J.  P.  Orton,  demonstrator  in  practical  chemistry 
at   St.    Bartholomew's   Hospital   Medical   School,    has  been 
appointed  professor  of  chemistry  at  the  University  College 
of  North  Wales,  Bangor,  in  succession  to  Dr.  Dobbie. 

The  Massachusetts  Institute  of  Technology  has  estab- 
lished a  laboratory  of  physical  chemistry  to  be  opened  in 
September,  which  is  to  be  devoted  exclusively  to  research 
work.  The  laboratory  is  to  be  under  the  directorship  of 
Prof.  A.  A.  Noyes,  with  whom  will  be  associated  Profs. 
H.  M.  Goodwin  and  Willis  R.  Whitney.  The  researches 
will  be  carried  on  in  large  part  by  a  staff  of  research 
assistants  and  associates  working  under  their  direction. 
Every  facility  will  also  be  offered  to  advanced  students 
who  wish  to  carry  on  investigations  in  this  branch  of 
science. 

An  appeal  for  funds  to  extend  the  department  of  experi- 
mental and  applied  science  and  natural  sciences  is  being 
issued  by  the  University  of  Dublin.  It  is  pointed  out  that 
the  University  of  Dublin  must  either  obtain  external  aid 
to  build  and  equip  laboratories  and  lecture  rooms  for 
physical  science,  electrical  and  mechanical  engineering, 
botany  and  zoology,  or  teach  these  subjects  under  grave 
disadvantage.  A  full  report,  drawn  up  by  a  committee 
appointed  by  the  board  of  Trinity  College  to  consider  the 
])resent  scientific  requirements  of  the  college,  shows  that 
a  sum  of  ioo,oooL  is  needed  to  provide  for  the  require- 
ments of  the  scientific  schools  of  the  University.  Owing 
to  the  generosity  of  Lord  Iveagh,  however,  the  appeal  is 
reduced  to  a  request  for  an  increased  income  of  2700Z. 
The  entire  capital  outlay,  34,000/.,  is  undertaken  by  Lord 
Iveagh  if  the  necessary  income  for  upkeep  is  forthcoming 
within  the  next  three  years. 

For  a  long  time  past  the  Merchant  Venturers'  Tech- 
nical College,  Bristol,  though  a  large  building,  has  been 
inadequate  to  meet  the  demands  of  the  increasingly  large 
number  of  adult  day  and  evening  students.    Negotiations 
have,  however,  just  been  concluded  by  which  an  additional 
building   will   become   available   for   the   purposes   of   the 
college  in  September  next.     It  is  hoped  to  make  provision 
in  this  new  building  for  an  extensive  boot  and  shoe  shop, 
and  for  new  shops  for  printers,  painters,  bookbinders,  and 
plumbers.     In  order  that  the  new  workshops  may  be  fitted 
up  with  the  latest  improvements,  the  teachers  of  the  college 
are  to  visit  workshops  of  the  same  kinds  in  other  towns. 
!   It  is  hoped  also  that  the  local  manufacturers  interested  in 
[   the  trades  in  question   will   be  willing  to  contribute  funds 
I  or  apparatus.     The   total   floor   space   in   the   new  building 
will  be  close  upon  12,000  square  feet.     The  space  available 
'   for   the    mechanical    and    the    electrical    engineering   labor- 
atories   will    be    more    than    dt)ubled.       The    present    small 
hydraulic  laboratory   will   be  replaced  by   one   many   times 
larger,   and   a  new  large  physical   laboratory   will   be  pro- 
j   vided.     Arrangements  are  being  made  to  provide  as  early 
as  the  manufacturers  can  make  them  a  large  experimental 
■   steam     engine,     with     two     additional     dynamos     and     all 
j   necessary  measuring  apparatus,  at  a  cost  of  about  2000?. 
Three  months  ago,   on  March  26  (vol..  Ixvii.   p.   500),  a 
note  was  given  of  the  gifts  to  science  and  higher  education 
announced    in    Science    for    the    preceding    quarter.       Since 
then  the  following  benefactions  have  been  published  in  our 
contemporary  :— Harvard      University      has      received      two 
anonymous  gifts,  respectively  2000L  and  10,000/.,  for  Emer- 
son Hall,   to  be  erected  for  the  department  of  philosophy, 
for    which    the    necessary    30,000/.    required    has    now    been 
obtained;  a  fund  of  2100/.   has  been  subscribed  to  establish 
a   lectureship   in   memory  of   Edwin   L.    Godkin  ;    2000/.    for 
the    establishment    of    a    scholarship    and     1000/.     for    the 
Semitic  Museum  by  the  will  of  Jacob  A.  Hecht ;  Mrs.  John 
Markoe    has    given    1000/.    to    establish    a    scholarship    in 
memory  of  her  son  ;  and  the  Harvard  Club  of  Chicago  has 
given   1000/.   to  found  a  scholarship  in  memory  of  Dunlop 
Smith.       Mrs.    Anderson    has    given    200,000/.    to    Barnard 


June  25,  1903] 


NATURE 


189 


College,  Columbia  University,  to  purchase  the  three  blocks 
of  land  adjoining  Columbia  College.  Mr.  Joseph  Pullitzer 
has  given  3000Z.  for  scholarships  to  the  university.  From 
the  will  of  Dr.  Thomas  VV.  Evans,  the  City  of  Philadelphia 
will  receive  about  800,000/.  for  the  "•  Thomas  W.  Evans 
Museum  and  Institute  Society."  Mr.  John  D.  Rockefeller 
has  offered  to  duplicate  money  raised  by  Acadia  College,  in 
Wolfville,  N.  S.,  up  to  20,000/.  before  January  i,  1908;  he 
"has  also  offered  to  pay  two-thirds  of  the  cost  of  a  building 
for  the  University  of  Nebraska  to  be  used  for  social  and 
religious  purposes,  on  condition  that  the  remaining  third 
of  the  20,000/.  be  contributed  within  about  a  vear,  and  to 
give  Denison  College,  Newark,  Ohio,  12,000/.  if  the  in- 
stitution will  raise  a  like  sum  by  January  i,  1904,  for  the 
construction  of  additional  buildings.  Chicago  Yale  alumni 
give  500/.  a  year  for  the  establishment  of  four  Yale  scholar- 
ships. Dr.  Elizabeth  L.  McMahon  left  1600/.  to  found  a 
scholarship  in  Vassar  College  for  daughters  of  deceased 
physicians.  Colby  University,  Maine,  receives  1000/.  by 
the  will  of  the  late  Robert  O.  Fuller,  of  Cambridge,  Mass. 
The  will  of  Mrs.  Susan  Bevier  gives  10,000/.  to  the 
Rochester  Athenaeum  and  Mechanics'  Institute.  Mrs. 
Helen  F.  Ackley  has  left  to  Wesleyan  University  a  bequest 
of  400/.,  the  income  from  which  is  to  be  used  for  the  benefit 
of  one  or  more  women  students.  Mr.  Andrew  Carnegie 
has  given  50,000/.  for  an  extension  of  the  Mechanics  and 
Tradesmen's  Institute,  New  York  City.  Dr.  D.  K. 
Pearsons  has  given  Winter  Park,  Florida,  10,000/.,  and 
Kingfisher  College,  Oklahoma,  5000/.  The  late  Ario 
Wentworth,  of  Salem,  Mass.,  left  20,000/.  to  the  Massa- 
chusetts Institute  of  Technology.  Mrs.  Vail,  wife  of  Prof. 
Vail,  has  given  Hobart  College'  1000/.  The  late  Walter  D. 
Pitkins  has  bequeathed  2000/.  to  Yale  University.  Mr. 
Francis  L.  Stetson,  of  New  York,  has  given  5000/.  to 
V.illiams  College.  Mr.  Robert  C.  Billings  has  given  the 
same  sum  to  Wellesley  College.  Mr.  Henry  Denhart,  of 
Washington,  111.,  announces  a  further  gift  of  29,000/.  to 
Carthage  College.  He  offers  20,000/.  for  the  endowment 
fund  providing  that  the  same  amount  be  raised  in  the 
college  territory,  half  of  the  expense  of  any  new  buildings 
erected  up  to  10,000/.,  and  5000/.  cash. 


SOCIETIES  AND  ACADEMIES. 

London. 
Royal     Society,    May   28.— "On   the   Adaptation   of  the 
Pancreas  to  different  Foodstuffs."     Preliminary  Communi- 
cation.    By    F.    A.    Bainbridgre,    M.B.,    M.R.C.P.     Com- 
municated by  Prof.  E.  H.  Starling,  F.R.S. 

The  author's  observations  have  been  made  in  the  hope  of 
determining,  first,  whether  the  composition  of  pancreatic 
juice  (as  regards  its  enzymes)  varies  in  response  to  the 
stimulus  of  different  foodstuffs,  and,  secondly,  by  what 
means  this  adaptation  is  carried  out.  The  enzyme  studied 
was  lactase,  which  converts  lactose  into  galactose  and  dex- 
trose, and  the  degree  of  inversion  produced  by  the  enzyme 
was  estimated  by  Pavy's  method. 

It  was  found  that  when  dogs  were  fed  on  milk  for  two 

or    three    weeks,    their    pancreatic    juice    contained    lactase, 

whereas  the  pancreatic  juice  of  adult  dogs  not  fed  on  milk 

contained   no   lactase.     It   seemed    clear,    therefore,    that    a 

•definite    foodstuff — lactose — caused    the    pancreas    to   secrete 

•an  enzyme  capable  of  producing  (in   the  lactose)  digestive 

changes  ;  in  fact,  the  pancreatic  juice  varied  in  composition 

with  different  diets.     It  is  believed  by  Pawloff  and  others 

;  that   this   adaptation    is   carried   out   entirely   by   a   nervous 

•  mechanism,    and    that    a    given    food    reflexly    excites    the 

i  pancreas  to  secrete  a  juice  specially  adapted  for  the  diges- 

i  tion  of  that  particular  foodstuff,  and  Weinland  has  adopted 

'  this  view  as  regards  the  lactase  of  the  pancreas. 

However,    Weinland 's    observation    that    lactose    injected 
subcutaneously  did  not  cause  the  formation  of  lactase  by  the 
I  pancreas  suggested  to  the  author  that  the  intestinal  mucous 

membrane  must  be  concerned  in  the  production  of  lactase, 
and  that  possibly  the  process  was  chemical  rather  than 
nervous.  The  author  found  that  when  an  extract  of  the  in- 
testinal mucous  membrane  of  a  dog  fed  on  milk  was  injected 
into  a  second  biscuit-fed  dog,  the  pancreatic  juice  of  the 
latter  contained  lactase.  On  the  other  hand,  when  a  watery 
extract  of  the  intestinal  mucous  membrane  of  a  biscuit-fed 
dog   was    injected    intravenously   into   a   second   biscuitrfed 


NO.    1756,  VOL.   68] 


dog,  the  pancreatic  juice  of  the  latter  contained  no  lactase. 
These  results  suggest  that,  in  consequence  of  the  action  of 
the  intestinal  mucous  membrane  on  lactose,  some  substance 
is  formed  which  passes  by  the  blood-stream  to  the  pancreas, 
where  it  stimulates  the  latter  to  manufacture  a  specific 
enzyme-Iactase.  If  this  proves  to  be  the  case,  the  whole 
process  of  adaptation  must  be  chemical  rather  than  nervous. 

"Hydrolysis  of "  Fats  in  vitro  by  means  of  Steapsin." 
By  Dr.  J.  Lewkowitsch  and  Dr.  J.  J.  R.  Macleod. 

Experiments  which  one  of  the  authors  (J.  L.)  had  made 
with  lipase  prepared  from  pig's  liver  had  not  led  to  a 
higher  hydrolysis  of  cotton-seed  oil  than  3  per  cent.  A 
fresh  series  of  experiments  was,  therefore,  commenced 
jointly  by  the  authors  with  steapsin.  Preparations  of 
steapsin  were  obtained  by  mincing  200  grams  of  fresh  pig's 
pancreas  and  triturating  it  in  a  mortar  with  twice  the  bulk 
of  water.  The  preparations  were  not  incubated  at  the  body 
temperature,  as  previous  experiments  had  proved  that 
steatolytically  active  preparations  had  lost  considerably  in 
steatolytic  power  by  being  kept  at  37°  C. 

The  experiments  were  carried  out  by  triturating  in  a 
mortar  varying  quantities  of  the  steapsin  preparations  with 
cotton-seed  oil  until  an  emulsion  was  obtained.  Unless  the 
preparation  and  the  oil  form  a  thorough  emulsion,  no  action 
of  the  ferment  can  be  expected.  If  the  emulsions  are 
allowed  to  stand,  hydrolysis  commences  after  a  few  days, 
and  reaches  in  the  course  of  a  few  weeks  a  very  consider- 
able amount.  Hydrolysis  up  to  86  per  cent,  was  obtained 
after  a  lapse  of  a  few  months  in  the  case  of  cotton-seed  oil. 
Lard  has  not  given  so  high  a  percentage  of  hydrolysis, 
although  the  opposite  result  would  have  been  expected, 
inasmuch  as  the  consistency  of  lard  favours  the  state  of 
emulsion. 

Steapsin  does  not  seem  to  produce  the  reversible  action 
which  other  enzymes  have  been  shown  to  exert.  So  far, 
small  quantities  of  acid  or  alkali  do  not  appear  to  influence 
the  action  of  the  ferment. 

The  foregoing  experiments  prove  for  the  first  time  that  it 
can  be  demonstrated  by  the  usual  quantitative  methods  of 
fat  analysis  that  steapsin  is  a  very  powerful  fat-splitting 
ferment. 

June  II. — "The  Measurement  of  Tissue  Fluid  in  Man." 
Preliminary  Note.  By  George  Oliver,  M.D.,  F.R.C.P. 
Communicated  by  Sir  Lauder  Brunton,  F.R.S. 

The  object  of  this  preliminary  note  is  to  indicate  a  method 
by  which  the  tissue  fluid  in  man  may  be  measured,  thus 
enabling  the  observer  to  ascertain  the  conditions  under 
which  it  is  effused  and  disposed  of. 

In  the  course  of  some  observations  made  with  the  view 
of  eliminating  tissue  fluid  as  a  cause  of  variability  in  the 
samples  of  blood  obtained  for  examination,  the  author  found 
that  the  rolling  of  a  tight  rubber  ring  over  the  finger  from 
the  tip  to  beyond  the  interphalangeal  joints  will,  as  a  rule, 
considerably  raise  the  percentages  of  the  blood  corpuscles 
and  of  the  haemoglobin.  The  author  could  not  arrive  at  any 
other  conclusion  than  that  the  ring  not  merely  empties  the 
vessels,  but  likewise  clears  away  any  tissue  fluid  present 
in  the  skin  and  subcutaneous  tissues.  The  needle,  in 
puncturing  the  capillaries,  liberates  a  certain  portion  of 
lymph  from  the  areolar  tissue  which  surrounds  them,  and 
this  dilutes  the  blood.  When,  however,  both  fluids  have 
been  dispersed  as  much  as  possible  by  the  compression  of 
the  firm  rubber  ring,  a  puncture  made  just  before  removing 
tbp  ring  yields  blood  per  se  ;  for  the  blood  instantly  returns 
to  the  vessels,  whereas  an  appreciable  interval  must  elapse 
before  the  lymph  reappears,  or  is  exuded  afresh.  The 
author  therefore  inferred  that  the  reading  of  the  difference 
in  the  percentage  of  the  corpuscles,  or  of  the  haemoglobin, 
before  and  after  the  use  of  the  ring,  provides  a  measure  of 
the  tissue-lymph,  and  makes  the  study  of  the  circulation 
of  it  in  man  possible. 

This  simple  method  having,  furnished  somewhat  un- 
expected, results,  the  author  accepted  theni  at  first  with 
reserve ;  and,  for  some  time,  the  data  were  allowed  to 
accumulate,  until  at  last  it  was  quite  apparent  that  they 
invariably  fell  into  the  same  order.  Inasmuch  as  the 
method  did  not  provide  results  which  were  exceptional  or 
erratic,  or  contradictory  and  unaccountable,  trust  on 
it  became  gradually  established  by  the  mere  repetition  of 
the  observations'.  . 


I90 


NATURE 


[June  25,  1903 


A  number  of  observations  have  been  made  on  normal 
subjects  leading  a  quiescent  life,  with  comparative  rest  of 
the  muscles ;  and  on  persons  subjected  to  varying  degrees 
of  exercise,  and  to  different  temperatures  and  altitudes.  In 
this  note  the  author  limits  himself,  however,  to  a  statement 
of  results  obtained  in  the  former  class  of  subjects  only. 

The  numerous  observations  which  this  inquiry  necessitated 
on  the  corpuscles,  and  on  the  haemoglobin,  were  made  by  the 
haemocytometer  tubes  and  the  haemoglobinometer,  which 
were  described  by  the  author  before  the  Physiological  Society 
some  few  years  ago  (see  Journal  of  Physiology,  Cambridge 
and  London,  vol.  xix.  p.  15),  and  the  specific  gravity  of  the 
blood  was  determined  by  Roy's  method.  The  blood- 
pressures  (arterial,  capillary,  and  venous)  were  read  by  the 
hajmodynamometer  {ibid.,  vols,  xxii.,  xxiii.),  and  Hill  and 
Barnard's  sphygmometer,  and  Prof.  Gartner's  tonometer, 
were  also  occasionally  used  in  determining  the  arterial 
pressure. 

Some  of  tTie  general  conclusions  afforded  by  the  observ- 
ations may  be  thus  epitomised  : — 

(i)  The  amount  of  tissue  fluid  varies  at  different  times 
in  the  course  of  the  day,  and  each  variation  is  of  short 
duration. 

(2)  The  ingestion  of  food  produces  a  rapid  flow  of  lymph 
into  the  tissue  spaces,  which  in  an  hour  after  the  meals 
acquires  its  maximum  development,  and  then  it  slowly  sub- 
sides, and  only  ceases  to  be  apparent  after  the  lapse  of  from 
3  to  4  hours. 

(3)  The  digestive  curve  of  variation  always  follows  the 
same  general  type  ;  the  rise  being  rapid,  the  acme  short, 
and  the  subsidence  gradual.  The  variations  were  observed 
to  follow  this  well-defined  order  in  all  the  healthy  subjects 
so  far  submitted  to  observation.  The  curve  of  variation  is, 
therefore,  rhythmical — the  wave  abruptly  rising  to  an  acme 
and  then  somewhat  slowly  subsiding. 

The  following  are  two  examples  : — 
Example  i. 


Corpuscles  per  cent. 
Before  the  meal     99^  (4,950,000  per  c.mm. )) 


Dift. 


Per- 

centage 

of 
lymph. 


(breakfast) 

1  hour  after  ... 

2  hours  after  . . 

3  hours  after  . . , 

4  hours  after ... 


103 

91 

106 

94 
105 

96 
104 

98 
loi 


(5,150,000 
(4,550,000 
(5,300,000 
(4,700,000 
(5,250,000 
(4,800,000 
(5,200,000 
(4,900,000 
(5,050,000 
Example  2. 


750,000  15 

550,000  II 

400,000  8 

150,000  3 


Corpuscles  per  cent. 


Diff. 


Before  the  meal    99  (4,950,000  per   c.mm.)) 


Per- 
centage 

of 
lymph. 


(dinner) 
I  hour  alter 


2  hours  after 


3  hours  after 


i} 


None 
850,000 
600,000 

None 


17 


99  (4,950.000  „         )/ 

91  (4,550,000  ,,         )\ 

108  (5,400,000  ,,  )j 

94  (4,700,000  „  )\ 

106  (5,300,000  ,,         )J 

104  (5,200,000 
104  (5,200,000 

(4)  The  amount  of  lymph  is  proportionate  to  the  rise  of 
the  mean  arterial  and  capillary  pressures,  and  these  pres- 
sures have  been  found  to  follow  exactly  the  same  prolonged 
rhythmical  course  after  the  ingestion  of  food  as  does  the 
effusion  of  lymph. 

The  following  example  shows  the  agreement  between  the 
blood-pressures  and  the  amount  of  lymph  : — 


Before  the  meal  ...     . 
I  hour  after 

1  hour  after 

\\  hours  after 

2  hours  after         ...     . 

3  hours  after        ...     . 

1  The  figure  on  the  first  line  represents  the  percentage  of  corpuscles 
before,  and  the  figure  on  the  second  line  that  after,  compression  of  the 
finger  by  the  rubber  ring. 


Percentage 
of  lymph. 

None 

Mean  arterial 
pressure. 

100  c.mm.  Hg. 

ID 

16 

8 

no 
116 
108 

None 

105 
100 

NO.    1756,  VOL.  68] 


The  method  devised  for  observing  the  capillary  pressure 
is  not  quite  so  delicate  for  the  smaller  variations  as  could 
be  wished,  and  the  author  hopes  to  improve  it ;  but  it  is- 
sufliciently  definite  to  show  that  the  capillary  blood-pressure 
is  raised  throughout  the  digestive  circulatory  disturbance^ 
and  especially  so  at  the  acme  of  it,  and  falls  again  at  the 
close  of  it.  When  the  mean  arterial  pressure  is  100  c.mm» 
Hg  before  a  meal,  as  in  the  above  example,  the  capillary 
blood-pressure  will  read  20  c.mm.  Hg ;  and  in  an  hour  after 
the  meal,  when  the  arterial  pressure  rises  to  115  c.mm.  Hg, 
or  so,  the  capillary  pressure  will  rise  to  at  least  30  c.mm. 
Hg.  Though  this  is  a  large  relative  rise,,  the  author's- 
observations  show  that  it  is  not  less  than  this,  and  that  it 
is  often  more. 

Physical  Society,  June  12.— Dr.  R.  T.  Glazebrook^ 
F.R.S.,  president,  in  the  chair. — Some  experiments  on 
shadows  in  an  astigmatic  beam  of  light,  by  Prof.  S.  P. 
Thompson.  Two  years  ago  Prof.  Thompson  showed 
before  the  Society  some  experiments  on  the  shadows  formed 
when  a  thin  rod  is  placed  in  a  beam  of  light  which  has 
passed  through  a  tilted  plano-convex  lens.  In  those  ex- 
periments the  peculiar  effects  were  chiefly  due  to  the 
aberration  known  as  coma.  Following  up  his  experiments,. 
Prof.  Thompson  has  investigated  the  shadows  produced 
when  a  thin  rod  is  placed  in  an  astigmatic  beam. — On  a 
method  of  determining  the  viscosity  of  pitch-like  solids,  by 
Prof.  F.  T.  Trouton  and  Mr.  E.  S.  Andrews.  The 
various  methods  which  have  been  proposed  for  measuring 
viscosity  meet  with  difficulties  when  it  is  attempted  to 
apply  them  for  the  measurement  of  the  viscosity  of  bodies- 
such  as  pitch.  To  obviate  some  of  these  difficulties  a 
method  has  been  devised  in  which  a  constant  torque  is- 
applied  to  a  cylinder  of  the  substance,  and  the  relative  rate 
of  rotation  of  the  ends  is  observed.  From  these  and  the 
dimensions  of  the  cylinder,  the  viscosity  can  be  calculated 
by  means  of  a  formula  deduced  in  the  paper. — The  positive 
ionisation  produced  by  hot  platinum  in  air  at  low  pressures, 
by  Mr.  O.  W.  Richardson.  The  experiments  described  irr 
this  paper  were  almost  all  made  at  temperatures  so  low- 
that  there  was  no  appreciable  negative  ionisation.  In  ex- 
amining the  relation  between  the  current  from  a  positively 
charged  hot  platinum  wire  and  the  applied  E.M.F.  at  low 
pressures,  results  were  obtained  which  indicated  that  the 
value  of  the  current  fell  off  with  time  when  the  other  con- 
ditions were  kept  constant.  Further  experiments  showed 
that  the  current  died  away  rapidly  at  first  until  it  reached 
a  steady  value    which  only  disappeared  gradually. 

Royal  Astronomical  Society,  June  12. — Prof.  H.  H. 
Turner,  F.R.S.,  president,  in  the  chair. — The  president 
announced  the  death  of  Dr.  A.  A.  Common,  and  a  vote  of 
condolence  with  his  relatives  was  put  from  the  chair  and 
passed  by  the  meeting. — A  letter  (accompanying  a  paper  on 
the  present  condition  of  the  lunar  theory)  from  Mr.  Nevill, 
director  of  the  Natal  Observatory,  was  read,  in  which  the 
writer  stated  that  the  reductions  desired  by  Prof.  Newcomb 
had  already  been  made,  and  were  awaiting  publication  at 
th?  Natal  Observatory. — The  secretary  read  a  paper,  by 
Prof.  E.  W.  Brown,  on  the  verification  of  the  Newtoniar* 
law,  which  gave  rise  to  a  discussion  in  which  Prof.  New- 
comb  and  others  took  part. — Mr.  Newall  exhibited  and 
explained  a  series  of  slides  from  spectroheliographs  of  solar 
faculae,  &c.,  taken  by  a  new  method  by  Prof.  G.  E.  Hale 
at  the  Yerkes  Observatory,  and  Dr.  Lockver  showed  slides- 
taken  at  South  Kensington. — Mr.  E.  W.  Maunder  read  a 
paper  by  himself  and  Mr.  J.  E.  Evans  on  experiments  as- 
to  the  actuality  of  the  "  canals  "  observed  on  Mars.  A 
drawing  of  the  planet,  showing  no  canals,  had  been  placed 
before  classes  of  boys  at  the  Greenwich  Hospital  School, 
who  were  set  to  copy  it.  It  was  found  that  those  closest 
to  the  original,  and  therefore  able  to  see  the  actual  detail, 
drew  no  canals,  but  those  placed  at  a  further  distance  made 
copies  in  which  they  delineated  canals,  in  many  cases  almost 
exactly  as  they  are  represented  in  drawings  by  Schiaparelli 
and  others.  The  author's  conclusion  was  that  the  so-called 
"  canals  "  were  mainly  the  interpretation  by  the  observer  of 
faint  markings  just  at  the  limit  of  visibility.  It  also 
appeared  that  observers  were  inclined  to  prolong  into  lines 
any  projecting  points  on  the  edges  of  the  Martian  "  seas,"" 
and  also  to  draw  hard  lines  at  the  boundaries  of  faint  shades. 
Mr.  Maunder  was  convinced  that  the  boys  employed  in  the 


June  25.  1903J 


NATURE 


experiments  were  not  biased  by  any  knowledge  of  drawings 
of  Mars  showing  "  canals." — Dr.  Johnstone  Stoney  read 
a  paper  on  an  examination  of  Mr.  Whittaker's  "  undulatory 
explanation  of  gravity  "  from  a  physical  standpoint. — 
Father  Cortie  read  a  paper  on  the  spectrum  of  sun-spots 
in  the  region  B  to  D. — Photographs  of  nebulae  in  Auriga,  by 
Dr.  Max  Wolf  and  Dr.  Isaac  RobertSi  were  shown  on  the 
screen. — A  paper  by  Dr.  Lockyer  on  a  probable  relation- 
ship between  solar  prominences  and  coronal  streamers  was 
taken  as  read,  as  well  as  a  paper  by  Dr.  A.  W.  Roberts 
on  the  relation  between  the  light  changes  and  orbital 
elements  of  close  binary  systems. — The  president  briefly 
noticed  a  paper  by  Mr.  Bellamy  on  the  positions  of  stars 
around  Nova  Geminorum,  and  also  a  paper  of  his  own  on 
the  possible  identity  of  the  Nova  with  a  small  star  that  had 
been  previously  photographed  by  Mr.  Parkhurst  and  Dr. 
Max  Wolf.  Prof.  Turner  concluded  that  this  faint  star 
was  not  precisely  in  the  place  of  the  Nova. 

Zoological  Society,  May  26. — Mr.  G.  A.  Boulenger, 
F.R.S.,  vice-president,  in  the  chair. — Mr.  G.  A.  Boulenger, 
F.R.S.,  read  a  paper  on  the  collections  of  batrachians  and 
reptiles  made  at  Chapadd,  Matto  Grosso,  during  the  Percy 
Sladen  Expedition  to  Central  Brazil.  One  species  of  reptile 
was  described  as  new  to  science  under  the  name  of  Norops 
sladeniae. — A  second  paper  on  the  collections  made  at 
Matto  Grosso  was  contributed  by  Mr.  Edgar  A.  Smith. 
It  contained  an  account  of  the  shells  of  the  family  Buli- 
mulidae,  which  was  referable  to  three  species. — A  com- 
munication from  Mr.  F.  F.  Laldlaw  dealt  with  the  collec- 
tion of  acotylean  polyclads  made  by  Mr.  Cyril  Crossland 
in  Zanzibar  in  1901-02,  Specimens  of  nine  species  were 
contained  in  the  collection,  eight  of  which  proved  to  be 
new. — Mr.  W.  Bateeon,  F.R.S.,  read  a  paper  on  the 
inheritance  of  colour  in  fancy  rats  and  mice,  in  which  he 
gave  an  account  of  the  work  already  published  relating  to 
the  subject,  and  communicated  new  observations.  The 
author  analysed  the  evidence  at  his  disposal,  showing  how 
far  it  conformed  to  Mendel's  principles  of  heredity,  and 
stated  the  difficulties  which  were  encountered  in  attempt- 
ing to  apply  those  principles  to  certain  of  the  specific  results 
already  witnessed.  It  was  hoped  that  the  chief  colour- 
types  might  be  figured  in  order  to  promote  uniformity  of 
nomenclature. 

Geological  Society,  May  27.— Mr.  E.  T.  Newton,  F.R.S., 
vice-president,  in  the  chair. — An  experiment  in  mountain- 
building,  by  the  Right  Hon.  the  Lord  Avebury,  P.C., 
F.R.S.  Various  observers  have  endeavoured  to  throw 
light  on  the  origin  of  mountains  by  compressing  pieces  of 
cloth,  &c.  In  these  cases,  however,  the  pressure  was  only 
in  one  direction.  The  author  wished  to  obtain  a  method 
of  producing  compression  in  two  directions  at  right  angles 
to  one  another ;  and,  accordingly,  he  had  an  apparatus 
constructed  consisting  of  four  beams  of  wood,  which  could 
be  approximated  by  means  of  screws.  In  the  space,  2  feet 
across  and  9  inches  in  depth,  were  placed  pieces  of  carpet- 
baize  and  layers  of  sand,  each  about  i^  inches  deep.  The 
beams  were  then  caused  to  approach  one  another  until  the 
sand  rose  in  the  centre  into  contact  with  the  glass  cover, 
against  which  it  was  flattened  out.  Casts  were  made  of 
the  surfaces  of  the  different  baize-layers,  and  it  was  found 
that  in  the  lower  layers  the  ridges  were  narrower,  shorter, 
more  precipitous,  and  more  broken  up  than  in  the  higher 
layers.  A  second  series  of  casts  was  exhibited,  with  the 
sand  and  baize  having  been  arranged  as  before,  but  with 
the  weight  placed  on  one  side.  The  ridges  followed  the 
edges,  though  not  closely,  leaving  a  central  hollow.  There 
was  a  difference  between  the  higher  and  lower  layers, 
similar  to  that  seen  in  the  first  experiment. — The  Toarcian 
(if  Bredon  Hill  (Worcestershire),  and  a  comparison  with 
deposits  elsewhere,  by  Mr.  S.  S.  Buckman. — Two  Toarcian 
ammonites,  by  Mr.  S.  S.  Buckman.  Two  ammonites, 
bf^longing  to  the  family  Hildoceratidae,  found  by  members 
of  the  Cotteswold  Naturalists'  Field  Club,  are  described 
and  named. 

Linnean  Society,  June  4.— Mr.  G.  S.  Saunders  in  the 
chair. — Mr.  F.  N.  Williams  showed  a  series  of  100  draw- 
ings of  British  Compositae,  20  being  Hieracia,  drawn  in 
pen-and-ink  by  Mr.  E.  W.  Hunnybun,  of  Huntingdon. — 
Mr.  George  Massee  showed  a  remarkable  felted  lining  of 
fungus  mycelium  of  a   Polyporus    taken  from   the   interior 


NO.    1756,  VOL.  68] 


of  the  node  of  a  bamboo ;  the  specimen  belonged  to  Sir  D. 
Brandis. — Colonel  George  Colomb  sent  for  exhibition  a 
fragment  of  a  branch  of  a  thorn  from  Hyde  Park.  This 
blanch  shows  the  mischief  done  to  thorns  near  London  by 
the  larvae  of  what  had  been  identified  as  belonging  to  the 
wood  leopard  moth,  Zeuzera  ^sculi,  Linn.  The  house 
sparrow  was  stated  to  destroy  numbers  of  the  perfect  in- 
sect on  their  emergence. — Sir  Dietrich  Brandis,  K.C.I.E., 
F.R.S. ,  showed  herbarium  and  museum  specimens,  from 
Kew,  of  Gelsemium  elegans,  Benth.,  a  plant  possessing 
powerfully  poisonous  properties. — On  the  anatomy  and 
development  of  Comys  infelix,  Embleton,  a  Hymenopterous 
parasite  of  Lecanium  hemisphericum,  by  Miss  Alice  L. 
Embleton.  The  only  paper  already  published  on  this 
subject  is  that  by  Bugnion  on  the  anatomy,  development 
and  habits  of  an  allied  fly  {Encyrtus  fuscicollis)  parasitic  in 
a  caterpillar  ;  there  are  numerous  omissions  in  the  results 
he  records.  The  present  paper  also  leaves  pojnts  unex- 
plained, but  the  author  has  been  able  to  add  some  valuable 
facts  to  the  knowledge  upon  the  subject,  the  insect  on 
which  she  has  worked  being  Comys  infelix,  a  new  species. 
— Notes  on  the  transition  of  opposite  leaves  into  the  alter- 
nate arrangement  :  a  new  factor  in  morphologic  observ- 
ation, by  Mr.  Percy  Groom.  The  author  stated  that  his 
observations  began  on  Atriplex  rosea,  and  to  make  a 
graphic  representation  of  results,  he  plotted  the  length  of 
the  internodes  in  a  given  manner,  which  produced  a  regular 
curve ;  when  this  principle  was  applied  to  Chenopodium  and 
Salsola  an  entirely  different  result  came  out,  and  a  zig- 
zag course  was  plotted,  due  to  the  long  and  short  internodes 
alternating ;  at  first  he  suspected  this  might  be  due  to  its 
nearness  to  salt  water,  but  inland  specimens  told  the  same 
tale,  and  neither  the  influence  of  day  and  night  nor  of 
salinity  could  account  for  it.  His  belief  was  that  the  fusion 
of  branch  and  stem  was  the  true  solution,  for  axillary 
branches  are  given  off,  but  without  visible  traces  of  the 
fusion  which  does  exist ;  in  Salicornia,  for  instance,  the 
leaves  are  fused  up  to  the  next  node  above.  Observations 
have  been  made  with  a  number  of  other  plants  as  regards 
the  arrangement  of  leaves  and  inflorescence. 

Paris. 
Academy  of  Sciences,  June  15.— M.  Albert  Gaudry  in 
the  chair. — On  the  conditions  afforded  for  astronomical 
observations  at  the  observatory  of  the  Pic  du  Midi,  by 
MM.  B.  Baillaud  and  H.  Bourg^et.  Preliminary  experi- 
ments with  three  telescopes  showed  that  this  observatory 
forms  an  excellent  station  for  astronomical  observ- 
ations.— On  the  existence  of  solar  radiations  capable 
of  traversing  metals,  wood,  &c.,  by  M.  R.  Blondlot.  The 
rays  previously  discovered  by  the  author  in  the  radiations 
from  an  incandescent  mantle,  and  named  by  him  the  n 
rays,  are  now  shown  to  be  present  in  sunlight.  Their 
property  of  increasing  the  luminosity  of  feebly  phosphor- 
escent substances  was  utilised  as  a  means  of  detection. — 
On  the  problem  of  transformation  in  Taylor's  series,  by 
M.  L.  Desaint. — On  the  integrals  of  linear  partial  differ- 
ential equations,  by  M.  J.  Le  Roux.— On  the  barometric 
formula  of  Laplace,  by  M.  L.  Maillard.— On  the  diurnal 
period  of  the  aurora  borealis,  by  M.  Charles  Nordmann. 
The  intensity  of  the  aurora  is  regarded  as  due  to  two 
factors,  the  intensity  of  the  solar  Hertzian  waves,  and  the 
degree  of  ionisation  of  the  atmosphere.  The  ionisation 
being  produced  by  the  action  of  the  violet  and  ultra-violet 
rays,  and  recombination  occurring  during  the  night,  the 
conclusion  is  drawn  that  the  diurnal  period  of  the  aurora 
ought  to  be  characterised  by  a  maximum  in  the  early  hours 
of  the  morning,  and  this  is  in  agreement  with  the  observed 
facts.— On  the  generalisation  of  a  theorem  of  M.  Bou- 
cherot,  by  M.  R.  Swyngredauw.— The  wave-length  of  the 
n  rays  determined  by  diffraction,  by  M.  G.  Sagnae.  The 
refractive  index  for  quartz  for  the  n  rays,  given  by  M. 
Blondlot  as  2942,  is  confirmed;  the  wave-length  in  air  is 
about  o-2mm.,  or  about  four  times  the  wave-length  of  the 
longest  infra-red  waves  discovered  by  Rubens. — The 
classification  of  liquids  and  crystals  from  the  magnetic  point 
of  view,  by  M.  Georges  Meslin. — The  conditions  which 
determine  the  sense  and  magnitude  of  electrification  by 
contact,  by  M.  Jean  Perrin.  The  action  of  H  and  OH 
ions  is  very  great  in  electrical  osmosis,  so  much  so  that 
osmosis   indicates   their   presence   with   a   sensibility   which 


192 


NATURE 


[June  25,  1903 


may  even  surpass  that  of  coloured  indicators. — On  the  pre- 
diction of  barometric  variations,  by  M.  Gabriel  Guilbert. 
It  has  been  shown  that  the  velocity  of  the  wind  does  not 
always  correspond  with  the  barometric  gradient.  These 
•cases  are  called  abnormal,  a  normal  wind  being  defined 
■as  one  which  is  light  for  a  gradient  of  imm.  per  geo- 
graphical degree,  moderate  for  2mm.,  strong  for  3mm., 
and  violent  for  4mm.  The  study  of  abnormal  winds  has 
led  to  deductions  which  may  be  utilised  practically. — On 
a  method  of  crystallising  slightly  soluble  bodies,  by  M.  A. 
<de  Schulten,  Dilute  sulphuric  acid,  added  to  a  hot  dilute 
solution  of  barium  chloride  at  the  rate  of  o-i  mgr.  per 
minute,  gave  after  a  month  measurable  crystals  of  barium 
sulphate.  Crystals  of  anglesite  and  celestine  can  be 
obtained  similarly,  and  the  method  has  been  successfully 
applied  to  the  production  of  several  other  minerals. — On 
the  substitution  of  paints  having  zinc  for  a  basis  in  the 
place  of  lead  paints,  by  M.  J.  L.  Breton. — On  the  so-called 
colloidal  silver,  by  M.  Hanriot. — On  the  fusibilities  of 
mixtures  of  sulphide  of  antimony  and  sulphide  of  silver, 
by  M.  H.  Pelabon.  The  fusibility  curve  of  a  mixture  of 
the  sulphides  of  antimony  and  silver  can  be  constructed 
completely ;  it  presents  two  maxima  corresponding  to  the 
existence  of  two  definite  combinations,  SbjSj.Ag^S  and 
Sb2S3.3Ag2S.  It  shows  besides  three  minima  correspond- 
ing to  three  different  eutectic  mixtures. — On  the  etherifi- 
cation  of  sulphuric  acid,  by  M.  A.  Villiers.  The  limits 
observed  in  the  case  of  some  mixtures  of  alcohol  with 
sulphuric  acid  of  different  strengths  after  standing  twenty- 
five  years  at  the  ordinary  temperature  are  practically 
identical  with  those  attained  by  the  same  mixtures  after 
221  days  at  44°  C,  or  154  hours  at  100°  C- — On  some 
derivatives  of  aminopyromucic  acid  and  furfuranamine,  by 
M.  R.  Marquis. — The  action  of  phosphorus  trichloride 
upon  glycerol,  by  M.  P.  Carr#.  PCI3  acts  upon  glycerol 
in  the  same  manner  as  with  glycol.  The  compounds 
P^OeCCjH,)^  and  PCOHJ.O^C^H.Cl  are  immediately  de- 
composed by  water,  giving  P2(OH)^.02.C3H,.OH  and 
P(OH)2.0.C3H5(OH)Cl,  the  calcium  salts  of  which  were 
isolated. — -The  action  of  hydrogen  sulphide  upon  methyl- 
ethyl-ketone,  by  M.  F.  Leteur.  The  compound  (C^H^S), 
has  been  isolated,  which  can  be  regarded  as  a  polymer 
of  an  unknown  butanethione. — On  two  new  hydrocarbons 
isomeric  with  campholene  and  camphene,  by  MM.  L. 
Bouveault  and  G.  Blanc. — The  synthesis  of  2  :  2-di- 
methylglutaric  acid,  by  M.  E.  E.  Blaise. — On  formic  acid 
from  the  air,  by  M.  H.  Henriet.  In  a  previous  note  the 
author  has  indicated  the  existence  in  the  air  of  a  nitrogen 
compound  with  an  acid  which  appeared  to  be  formic  acid. 
The  substance  has  now  been  isolated  in  larger  quantity, 
and  the  identity  of  the  acid  with  formic  acid  completely 
proved. — The  distribution  of  some  organic  substances  in 
the  geranium,  by  MM.  E.  Charabot  and  G.  Lalone.  The 
terpene  compounds  of  the  geranium  are  almost  entirely 
localised  in  the  leaves. — Observations  on  phenylglycollic 
acid,  by  M.  Oichsner  de  Coninck. — The  action  of  iodine 
bromide  on  albumenoid  materials  and  on  the  organic 
nitrogen  bases,  by  M.  A.  Mouneyrat.  Iodine  bromide 
forms  addition  compounds  with  many  substances  containing 
nitrogen,  and  is  not  necessarily  a  test  for  the  existence  of 
the  pyridine  ring  in  the  molecule. — On  the  presence  of 
indoxyl  in  urines,  by  M.  L.  Maillard.  A  reply  to  a  note 
on  the  same  subject  by  M.  J.  Gnezda. — On  some  peculiari- 
ties observed  in  the  renal  tubes  of  Barbus  fluviatilis,  by 
M.  J.  Audige. — On  a  criterion  of  irreducibility  in  statistical 
data,  by  MM.  Charles  Henry  and  Louis  Bastien.— New 
expression  of  the  law  of  electrical  stimulation,  by  M.  and 
Mme.  L.  Lapicque.  The  formula  given  by  Weiss, 
vt  —  a+bt,  where  v  is  the  voltage,  t  the  time,  and  a  and  b 
constants,  is  found  to  be  only  roughly  approximate ;  the 
experiments  of  the  author  require  a  term  with  an  additional 
constant  to  be  added  to  the ,  formula  of  Weiss. — On  some 
nuclear  phenomena  of  secretion,  by  M.  L.  Launoy.— 
Cerebral  inertia  relating  to  the  reading  of  printed  letters, 
by  MM.  Andr6  Broca  and  D.  Sulzcr. — Observations  on 
the  treatment  employed  for  the  destruction  of  Pyralis  of 
the  vine,  by  M.  Joseph  Perraud. — New  researches  on 
the  epiplasm  of  the  Ascomycetes,  by  M.  A.  Guilliermond. 
—Researches-  on  the  nutrition  of  the  tissues  in  galls,  by 
M.  C.  Houard.— On  the  cave  of  Font-de-Gaume,  and  on 
the  age  of  the  cavern,  by  M.  E.  A.  Martel. — On  a  living 
safety  lamp,  by  M.  Raphael  Dubois. 

NO.    1576,   VOL.  681 


DIARY  OF  SOCIETIES. 

THURSDAY,  June  25. 

University  College  Mathematical  Society,  at  5.30.— Some  Present 
Aims  and  Prospects  of  Mathematical  Research  :  E.  T.  Whittaker. 
FRIDAY,  June  26 

Physical  Society,  at  5.  (University  of  London,  South  Kensincton).— 
(i)  Electrical  Effects  of  Light  upon  Green  Leaves ;  (2)  Blaze-Currents, 
(a)  of  a  Vegetable  Tissue,  (h)  of  an  Animal  Tissue  ;  (3)  Quantitative 
Estimation  of  Chloroform  Vapour  in  Air  by  {a)  Oil  Absorption,  (b)  Densi- 
metry :  Dr.  Waller.— The  Temperature  Limits  of  Nerve-Action  in  Cold- 
blooded and  in  Warm-blooded  Animals  :  Dr.  Alcock.— (i)  On  the  Move- 
ment of  Unionised  Bodies  in  Solution  in  an  Electric  Field  ;  (2>  On  the 
Passage  of  Nervous  Impulses  through  the  Central  Nervous  System  :  Dr. 
Hardy. 

TUESDAY,  June  30. 

Society  for  the  Promotion  of  Hellenic  Studies,  at  5. — Annual 
Meeting. 

Fakaday  Society  (Rooms  of  the  Chemical  Society,  Burlington  House), 
at  8. — The  Present  Position  of  the  Theory  of  Electrolysis  :  W.  C.  Dampier 
Whetham,  F  R  S. — Chlorine  Smelting,  with  Electrolysis:  J.  Swinburne. 
— Total  and  Free  Energy  of  the  Lead  Accumulator  :  Dr.  R.  A. 
Lehfeldt.— Electrolytic  Apparatus  :  Dr.  F.  Mollwo  Perkin. 
THURSDAY,  July  2. 

Institution  of  Mining  Engineers,  at  n  a.m. — Luxemburg  and  its  Iron- 
ore  Deposits  :  J.  Walter  Pearse. — The  Lake  Superior  Iron-ore  Region  : 
Prof.  Van  Hise.— Mineral  Resources  of  the  State  of  Rio  Grande  do  Sul, 
Brazil:  H.  Kilburn  Scott.— Electric  Coal-cutting :  W.  E.  Walker.— 
Pneumatic  and  Electric  Locomotives  in  and  about  Coal-mines  :  A.  S.  E. 
Ackermann. — Electrical  Plant  Failures,  their  Origin  and  Prevention  : 
A.  C.  Cormack. — The  Electrical  Driving  of  Winding-gears  :  F. 
Hird. — Electric-power  Distribution  by  Continuous  Current  for  Mining 
and  General  Purposes  in  North  Wales  :  T.  P.  Osborne  Yale. 

Rontgen  Society,  at  8.30. — Annual  General  Meeting. 
FRIDAY,  July  3. 

Institution  of  Mining  Engineers,  at  11.30  a.m.  — Further  Remarks 
on  the  Portuguese  Manica  Gold-field  :  A.  R.  Sawyer.— Coal-fields  of  the 
Faroe  Islands  :  E.  A.  Greener. — Miners'  Anaemia  or  Ankylostomiasis : 
Dr.  J.  S.  Haldane. — Water-softening  Plant :  Vincent  Corbett. — The 
Redevelopment  of  the  Slate-tra(*e  in  Ireland:  O.  H.  Kinahan  — The 
Smelters  of  British  Columbia  :  W.  Denham  Verschoyle.— The  Common- 
sense  Doctrine  of  Furnace-draught:  H.  W.  Halbaum. — The  Ventilation 
of  Deep  Mines  :  Arthur  C.  Murray. 

CONTENTS.  PAGE 

Science  and  the  Navy.     II.  . 169 

The  Distribution  of  Diseases.     By  J.  W.  W.  S.     .  171 
Hydrodynamical  Fields  of  Force.     By  Prof.   G.  H. 

Bryan,  F.  R.S 172 

Farm  Accounts 173 

Our  Book  Shelf:— 

Livingston:    "The   2^6le  of  Diffusion   and    Osmotic 

Pressure  in  Plants." — H.  H.  D.  .        .    .  174 

Williams:  "  Mechanical  Refrigeration." — M.  W.   T.  174 
Buttel-Reepen  :  "DiestammgeschichtlicheEntstehung 
des  Bienenstaates  sowie  Beitrage  zur  Lebensweise 
der  solitaren  u.  sozialen   Bienen  (Hummeln,  Meli- 

poninen,  &c. )" 174 

Spiller:  "The  Mind  of  Man."— A,  E,  T 174 

Patten:   "  Heredity  and  Social  Progress"      ....  175 
Balfour  :  "The  Educational  Systems  of  Great  Britain 

and  Ireland."— A.  T.  S 175 

Hoffman  and  Barton  :  "Alpine  Flora" 175 

"Arnold's  Country-side  Readers";    "  Arnold's  Sea- 
side Reader"      175 

Letters  to  the  Editor  : — 

Foetal  or  New-born  Giraffes  Wanted.  —  Prof.  E.  Ray 

Lankester,  F.R.S 176 

Seismometry  and  Geite.— Dr.  C.   Chree,  F.R.S.  .    .  176 
Phenomena     of     Vision.  — C.     Welborne     Piper; 

Edwin  Edser 177 

School  Geometry  Reform — R.  W.  H.  T.    Hudson  177 

Recent  Excavations  at  Nippur 177 

Mathematical  Reform  at  Cambridge 178 

The  University  of  London 179 

Notes 179 

Our  Astronomical  Column  : — 

Astronomical  Occurrences  in  July 183 

New  Ccmei,  1903  c 183 

Photographic  Observations  of  Comet  1903  III.    .    .    .  183 

The  Mirror  of  the  Crossley  Reflector 183 

Radiant  Poinls  of  July  and  August  Meteors  ....  184 

Sun-spots  and  Terrestrial   Temperature 184 

The  Satellites  of  Saturn ....  184 

The  Royal  Society   Conversazione 184 

The  Engineering  Conference 185 

New  Case  of  Protective  Mimicry  in  a  Caterpillar. 

{Illustrated.)       187 

University  and  Educational  Intelligence 188 

Societies  and  Academies 189 

Diary  of  Societies 192 


NATURE 


193 


THURSDAY,    JULY   2,    1903. 


THE  BIOGRAPHY  OF  HELMHOLTZ. 
Hermann  von  Helmholtz.  By  Leo  Koenigsberger. 
In  three  volumes.  Vol.  i.  Pp  xi  +  375.  Price 
S  marks.  Vol.  ii.  Pp.  xiv  +  383.  Price  10  marks. 
Vol.  iii.  Pp.  xi+142.  Price  3  marks.  (Bruns- 
wick :  Vieweg,  1903.) 

Education  and  Physiological  Work. 

THE  third  and  last  volume  of  Koenigsberger 's  bio- 
graphy of  the  great  natural  philosopher  has  now- 
appeared.  The  whole  work  is  worthy  of  its  subject; 
the  author  made  it  his  aim,  as  he  tells  us  in  his  preface, 
10  set  forth  Helmholtz's  manifold  and  various  achieve- 
nunts  as  a  discoverer  in  such  a  way  as  to  render  them 
intelligible  to  all  scientific  readers.  Helmholtz  is  best 
known  by  his  discoveries  in  experimental  physics,  but 
during  the  first  half  dozen  years  after  the  completion 
of  his  professional  education,  the  business  of  his  life 
was  that  of  an  army  surgeon.  It  was  as  an  army 
surgeon  that  he  published,  between  1842  and  1848, 
those  remarkable  researches  on  fermentation,  on  the 
nature  of  muscular  contraction,  and  on  the  production 
of  heat  therein,  the  results  of  which  served  as  the 
foundation  for  the  building  up  of  a  new  science  of 
physiology.  Even  the  treatise  on  the  "  Erhaltung  der 
Kraft,"  or,  as  we  now  call  it,  the  conservation  of 
energy,  although  mainly  physical,  exercised  its  chief 
influence  on  physiologists.  In  natural  philosophy  the 
principle  set  forth  in  it  had  been  already  recognised, 
but  had  not  as  yet  been  presented  to  the  physiological 
student  as  a  fundamental  doctrine,  or  successfully 
applied  to  the  phenomena  of  life. 

The  biography  of  a  man  of  great  intellectual  pre- 
eminence fulfils  its  highest  purpose  by  enabling  us  to 
^  form  a  just  estimate  of  the  antecedent  and  surround- 
5  ing  influences  which  made  him  what  he  was.  Herr 
I  Koenigsberger  has  treated  his  subject  in  such  a  way 
,  as  to  afford  the  information  that  the  scientific. reader 
f  seeks.  How  can  we  account  for  the  production  of  a 
J  man  of  such  extraordinary  endowments?  Did  Helm- 
holtz owe  his  intellectual  superiority  to  his  innate 
qualities,  to  his  parentage,  to  his  education,  and  if  to 
the  latter,  was  it  due  to  his  teachers  or  to  his  con- 
temporaries? Koenigsberger 's  indications  lead  us  to 
believe  that  in  each  of  these  respects  his  life  was  in- 
fluenced by  circumstances  exceptionally  favourable  to 
his  intellectual  development. 

Nationally,  Helmholtz  was  of  mixed  descent.  It 
may  be  assumed  that  his  father  was  German,  but  his 
mother  w^as  half  English,  half  French.  Her  maiden 
name,  Caroline  Penn,  was  derived  from  the  great 
Quaker  of  the  seventeenth  century,  who  himself  was 
the  son  of  an  almost  equally  distinguished  English 
admiral.  On  the  female  side  she  was  of  Huguenot 
descent. 

There  can,  I  think,  be  no  doubt  that  the  moral  and 
intellectual  atmosphere  of  the  Helmholtz  home  was 
excellent.  The  little  that  we  are  told  of  his  mother 
indicates  that  she  was  a  woman  of  great  simplicity 
of  character,  but  at  the  same  time  of  unusual  intelli- 
gence, who  devoted  herself  heart  and  soul  to  pro- 
NO.    1757,  VOL.  68] 


moting  the  happiness  of  her  husband  and  children. 
His  father  was  at  the  head  of  the  Gymnasium  at  Pots- 
dam, a  position  which  he  had  attained  after  many 
years  of  arduous  struggle  with  adverse  circumstances. 
He  appears  to  have  been  an  enthusiastic  teacher,  who 
made  it  his  aim  rather  to  evoke  in  his  pupils  a  love 
for  the  classical  writers  than  to  drill  them  in  gram- 
matical niceties. 

Of  Helmholtz's  childhood  we  are  told  that,  although 
his  mother  recognised  in  her  firstborn  "  Geist  und 
Verstand,"  there  was  no  other  indication  of  infantile 
precocity.  At  nine  he  entered  the  lowest  class  in  the 
Gymnasium,  but  in  a  year  was  half-way  up  the  school. 
His  progress,  however,  was  retarded  by  the  difficulty 
which  he  had  in  learning  anything  by  heart.  During 
his  first  three  years  he  went  through  the  regular 
classical  work  of  the  school,  but  he  appears  even  at 
this  early  age  (ten  to  thirteen)  to  have  done  much 
extra  work  under  his  father's  direction,  who  en- 
couraged him  to  extend  his  studies  beyond  the  limits 
of  the  school  course.  At  thirteen  he  began  the  study 
of  mathematics  under  a  teacher  who  appears  to  have 
had  as  great  a  faculty  for  exciting  enthusiasm  for 
work  in  natural  science  as  the  father  had  in  literature. 
Helmholtz  continued  his  classical  work,  but  became 
more  and  more  engrossed  by  his  studies  in  mathe- 
matics and  physics,  the  subjects  which,  he  says  In  his 
"  Abiturientenvita,"  "  omnium  disciplinarum  maxime 
a  pueritia  me  delectavit,"  so  much  so  that  when  the 
rest  were  engaged  in  construing,  he  "  beguiled  the 
tedious  hour  "  by  working  problems  "  under  the 
table."  By  the  time  he  was  fifteen,  he  had  already 
made  up  his  mind  to  devote  his  life  to  natural  science. 

His  father's  means  were  so  limited  that  the  only 
way  in  which  this  desire  could  be  gratified  was  by 
taking  the  study  of  medicine  "into  the  bargain." 
He  therefore  at  sixteen,  while  still  a  "  gymnasiast,"^ 
became  a  pupil  in  the  Friedrich-Wilhelm-Institut  at 
Berlin  (the  Pepiniere)  for  the  training  of  army  medical 
officers.  Two  years  later  (at  eighteen)  he  passed  the 
Abiturienten-Examen,  showing  "  comprehensive  and 
thorough  knowledge  in  the  elements  of  mathematics, 
and  physics."  He  obtained  at  the  same  time  distinc- 
tion in  classics,  exhibited  a  good  knowledge  of  French^ 
English,  and  Italian,  and  had  made  sufficient  progress 
in  Hebrew  to  be  able  to  offer  that  language  as  an  extra 
subject.  It  was  thus  that  he  was  equipped  for  the  busi- 
ness of  his  life.  That  he  possessed  extraordinary  natural 
endowments  cannot  be  questioned,  but  it  is  no  less 
certain  that  he  owed  the  early  maturity  of  his  intellect 
and  his  exceptional  heuristic  power  to  an  almost  per- 
fect education. 

Whatever  be  the  place  among  contemporary 
physicists  to  which  his  achievements  entitled  him,  it 
can  scarcely  be  questioned  that  as  a  physiologist  he 
was  primus  inter  pares.  He  was  the  first  to  under- 
stand what  is  meant  by  the  well-known  definition  of 
life  as  "  organism  in  action,"  and  thus  to  distinguish 
clearly  between  that  branch  of  the  science  of  life  which 
deals  with  organism  and  that  which  relates  to  the 
chemical  and  physical  processes  by  which  its  action 
manifests  itself.  In  the  former  Helmholtz  did  not 
much  interest  himself,  and  consequently  was  not,  in 
the  modern  sense  of  the  word,  a  biologist.     His  aim 

K 


194 


NATURE 


[July  2,  1903 


was  not  to  Inquire  why  the  animal  (or  plant)  body 
assumes  in  its  development  the  characters  which  it 
presents  to  the  naturalist,  but  rather  to  discover  in 
what  processes  vital  action  consists,  and  to  prove  that 
these  processes  are  identical  with  those  of  inorganic 
nature,  and  can  only  be  investigated  by  the  methods 
of  exact  science.  But  Helmholtz  was  far  from  sup- 
posing that  these  methods  could  be  applied  either  to 
organism  and  its  evolution  or  to  the  study  of  mental 
processes,  and  expressed  his  distrust  of  the  efforts  made 
by  others  in  this  direction,  with  perhaps  too  great 
contempt. 

Helmholtz 's  professional  education  began  when  he 
left  school  in  1838,  and  occupied  four  years.  It  is 
noteworthy  that,  notwithstanding  the  almost  in- 
credible amount  of  work  which  was  imposed  on  the 
students  of  the  Pepiniere  by  a  curriculum  which  not 
only  included  anatomy,  physiology,  pathology,  and 
practice,  and  the  sciences  then  regarded  as  ancillary 
to  medicine,  but  also  logic  and  metaphysics,  ancient 
history,  and  modern  languages,  Helmholtz  still  found 
leisure  for  other  pursuits.  He  was  not  only  able  to 
obtain  that  mastery  of  music  of  which  he  was  after- 
wards to  make  so  splendid  a  use,  but  also  to  pursue 
without  any  assistance,  except  such  as  he  derived  from 
books,  the  higher  branches  of  mathematics,  in  the 
elements  of  which  his  schoolmaster  (Meyer)  had  so 
thoroughly  grounded  him. 

It  need  scarcely  be  said  that  during  this  period  of 
ceaseless  exertion  he  became  intimate  with  the  greatest 
of  his  teachers,  J.  Miiller,  and  thus,  as  he  said  him- 
self, had  another  opportunity  of  observing  "  wie 
die  Gedanke  selbststandiger  Kopfe  sich  bewegen." 
This  intimacy  was,  no  doubt,  of  great  value  to  him, 
but  there  is  no  sufficient  ground  for  the  conjecture 
which  has  often  been  made  that  it  vi^as  from  Miiller 
that  he  derived  his  inspiration.  The  two  men  were 
cast  in  such  different  moulds  that  this  was  scarcely 
possible.  The  subject  which  Helmholtz  selected  for 
his  Latin  graduation  essay  ("  The  Structure  of  the 
Nervous  System  in  Invertebrates  ")  was  no  doubt 
suggested  by  Miiller,  but  Helmholtz  was  no  sooner 
himself  free  ("  selbststiindig  ")  than  he  followed  his 
own  bent.  It  seems  probable  that,  even  when  he  was 
working  assiduously  with  Miiller  as  a  biologist,  he 
anticipated  the  direction  in  which  his  future  studies 
would  lead  him,  and  was  already  aware  that  physics 
and  chemistry,  not  biology,  would  afford  him  effectual 
methods  of  research. 

Helmholtz  graduated  in  1842,  and  soon  entered  on 
his  duties  as  a  military  surgeon.  These  happily  gave 
him  sufficient  leisure  for  his  scientific  work.  His  first 
research,  of  which  the  results  were  published  in 
Wagner's  "  Handworterbuch,"  was  on  the  relation 
between  the  work  done  and  the  heat  produced  in 
muscular  contraction.  It  was  important  as  setting 
forth  one  of  the  fundamental  facts  on  which  the  new 
science  was  to  be  built,  and  as  preliminary  to  the 
treatise  on  the  "Erhaltung  der  Kraft,"  which  appeared 
two  years  later.  Of  the  genesis  of  this  work  Koenigs- 
berger  gives  an  interesting  account.  The  introduc- 
tion to  it  was  written  in  1846,  the  very  same  year  in 
NO.    1757,  VOL.    68] 


which,  at  the  age  of  twenty-five,  he  passed  his  final 
Staatsexamen  as  a  practitioner  of  medicine  and 
surgery,  his  examiners  possibly  little  guessing  whom 
they  had  before  them.  The  manuscript  of  the  intro- 
duction was  put  for  friendly  criticism  into  the  hands 
of  du  Bois-Reymond,  who,  however,  would  make  no 
change  in  it,  regarding  it  as  an  "  historisches  Docu- 
ment fiir  alle  Zeiten."  It  was  forthwith  communi- 
cated to  the  recently  founded  Physical  Society  of 
Berlin,  the  young  and  active  members  of  which  thus 
became  acquainted  with  the  law  of  the  conservation 
of  energy  long  before  it  had  been  discussed  by 
academicians.  By  the  Physical  Society  it  was  received 
with  enthusiasm,  but  when  offered  to  Poggen- 
dorff  for  publication  in  the  Annalen,  he  declined  it  as 
being  too  theoretical,  promising,  however,  to  accept 
it  as  soon  as  experimental  proofs  were  forthcoming. 

The  four  years  during  which  Helmholtz  was  charged 
with  regimental  duties  were  so  productive  that,  in 
1849,  when  a  vacancy  occurred  In  the  University  of 
Koenigsberg,  he  was  selected  by  the  Minister  of  Public 
Instruction  among  the  four  whom  J.  Miiller  had  re- 
commended, namely,  Ludwig,  Helmholtz,  du  Bois- 
Reymond,  and  Briicke,  as  the  men  most  capable  of 
advancing  science  in  the  "  physlco-physiological 
direction."  All  of  these  men,  whose  claims  Miiller 
estimated  to  be  equal,  were  young,  but  Ludwig  was 
the  senior,  and  would  have  received  the  appointment 
had  not  a  suspicion  of  radicalism,  wholly  unfounded, 
attached  to  him.  So  Helmholtz  became,  at  twenty- 
eight,  professor  of  physiology  with  the  magnificent 
salary  of  120I.  a  year  ! 

Helmholtz's  removal  to  Koenigsberg  was  followed 
by  a  period  of  astonishing  frultfulness  in  discovery. 
The  first  new  subject  to  which  he  directed  his  attention 
was  that  of  the  measurement  for  physiological  pur- 
poses of  extremely  short  intervals  of  time,  and  the 
application  of  these  methods  to  the  determination  of 
the  rate  of  transmission  in  nerve.  This  he  accom- 
plished with  such  completeness  and  exactitude  that 
his  results  can,  even  now,  be  accepted  without  ques- 
tion. In  the  meantime  he  continued  those  studies  in 
physiological  optics  which  led  to  the  discovery  of  the 
ophthalmoscope.  This,  as  well  as  the  subsequent 
discovery  of  the  mechanism  of  accommodation  of  the 
eye  for  distance,  was  communicated  to  the  Physical 
Society.  Then  followed  an  investigation  of  the  time- 
relations  of  Induction  currents,  a  research  of  great 
importance  in  the  technique  of  experimental  physio- 
logy. His  first  researches  on  colour-vision  were  pub- 
lished in  Poggendorff's  Annalen  in  1852,  in  which 
journal  also  appeared,  about  the  same  time,  another 
research  of  great  value  In  Its  bearing  on  electro- 
physiological questions— an  Investigation  of  the  "  dis- 
tribution of  currents  in  bodily  conductors. "  ^  It  was 
towards  the  end  of  the  Koenigsberg  time  that  Helm- 
holtz made  his  first  visit  to  England.  In  his  letters 
home  he  refers  with  evident  pleasure  to  his  intercourse 
with  English  physicists,  and  especially  to  the  im- 
pression made  upon  him  by  Faraday's  "  herzgewlnn- 
endes  Wesen,"  and  observed  with  great  interest  how 
"  old  bits  of  wood   and   wire  "  sufficed  him   for  the 

1  See  vol.  i.  p.  177. 


July  2,  1903] 


NA  rURE 


195 


making'  of  the  greatest  discoveries.  He  no  less  highly 
appreciated  the  friendly  welcome  given  him  by  the 
Astronomer  Royal,  Airy,  and  the  opportunity  of  ex- 
ploring Greenwich  Observatory,  and  of  seeing  in  oper- 
ation the  first  successful  method  of  recording  photo- 
graphically the  readings  of  magnetic  and  meteor- 
ological instruments.  With  Thomson,  Helmholtz  did 
not  come  into  personal  relation  until  August,  1855, 
when  they  met  at  Kreuznach.  Helmholtz  describes 
(in  a  letter  to  his  wife)  his  astonishment  when  a  man 
whom  he  knew  as  one  of  the  first  of  living  mathe- 
matical ph3sicists  appeared  to  him  as  a  "  Jiingling 
von  ganz  miidchenhaften  Aussehen,"  but  possessed  of 
a  degree  of  acuteness,  clearness,  and  versatility  which 
he  had  never  before  met  with.  It  can  well  be  imagined 
how  these  two  young-  discoverers  must  have  enjoyed 
and  profited  by  the  exchange  of  thought  on  funda- 
mental questions  which  each  of  them  had  done  so 
much  to  elucidate. 

The  same  year  Helmholtz  accepted  the  chair  of 
anatomy  and  physiology  at  Bonn,  his  motive  for  doing 
so  being  that  his  wife,  whose  health  was  precarious, 
might  have  the  advantage  of  a  milder  climate.  At 
that  time  the  two  subjects  were  still  united,  so  that 
Helmholtz  was  obliged  to  resume  the  teaching  of  de- 
scriptive anatomy.  This  drawback  was,  however,  of 
short  duration,  for  two  years  later  he  was  invited  to 
Heidelberg,  where  the  conditions  were  much  more 
favourable.  Notwithstanding  the  onerous  nature  of 
Helmholtz 's  professional  engagements,  the  fifteen 
years  of  his  residence  at  Bonn  and  Heidelberg  were 
almost  as  productive  as  those  which  had  preceded 
them.  It  was  at  Bonn  that  he  sent  to  the  press  the 
first  part  of  his  famous  treatise  on  physiological 
optics,  which  was  not  completed  until  1895,  and  there 
also  that  he  carried  out  many  of  the  researches  on 
musical  sounds  which  were  embodied  in  his  treatise 
on  "  Sensations  of  Tone."  At  Bonn,  too,  he  published 
his  first  mathematical  paper  "  On  the  Movement  of 
Fluids  "  (1858),  which  led  on  to  his  experimental  re- 
searches at  Heidelberg  in  i860.  During  the  whole 
period  it  appears  that  he  published  some  forty-six 
papers  of  importance,  of  which  thirty-seven,  including 
those  on  optics  and  acoustics,  were  on  physiological 
subjects,  the  remainder  being  physico-mathematical. 

After  his  appointment  to  the  chair  of  physics  at 
Berlin,  his  only  physiological  publication  was  the 
essay  entitled  "Thought  in  Medicine,"  in  which  he 
illustrated  in  the  most  striking  way  the  application 
of  the  scientific  method  to  pathological  questions. 
(The  chapters  of  Koenigsberger's  work  which  relate  to 
Helmholtz  as  a  mathematician  will  be  treated  by 
abler  hands.  Many  readers  who  may  not  have  leisure 
to  look  into  this  admirable  biography  would  have 
been  glad  had  it  been  possible  to  give  some  account 
of  Helmholtz's  views  as  to  the  limits  of  a  scientific 
inquiry  and  the  relation  between  the  experimental 
sciences  and  philosophy.     Want  of  space  forbids  this.) 

In  Koenigsberger's  book  the  reader  will  find  ample 
material  for  the  decision  of  the  question  which  pre- 
sented itself  at  the  outset,  that  of  the  conditions  which 
led  to  the  development  of  so  splendid  a  character.  To 
the  present  writer  it  seems  evident  that  Helmholtz's 
NO.    1757,  VOL.  68] 


personal  qualities — his  sagacity,  modesty,  truthful- 
ness, and  astonishing  power  of  work — could  be  in 
great  measure  attributed  to  home  and  school  in- 
fluences, and  that  his  success  as  an  investigator  was 
due  in  part  to  his  having  entered  on  his  career  as  a 
physiologist  at  a  time  when  the  progress  of  the  exact 
sciences  had  rendered  their  methods  applicable  to  the 
investigation  of  vital  phenomena,  and  m  part  to  his 
singular  good  fortune  in  having  as  his  fellow-students 
such  men  as  du  Bois-Reymond,  Ludwig,  and  Briicke, 
each  of  whom  was  as  enthusiastic  as  himself,  and 
scarcely  inferior  to  him  in  intellectual  endowments. 
J.  Burdon-Sandekson. 

II. 

Physico-Mathf.matical   Researches. 

Herr  Koenigsberger  gives  us  an  account  of 
Helmholtz  which  is  extremely  interesting,  and 
not  unworthy  of  the  investigator  of  whom  he  writes. 
Though  he  paints  for  us  a  fascinating  picture  of  Helm- 
holtz as  a  man,  it  is  with  work  as  a  great  physiologist 
and  physicist  that  he  chiefly  deals. 

k  review  of  that  part  of  the  biography  which  deals 
with  the  education  and  physiological  work  of  Helm- 
holtz precedes  this  notice,  which  is  confined  to  a  brief 
account  of  that  part  of  the  book  treating  of  his 
physico-mathematical  writings.  Helmholtz's  first 
mathematical  paper  was  "  On  the  Integrals  of  Hydro- 
dynamical  Equations  which  correspond  to  Vortex 
Movements,"  and  was  published  in  1858,  during  his 
short  stay  in  Bonn  as  professor  of  anatomy  and  physi- 
ology. In  the  following  year,  after  his  migration  to 
Heidelberg  as  professor  of  physiology,  appeared  his 
paper  "  On  the  Motion  of  Air  in  Pipes  with  Open 
Ends."  These  two  papers  contain  some  of  his  most 
brilliant  mathematical  deductions,  and  are  charac- 
terised by  their  freedom  from  the  artificial  or  inaccurate 
assumptions  of  his  predecessors.  Further  work  in  this 
direction  was  for  the  time  prevented  by  family 
troubles.  In  June,  1859,  his  father  died  of  a  sudden 
stroke,  and  Helmholtz,  worn  out  with  sorrow  at  his 
loss,  with  anxiety  for  his  wife,  and  with  his  own  bad 
health,  was  obliged  to  turn  to  work  requiring  less 
concentration  of  thought.  At  the  end  of  the  year  his 
wife  died.  For  some  time  his  health  remained  in  an 
unsatisfactory  state,  and  he  was  subject  to  headache 
and  fainting  fits.  However,  he  forced  himself  to 
work,  "  which  alone  could  give  him  power  to  hold 
out,"  and  continued  his  hydrodynamical  investi- 
gations, publishing  in  April,  i860,  his  paper  '  On  the 
Friction  of  Viscous  Fluids."  His  experimental  re- 
searches on  sound  then  led  him  to  study  the  mathe- 
matical theory  of  violin  strings  and  reed  organ  pipes. 

Continuing  his  researches  in  acoustics  and  optics,  he- 
was  led  by  the  consideration  of  the  wave  motion  near 
the  end  of  an  open  cylindrical  tube  to  investigate  the 
distribution  of  electricity  near  the  circular  intersection 
of  two  surfaces.  However,  in  this,  the  first  of  his 
many  papers  on  mathematical  electricity,  he  had  been 
anticipated  by  Thomson.  He  then  for  some  years 
confined  himself  mainly  to  physiological  work,  and 
it  vt-as  not  until   1S68  that  he  was  again  led  by  his 


196 


NATURE 


[July  2,  1903 


acoustical  researches  to  the  study  of  hydrodynamics. 
Shortly  after  this  his  physiological  work  induced  him 
to  again  attack  electrical  problems.  From  the  study 
of  electrical  oscillations  he  proceeded  to  a  discussion  of 
the  most  general  form  of  expression  for  the  potential 
of  single  "  Stromelemente,"  and  of  the  differential 
equations  which  determine  the  motion  of  electricity. 
In  this  first  treatise  on  electrodynamics,  Helmholtz 
aimed  at  giving  a  clear  summary  of  all  results  pre- 
viously obtained. 

In  1871  Helmholtz  was  appointed  to  the  professor- 
ship of  physics  at  Berlin  in  succession  to  Magnus, 
which  post  he  held  until  1888.  From  this  time  onward 
he  confined  himself  almost  entirely  to  physics,  and  did 
very  little  more  physiological  work.  In  the  following 
j'ear,  after  the  marriage  of  his  daughter  Kathe,  and  a 
visit  to  Scotland  (where  he  met  Tait,  i\ndrews,  Huxley, 
Brown,  Sylvester,  &c.,  and  found  golf  less  easy  to 
master  than  science),  he  published  further  papers  "  On 
the  Theories  of  Electrodynamics."  In  these  he  re- 
plied effectively  to  the  criticisms  of  Bertrand,  Weber, 
&c.,  and,  basing  his  researches  on  Neumann's  potential 
law,  he  investigated  the  various  theories  that  had  been 
put  forward,  showing  that  Faraday's  assumption  of 
dielectric  polarity  was  the  only  theory  consistent  with 
observed  properties  of  open  and  closed  circuits.  For 
a  short  time  after  this  he  applied  his  versatile  genius 
to  the  problem  of  artificial  flight  and  guidable  balloons, 
made  valuable  contributions  to  the  theory  of  the  micro-  ! 
scope  and  anomalous  dispersion,  and  turned  his  atten-  ; 
tion  to  the  origin  of  thunderstorms.  He  then  returned  j 
for  some  years  to  his  researches  in  electricity,  and 
applied  Faraday's  theories  to  electrochemistry,  pro- 
ducing papers  on  electric  currents  in  fluids  and  "  elek- 
trische  Grenzschichten."  .  | 

In  1878  commenced  his  lifelong  friendship  with  | 
Hertz,  whose  investigations  led  Helmholtz  back  to  his 
■electrodynamical  researches,  and  to  the  discussion  of  i 
the  electromagnetic  theory  of  light.  In  1881  he  again 
visited  England,  where  he  delivered  his  famous 
"  Faraday  lecture  "  (one  of  the  best  lectures  he  ever 
gave),  which  was  received  with  the  greatest  enthu- 
siasm. The  delivery  of  this  discourse  led  him  to 
further  investigations  in  electrochemistry,  and  in 
■*'  The  Thermodynamics  of  Chemical  Processes,"  pub- 
lished in  1883,  he  discusses  the  relations  of  chemical 
combination,  heat,  and  electrical  potential,  distinguish- 
ing between  the  "  free  "  energy  of  a  system  which  can 
he  entirely  converted  into  work  and  the  "  bound  " 
energy  which  cannot  be  so  converted.  After  journeys 
to  Rome  and  England,  he  undertook  a  masterly  de- 
velopment of  the  principle  of  least  action,  a  principle 
which  he  considered  as  probably  being  the  controlling 
law  of  all  reversible  processes  of  nature. 

During  the  last  year  of  his  professorship  at  Berlin 
Helmholtz  returned  to  his  work  on  electrical  and 
thermodynamical  chemistry,  and  to  the  development 
•of  the  "  principle  of  the  decrease  of  free  energy  in 
chemical  processes."  In  1888  he  was  appointed  presi- 
dent of  the  newly-founded  Physico-technical  Institute, 
a  position  in  which  he  had  comparative  freedom  from 
routine  work,  and  so  was  enabled  still  more  thoroughly 
.to  devote  himself  to  those  investigations  for  which  he 
NO.   1757,  VOL.  68] 


was  so  peculiarly  fitted.  His  first  great  work  in  his 
new  position  was  the  adaptation  of  the  equations  of 
hydrodynamics  to  the  case  of  layers  of  gases  of  vary- 
ing density,  and  the  application  of  his  results  to 
meteorological  phenomena.  The  remaining  four  years 
of  his  life  were  devoted  to  more  work  on  the  mathe- 
matical theory  of  electricity.  The  most  importani 
papers  were  those  on  the  application  of  the  principl( 
of  least  action  to  Maxwell's  electrodynamical  equa- 
tions, on  the  electromagnetic  theory  of  colour  dis- 
persion, and  on  Maxwell's  theory  of  the  motion  of  the 
ether.     He  died,  after  two  months'  illness,  in  1894. 

Harold  Hilton. 


THE    EAKTH-HISTORY    OF    CENTRAL 
EUROPE. 
Central    Europe.     By    Prof.    Joseph    Partsch,    Ph.U. 
Pp.  xiv-t-358;  with  maps  and  diagrams.     (London  : 
William  Heinemann,   1903.) 

PROF.  PARTSCH 'S  geography  of  Central  Europe 
forms  a  volume  of  the  series  "  Regions  of  the 
World,"  edited  by  Mr.  H.  J.  Mackinder.  Written 
in  German,  it  has  been  well  translated  by  Miss 
Clementina  Black,  and  has  also  undergone  a  little 
condensation,  probably  to  its  advantage.  On  the 
east  and  part  of  the  south,  the  region  has  fairly  de- 
finite physical  boundaries,  in  other  directions  they  are 
more  often  political;  but  practically  Central  Europe 
includes  the  two  great  empires  of  Germany  and 
Austro-Hungary,  with  Switzerland,  Belgium  and  the 
Netherlands  on  the  one  hand,  Montenegro,  Servia, 
Bulgaria  and  Roumania  on  the  other.  But  in  the 
main  there  is  a  general  correspondence  between  the 
political  and  the  physical  boundaries  of  the  region, 
for  Central  Europe,  geographically  speaking,  as  Prof. 
Partsch  remarks,  is  a  three-fold  belt  of  Alps,  of  inferior 
chains  and  of  northern  lowlands,  and  wherever  one 
of  these  elements  dies  out  Central  Europe  comes  to  an 
end.  This  is  the  best  natural  definition,  though  we 
should  have  preferred  the  term  central  highlands  to 
"  inferior  chains,"  and  a  little  clearer  insistence  on 
the  fact  that  the  great  mountain  chains  of  Europe — 
the  Alps,  Pyrenees  and  Carpathians— are  compara- 
tively modern  physical  upstarts,  the  highlands  being 
much  more  ancient  regions,  which,  like  some  old 
families,  have  come  down  in  the  world.  Still,  Prof. 
Partsch  makes  it  clear,  in  a  chapter  which  certainly 
would  not  stand  any  more  compression,  that  the  de- 
velopment of  Central  Europe  was  a  long  and  compli- 
cated story.  His  remarks  on  traces  in  the  Alps  of  valley 
systems  older  than  the  present,  illustrated  by  some 
rough  but  sufficient  diagrams  after  Prof.  Heim,  will 
be  very  suggestive  to  students,  though  full  justice  can 
hardly  be  done  to  the  subject  within  the  limits  of  this 
volume,  because  mountain  making  in  this  region  was 
a  complicated  and  intricate  process,  involving  many 
speculative  elements.  He  does  well  also  in  calling 
attention  to  the  aggressive  habit  of  some  rivers;  the 
more  active  one  cutting  back  through  the  old  water 
parting  and  capturing  the  other's  tributaries.  The 
Maloya  Pass  affords,  of  course,  a  typical  example  of 


July  2,  1903 


NATURE 


197 


this  protess,  but  it  has  probably  occurred  on  an  even 
trreater  scale  under  the  shadow  of  Monte  Rosa,  where 
the  depths  of  the  Upper  Val  Anzasca  have  replaced 
summits  which  once  connected  the  former  peak  with 
tlie  ranges  about  the  head  of  the  Saaser  Visp. 

But  before  Alps,  Pyrenees,  or  Carpathians  existed, 
ICurope  had  its  river  systems,  which,  notwithstanding 
their  revolutionary  effects,  may  still  be  traced.  For 
these  we  must  look  to  the  great  zone  of  the  central 
highlands,  which,  in  earlier  days,  must  have  marked 
the  watershed  of  Europe  so  far  as  it  then  existed.  We 
can,  indeed,  infer  this  history  from  Dr.  Partsch's 
chapters,  but  its  geographical  outlines  might  well 
have  been  drawn  with  a  firmer  pencil.  But  his  sketches 
of  the  different  regions  of  Europe  are  clear  and  graphic, 
not  forgetting  the  scenery  and  structure  of  the  great 
Alpine  chain,  among  which  we  may  mention  that  of 
the  Karsh  region  of  the  south-east,  with  its  singular 
system  of  underground  drainage,  outliers  of  which  may 
be  found  here  and  there  farther  west,  notably  in  the 
Steinerne  Meer,  near  the  Konig  See,  and  sometimes 
even  in  the  Western  Oberland.  The  chapters  on  the 
North  German  lowland  and  adjacent  seas,  on  climate, 
ethnology,  and  economic  geography  are  particularly 
good,  and  the  value  of  the  last  is  increased  by  small 
maps  showing  the  chief  productive  areas  of  cereals, 
potatoes,  vines,  and  other  useful  plants,  as  well  as  of 
minerals.  The  growth  and  relations  also  of  the  States 
into  which  Central  Europe  is  now  divided  are  briefly 
sketched,  and  the  professor,  in  remarks  upon  the  zeal 
lately  shown  by  Switzerland  in  fortifying  the  heart  of 
the  Alps,  takes  some  little  pains  to  assure  this  State 
that  the  Teutonic  Codlin,  not  the  Gallic  Short,  is  the 
friend.     Who  lives,  will  see. 

We  think  Prof.  Partsch  makes  "  block  "  mountains 
and  fractures  a  little  too  prominent,  and  object  to  his 
use  of  the  term  rift  valley,  though  aware  that  he  can 
quote  precedents.  If  the  Upper  Rhine  is  a  rift  valley, 
we  are  unable  to  see  how  it  differs  from  a  "  fault 
valley,"  i.e.  one  the  general  line  of  which  has  been 
determined  by  a  fault  or  set  of  faults.  Rift  valley,  in 
the  most  proper  sense  of  that  epithet,  belongs  to  an 
extinct  phase  of  geology,  when  the  Alpine  lakes  were 
located  in  gaping  fractures;  it  becomes  almost  absurd, 
as  Prof.  Partsch's  own  diagram  shows,  when  applied 
to  the  above-named  region  or  to  the  valley  of  the 
Jordan,  but  there  are  now  geologists  who  take  much 
pleasure,  first  in  coining  a  dubiously  appropriate  term 
and  then  misapplying  it  with  a  lavish  hand.  One 
or  two  other  dubious  matters  may  as  well  be 
mentioned.  It  would  be  more  correct  to  say  that 
the  crystalline  rocks  of  the  Mont  Blanc  massif,  on  their 
underground  course  towards  the  Bernese  Oberland, 
plunge  under  the  Alps  of  Vaud  than  of  Fribourg ; 
it  is  misleading  to  speak  of  schistose  rocks  being 
associated  with  the  nagelfluh,  and  it  would  have  been 
well  to  have  spoken  more  dubiously  about  ancient 
coral  reefs  as  origins  of  the  East  Alpine  Dolomites. 
These,  however,  are  but  details.  The  book  displays 
a  temperate  avoidance  of  extreme  views,  is  well  printed 
and  illustrated,  is  clearly  and  attractively  written,  and 
will  be  most  useful  to  both  teachers  and  learners. 

T.  G.  B. 
NO.    1757,   VOL.   68] 


OUR   BOOK  SHELF. 

A  Treatise  on  the  Theory  of  Solution,  including  the 
Phenomena  of  Electrolysis.  By  W.  C.  D.  Whet- 
ham.  Pp.  x  +  488.  (Cambridge:  University  Press, 
1902.)  Price  10s.  net. 
The  present  work  is  a  rewritten  and  greatly  expanded 
version  of  the  author's  book  on  "  Solution  and  Electro- 
lysis," published  in  1895.  It  embraces  practically  all 
the  material  on  the  subject  of  solutions  which  is  dealt 
with  in  the  ordinary  text-books  of  physical  chemistry, 
except  that  part  concerned  with  velocity  of  reaction  and 
purely  chemical  equilibrium.  The  treatment  through- 
out is  characterised  by  great  clearness,  especially  in 
the  physical  and  mathematical  portions,  so  that  the 
volume  may  be  warmly  recommended  to  students  of 
chemistry  who  desire  to  increase  their  knowledge  of 
this  department  of  the  subject.  The  first  chapter  is 
on  the  general  principles  of  thermodynamics,  so  far 
as  they  are  necessary  for  subsequent  developments, 
and  is  followed  by  chapters  on  the  phase-rule  and  on 
solubility.  Then  comes  the  discussion  of  the  pheno- 
mena of  osmotic  pressure,  and  the  related  magnitudes 
of  the  lowering  of  vapour  pressure  and  of  the  freezing 
point,  to  be  succeeded  by  a  judicious  chapter  on  the 
theory  of  solutions  in  which  the  hypotheses  of  mole- 
cular bombardment  and  of  chemical  combination  are 
weighed  and  compared.  Thereafter  come  four 
chapters  on  electrolytic  conductivity  and  electromotive 
force,  leading  to  an  exposition  of  the  theory  of  electro- 
lytic dissociation.  Two  useful  chapters  on  diffusion 
in  solution,  and  on  solutions  of  colloids,  conclude  the 
work. 

A  valuable  appendix  consists  in  the  tables  of  electro- 
chemical data  compiled  by  the  Rev.  T.  C.  Fitzpatrick, 
and  reprinted  from  the  British  Association  Report  of 
1893.  This  extends  to  nearly  80  pages,  and  gives  the 
conductivity,  migration,  and  fluidity  data  which  had 
at  that  time  been  determined  for  aqueous  solutions. 
The  book  is  also  provided  with  an  excellent  index, 
which  adds  to  its  value  as  a  work  of  reference. 
The  Study  of  Mental  Science.  By  Prof.  J.  Brough. 
Pp.  129.  (London  :  Longmans,  Green,  and  Co.> 
1903.)  Price  25.  net. 
This  very  readable  little  book  is  a  collection  of  five 
lectures  in  which  Prof.  Brough  has  urged  with  force 
and  eloquence  the  claims  of  logic  and  psychology  to 
take  their  place  in  every  curriculum  designed  to  give 
a  liberal  education.  He. claims  that  the  study  of  logic 
develops  and  brings  clearly  before  the  consciousness 
of  the  student  the  "  natural  sense  of  method  "  which 
in  the  scientific  specialist  too  often  works  in  devious 
subterranean  fashion.  Logic,  treated  as  a  study  of 
scientific  method,  should  be  taught  at  that  stage  in 
the  educational  course  at  which  a  general  survey  of 
knowledge  has  been  made,  and  before  the  student 
enters  upon  one  of  the  more  specialised  courses  of  study 
prescribed  by  the  honours  schools  of  our  universities. 
This  sound  principle,  practically  interpreted,  means 
that  logic  should  be  made  an  obligatory  subject  for  all 
candidates  in  the  matriculation  examinations  of  the 
universities,  that,  for  example,  in  the  "  Little-go  " 
logic  should  replace  "  Paley,"  which  for  the  intelli- 
gent student  is  merely  a  study  in  one  branch  of  logic, 
the  study  of  fallacies.  For  psychology  our  author  does 
not  attempt  to  claim  so  urgent  and  universal  import- 
ance. It  is  rather  as  a  complement  to  the  "  human- 
ities "  that  he  urges  its  claims.  In  the  modern  world 
"  the  panorama  of  spiritual  presentation  through  which 
we  move  "  grows  overwhelmingly  rich  and  varied,  and 
the  mind  can  hope  to  cope  with  it  profitably  only  when 
its  knowledge  of  spiritual  fact  is  systematised  by 
analysis  of  psychical  processes  and  by  clear  conceptions 
of  the  elements  so  revealed  and  of  the  laws  of  their 
conjunction.     Prof.  Brough  is  known  as  an  enthusiast 


NATURE 


[July  2.  1903 


for  the  modern  experimental  treatment  of  psychology, 
and  has  the  merit  of  having  introduced  these  methods 
in  the  University  of  Wales ;  it  is  therefore  regrettable 
that  he  has  not  dwelt  upon  the  value  of  psychology,  so 
treated,  as  a  training  in  accurate  observation.  For  no 
other  experimental  science  exercises  so  constantly,  or 
makes  so  exacting  demands  of,  the  faculty  of  close  ob- 
servation and  the  power  of  voluntary  control  of  the 
attention,  the  development  of  which  two  powers  is,  or 
should  be,  a  prime  object  of  all  educational  efforts. 

W.  McD. 
Photography.     Edited  by  Paul  N.  Hasluck.     Pp.   i6o. 

(London,      Paris,      New     York,     and     Melbourne  : 

Cassell  and  Co.,  Ltd.,  1903.)     Price  is. 
Hand  Camera  Photography.     By  Walter  Kilbey.     Pp. 

124.       (London  :    Dawbarn  and  Ward,   Ltd.,    1903.) 

Price  IS.  net;  cloth,  25.  net. 
These  little  books  are  both  intended  for  beginners  in 
photography.  The  comprehensive  title  of  the  first  is 
reflected  in  the  claim  made  in  the  preface  that  the 
"  Handbook  contains,  in  a  form  convenient  for  every- 
day use,  a  comprehensive  digest  of  the  knowledge  of 
photography,  scattered  over  more  than  twenty 
thousand  columns  of  Work.''  Doubtless  the  volume 
will  be  of  value  to  readers  of  Work  in  saving  many 
a  reference  to  its  thousands  of  columns,  and  as  it  is 
written  chiefly  by  a  professional  photographer,  others 
will  probably  be  interested  in  such  chapters  as  that  on 
retouching.  Much  of  the  matter  is  too  concise.  It 
is  impossible,  for  example,  to  give  useful  directions 
for  the  making  of  a  20  x  15  wet  collodion  negative  in 
less  than  one  small  page,  including  instructions  as  to 
what  to  buy  for  the  purpose. 

The  second  volume  is  of  a  different  kind.  It  is 
written  by  an  amateur  for  amateurs,  and  the  author 
has  proved  by  his  published  photographs  that  his  ex- 
periences are  valuable.  Of  course,  everyone  will  not 
corroborate  all  the  opinions  expressed,  for  the  book 
has  individuality  and  does  not  pretend  to  be  a  com- 
prehensive treatise.  It  is  essentially  popular  in  style, 
and  meets  several  difficulties  that  trouble  beginners, 
and  that  many  authors  do  not  think  of  referring  to.  But 
Mr.  Kilbey  has  surely  forgotten  himself  when  he  sug- 
gests the  use  of  a  swing  back  in  order  to  get  such  a 
view  as  an  abbey  with  a  foreground  of  rushes  more 
easily  into  focus.  Some  ten  pages  further  on  an  ex- 
ample of  distortion  due  to  tilting  the  camera  is  illus- 
trated. We  fear  that  some  w411  infer  from  these  illus- 
trations that  tilting  the  camera  gives  distortion,  while 
swinging  the  plate  does  not.  The  book  will  be  found 
to  be  a  very  useful  guide  by  those  who  use  hand 
cameras,  and  whose  knowledge  of  photography  is  but 
slight,  while  others  who  may  rank  with  the  author  in 
experience  can  hardly  fail  to  find  useful  suggestions. 
Mise  en  Valeur  des  Gites  Mineraux.     By  F.  Colomer. 

Pp.    184.     (Paris  :    Gauthier-Villars,    1903.)     Price  3 

francs. 
Most  of  the  French  treatises  on  mining  hitherto  pub- 
lished deal  chiefly  with  the  extraction  of  coal,  and  this 
unpretentioi/j  and  inexpensive  volume  will  therefore 
undoubtedly  prove  useful  to  managers  of  metalliferous 
mines.  It  gives  a  clear  summary  of  modern  practice 
in  metal  mining.  It  is  up-to-date  and  compact  with 
facts.  The  matter  is  divided  into  ten  chapters,  dealing 
respectively  with  the  definition  of  an  ore-deposit,  access 
to  the  deposit,  method  of  working,  breaking  ground, 
rock-drills,  explosives,  transport,  raising  ore,  drainage 
and  ventilation.  The  work  concludes  with  a  brief  glos- 
sary of  technical  terms.  The  absence  of  illustrations 
renders  some  of  the  descriptions  somewhat  obscure. 
The  author  has,  however,  carried  out  his  task  with 
care  and  accuracy,  and  has  produced  a  volume  valuable 
to  the  student  desirous  of  becoming  familiar  with 
French  mining  terms. 

NO.    1757,  VOL    68] 


LETTERS     10    THE    EDITOR. 

'The  Editor  does  not  hold  himself  responsible  for  opinions 
expressed  by  his  correspondents.  Neither  can  he  undertake 
to  return,  or  to  correspond  with  the  writers  of,  rejected 
manuscripts  intended  for  this  or  any  other  part  of  Nature. 
No  notice  is  taken  of  anonymous  communications.] 

Psychophysical  Interaction. 
My  authority  for  attributing  to  Descartes  the  distinction 
between  "  creation  "  and  "  direction  "  is  Leibniz's  "  Theo- 
dic6e  "  (Erd.  519).  I  ought  to  have  stated  more  clearly  than 
I  did  that  he,  of  course,  conceived  of  the  problem  in  the  form 
in  which  it  presented  itself  to  his  age  as  one  of  "  motion  " 
rather  than  of  energy  and  momentum.  In  referring  to 
the  history  of  the  discussion  at  all,  I  merely  meant  to 
indicate  its  antiquity.  This,  of  course,  is  no  reason  why 
it  should  not  be  reopened  now.  Every  generation  of  thinkers 
has  to  adjust  old  solutions  to  new  forms  of  a  problem.  It 
is,  however,  a  reason  why  we  should  inquire  whether  a 
controversy  of  so  long  a  standing  may  not  be  founded  on  a 
radical  misunderstanding. 

The  object  of  my  letter,  if  I  may  repeat  it,  was  not  to 
advocate  the  removal  of  the  discussion  from  the  field  of 
fact  to  the  nirvana  of  monistic  idealism,  as  Sir  Oliver 
Lodge  suggests,  but  the  preparation  of  the  way  for  a  better 
understanding  between  the  combatants  by  inviting  them, 
experimentally,  at  least,  to  consider  the  facts  from  a  different 
point  of  view,  or  rather  from  the  point  of  view  of  the  most 
fundamental  of  all  facts,  our  own  will  and  personality.  In 
making  this  suggestion,  I  expressly  disavowed  the  intro- 
duction of  anything  transcendental  that  might  dazzle  the 
eyes  or  divert  attention  from  the  "  landscape  "  or  the 
"wayside."  The  suggestion,  on  the  contrary,  was  that 
wayside  facts  might  be  better  understood  and  unsatisfying 
controversy  avoided,  while,  at  the  same  time,  the  end  which 
I  understand  Sir  Oliver  Lodge  desires  in  the  vindication 
of  the  reality  of  mind  might  be  more  legitimately  achieved 
if  we  reminded  ourselves  at  times  that  the  road  is  a  part 
of  the  landscape,  and  that  both  of  them  (to  recall  an  old 
simile),  both  as  they  are  and  as  they  are  known,  are  the 
work  of  the  sun.  So  far  from  being  put  forward  in  the 
name  of  any  one  philosophy,  this  point  of  view,  I  main- 
tained, is  one  which  psychologists,  pluralists  and  monists, 
realists  and  idealists  alike,  show  a  growing  tendency  to 
adopt. 

The  point  at  which  the  difference  of  attitude  I  advocate 
is  most  likely  to  come  home  to  the  physicist  is  that  which 
Sir  Oliver  Lodge  himself  rightly  emphasises  in  the  donkey 
and  carrots  illustration.  The  psychologist  only  asks  him 
to  carry  this  far  enough,  following  the  facts  as  they  take 
him  from  animal  reaction  to  conscious  volition  and  deter- 
mination by  ideas,  on  the  chance  that,  when  this  point  has 
been  reached,  a  new  view  of  the  relation  of  the  terms  he 
has  been  accustomed  to  oppose  to  each  other  as  matter  and 
mind  may  be  seen  to  be  possible,  and  questions  such  as  that 
raised  by  Mr.  Culverwell  in  the  letter  following  Sir  Oliver's 
own  in  your  issue  of  June  18  as  to  whether  one  state  of 
motion  in  the  molecules  of  the  brain  could  in  theory  be  de- 
duced from  the  preceding  state,  of  whatever  interest  to  the 
physicist,  to  be  irrelevant  to  the  more  ultimate  question 
of  the  reality  and  efficiency  of  mind.  If  the  conception  of 
a  physical  world  as  opposed  to  a  mental  can  be  shown  (as 
psychologists  are  agreed  it  can)  to  be  one  which  has  grown 
up  within  the  conscious  subject  as  a  mode  of  organising 
and  utilising  his  experience,  what  reason  can  there  be  for 
representing  matter  as  an  independent  reality  reacting  upon 
another  which  we  call  mind? 

In  conclusion,  may  I  say  that  it  seems  to  me  one  of  the 
misfortunes  of  present  day  specialism  that  physicists  and 
psychologists,  like  mind  and  matter  themselves,  on  the 
common  view  (though  unfortunately  without  their  pre- 
established  harmony),  move  in  different  spheres,  writing  in 
different  journals,  and  exchanging  words,  if  at  all,  from  a 
distance?  I  am  grateful  to  Nature  for  its  hospitality  on 
the  present  occasion,  and  to  Sir  Oliver  for  his  note 
of  welcome.  May  I  express  the  hope  that  he  will  return 
the  visit  and  continue  the  discussion  in  the  pages  of  Mind? 
I  think  I  may  promise  him  an  equally  hearty  welcome,  and 
if  I  am  right  as  to  present-day  tendencies  in  psychological 
science,    a  congenial   atmosphere.  J.  H.  Muirhead. 

Birmingham,  June  21. 


July  2,  1903] 


NATURE 


199 


Tables  of  Four-figure  Logarithms. 

For  many  scientific  computations  it  is  sufficiently  accurate 
to  work  to  four  figures,  but  there  have  been  complaints  that 
the  usual  tables  of  four-figure  logarithms  are  not  accurate 
in  the  fourth  figure.  Thus,  log  i  019  is  given  as  00080, 
whereas  it  ought  to  be  00082.  The  errors  are  met  with 
only  in  numbers  from  1000  to  2000.  In  consequence  of  this, 
some  such  tables  are  accompanied  by  a  table  specially  in- 
tended for  numbers  between  1000  and  2000.  Many  physicists 
and  chemists  refuse  to  use  four-figure  tables  for  this  reason, 
and  advocate  the  use  of  five-figure  tables,  in  spite  of  their 
greater  size  and  the  waste  of  time. 

I  beg  to  point  out  that  Mr.  J.  Harrison  has  got  over  the 
difficulty  in  a  very  simple  manner  in  the  four-figure  table 
published  by  him  recently  in  his  book,  "  Practical  Plane 
and  Solid  Geometry."  Even  he,  however,  cannot  avoid  a 
possible  error  of  i  in  the  last  figure.  The  first  ten  rows  of 
differences  have  been  replaced  by  twenty.  The  rest  of  the 
table  is  unaltered.  I  give  a  specimen  of  an  old  row  of 
figures  and  how  it  is  replaced.  The  cause  of  inaccuracy  in 
the  old  system  is  apparent  at  once. 


and,  hovering  there  for  an  instant,  they  cooled  and  con- 
tracted, and  sank  slowly  down  through  the  water.  When 
the  bubbles  are  formed  in  rapid  succession,  the  phenomenon 
is  one  of  great  beauty,  as  their  surfaces  are  extremely 
brilliant,  being  formed  of  mercury  freshly  drawn  out  before 
rising  into  the  water.  The  mercury  used  in  this  experi- 
ment was  the  ordinary  commercial  article,  and  not  freshly 
distilled.  Grease  had,  however,  been  removed  from  it  by 
boiling  with  a  solution  of  caustic  potash.  Tap  water  was 
used. 

I  have  since  found  that  these  mercury  bubbles  are  easily 
produced  in  a  variety  of  ways.  The  most  striking  form 
of  the  experiment  is  perhaps  as  follows  : — About  30c. c.  of 
mercury  are  poured  into  an  evaporating  dish  and  covered 
by  a  depth  of  about  i-7cm.  of  water.  Bubbles  are  now 
formed  in  the  mercury  by  forcing  air  under  its  surface 
through  a  bent  glass  tube  drawn  to  a  fine  nozzle.  When 
th"  bubbles  reach  a  certain  size  they  become  pyriform  and 
draw  out  from  the  surface  of  the  mercury,  and,  rising 
through  the  water,  float  on  its  surface.  The  bubbles  so 
formed    have    considerable    stabilitv,    and    usuallv    last    for 


0 

I 

.    3 

^ 

5 

6 

7 

8  !     9 

I 

2 

3 

4   5   6 

7   8   9 

II 

0414 

0453 

0492  0531 

0569 

0607 

0645 

0682 

0719  0755 

4 

8 

II 

IS  19    23 

26  30  34 

This  is  replaced  by 

" 

0414 

0453 

0492  0531 

0569 

0607 

0645   0682   0719   0755 

4 
4 

8 
7 

12 
II 

IS  19  23 
15  19  22 

27  31  35 
26  30  33 

It  is  to  be  hoped  that  all  four-figure  logarithm  tables 
will  in  future  be  printed  in  this  way.  The  Board  of 
Education  is  now  printing  tables  of  this  kind  for  use  in 
evening  science  classes.  John  Perry. 


Ship's  Magnetism. 

In  a  review  of  my  book  on  the  subject  of  the  "  Deviations 
of  the  Compass  in  Iron  Ships  "  which  appeared  in  Nature 
of  June  18  and  in  the  last  paragraph,  there  are  state- 
ments to  which  I  would  take  exception.  In  this  para- 
graph the  reviewer  finds  "  food  for  reflection  "  in  that,  after 
defining  C.G.S.  units  in  the  introduction  of  my  book,  I 
stick  to  inches  and  to  other  units  in  the  text  and  charts. 

In  view  of  the  fact  that  every  measurement  in  a  ship  is 
recorded  in  feet  and  inches,  whether  by  constructors, 
engineers,  gunners,  or  navigators,  to  have  introduced  the 
centimetre  as  a  common  unit  of  measurement  in  the  text 
and  tables  would  have  been  a  serious  drawback  to  the 
utility  of  the  book. 

Again,  the  values  on  the  charts  of  horizontal  and  vertical 
force  are  given  in  terms  which  have  been  found  most  con- 
venient in  the  several  computations,  whilst  not  detracting 
from  their  value  as  exponents  of  the  changes  of  terrestrial 
magnetism  which  a  ship  may  encounter  during  a  voyage. 

Whilst  introducing  the  student  to  the  modern  C.G.S. 
units,  the  use  of  the  British  units  is  too  recent  for  neglect- 
ing to  mention  them,  hence  their  retention  on  the  map  at 
p.  16,  accompanied  by  the  necessary  multiplier  for  convert- 
ing them  to  C.G.S.   units  if  required. 

A  table  of  errata  has  been  published  for  some  weeks,  and 
sent  to  all  known  recipients  of  the  book. 

June  20.  E.   W.   Creak. 


Mercury  Bubbles. 
Recently  during  the  course  of  an  experiment  I  had 
occasion  to  boil  water  in  presence  of  mercury.  After 
ebullition  had  been  going  on  for  some  time,  I  noticed  that 
occasionally  steam  forming  below  the  surface  of  the 
mercury  carried  with  it  a  pellicle  of  mercury  as  it  rose 
through  the  water  in  the  form  of  a  bubble.  When  it 
reached  the  surface  of  the  water  the  pellicle  usually  burst, 
and  the  mercury  fell  back  as  a  drop.  By  adjusting  the 
intensity  of  ebullition,  it  was  possible  to  bring  the  two 
liquids  into  such  a  state  that,  comparatively  frequently — 
say  ten  times  per  minute — steam  bubbles  covered  with 
mercury  rose  through  the  water  and  floated  on  its  surface, 

NO.    1757,  VOL.   68] 


I    I5~30  seconds  before  bursting.     One  having  a  diameter  of 

i   about    I -gem.    was   timed   to   have   lasted   for   756   seconds, 

j  floating  on  the  water.     When  the  break  does  occur,  it  has 

j  explosive  violence,  and  drops  of  mercury  are  thrown  through 

I  a    considerable    distance.     The    bubbles    which    reach    the 

!  surface  of  the  water  intact  do  not  vary,  as  a  rule,  much  in 

size,  the  maximum  diameter  observed  being  20cm.  and  the 

minimum    1 8cm.     The   weight   of   mercury   in   the   bubbles 

may   be  determined   by   tioating  them   into  a   watch   glass, 

and  weighing  the  mercury  which  falls  down  from  them  on 

bursting.     There  is  always  more  than  0150  gram     in  the 

I   pellicle,   and  rarely  more  than  o  200  gram.     The   mean  of 

i   ten  weighings  gave  o  177  gram    as  the  weight  of  mercury 

in    these    bubbles.     From    these    data    it    appears    that    the 

\   mean    thickness   of    the   mercurial    pellicle    is    oooicm.     At 

the  thinnest  part,   however,   it  must  be  much   thinner,   for, 

as   the  profile   view   shows,    each   bubble   carries   a   drop  of 

I  varying    dimensions    hanging    from    its    lower    pole.       The 

j  bubbles    float    immersed    nearly   to    their    equator.       In    the 

\   majority  of  cases  they  remain  covered  with  a  skin  of  water, 

so  that  the  meniscus  of  the  water  is  not  depressed   round 

the   floating  bubble,    but   is   raised   round   it.     The   skin   of 

water  may  be  made  to  retreat  from  the  upper  pole,  or  to 

aggregate  itself  into  droplets  on  the  surface  of  the  bubble, 

without  causing  the  rupture  of  the  bubble,  by  the  addition 

i  of  a   small   amount  of  spirit   to   the   water.     The   complete 

;   absence  of  the  water  skin  from  the  mercury  pellicle  may  be 

demonstrated    by   the   dulling  of   the   surface   of   the   latter 

1   when  breathed  upon. 

The  high  surface  tension  of  the  water  does  not  seem 
necessary  to  the  phenomenon.  Mercury  bubbles  in  every 
way  similar  to  those  just  described  may  be  formed  under 
methylated  spirit,  and  will  float  upon  its  surface  ;  also  the 
addition  of  a  slight  contamination  to  the  water,  such  as 
oil  or  soap  or  spirit,  does  not  make  the  mercury  film  of 
the  bubble  completely  unstable.  But  when  large  quantities 
j  of  these  impurities  are  added,  the  bubbles  seldom  last  more 
than  a  moment  on  the  surface  of  the  water,  although  even 
in  the  presence  of  these  impurities  they  may  last  as  long 
as  25  seconds. 

The  depth  of  the  overlying  water  is  of  importance  in 
I  the  ease  of  producing  stable  bubbles  by  this  method.  If 
i  it  is  deeper  than  2cm.  the  bubbles  usually  break  before 
I  getting  to  the  surface  ;  this  is  probably  due  to  the  change 
of  pressure  during  the  rise  of  the  bubble  through  the 
water,  and  consequent  excessive  expansion  causing  rupture. 
I  If  the  water  is  less  than  i-5cm.  deep  the  bubble  formed 
i   swells  up   to   a  great   size   (2-3cm.   in   diameter)   before  it 


200 


NATURE 


(July  2,  190^ 


leaves    the    mercurial    surface,     and    generally    bursts    in 
doing  so. 

Considerable  impurities  in  the  mercury  do  not  render  the 
production  of  these  bubbles  impossible.  Very  stable  bubbles 
may  be  formed  of  mercury  contaminated  with  sodium.  But 
the  most  stable  have  been  formed  from  mercury  recently 
cleaned  with  dilute  nitric  acid  followed  by  a  solution  of 
caustic  potash. 

Another  striking  and  beautiful  experiment  with  the  pro- 
duction of  these  bubbles  may  be  made  by  directing  a  strong 
jet  of  water  into  a  shallow  vessel  containing  some  mercury. 
The  stream  of  water,  carrying  air  bubbles  with  it,  pene- 
trates the  supernatant  water  and  impinges  on  the  mercury 
below.  There  it  forms  numerous  bubbles  of  various  sizes 
contained  in  mercury  pellicles,  many  of  which  detach 
themselves  from  the  mercury  below,  and  are  carried  about 
in  the  water.  The  stability  of  these  bubbles  is  amazing. 
They  are  often  whirled  round  and  round  in  the  turbulent 
motion  of  the  water  for  several  seconds  without  bursting. 

Henry  H.  Dixon. 

Botanical   Laboratory,   Trinity  College,    Dublin. 


Radium  Fluorescence. 

If  a  tube  containing  radium  bromide  is  wrapped  in  black 
paper  and  brought  within  three  or  four  inches  of  the  eye,  in 
a  dark  room,  a  curious  sensation  of  general  illumination 
of  the  eye  is  experienced  ;  this  occurs  whether  the  eyelid  is 
closed  or  not.  It  is  difficult  accurately  to  describe  the 
sensation  produced  ;  the  eye  seems  filled  with  light.  This 
effect  can  readily  be  detected  when  six  florins  are  placed 
between  the  closed  eye  and  the  sample  of  radium. 

Probably  the  effect  is  due  to  general  fluorescence  of  every 
part  of  the  eye,  for  fluorescence  seems  to  be  a  commoner 
property  of  matter  than  hitherto  suspected. 

The  following  substances  are  distinctly  fluorescent  under 
radium  radiation  : — 

Opal  Glass. 

Soda  Glass. 

Lead  Glass. 

Uranium  Glass. 

Didymium  Glass. 

Celluloid. 

Mother  of  Pearl. 

Mica. 

Borax, 

Alum. 

I  have  been  unable  to  detect  decided  fluorescence  in  the 
following  substances,  however,  with  a  more  powerful  source 
of  radiation,  or  a  more  sensitive  receiver  than  the  eye ; 
possibly  some  of  these  might  be  placed  in  the  first  list  : — 

Potass  Bichrom.  Selenium. 

Ruby  Glass  (flashed).  Plaster  of  Paris. 

Prepared  Chalk.  lodosulphate  of  Quinine. 

Ebonite.  Woods  (various). 

Silk.  ^  Camphor  Monobromate. 

In  the  case  of  translucent  substances,  the  effects  are  best 
observed  by  looking  through  the  substance,  placing  the 
tube  of  radium  nearly  in  contact  with  the  far  side.  If  the 
experiments  are  carried  on  too  near  the  eye,  the  direct 
fluorescence  of  the  eye  itself  interferes  with  accurate  observ- 
ations. 

Little  cups  made  of  thick  tinfoil  are  very  convenient  for 
the  examination  of  liquids  ;  the  open  vessel  is  viewed  from 
above,  the  radium  being  placed  below  the  cup. 

It  is  important  to  well  prepare  the  eye  by  excluding  every 
trace  of  light  from  the  room  for  at  least  a  quarter  of  an 
hour  before  the  experiments  are  made. 

F.  Harrison  Glew. 

156  Clapham  Road,  S.W.,  June  i. 


Quartz. 

Human  Skin. 

Sulphur. 

Human  Nails. 

Sugar. 

Camphor. 

Starch. 

Cetaceum. 

Fluor  Spar. 

Solid  Parafifin. 

Yellow  Resin.  Liquid  Paraffin. 

Cotton  Wool.  Turpentine. 

White  Paper.  Chloroform. 

Cupri  Sulph.  Water. 

Quinine  Sulph.  Glycerin. 


A  New  Series  in  the  Magnesium  Spectrum. 
In  your  issue  of  April  i6  there  is  an  abstract  of  a  paper 
communicated  by  Prof.  Fowler  on  the  above  subject  to  the 
Royal  Society.  He  shows  that  his  new  series  is  of  the  same 
type  as  the  special  series  for  magnesium  discovered  by 
Rydberg,  and  represents  it  by  a  similar  formula  to  that 
used  by  Rydberg.     But  in  "  The  Cause  of  the  Structure  of 

NO.    1757,  VOL.   68] 


Spectra  "  {Phil.  Mag.,  September,  1901)  I  have  shown  that 
the  Rydberg  series  for  magnesium  can  be  represented  by 
a  formula  which  brings  out  the  existence  of  harmonics  in 
atomic  vibrations.  These  can  be  demonstrated  in  the 
hydrogen  spectrum  also,  but  it  seemed  to  be  of  interest  to 
inquire  whether  the  new  series  gives  a  further  example  of 
the  existence  of  optical  harmonics.  It  does,  for  the  vibra- 
tion numbers  of  its  four  lines  can  be  given  by  the  formula 

«  =  39730-  _  JL°725?__ 

(2-9TJ-2-02llsf 

where  s  has  the  values  4,  5,  6  and  7. 
This  may  be  written  approximately  as 
107250 


39730- 


{3-o-023-(2  +  o-023)/4-^ 
while  Rydberg 's  special  series  is  represented  by 
^  =  39730-      ^°725^ 

I  have  not  thought  it  worth  while  to  test  whether  the 
harmonic  formula  for  the  new  series  is  as  successful  as 
Rydberg's  in  giving  the  wave-lengths  accurately,  as  the 
evidence  for  the  existence  of  optical  harmonics  is  what  I 
wish  to  draw  attention  to.  In  Rydberg's  series  5  has  all 
the  integral  values  from  3  to  8.  In  the  new  series  Prof. 
Fowler  gives  wave-lengths  for  which  s  has  integral  values 
from  4  to  7.  We  might  expect  the  lines  for  5=3  and  s  =  8 
to  be  yet  found.  Their  wave-lengths  by  the  harmonic 
formula    would  be  5125-8  and  3956-3. 

Melbourne,  May  27.  William  Sutherland. 


the  kite   competition  of  the 
aeronj\utical  society. 

THE  kite  competition  for  the  silver  medal  of  the 
Aeronautical  Society  of  Great  Britain  took  place 
on  Thursday,  June  25,  on  the  Sussex  Downs,  at 
Findon,  near  Worthing,  by  permission  of  Lord  Henry 
Thynne.  The  conditions  specified  that  a  weight  of 
two  pounds  as  representing  the  weight  of  recording 
meteorological  instruments  should  be  carried,  and  that 
the  medal  should  be  given  for  the  highest  flight  at- 
tained by  a  single  kite  above  3000  feet.  The  altitude 
of  the  kites  was  to  be  determined  by  trigonometrical 
observations. 

The  locality  proved  to  be  admirably  adapted  for  the 
competition  under  the  conditions  of  weather  prevailing 
at  the  time.  A  light  wind  from  the  south-west  blew 
up  the  slope  of  the  Downs  in  the  morning,  and  in- 
creased to  a  steady  breeze  in  the  afternoon,  backing 
sornewhat  to  the  southward  as  the  day,  which  was 
beautifully  fine,  went  on. 

It  was  understood  that  observations  of  the  altitude 
of  the  kites  should  be  commenced  after  the  lapse  of 
an  hour  from  the  signal  for  starting.  By  2.45  p.m. 
stations  for  the  kite  reels  had  been  arranged,  200  yards 
apart,  along  the  slope  of  the  Downs,  and  two  stations 
for  the  theodolites,  700  yards  apart,  were  selected, 
from  which  the  kite  stations  were  visible,  and  which 
were  likely  to  command  an  uninterrupted  view  of  the 
kites  during  the  flight.  The  responsible  duty  of 
carrying  out  the  measurements  with  the  theodolites 
and  the  auxiliary  chaining  was  most  kindly  under- 
taken by  Mr.  J.  E.  Dallas  and  Mr.  W.  F.  Mackenzie, 
of  the  Royal  Indian  Engineering  College,  Coopers 
Hill,  and  the  success  of  the  arrangements  was  due 
in  no  small  degree  to  the  assistance  afforded  by  these 
gentlemen. 

At  2.45  the  signal  was  given  to  start,  and  at  3.45 
observations  of  height  commenced.  The  synchronism 
of  the  observations  of  any  particular  kite  from  the 
two  stations  was  secured  at  first  by  a  prearranged 
code  of  signals  from  one  theodolite  station  to  the 
other,  and  subsequently  by  telephone  between  the  two 
stations.  Eight  kites  were  entered  for  the  competi- 
tion, but  only  six  appeared  on  the  ground,   and  only 


July  2,  1903] 


NATURE 


201 


four  reached  a  height  sufficient  to  require  trigo- 
nometrical determination.  These  were  a  Hargrave 
kite,  of  rhomboidal  cross  section,  with  four  bands  of 
linen,  by  Mr.  S.  H.  R.  Salmon;  a  kite  of  special 
design,  by  Mr.  S.  F.  Cody,  having  the  appearance  in 
the  air  of  a  very  large  bird ;  a  similar  kite  by  Mr.  L. 
Cody,  and  a  Burmese  kite  by  Mr.  Charles  Brogden. 

In  the  course  of  an  hour,  four  sets  of  observations 
were  obtained  for  each  kite,  and  were  subsequently 
computed  by  Mr.  Mason,  of  King's  College,  London, 
in  accordance  with  a  systematic  programme  drawn  up 
by  Prof.  C.  Vernon  Boys. 

As  the  result  of  the  calculations,  it  appears  that 
the  greatest  height  measured  for  Mr.  Salmon's  kite 
was  1250  feet,  for  Mr.  L.  Cody's  1476  feet,  for  Mr. 
Brogden's  1816  feet,  and  for  Mr.  S.  F.  Cody's  1407 
feet,  and,  therefore,  none  reached  the  minimum  height 
required  for  the  award  of  the  medal.  This  unfor- 
tunate result  was  probably  due  to  the  fact  that  the 
\\  ind,  which  had  gradually  increased  from  a  light  air 
as  the  sunshine  continued,  was  a  surface  wind,  and 
fell  off  in  strength  at  some  little  height  above  the 
surface.  The  average  heights  of  the  several  kites 
from  the  four  observations  of  each  were  1189  feet, 
1271  feet,  1554  feet,  and  1326  feet  respectively. 

At  4.45  the  signal  was  given  to  haul  in  the  kites,  and 
all  but  one  were  safely  brought  back.  The  wire  of 
this  one  had  become  entangled  in  the  trees,  and  the 
kite  was  still  in  the  air  when  the  majority  of  the 
visitors  had  left  the  ground.  The  winding  gear  was 
in  each  case  hand  gear. 

The  supervision  of  arrangements  for  the  competition 
was  entrusted  to  a  jury  consisting  of  Dr.  W.  N. 
Shaw,  F.R.S.  (chairman),  Prof.  C.  V.  Boys,  F.R.S., 
Mr.  E.  P.  PVost,  J. P.,  D.L.,  Sir  Hiram  Maxim,  Dr. 
Hugh  Robert  Mill,  Mr.  E.  A.  Reeves,  and  Mr.  Eric 
Stuart  Bruce,  secretary  of  the  Aeronautical  Society. 

The  society  and  its  energetic  secretary  are  to  be 
congratulated  upon  having  carried  out  successfully  a 
series  of  arrangements  that  were  necessarily  elaborate, 
and  not  free  from  difficulties  of  many  kinds. 


THE  CELTIC  GOLD  ORNAMENTS. 
'T^HE  decision  in  the  Court  of  Chancery  that  the 
-*-  gold  ornaments  from  the  north  of  Ireland,  and 
bought  as  long  ago  as  1897  by  the  British  Museum,  are 
treasure  trove,  and,  therefore,  are  to  be  taken  from 
the  Museum  and  handed  over  to  the  King,  will  pro- 
duce a  curious  effect  on  the  mind  of  the  intelligent 
foreigner.  But  when  he  is  told  that  the  action  at 
law  is  due  to  the  persistent  claims  of  the  irreconcil- 
able Irish  party,  he  will  probably  begin  to  understand 
the  position,  from  analogous  conditions  in  his  own 
country.  The  whole  affair  is  to  be  regretted,  but  it 
must  in  fairness  be  stated  that  the  entire  blame  lies 
at  the  door  of  the  Irish  executive,  and  that  but  for 
their  incomprehensible  apathy  in  making  no  effort  to 
secure  the  ornaments  before  the  British  Museum  ever 
entered  the  field,  there  would  have  been  no  need  for 
a  costly  lawsuit.  There  is,  however,  a  wider  applica- 
tion of  this  particular  example,  arising  from  the  con- 
tention of  the  Irish  archaeologists  that  all  antiquities 
found  in  Ireland  must  remain  there.  Foreign  students 
coming  to  an  institution  like  the  British  Museum  will 
expect  to  find  there,  primarily,  an  adequate  represen- 
tation of  the  archaeology  of  the  British  Islands — 
surely  not  an  unreasonable  expectation  in  the  central 
museum  of  the  Empire.  But  if  the  Irish  contention 
is  to  prevail,  Scotland  will  claim  equal  rights,  and 
Wales  also  when  it  decides  on  a  capital  for  the 
Principality,  so  that  the  earnest  student,  not  generally 
a   wealthy  individual,   will  be  compelled   to   seek  out 

NO.    1757,  VOL.  68] 


what  he  wants  in  widely  separated  cities.  There  are. 
of  course,  arguments  in  favour  of  such  a  course ; 
but,  as  a  practical  matter,  there  are,  in  fact,  ancient 
remains  enough  in  these  islands  to  admit  of  the 
central  museum  having  a  fair  comparative  series, 
without  in  any  way  damaging  the  local  museum.  A 
little  mutual  understanding  is  all  that  is  wanted,  and 
it  is  to  be  hoped  that  the  parochial  idea  that  seems  to 
prevail  in  Dublin  will  not  be  thought  worthy  of 
Edinburgh.  London,  after  all,  is  the  capital  of  these 
islands,  and,  for  one  foreign  or  English  student  in 
Dublin  or  Edinburgh,  there  are  fifty,  or,  may  be,  a 
hundred,  who  work  in  London.  The  greater  the 
number  of  workers,  the  greater  will  be  the  benefit 
to  science. 


THE     UNIVERSITY     OF     LONDON. 

THE  presentation  of  degrees  at  the  University  of 
London,  which  took  place  as  we  went  to  press 
last  week,  was  noteworthy  in  several  respects. 
Honorary  degrees  were  conferred  for  the  first  time  in 
tile  historv  of  the  university,  the  recipients  being  the 
Prince  and  Princess  of  Wales,  Lord  Kelvin  and  Lord 
Lister;  and  representatives  of  the  many  and  various 
institutions  and  organisations  which  are  connected 
with  the  university,  or  are  promoting  its  development, 
were  also  assembled  together  for  the  first  time. 

In  his  report  on  the  work  of  the  university  during 
the  year  1902-03,  the  principal.  Sir  Arthur  Riicker, 
gave"  a  short  description  of  the  educational  scheme  of 
th..'  reconstituted  university,  beginning  with  arrange- 
ments which  are  primarily  intended  to  be  of  benefit  to 
those  who  are  not  aiming  at  degrees,  and  proceeding 
through  the  various  stages  of  a  university  course  to 
post-graduate  study  and  research. 

The  following  are  some  of  the  points  of  general 
interest  mentioned  in  the  report  :— 

Relation  of  the  University  to  Schools. — The  matriculation 
examination  of  the  University  of  London  has  for  many  years 
served  some  of  the  purposes  of  a  school-leaviner  examin- 
ation. Persons  who  had  passed  it  were  excused  by  various 
professional  bodies  from  their  own  entrance  examinations  ; 
and  for  this  or  other  reasons  the  examination  was  taken 
by  many  candidates  who  did  not  intend  to  pursue  a  uni- 
versity career.  On  the  other  hand,  the  Senate  has  for  long 
included  the  examination  of  schools  among  its  duties,  and 
of  late  it  has  been  felt  that  the  time  has  come  for  perform- 
ing this  work  on  more  modern  lines  and  on  an  extended 
scale.  A  scheme  has  therefore  been  approved  bv  the  Senate 
for  the  inspection  of  schools,  and  the  university  has  been 
recognised  bv  the  Board  of  Education  as  an  authority  under 
the  Board  for  that  purpose.  This  inspection  will  include  an 
inquiry  into  the  aims  of  the  school,  a  consideration  of  its 
curriculum  and  arrangements  as  adapted  to  those  aims,  an 
inspection  of  the  school  buildings  and  fittinp'S,  and  of  the 
teaching  work  of  the  staff  as  tested  by  an  inspection  of  the 
classes  at  work. 

Entrance  to  the  University. — The  first  matriculation  ex- 
amination under  the  new  scheme  took  place  in  September 
last.  It  is  a  real  matriculation  examination  in  the  sense 
that  no  candidate  can  begin  his  university  career  until  he 
has  passed  it.  It  represents  the  minimum  standard  of 
admission  to  the  university,  and  is  intended  to  be  such  that 
it  can  be  passed  without  special  preparation  or  cramming 
by  a  well-educated  boy  or  girl  of  about  seventeen  years  of 

The  Senate  has  agreed  to  waive  the"  matriculation  ex- 
amination altogether  in  the  case  of  graduates  of  a  large 
number  of  approved  universities,  and  of  persons  who  have 
passed  the  Scotch  leaving  examination  or  hold  the  Zeugniss 
der  Reife  from  a  Gymnasium  or  Real-Gymnasium  within 
either  the  German  or  the  Austrian  Empire.  A  large 
number  of  persons  have  availed  themselves  of  this  privilege, 
which  will  be  particularly  valuable  to  those  who  may  intend 
to  supplement  a  degree  taken  at  another  university  by  study 
in  London. 


202 


NATURE 


[July 


903 


Courses  of  Study  for  Internal  Students. — The  distinction 
between  an  internal  and  an  external  student  is  that,  while 
the  latter  can  obtain  a  degree  on  passing  certain  prescribed 
examinations,  the  internal  student  must  not  only  pass  ex- 
aminations but  also  produce  certificates  that  he  has  attended 
courses  of  instruction  approved  by  the  university  and  con- 
trolled by  recognised  teachers. 

The  case  of  evening  students  has  received  special  con- 
sideration. The  hours  of  compulsory  attendance  are  re- 
duced in  the  case  of  those  who  submit  certificates  that  they 
are  engaged  in  some  business  occupation  for  twenty-five 
hours  a  weeli.  The  time  required  for  the  complete  course 
varies  with  the  subjects  chosen,  but  in  general  the  reduction 
allowed  makes  it  possible  for  a  student  giving  some  three 
evenings  a  week  to  attendance  on  lectures  and  laboratories 
to  complete  a  degree  course  in  four  years.  It  is  satisfactory 
to  be  able  to  state  that  the  regulations  under  this  head  are 
working  smoothly  at  the  polytechnics. 

Organisation  of  Teaching. — It  is  not,  however,  only  by 
curricula  and  arrangements  as  to  examinations  that  the 
work  of  a  teaching  university  must  be  carried  on.  It  is 
also  necessary  to  extend,  organise,  and  coordinate  the  work 
of  the  teachers.  This  task  requires  funds,  and  also  the 
cooperation  of  the  various  schools  and  other  institutions 
connected  with  the  university. 

The  Senate  has  approved  a  scheme  for  the  establish- 
ment in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  university  of  an  institute 
of  preliminary  and  intermediate  medical  studies,  which  has 
the  support  of  the  Faculty  of  Medicine,  and  has  authorised 
the  issue  of  an  appeal  for  its  building  and  endowment. 
When  this  is  carried  out,  some,  at  all  events,  of  the  medical 
schools  will  be  relieved  of  the  necessity  of  maintaining  in- 
dependent courses  of  instruction  on  subjects  which  are  only 
ancillary  to  medicine,  and  need  not  be  studied  in  the 
immediate  vicinity  of  a  hospital.  For  the  realisation  of  this 
project  a  large  sum  of  money  is  required,  but  there  can  be 
no  doubt  that  it  will  be  an  addition  of  the  first  importance 
to  the  equipment  of  London  as  a  centre  of  medical  study. 

The  attention  of  those  interested  in  the  teaching  of 
engineering  has  been  drawn  to  the  proposals  made  by  Mr. 
Yarrow  in  support  of  the  system  by  which  students  of  that 
subject  spend  alternate  periods  of  six  months  in  a  college 
and  the  workshops.  It  is  satisfactory  to  be  able  to  state 
that  in  all  probability  some  of  the  schools  of  the  university 
will  cooperate  with  employers  in  introducing  into  the 
metropolis  a  system  of  technical  education  which  has  worked 
well  elsewhere. 

Lastly,  it  may  be  added  that  the  negotiations  between 
th-;  university  and  University  College  for  the  incorporation 
of  the  college  in  the  university  have  been  brought  to  a 
successful  conclusion,  and  a  joint  committee  has  been 
appointed  to  draft  a  Bill  for  giving  effect  to  the  agreement. 
University  College  has  purchased  a  plot  of  land  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  the  hospital,  to  which  the  medical  school 
will  be  transferred  on  an  independent  footing.  This  step 
is  a  necessary  preliminary  to  incorporation,  as  it  is  not  con- 
sidered to  be  desirable  that  the  university  should  itself 
control  one,  and  one  only,  of  the  numerous  medical  schools 
which  exist  in  London. 

Post-graduate  Work  and  Research. — The  physiological 
department  of  the  university,  which  is  established  in  the 
university  buildings,  has  been  at  work  throughout  the  year 
under  the  direction  of  Dr.  Waller,  F.R.S.,  who  has  devoted 
the  whole  of  his  time  to  the  interests  of  the  laboratory.  It 
will  be  remembered  that  all  the  principal  teachers  of  physi- 
ology in  London  have  banded  themselves  together  to  give, 
in  turn,   lectures  to  post-graduate  students. 

The  research  work  carried  on  in  the  laboratory  has  re- 
sulted in  the  production  of  eight  or  ten  original  papers, 
which  have  appeared  in  English,  American,  and  German 
periodicals. 

The  excellent  example  given  by  the  physiologists  has  been 
followed  by  the  botanists,  who  have  in  Irke  manner  agreed 
to  give  courses  of  post-graduate  lectures  at  the  Chelsea 
Physic  Garden,  a  scheme  which  has  only  been  made  possible 
by  the  cordial  cooperation  of  the  trustees  of  the  City 
Parochial  Charities. 

Gifts  to  the  University. — The  first  year's  payments  on 
account  of  the  grant  of  10,000/.  a  year  from  the  Technical 
Education  Board  of  the  County  Council  have  been  made, 
and  the  various  professors  and  lecturers  have  been  appointed 
and  are  now  at  work. 

NO.    1757,  VOL.   68] 


The  Worshipful  Company  of  Goldsmiths  has  presented 
to  the  university  the  very  valuable  library  of  pamphlets  and 
other  works  relating  to  economics,  collected  by  Prof.  Fox- 
well,  and  recently  purchased  by  the  Company  at  a  cost  of 
10,000/.  To  this  munificent  gift  the  Company  has  added 
considerable  sums  to  aid  the  university  in  installing  and 
maintaining  the  library. 

During  the  year,  Mr.  G.  W.  Palmer,  M.P.,  has  con- 
tributed the  sum  of  1000/.  towards  the  endowment  of  the 
physiological  laboratory,  and  Mr.  Alfred  Palmer  has  made 
a  contingent  promise  of  a  like  amount  for  the  same  object. 

In  addition  to  their  former  munificent  promise  of  30,000^. 
in  aid  of  the  incorporation  of  University  College  in  the 
university,  the  Worshipful  Company  of  Drapers  has  pre- 
sented 1000/.  to  the  university,  and  a  scheme  is  being  drafted 
for  the  application  of  this  grant  to  University  College. 

Apart  from  the  grant  of  the  Technical  Education  Board 
of  the  County  Council,  about  25,000/.  has  been  given  to  the 
university  by  the  above-mentioned  donors  in  the  course  of 
last  year. 

Summary. — The  foregoing  report  will,  it  is  hoped,  prove 
that  the  university  is  anxious  to  leave  no  part  of  its  duties 
unfulfilled. 

New  avenues  of  work  have  been  opened  in  connection 
with  schools,  with  university  extension,  with  the  colleges, 
medical  schools,  and  polytechnics ;  students  are  entering 
both  for  the  ordinary  matriculation  examination  and  for 
post-graduate  study  and  research  in  unexpected  numbers. 
The  authorities  of  the  institutions  connected  with  the  uni- 
versity have  in  all  cases  shown  the  most  anxious  desire  to 
work  in  harmony  with  it,  and  to  arrange  their  classes  to 
meet  the  conditions  which  the  Senate  has  laid  down. 

But,  while  there  are  many  grounds  for  hope,  and  while 
th^  university  is  doing  its  best  to  make  itself  worthy  of 
public  support,  it  must  be  frankly  admitted  that  it  can 
never  adequately  fulfil  its  duties  without  the  supply  of  funds 
from  public  or  private  sources  on  a  very  large  scale.  The 
incorporation  of  University  College  cannot  be  carried  out 
until  another  100,000/.  has  been  raised  ;  the  complete  en- 
dowment of  the  Institute  of  Medical  Sciences  would  need 
much  more  than  that  amount;  the  fuller  organisation  of 
teaching  on  lines  which  have  been  already  adopted  in  the 
case  of  German,  and  towards  which  a  small  beginning  has 
been  made  in  the  case  of  chemistry,  would  require  very  large 
sums.  On  the  one  hand,  technical  instruction  is  sorely  in 
need  of  development  ;  on  the  other,  if  funds  were  available, 
a  scheme  could  be  worked  out  by  which  students  of  literature 
and  archaiology  might  make  full  use  of  the  magnificent 
libraries  and  collections  which  London  possesses. 

Lastly,  the  payment  of  the  professors,  which  is  in  many 
cases  very  inadequate,  and  of  the  cost  of  their  departments, 
depends  so  much  upon  fees  and  so  little  upon  endowments 
that  the  expense  of  education  in  London  is  comparatively 
high.  Those  who  are  engaged  in  the  work  are  convinced 
that  the  one  thing  needful  is  endowment  adequate  to  make 
good  the  apathy  of  the  past,  and  to  secure  the  promise  of 
th?  future.  It  is  for  London  to  say  whence  and  when  that 
endowment  will  be  forthcoming,  and  to  determine  whether 
a  university  which  is  providing  for  all  learners,  from  the 
evening  student  to  the  candidate  who  has  already  graduated 
elsewhere,  shall  control  means  and  appliances  worthy  of 
the  highest  educational  institution  in  the  capital  of  the 
Empire. 

After  :be  Prince  of  Wales  had  been  presented  for 
the  honorary  degree  of  doctor  of  laws  and  the  Princess 
for  that  of  doctor  of  music.  Prof.  Tilden.  Dean  of  the 
Faculty  of  Science,  presented  Lord  Kelvin  for  the 
degree  of  doctor  of  science^  and  in  doing-  so  he  said  : — 

My  Lord  the  Chancellor,  I  present  to  you  William 
Thomson,  Baron  Kelvin  of  Largs,  for  the  degree  of  doctor 
of  science,  honoris  causa.  The  illustrious -son  of  a  family 
famous  for  mathematical  talent,  for  more  than  half,  a 
century  Lord  Kelvin  filled  the  ofBce  of  professor  of  natural 
philosophy  in  the  ancient  University  of  Glasgow.  Two 
generations  have  passed  since  he  entered  on  his  professor- 
ship, and  the  advances  in  physical  science  which  have  dis- 
tinguished the  nineteenth  century  from  all  preceding  epochs 
have  been  largely  due  to  the  influence  of  Lord  Kelvin  in 
promoting  true  ideas  concerning  the  conservation  of  energy, 
the   laws   of   thermodynamics,    and    their    application   to   the 


July  2,1903]  NATURE 


203 


mechanics  and  physics  of  the  universe.  His  untiring  in- 
tellectual activity  has  led  him  also  to  inquire  into  problems 
interesting  to  the  chemist  and  geologist,  as  well  as  those 
which  are  important  to  the  physicist  and  engineer.  He  has 
calculated  the  probable  size  of  atoms  ;  he  has  studied  the 
structure  of  crystals  ;  he  has  estimated  the  age  of  the  earth. 
But  the  world' knows  him  best  as  the  man  who  has  shown 
how  practically  to  measure  electrical  and  magnetic  quanti- 
ties, and  has'  made  it  possible  to  link  together  distant 
continents  by  the  electric  telegraph.  It  is  he  who  has  shown 
how  to  neutralise  the  effects  of  iron  on  the  compasses  of 
ships  and  how  to  predict  the  tides,  and  who  has  thus  taught 
the  mariner  to  steer  safely  over  the  surface  of  the  ocean 
and  to  sound,  as  he  goes,  its  depths  and  shallows.  A 
greater  philosopher  than  Democritus,  in  him  are  united  the 
qualities  of  Archimedes  and  Aristotle.  Regarded  with 
affectionate  reverence  by  his  contemporaries,  it  cannot  be 
doubted  that  his  name  will  shine  brightly  through  long 
future  generations.  In  offering  a  place  of  honour  to  such 
a  man  the  university  confers  lustre  on  itself. 

Mr.  Butlin,  Dean  of  the  Faculty  of  Medicine,  then 
presented  Lord  Lister  for  the  honorary  degree  of 
doctor  of  science  in  the  followinj^^  terms  : — 

My  Lord  the  Chancellor,  since  the  reconstitution  of  the 
university,  the  Faculty  of  Medicine  has  been  almost  con- 
tinuously engaged  in  arduous  and  not  always  pleasant 
work,  and  to-night,  as  if  in  compensation,  there  falls  to 
its  lot — for  I  am  but  the  mouthpiece  of  the  faculty— the 
agreeable  task  of  presenting  my  Lord  Lister  for  one  of  the 
four  first  honorary  degrees  of  the  University  of  London. 
While  every  person  in  my  profession  is  familiar  with  the 
work  which  he  has  done,  and  his  name  has  become  a  house- 
hold word  in  every  part  of  the  civilised  world,  comparatively 
few  persons  are  acquainted  with  the  obstacles  which  he  has 
overcome.  It  is  not  only  that,  sitting  down  many  years 
ago  in  front  of  a  difficult  problem  of  pathology,  Lord  Lister 
solved  the  mystery  which  had  puzzled  the  brains  of  the 
greatest  surgeons  of  all  time,  or  that  he  then  invented  a 
means  of  meeting  and  overcoming  surgical  infection,  but 
that  he  stood  by  his  theory,  and  fought  manfully  for  it, 
until  at  length,  in  spite  of  opposition,  of  envy,  of  lack  of 
faith,  and  even  of  ridicule,  he  succeeded  in  carrying  con- 
viction to  the  minds  of  his  own  profession  and  of  the  world 
at  large.  And  all  this  was  done,  and  these  things  were 
borne,  not  for  the  sake  of  gain — care  for  which  has  never 
been  a  part  of  Lord  Lister's  character — but  for  the  sake  of 
science  and  for  the  relief  of  human  suffering.  It  is  well- 
nigh  impossible  for  those  among  whom  a  great  man  lives 
to  form  a  just  estimate  of  the  value  of  his  work,  whether 
in  art  or  in  science,  but  I  venture  to  predict  that  the  name 
of  Lord  Lister  will  be  handed  down  from  generation  to 
generation,  from  century  to  century,  until,  more  than  2000 
years  hence,  he  will  be  acknowledged  by  our  descendants 
as  the  father  of  surgery,  in  like  manner  as  Hippocrates  is 
regarded  by  this  present  generation  as  the  father  of 
medicine.  I,  therefore,  sir,  beg  to  present  the  Right  Hon. 
Lord  Lister,  and  ask  you  to  confer  on  him  the  honorary 
degree  of  doctor  of  science,  and  I  do  so  with  the  happy 
confidence  that  the  addition  of  his  name  will  confer  lustre 
now  and  in  the  future  on  the  University  of  London. 

The  students  who  had  gained  degrees  in  various 
faculties  of  the  university  were  then  presented  in 
groups  by  the  Dean  of  each  faculty. 


A   CHAIU.OTTENBVRG  INSTITUTE  FOR 
LONDON. 

'T'HE  magnificent  proposals  which  Lord  Rosebery 
-*•  laid  before  the  County  Council  in  his  letter  to 
its  chairman,  Lord  Monkswell,  on  June  27  have 
roused  feelings  of  keen  interest  and  high  hopes  in 
many  who,  for  years  past,  have  been  crving,  as  it 
seemed  in  the  wilderness,  to  the  nation,  to  the 
Government,  to  public  bodies,  and  to  private  indi- 
viduals to  do  something  to  improve  our  higher  tech- 
nical educational  methods.  Generally  speaking,  the 
cry  has  been  ignored  or  else  met  with  the  reply  that 
NO.    J  757,  VOL.    68] 


our  fathers  obtained  the  command  of  the  sea, 
extended  our  commerce  and  made  the  country  the 
greatest  commercial  centre  of  the  world,  so  surely 
methods  which  were  good  enough  for  them  are  good 
enough  for  us.  Passing  strange,  but  were  they  con- 
tent with  the  methods  of  their  fathers?  did  the 
eighteenth  century  show  no  advancement  upon  the 
seventeenth  century?  At  the  beginning  of  the  nine- 
teenth century  we  were  ahead  of  all  nations  in  the 
use  of  gas  as  an  illuminant;  later  on,  our  railway 
systems  and  our  steamships  became  the  envy  of  the 
w^orld;  other  nations  could  not  approach  us  in 
engineering.  In  the  middle  of  the  century  we  were 
pioneers  in  many  chemical  discoveries ;  but  then, 
apparently,  so  iriuch  prosperity  and  success  seems 
to  have  been  too  rich  a  diet,  and  we  waxed  fat  and 
kicked. 

Of  late  years  the  country  has  felt  more  and  more 
the  competition  of  other  nations.  The  colour  industry 
has  forsaken  our  shores,  the  finest  electrical  machinery 
is  made  abroad,  we  go  to  America  for  labour-saving 
appliances  Thinking  men  have  cast  about  and  tried 
to  find  a  reason  why  other  nations  should  take  our 
markets ;  but  when  it  was  first  suggested  that  our 
deficiency  in  scientific  and  technical  education  was  at 
the  root  of  the  matter,  those  who  dared  to  make  the 
suggestion  were,  if  not  mocked  at,  at  any  rate  treated 
with  scant  courtesy. 

Nows  however,  it  Is  generally  admitted  that,  unless 
we  improve  our  educational  methods,  we  shall  fall 
behind  in  the  modern  race  for  advancement  to  such 
an  extent  that  it  will  require  almost  a  miracle  for  us 
to  be  able  to  pull  up  again. 

Our  secondary  education  is  not  what  it  should  be, 
but  it  is  gradually  improving.  Technical  education, 
generally  speaking,  has  been  tinkered  at.  The  poly- 
technics are  doing  good  work,  but  they  are  largely 
engaged  in  turning  out  better  workmen  and  foremen 
workmen,  or  taking  the  place  of  the  old  apprentice- 
ship system.  Lord  Rosebery  now  comes  forward, 
and,  through  the  generosity  of  Messrs.  Wernher,  Beit, 
and  Co.  (who  offer  100,000/.)  and  other  large  business 
houses,  is  able  to  offer  to  London  the  means  for  pro- 
viding higher  technical  education.  Briefly  stated, 
the  idea  put  forward  is  to  supply  London  with  a 
technical  college  after  the  lines  of  the  world-re- 
nowned polytechnic  at  Charlottenburg,  which  repre- 
sents the  acme  of  technical  education.  It  is  not  for 
teaching  the  elements  of  this  or  that  science ;  but 
when  the  foundation  of  a  thorough  education  has  been 
laid,  students  can  go  there  for  the  building  up  of  the 
superstructure.  It  is  not  an  easy  matter  for  a  student 
to  gain  entrance  into  the  Charlottenburg  Institute.  A 
very  thorough  examination  must  first  be  passed,  in 
order  to  show  that  he  is  capable  to  take  advantage  of 
the  instruction  offered. 

The  Charlottenburg  Institute  cost  more  than 
500,000/.  to  build  and  equip,  and  entails  an  annual 
outlay  of  55,000/.  The  offer  made  by  Lord  Rosebery 
to  the  County  Council  is  one  of  300,000/.  to  build  the 
institute,  and  he  has  reason  to  think  that  the  Com- 
missioners of  thS  185 1  Exhibition  will  grant  the  site 
(some  four  acres  of  ground).  The  County  Council 
is  asked  to  contribute  20,000/.  a  year  for  the  main- 
tenance of  the  institute.  This  sum  may  be  sufficient 
at  the  commencement,  but  will  probably  be  in- 
adequate as  the  place  becomes  known  and  its  value 
appreciated. 

Is  it  right  that  the  County  Council  should  be  asked 
to  find  the  money?  The  institute  is  meant  to 
be  imperial.  Londoners  may  and  will  attend  it; 
but  it  is  hoped  by  the  donors  of  the  funds  that 
students  from  all  parts  of  the  British  Empire  will 
flock  there,  and  thus  make  London,  "  at  any  rate,  so 
far  as  advanced  scientific  technology  is  concerned,  the 


204 


NATURE 


[July  2,  1903 


educational  centre  of  the  Empire."  Lord  Rosebery 
considers  it  "  little  short  of  a  scandal  that  our  own 
able  and  ambitious  young  men,  eager  to  equip  them- 
selves with  the  most  perfect  technical  training,  should 
be  compelled  to  resort  to  the  universities  of  Germany 
or  the  United  States."  Why,  then,  should  London, 
which  is  already  overtaxed,  and  has  much  more  yet 
to  contribute  to  primary  and  secondary  education,  be 
called  upon  to  pay  for  the  upkeep  of  this  great 
Imperial  undertaking?  Are  our  legislators  so  dead 
to  the  interests  of  the  nation  that  they  will  refuse — 
if  asked — to  support  such  a  scheme?  or  to  find  the 
much  larger  sum  which  will  be  required  for  the 
development  of  London  University. 

Lord  Rosebery  has  agreed  to  act  as  the  first  chair- 
man of  the  trustees.  Presumably  they  will  appoint  a 
committee  to  advise  and  help  them  in  drawing  up  and 
settling  the  scheme.  It  is  to  be  hoped  that  they  will 
use  every  endeavour  to  choose  the  right  men,  men 
who  are  thoroughly  conversant  with  the  needs  of  the 
nation,  and  who  understand  what  technical  educa- 
tion is. 

The  institute,  if  properly  organised  and  equipped, 
will  be  a  national  gain,  a  national  asset;  if  run  on 
wrong  lines  a  national  loss.  But  with  the  magnifi- 
cent institutes  in  Germany  to  adapt  from,  there  is 
really  no  reason  why  it  should  not  be  a  grand  success. 
One  thing,  however,  should  not  be  forgotten,  a 
splendid  equipment  without  an  equally  good  curri- 
culum and  organisation  is  almost  valueless.  It  must 
also  be  remembered  that  the  scheme  does  not  touch 
the  question  of  the  provision  for  development  required 
by  the  University  of  London. 

The  scheme  outlined  in  Lord  Rosebery 's  letter  may, 
we  hope,  be  taken  as  a  sign  that  our  great  manu- 
facturers are  becoming  aware  of  the  national  advan- 
tages to  be  derived  from  an  alliance  between  science 
and  industry.  The  meeting  held  at  the  Mansion 
House  on  Monday  to  inaugurate  a  memorial  to  thq 
late  Sir  Henry  Bessemer  gave  additional  reason  for 
the  belief  that  an  awakening  is  taking  place.  It  was 
decided  that  a  memorial  should  be  established  which 
should  not  only  commemorate  Bessemer's  work,  but 
also  provide  a  means  of  carrying  it  on  to  further 
achievements.  The  proposals  of  the  memorial  com- 
mittee, which  were  read  at  the  meeting  on  Monday, 
include  the  provision  of  well-equipped  mining  and 
metallurgical  laboratories,  and  scholarships  for  post- 
graduate study  in  London.  In  the  words  of  the  com- 
mittee :— 

The  establishment  of  completely  equipped  metallurgical 
teaching  and  research  works  in  London  will  form  the  first 
object  of  the  memorial,  for  which  the  practical  cooperation 
and  financial  aid  of  the  industrial  world  is  asked.  The 
primary  aim  will  be  the  thorough  technical  instruction  of 
mining  and  metallurgical  students.  Metallurgical  tests 
and  research  of  all  kinds,  for  which  facilities  are  not  avail- 
able in  Birmingham  or  Sheffield,  will  be  carried  out  at 
these  works,  on  a  practical  scale,  by  engineers  and  others. 
In  this  way  advanced  students  will  be  afforded  opportunities 
for  the  acquirement  of  practical  knowledge  and  for  original 
research  which  it  would  be  difficult  to  obtain  in  any  other 
way.  The  second  object  of  the  memorial  will  be  a  system 
of  grants,  in  the  form  of  scholarships,  for  post-graduate 
courses  in  specialised  practical  work  in  London  and  the 
great  metallurgical  centres. 

In  proposing  the  adoption  of  this  form  of  memorial, 
Mr.  Haldane  said  the  work  which  was  to  be  done  in 
teaching  by  the  Bessemer  Foundation  should  form  a 
part — an  integral  part — of  the  larger  scheme  for 
raising  the  nation's  efficiency.  He  had  reason  to 
know  that  the  King  was  fully  cognisant  of  the  details 
of  the  great  scheme  which  was  laid  before  the  public 
in  Lord  Rosebery's  letter,  and  that  His  Majesty  had 
also    been    informed    cf    the    proposal    to    launch    the 

NO.   1757,  VOL.  68] 


Bessemer   memorial    scheme   in    connection   with    and 
as  an  integral  part  of  it. 

The  committee's  proposals  were  adopted,  and  there 
is  little  doubt  that  the  support  which  will  be  given  to 
them  will  enable  provision  to  be  made  for  study  and 
research  in  mining  and  metallurgy  on  a  scale  appro- 
priate to  Bessemer's  great  name,  and  to  our  responsi- 
bilities as  a  State.  To  maintain  a  leading  position 
among  the  nations  of  the  world,  industrial  methods 
must  be  developed  in  directions  indicated  by  scientific 
research,  and  the  recognition  of  this  fact  in  the 
scheme  for  the  proposed  Charlottenburg  Institute  for 
London,  and  in  that  of  the  Bessemer  Memorial  Com- 
mittee, will  give  satisfaction  to  all  who  are  familiar 
with  the  developments  due  to  the  application  of  science 
to  industry. 


THE  BRITISH  ACADEMY. 
'T^  HE  first  anniversary  meeting  of  the  British 
A  Academy  was  held  last  week.  We  have  re- 
ceived no  report,  but  we  learn  from  the  Times  that 
the  objects  of  the  Academy,  and  the  studies  to  be 
fostered  by  -it,  were  described  in  the  presidential 
address.  In  the  course  of  this  address.  Lord  Reay 
remarked  :• — ■ 

The  Academy  might  be  regarded  as  embodying  the  recog- 
nition on  the  part  of  England  that  she,  too,  at  last  recog- 
nised that  history,  philosophy,  philology,  and  kindred  studies 
call  for  the  exercise  of  scientific  acumen,  and  must  take 
their  place  by  the  side  of  the  sister  sciences,  the  priestesses 
of  nature's  mysteries. 

We  are  all  anxious  to  extend  the  boundaries  of 
knowledge  by  scientific  study,  and  Lord  Reay  appears 
to  have  overlooked  the  fact  that  the  Royal  Society 
was  founded  for  the  purpose  of  promoting  the  pro- 
gress of  the  subjects  he  mentions,  among  others.  The 
first  charter  granted  to  the  Royal  Society  in  1662  con- 
tains the  following  words  : — 

We  have  long  and  fully  resolved  with  Ourself  to  extend 
not  only  the  boundaries  of  the  Empire,  but  also  the  very 
arts  and  sciences.  Therefore  we  look  with  favour  upon 
all  forms  of  learning,  but  with  particular  Grace  we  en- 
courage philosophical  studies,  especially  those  which  by 
actual  experiments  attempt  either  to  shape  out  a  new  philo- 
sophy or  to  perfect  the  old. 

The  recognition  of  the  value  of  the  application  of 
scientific  principles  to  all  inquiries  is  therefore  as  old 
as  Charles  II.,  and  has  not  recently  been  discovered 
as  Lord  Reay  seems  to  suggest. 

Lord  Reay  remarked  that  it  would  be  one  of  the 
first  important  duties  of  the  Academy  with  the  Royal 
Society  to  prepare  a  fitting  welcome  for  the  Inter- 
national Association  of  Academies  when  it  meets  in 
London  next  year  at  Whitsuntide,  and  to  make  that 
meeting  a  success.  The  following  points  from  the 
address  show  some  of  the  directions  in  which  the 
Academy  Is  to  work  : — 

In  history  we  have  to  deal  with  the  mutual  interaction 
of  different  civilisations,  and  to  compare  these  civilisa- 
tions. The  task  of  the  historian  is  very  similar  to  that 
of  the  explorer  of  nature's  laws.  Our  colleague,  Prof. 
Bury,  in  his  interesting  inaugural  lecture,  has  eloquently 
emphasised  the  application  of  strict  scientific  methods  to 
the  study  of  history,  as  the  study  of  "  all  the  manifestations 
of  human  activity."  In  the  department  of  archjeological 
exploration  an  understanding  might  be  obtained  through 
the  International  Association  with  regard  to  the  spheres  of 
scientific  exploration  which  should  be  allotted  to  various 
nations,  so  as  to  arrive  at  a  systematic  distribution  of 
archseological  research  in  the  vast  domain  open  to  the  ex- 
plorers of  different  nationalities.     Many  questions  belonging 


July  2,  1903] 


NA  TURE 


205 


to  economic  science  have  to  be  studied.  The  scientific  treat- 
ment of  law  has  been  neglected  in  England,  and  it  will  be 
our  privilege  to  give  encouragement  to  those  who  are 
striving  to  place  the  scientific  study  of  law  on  a  footing 
worthy  of  the  great  traditions  of  English  jurisprudence. 
U'e  shall  approach  the  problems  connected  with  education 
in  a  philosophical  and  historical  spirit.  Our  charter  imposes 
on  us  the  duty  of  dealing  with  questions  which  embrace  the 
whole  range  of  the  moral  sciences.  We  have  to  deal  with 
the  problems  of  the  mind.  The  complex  agencies  which 
constitute  the  motives  of  our  actions  are  subjects  of  our 
investigation.  The  forces  which  influence  individual 
energy  are  open  to  our  analysis.  To  discover  the  principles 
which  regulate  the  progress  of  human  society,  which 
eliminate  the  causes  of  friction,  which  facilitate  the  attain- 
ment of  high  ideals,  all  these  inquiries  come  legitimately 
within  the  sphere  of  our  operations.  The  unbiased  attitude 
of  the  mind  towards  ethical  and  metaphysical  problems  is 
one  of  the  conditions  of  our  existence  as  a  scientific  body. 
The  tendency  of  all  scientific  study  is  to  become  international 
and  cosmopolitan.  We  may  compare  our  Academy  with  a 
national  clearing-house,  and  the  International  Association 
of  Academies  to  an  international  clearing-house  of  ideas  on 
these  subjects. 


NOTES. 
The  names  of  a  few  men  distinguished  by  their  con- 
tributions to  scientific  knowledge  are  included  in  the  list 
of  birthday  honours.  Dr.  W.  D.  Niven,  F.R.S.,  has  been 
promoted  to  the  rank  of  Knight  Commander  of  the  Order 
of  the  Bath  (K.C.B.).  Dr.  David  Morris,  F.R.S.,  and  Dr. 
Patrick  Manson,  F.R.S.,  have  been  promoted  to  the  rank 
of  Knight  Commanders  of  the  Order  of  Saint  Michael  and 
Saint  George  (K.C.M.G.).  The  honour  of  knighthood  has 
been  conferred  upon  Dr.  P.  H.  Watson.  Mr.  F.  W.  Rudler 
has  been  appointed  a  Companion  of  the  Imperial  Service 
Order. 

TdE  Colombo  correspondent  of  the  Times  reports  that 
on  a  motion  introduced  in  the  Legislative  Council  on  June 
24,  the  Government  of  Ceylon  agreed  to  invite  the  British 
Association  to  Colombo  in  1907  or  1908. 

Dr.  C.  J.  Martin,  F.R.S.,  professor  of  physiology  in 
the  University  of  Melbourne,  has  been  appointed  director 
of  the  Jenner  Institute  of  Preventive  Medicine. 

In  reply  to  a  question  asked  in  the  House  of  Commons 
on  Tuesday,  it  was  announced  that,  in  the  first  instance, 
the  following  six  lightships  are  to  be  connected  with  shore 
stations  by  wireless  telegraphy  : — the  East  Goodwin,  the 
South  Goodwin,  the  Gull,  the  Tongue,  the  Sunk,  and  the 
Cross-Sand. 

Many  friends  of  the  late  Sir  William  Roberts-Austen  will 
be  glad  to  know  that  it  is  proposed  to  erect  a  memorial 
in  his  honour  in  the  Church  of  St.  Martins,  Blackheath, 
Wonersh,  where  he  resided  for  many  years.  The  erection 
of  the  church  was  mainly  due  to  his  generous  and  devoted 
efforts,  and  he  often  said  that  the  first  things  done  to 
complete  the  building  should  be  to  line  the  east  wall  and 
the  chancel  arch  with  marble  or  alabaster.  It  is  proposed 
that  the  memorial  should  include  the  carrying  out  of  this 
work,  and  the  erection  of  a  memorial  tablet  or  inscrip- 
tion in  the  church.  Contributions  for  this  purpose  should 
be  sent  to  Mr.  H.  W.  Prescott,  Brantyngeshay,  Chilworth, 
Guildford. 

M.  Zybikoff,  a  Buddhistic  Buriat  of  the  Baikal  region 
and  a  graduate  of  the  University  of  St.  Petersburg,  has 
recently  returned  to  Russia  after  a  year's  residence  in  the 
city  of  Lhassa.     M.  Zybikoff  was  able  to  travel  in  Tibet  as  a 

NO.    1757,  VOL.  68] 


Lama,  and  approached  Central  Tibet  by  way  of  the  Boumza 
Mountain,  where  Przewalsky  was  turned  back  in  1879.  He 
describes  the  city  as  one  of  not  more  than  ten  thousand 
inhabitants ;  the  Uitchu  River  passes  to  the  south,  canals 
and  dykes  protecting  the  city  itself  from  floods.  The  resi- 
dence of  the  Dalai  Lama  is  on  Mount  Buddha  La,  a  mile 
from  Lhassa.  Near  it  is  the  ancient  castle  of  Hodson 
Buddha  La,  a  structure  1400  feet  long  and  nine  storeys 
high,  containing  the  treasury,  the  mint,  quarters  for  officials 
and  monks,  and  a  prison.  The  native  traders  are  all 
women. 

Mrs.  Garrett  Anderson,  M.D.,  in  a  letter  to  the  Times, 
directs  attention  to  the  work  of  the  Imperial  Vaccination 
League,  which  has  now  been  in  existence  a  year.  The 
League,  which  has  on  several  occasions  been  referred  to  in 
these  columns,  was  formed  to  study  the  administration  and 
working  of  the  "  Vaccination  Act,"  1898,  and  to  promote 
vaccination,  and  especially  revaccination,  among  the  public. 
It  is  now  desired  to  extend  its  sphere  of  work  by  assisting 
candidates  at  Parliamentary  elections  to  meet  the  pressure 
brought  to  bear  upon  them  by  the  opponents  of  vaccination. 
For  this  purpose  Mrs.  Anderson  appeals  for  subscriptions, 
and  desires  to  find  100  friends  who  will  each  contribute  five 
guineas  a  year  for  three  years.  The  League  has  done  good 
work  in  the  past,  and  it  is  to  be  hoped  that  this  useful  ex- 
tension will  receive  support. 

Attention  was  directed  in  the  House  of  Commons  last 
week  to  the  administration  of  the  "  Cruelty  to  Animals 
('Vivisection  ')  Act,"  1876.  The  debate  was  more  moderate 
in  tone  than  some  previous  ones  on  the  same  subject,  and 
had  for  its  main  object  the  imposition  of  more  stringent 
inspection  by  the  appointment  of  additional  inspectors.  Sir 
M.  Foster  and  Dr.  Hutchinson  strongly  deprecated  the 
attacks  on,  and  abuse  of,  the  medical  profession  with  regard 
to  this  question,  and  obtained  a  retractation  from  Mr. 
MacNeill.  The  Home  Secretary,  in  his  reply,  defended  the 
inspections  as  carried  out  by  Dr.  Thane,  and  pointed  out 
that  successive  Home  Secretaries  had  been  among  the 
severest  critics  of  vivisection,  and  that  his  own  control  was 
exercised  with  the  greatest  care  and  full  appreciation  of 
his  responsibility.  It  would  be  almost  impossible  to  im- 
prove upon  the  administration  of  the  Act,  and  he  doubted 
whether  the  ability  of  the  inspectors  was  sufficiently  recog- 
nised or  remunerated. 

Reuter  reports  that  a  violent  earthquake  occurred  at 
Erlau,  Hungary,  on  the  morning  of  June  26.  Four  shocks 
were  felt.  Several  houses  in  the  suburb  of  the  town  col- 
lapsed, and  nearly  all  the  buildings  in  the  town  were 
damaged. 

The  arrangements  for  the  International  Fire  Prevention 
Congress,  convened  by  the  British  Fire  Prevention  Com- 
mittee, have  now  been  completed.  The  congress  will  be 
conducted  in  general  and  sectional  meetings  ;  there  will  be 
six  sections,  each  of  which  will  have  its  own  honorary 
chairman  and  acting  vice-president.  The  sections  with 
their  honorary  chairmen  will  be  as  follows  : — (i)  Building 
construction  and  equipment.   Privy  Councillor  J.   Stubben  ; 

(2)  electrical  safeguards  and  fire  alarms.  Chevalier  Goldoni ; 

(3)  storage  of  oils  and  spontaneous  combustion,  M.  Louis 
Bonnier ;  (4)  fire  survey  and  fire  patrols.  Prince  Alexander 
Lyoff ;  (5)  fire  losses  and  fire  insurance,  Mr.  C.  A.  Hexamer ; 
(6)  fire  tests  and  standardisation,  M.  Alcide  Chaussc.  All 
meetings,  except  the  opening  meeting,  will  be  held  at 
the  Caxton  Hall,  Westminster,  and  the  whole  of  the  execu- 
tive arrangements  will  be  in  the  hands  of  Mr.   Edwin  O. 


206 


NA  TURE 


[July  2,  1903 


Sachs,  as  congress  chairman,  with  Mr.  Ellis  Marsland  as 
honorary  general  secretary.  The  general  opening  meeting 
will  be'  at  the  Empress  Theatre,  Earl's  Court,  lent 
by  the  executive  of  the  International  Fire  Exhibition.  The 
subject-matter  is  limited  strictly  to  fire  preventive  questions, 
and  all  internal  fire  brigade  questions  will  be  excluded,  as 
these  will  be  dealt  with  at  separate  meetings. 

A  Paris  correspondent  writes  : — M.  Santos  Dumont's 
experiments  in  aerial  navigation  in  Paris  during  the  past 
fifteen  days  have  attracted  public  attention.  M.  Santos 
Dumont  was  seen  flying  over  the  Longchamps  Hippodrome 
when  a  race  was  actually  going  on  ;  at  another  time  he 
went  to  his  private  residence  in  the  Champs  Elys^es,  left 
his  balloon  to  the  care  of  his  assistants,  who  had  followed 
his  aerial  track  in  an  automobile,  took  his  customary  break- 
fast, and  returned  to  the  balloon  shed  near  Puteaux  Gate, 
in  the  Bois  de  Boulogne.  On  another  occasion  he  sailed 
from  the  Puteaux  Gate  to  Bagatelle,  where  he  landed  during 
a  parade.  But  the  area  of  his  promenades  is  very  limited, 
and  sometimes  the  balloon  has  to  be  carried  by  hand  for  a 
part  of  the  way  ;  so  it  is  not  possible  to  say  if  M.  Santos- 
Duniont  has  really  improved  his  speed  and  stability. 

The  fifty-sixth  annual  meeting  of  the  Palajontographical 
Society  was  held  at  the  Geological  Society's  apartments, 
Burlington  House,  on  June  27.  The  report  of  the  council 
referred  to  the  activity  of  the  contributors  to  the  Society's 
monographs,  which  extended  over  a  wider  field  than  usual. 
Volumes  on  Pleistocene  Mammalia,  Carboniferous  and 
Cretaceous  fishes,  Carboniferous  and  Cretaceous  Mollusca, 
Trilobites,  Graptolites,  and  Devonian  corals  were  in  course 
of  publication.  The  expenditure  for  the  year  exceeded  the 
income,  which  was  nearly  \ool.  less  than  that  of  the  pre- 
ceding year.  The  withdrawal  of  several  small  libraries 
was  referred  to,  and  an  appeal  for  new  personal  subscribers 
was  made.  The  officers  were  re-elected.  Dr.  Henry  Wood- 
ward as  president,  Mr.  Etheridge  as  treasurer,  and  Dr. 
Smith  Woodward  as  secretary. 

Twelve  stations  took  part  in  the  international  scientific 
balloon  ascents  on  the  morning  of  May  7,  including  Zurich, 
for  the  first  time,  and  Bath.  The  records  for  the  latter 
station  had  not  been  found  at  the  time  of  the  publication 
of  the  preliminary  results.  The  following  are  the  most  note- 
worthy of  the  unmanned  ascents  : — Strassburg,  13,400 
metres;  at  9500  metres  the  temperature  was  —  58°-3  C, 
above  this  height  an  inversion  of  temperature  occurred. 
The  reading  at  starting  was  io°-5.  At  Berlin  the  balloon 
rose  to  13,360  metres,  temperature  at  7560  metres  was 
-43°,  at  starting  ii^.g.  At  Vienna  a  temperature  of 
-54°-4  was  recorded  at  9020  metres,  at  starting  i4°.8.  At 
the  first  two  places  the  ascents  were  made  about  4h.  a.m., 
at  Vienna  about  7h.  a.m.  Relatively  high  pressure  pre- 
vailed over  south-east  Europe,  and  a  large  area  of  low 
pressure  to  the  northward,  with  its  centre  (29-5  inches)  over 
the  North  Sea. 

The  Meteorological  Office  pilot  chart  for  July  contains, 
in  addition  to  the  usual  information,  a  most  useful  series 
of  twelve  maps  exhibiting  the  direction  of  flow  of  the  tidal 
streams  round  the  British  Isles  at  each  hour  from  high 
water  at  Dover.  They  are  reduced  from  the  more  detailed 
large  Admiralty  charts  in  three  volumes  of  36  sheets. 
To  seamen  the  handy  form  in  which  the  streams  are  now 
shown  on  the  pilot  chart  will  be  invaluable,  as  the  whole 
circulation  is  seen  at  a  glance.  Early  in  April  last  it  is 
shown,  by  means  of  a  small  map,  that  there  was  a  remark- 
able displacement  of  the  Atlantic  anticyclone,  which  was 
transferred  northward  beyond  the  50th  parallel.  As  a  re- 
sult,   the   Transatlantic   liners,    to   and   fro   on    the   northern 


routes,  experienced  easterly  winds  right  across  the  ocean, 
instead  of  the  usual  westerly  and  south-westerly  winds. 
I'here  were  numerous  reports  of  ice  during  May  and  the 
early  part  of  June. 

The  German  Government  has  erected  a  new  lighthouse 
on  the  island  of  Heligoland,  which  will  supplant  the  old 
petroleum  lamp  that  has  long  directed  the  commerce  at 
the  mouth  of  the  Elbe.  It  is  claimed  for  this  light  that 
it  is  one  of  the  most  powerful  in  operation.  The  dis- 
tinguishing feature  is  the  return  that  has  been  made  to 
the  old  form  of  parabolic  reflector,  with  a  powerful 
illuminant  in  the  focus,  in  place  of  the  Fresnel  lenses  and 
prisms.  The  mirror  in  this  case  is  of  glass,  75cm.  in 
diameter,  and  silvered  at  the  back.  An  arc  light  with  a 
current  of  34  amperes  is  the  illuminant.  The  positive  pole 
of  the  carbon  is  so  near  the  focus  that  it  is  estimated  that 
the  beam  is  not  more  than  two  degrees  in  diameter,  and 
its  candle-power  is  quoted  as  thirty  millions.  No  protection 
against  weather  is  provided  in  front  of  the  light,  and  it 
is  asserted  that  none  is  needed.  Three  similar  mirrors 
and  lamps  are  mounted  in  one  plane  round  an  axis,  and 
the  whole  revolves  four  times  in  a  minute,  so  that  a  flash 
is  given  every  five  seconds.  A  fourth  mirror  and  lamp  is 
provided  in  case  of  necessity,  which  will  turn  three  times 
as  rapidly,  but  it  is  not  proposed  to  use  this  except  in  case 
of  emergency.  The  duration  of  the  flash  is  only  one-tenth 
of  a  second.  Herein  the  German  firm  of  Schuckert  and 
Co.,  the  manufacturers,  have  followed  the  lead  of  the 
French  authorities.  It  is,  however,  a  question  whether 
these  brief  durations  have  not  been  carried  to  an  extreme. 
Undoubtedly  one-tenth  of  a  second  is  sufficient  to  make 
the  maximum  impression  on  the  eye,  when  the  light  is 
brilliant.  But  with  a  hazy  atmosphere,  and  the  light  much 
diminished,  it  is  doubtful  whether  a  longer  duration  should 
not  be  allowed.  The  experiment  will  be  watched  with 
great  interest,  both  on  account  of  the  bold  deviation  from 
the  ordinary,  plan  which  has  been  so  long  followed,  and 
also  on  the  ground  of  economy,  which  is  claimed  for  the 
new  method.  It  is  stated  that  on  the  first  night  of  trial 
the  light  was  seen  at  the  pier  of  Biisum,  a  distance  of  64 
kilometres,  or  40  miles. 

"  The  Cure  of  Consumption,"  a  popular  account  of  the 
open-air  treatment  of  pulmonary  tuberculosis,  and  a  de- 
scription of  "  An  Experiment  in  Nature-study,"  carried  out 
among  village  lads,  are  two  articles  of  scientific  interest 
that  appear  in  the  current  issue  of  the  Fall  Mall  Magazine. 

Several  cases  of  fatal  illness  have  occurred  in  connection 
with  the  Mond  process  for  the  extraction  of  nickel  from  its 
ores,  which  is  based  upon  the  conversion  of  the  metal  into 
gaseous  nickel  carbonyl.  It  is  net  yet  known  whrthrr  th° 
nickel  carbonyl  is  itself  poisonous,  or  whether  some  other 
deleterious  gas  or  substance  is  generated  in  the  process, 
but  the  subject  is  being  investigated  by  several  experts. 

The  statistics  of  the  anti-rabic  inoculations  carried  out 
at  the  Pasteur  Institute,  Paris,  during  1902  have  just  been 
published.  The  number  of  persons  treated  was  1106,  of 
whom  three  died,  but  one  of  these  had  not  completed  the 
treatment,  leaving  1105  cases  with  two  deaths,  a  mortality 
rate  of  only  018  per  cent.  This  is  the  lowest  mortality 
rate  recorded  since  the  commencement  of  the  treatment  in 


The  new  method  for  sewage  disposal  by  bacterial  treat- 
ment in  a  septic  tank  is  not  altogether  free  from  danger. 
In  this  process  the  sewage  is  stored  in  closed  tanks  for  a 
variable  period,  during  which  time  it  is  acted  upon  and 
dissolved  by  the  agency  of  the  bacteria  present.      Probably 


NO.    1757,  VOL.   C»8J 


July  2,  1903] 


NA  TURE 


207 


narsh  gas  and  other  gases  are  generated  which  become 
\plosive  when  mixed  with  oxygen  and  fired.  During  the 
ist  six  months  three  explosions  of  septic  tanks  have 
ccurred,    viz.    at    Exeter,    Walton-on-Naze,    and    Shering- 

ham  ;  in  the  last  named  three  persons  were  killed  and  several 

injured. 

A  Parliamentary  paper  has  been  issued  by  the  Colonial 
Office  containing  official  correspondence  and  circular^  re- 
lating to  the  investigation  of  malaria  and  other  tropical 
diseases,  and  the  establishment  of  schools  of  tropical 
medicine.  It  contains  a  circular  letter  to  the  Governors  of 
all  colonies  upon  the  investigation  of  tropical  diseases  and 
the  establishment  of  the  London  School  of  Tropical  Medi- 
ae, a  summary  of  researches  upon  malaria  by  Drs. 
-tephens  and  Christophers,  a  despatch  from  Sir  William 
MacGregor  relating  to  the  prevalence  and  prevention  of 
malaria  at  Ismailia,  and  a  despatch  from  Sir  F.  A.  Swetten- 
ham  upon  the  work  done  at  the  Institute  for  Medical  Re- 
arch,  Federated  Malay  States.  The  increasing  import- 
nce  of  the  study  of  tropical  medicine  has  been  recognised 
iiy  the  Special  Board  of  Medicine  of  Cambridge  University, 
which  has  proposed  to  institute  a  special  examination  and 
tu  grant  a  diploma  in  tropical  hygiene  and  medicine. 

A  PAPER  read  before  the  Royal  Dublin  Society  by  Dr. 
11.  H.  Dixon  offers  a  reply  to  some  criticisms  passed  on 
th3  cohesion  theory  of  the  ascent  of  sap  which  was  pro- 
posed by  the  author  and  Dr.  Joly.  There  seems  to  be  a 
difficulty  in  the  minds  of  some  botanists  in  accepting  this 
hypothesis  if  the  column  of  water  contains  air-bubbles.  As 
Dr.  Dixon  points  out,  this  merely  puts  out  of  gear  the 
particular  cell  in  which  the  bubble  appears.  Another 
opinion  which  the  author  combats  is  that  glass  tubes  con- 
taining plaster  of  Paris  through  which  water  passes  may 
bo  taken  as  the  equivalent  of  the  water  columns  in  trees. 
Experiments  show  that  plaster  continues  for  a  long  time 
to  absorb  water,  and  further,  the  amount  varies  with  the 
changes  of  temperature. 

The  appearance  of  a  new  scientific  publication,  Records 
of  the  Albany  Museum,  emanating  from  Grahamstown  in 
South  Africa  is  a  matter  for  congratulation,  whether  it  is 
offered  to  the  director,  Dr.  Schonland,  or  in  so  far  as  it 
furnishes  an  indication  of  the  sign  of  the  times.  Dr.  R. 
Broom  contributes  three  palaeontological  articles,  in  the 
first  of  which  he  describes  the  skull  of  a  small  lizard  taken 
ftom  the  Triassic  beds  in  South  Africa.  Dr.  Schonland  is 
responsible  for  the  remainder  of  this,  the  first  part.  A 
critical  account  of  a  number  of  species  of  South  African 
aloes  adds  considerably  to  the  information  collected  by  Mr. 
J.  G.  Baker  in  his  monograph  in  the  "  Flora  Capensis. "  In 
addition  to  the  botanical  papers,  Dr.  Schonland  describes 
some  Bushman  and  Hottentot  pottery  which  is  stored  in 
the  museum.  A  pot  about  14^  inches  high,  consisting  of 
a  wide  neck  slightly  ornamented  by  raised  lines  and  a  re- 
markably fine  curved  base,  approximately  oval,  denotes 
workmanship  of  a  higher  order  than  that  displayed  by  the 
•         '-ivilised  potter. 

VvE  have  received  the  second  part  of  the  Sitzungsberichte 

and  Abhandlungen  of  the  Dresden  "  Isis  "  for   1902.     The 

I        former    contains    an    obituary    notice    of    the    late    Ilofrath 

Dr.    H.    Nitsche,    professor    of    zoology    at    the    Academy 

I    Tharandt.       Among    the    contents   of    the    latter    is    an 

rticle,    by    Prof.     O.     Schneider,    on    the    prevalence    of 

iiiplanism  among  the  beetles  of  Corsica. 

An  interesting  case  of  "  commensalism  "  is  recorded   by 
Dr.  R.  Horst  in  the  May  issue  of  the  Leyden  Museum  Notes 
(vol.  xxiii.  part  ii.)i     In  Sabang  Bay,  Poeloe  Weh,  several 
NO.    1757,   VOL.   68] 


small  fishes  (Atnphiprion  intermedius)  were  observed  to  issue 
from  the  cavity  of  a  large  anemone  of  the  genus  Discosoma. 
Several  previous  instances  of  a  similar  association  are  on 
record,  notably  in  Australian  waters,  where  other  species 
of  Amphiprion  have  been  observed  frequenting  anemones  of 
the  genus  above  mentioned. 

Our  knowledge  of  the  fishes  of  Africa  is  progressing  by 
rapid  strides,  one  of  the  latest  contributions  to  the  subject 
being  a  paper  on  a  collection  from  Zanzibar,  by  Mr.  H.  W. 
Fowler,  published  in  the  Proceedings  of  the  Philadelphia 
Academy,  in  the  course  of  which  two  species  are  described 
as  new.  The  same  serial  also  contains  a  revision  of  the 
land  and  fresh-water  molluscs  of  Western  Arkansas  and 
the  adjacent  States,  by  Mr.  H.  A.  Pilsbry. 

We  have  received  a  copy  of  the  address  on  "  Modern 
Views  on  Matter:  the  Realisation  of  a  Dream,"  delivered 
by  Sir  William  Crookes  before  the  recent  Congress  of 
Applied  Chemistry  at  Berlin.  A  general  account  of  the 
proceedings  of  the  congress  appeared  in  Nature  of  June  i8 
(p.  156),  and  abstracts  of  some  of  the  papers  brought  before 
the  various  sections  are  given  in  the  present  number. 

The  additions  to  the  Zoological  Society's  Gardens  during 
the  past  week  include  a  Patas  Monkey  (Cercopithecus  patas) 
from  West  Africa,  presented  by  Mr.  H.  Padgett ;  two  Two- 
spotted  Paradoxures  (Nandinia  binotata)  from  West  Africa, 
presented  by  Mr.  Charles  R.  Palmer ;  a  Burrowing  Owl 
{Speotyto  cunicularia)  from  South  America,  presented  by 
Mr.  L.  M.  Seth-Smith ;  a  Diademed  Sand  Snake 
{Lytorhynchus  diadema),  five  Egyptian  Eryx  (Eryx  jaculus) 
from  Egypt,  two  Bull  Frogs  {Rana  cotesbiana)  from  North 
America,  deposited ;  six  American  Flying  Squirrels 
(Sciuroptertis  volucella)  from  North  America,  purchased; 
an  Ogilby's  Rat  Kangaroo  {Bettongia  penicillata)  born  in 
the  Gardens. 


OUR  ASTRONOMICAL   COLUMN. 

Reported  Change  on  Saturn. — The  following  telegram, 
announcing  the  discovery  of  a  new  phenomenon  on  Saturn 
by  Prof.  Barnard,  has  been  received  from  the  Kiel 
Centralstelle  : — 

"  Conspicuous  white  spot,  Saturn,  three  seconds  north, 
transit  June  23,  i5h.  47-8m.,  Williams  Bay  time. — 
Barnard." 

Search  Ephemeris  for  Faye's  Comet. — A  search 
ephemeris  for  Faye's  comet,  from  which  the  following  is 
an  extract,  is  published  in  No.  3876  of  the  Astronomische 
Nachrichten  by  Prof.  E.  Stromgren  : — 

Ephemeris  12/1.  {Berlin  M.T.). 


1903 
July     2 
»     6 
»   10 

a. 

h.    m.     s. 

•  ■  4  59  44     • 
..   5  II  28     . 
..   S  23     6     . 

..   +i°8 
..   +18 
..   +18 

418  .. 
42-6  .. 
40-2  .. 

logr 
0*2240 
0-2281      . 

log-* 

.    0-4060 
.    0-4044 

„   14 
„   18 

••  5  34  37     ■ 
..  5  46    0     . 

..   +18 
..   +18 

347    . 
26-1    .. 

0-2330      . 

.    0-4028 

,.  22 
„  26 

..  5  57  14    • 
..6    8  19     . 

..   +18 
..   +18 

14-5  •• 
o-o  .. 

0-2386      . 

.    04012 

„  30 

..  6  19  13     . 

..    -H7 

42-8  .. 

This  ephemeris  is  calculated  from  the  elements  previously 
jiublished,  in  the  Astronomische  Nachrichten,  by  the  same 
worker,  and  takes  June  364  (Berlin  M.T.),  1903,  as  the 
time  of  perihelion  passage.  The  comet  will  rise  about  two 
hours  before  sunrise  towards  the  middle  of  the  month. 

Ohservations  of  Nova  Geminorum. — Prof.  Barnard 
publishes  in  No.  5,  vol.  xvii.,  of  the  Astrophysical  Journal 
the  results  of  his  observations  of  Nova  Geminorum  ;  most 
of  these  observations  were  made  with  the  finders  of  the 
40-inch  and  12-inch  refractors  of  the  Yerkes  Observatory. 

During  the  first  set  of  observations  the  Nova  had  a 
strong    reddish    colour,    but    this    has    since    disappeared; 


208 


NA  TURE 


[July  2,  1903 


Observations  made  in  order  to  determine  whether  the  light 
of  this  Nova  exhibite<^  the  change  of  focus  observed  in  the 
light  of  Nova  Persei  gave  at  first,  negative  results,  but 
careful  observations  made  on  April  27  indicated  that  the 
light  of  the  Nova,  when  compared  with  that  of  an  ordinary 
star,  showed  a  difference  of  +008  inch  (a-oomm.)  in  focus. 

The  crimson  image  observed  on  March  30  had  disappeared 
on  April  27,  the  out-of-focus  image  of  the  Nova  then  re- 
sembling that  of  an  ordinary  star.  Cloudy  weather  at 
Yorkes  from  April  7-27  prevented  Prof.  Barnard  from  de- 
termining the  exact  date  at  which  this  change  took  place. 
The  magnitude  of  the  Nova  is  exhibiting  the  same  peri- 
odical fluctuations  as  were  observed  in  the  case  pf  Nova 
Persei. 

The  Red  Spot  on  Jupiter.— In  No.  3875  of  the  Astro- 
nomische  Nachrichten,  Mr.  Stanley  J.  Williams  describes, 
and  gives  the  detailed  results  of, "his  observations  of  the 
"  great  red  spot  "  during  the  opposition  of  1902. 

Transit  observations  of  the  middle  of  the  spot  gave  a 
rotational  period  of  yh.  55m.  39555.,  and  of  the  "  follow- 
ing "  end  of  the  spot  yh.  55m.  39-885.  ;  taking  the  weighted 
mean  of  these  observations,  Mr.  Williams  obtains,  from 
275  rotations,  gh.  55m.  39.66s.  as  the  result.  This  shows 
a  further  considerable  acceleration  of  the  rotational  period 
of  the  red  spot,  amounting  to  1-265.,  as  compared  with  the 
result  obtained  during  the  opposition  of  1901. 

The  Study  of  very  Faint  Spectra.— In  a  dissertation 
publishedjn  No.  35  of  the  Lick  Observatory  Bulletins,  Mr. 
Harold  K.  Palmer  describes  an  arrangement  whereby  the 
Crossley  reflector  has  been  adapted  to  the  study  of  very 
faint  stellar  and  nebular  spectra. 

The  work  was  first  suggested,  but  not  completed,  by 
the  late  Prof.  Keeler  for  the  purpose  of  obtaining,  amongst 
other  spectra,  the  spectrum  of  the  faint  central  star  of  the 
ring  nebuia  in  Lyra. 

A  modified  form  of  Prof.  Keeler 's  proposed  spectroscope 
has  now  been  adopted,  and  the  results  obtained  with  it  are 
very  satisfactory ;  its  essential  features  are  as  follows  :— 
A  concave  quartz  lens  intercepts  the  converging  beam  of 
light  from  the  large  mirror,  and  renders  the  rays  parallel ; 
these  parallel  rays  are  then  refracted  by  a  50°  quartz  prism 
and  are  focused  on  to  the  photographic  plate  bv  a  convex 
quartz  lens  placed  between  the  prism  and  the  plate.  The 
two  lenses  and  the  prism  each  have  an  aperture  of  25  mm. 
An  arrangement  attached  to  the  prism  cell  allows  the  prism 
to  be  moved  to  one  side,  so  that  the  spectroscope  may  be 
focused  for  the  incident  light  by  means  of  an  eye-piece 
which  carries  a  finely  divided  scale,  and  another  eye-piece, 
placed  at  the  side  of  the  movable  slipping  plate,  allows  the 
•  following  "  during  exposure  to  be  performed  in  the  usual 
manner. 

Spectrograms  of  such  faint  objects  as  the  stellar  nebula 
NGC  6807  (magnitude  13),  the  Novae  in  Perseus  (looi) 
Auriga  and  Cygnus  (1876),  and  the  Wolf-Ravet  star  No.  43 
have  been  obtamed  with  exposures  varying  from  one  to 
four  hours,  and  show  a  fair  amount  of  detail. 

Three  spectrograms  of  the  ring  nebula  were  obtained, 
two  with  thirty  minutes'  and  one  with  two  hours'  exposure' 
but  the  only  trace  of  the  central  star  is  a  faint  line  which 
appears  on  all  three  plates,  and,  in  the  longer  exposure 
shows  a  faint  dot  in  a  position  a  little  to  the  more  rel 
frangible  side  of  the  condensation  A  373  in  the  nebula  ring. 
A  detailed  description  of  each  of  the  spectra  obtained  is 
given  in  Mr.  Palmer's  paper. 


INSTITUTION  OF  NAVAL  ARCHITECTS. 
'P  HE  Institution  of  Naval  Architects  held  its  summer 
meeting  this  year  in  Ireland,  commencing  Tuesday, 
June  23,  when  the  opening  meeting  was  held  in  Queen's 
College,  Glasgow,  the  president  of  the  Institution  occupy- 
ing the  chair. 

After  the  usual  formal  proceedings,  in  which  the  members 
were  welcomed  to  the  city  by  Sir  Daniel  Dixon,  the  Lord 
Mayor  of  Belfast,  and  the  Rev.  Dr.  Hamilton,  president 
of  Queen's  College,  three  papers  were  read.  The  first  was 
by  Mr.  C.  F.  L.  Giles,  the  engineer  to  the  Belfast  Harbour 
Commissioners,  and  gave  a  brief  description  of  the  harbour 
and  its  development.  Mr.  E.  H.  Tennyson  D'Eyncourt 
followed  with  a  paper  "  On  Fast  Coaling  Ships  for  our 
NO.    1757,  VOL.  68] 


Navy."  The  author  proposed  that  certain  vessels  should 
be  built  specially  to  wait  on  the  fleet  and  supply  it  with 
coal  in  time  of  war,  and  they  should  be  fitted  with  appli- 
ances for  transferring  the  fuel  to  the  warships  at  sea. 
These  vessels  should  be  able  to  steam  17  knots  easily  and 
continuously,  and  18  knots  in  case  of  emergency.  They 
would  have  to  be  of  considerable  size,  therefore,  and  would 
be  loaded  with  10,000  tons  of  coal,  besides  that  needed  for 
their  own  use.  The  author  estimated  that  the  requirements 
coulcf  be  met  on  a  length  of  550  feet,  a  beam  of  66  feet,  and 
a  draught  of  27  feet  with  10,000  tons  of  coal  on  board  ;  that 
would  enable  the  vessels  to  get  through  the  Suez  Canal. 
The  horse-power  necessary  for  17  knots  would  be  about 
12,000.  With  quadruple  engines  the  consumption  of  coal 
would  be  i^lb.  per  I.H.P.  per  hour,  so  that  at  full  speed 
the  collier  could  go  1000  miles  from  the  coaling  station 
and  back  on  800  tons  of  coal,  carrying  10,000  tons  of  coal 
ior  the  use  of  the  fleet.  That  would  be  sufficient  to  coal 
completely  five  of  our  largest  battleships  or  cruisers,  or,  if 
needed,  ten  such  battleships  could  have  their  bunkers  half 
full. 

Comparing  this  with  the  present  conditions,  it  would 
take  one  of  our  large  cruisers  or  ironclads  four  or  five  days 
to  make  the  2000  miles,  and  she  would  lose  at  least  1000 
tons  of  coal,  and  have  to  be  steaming  hard  all  the  time. 
The  vessel  would  arrive  with  dirty  boilers,  a  tired  comple- 
ment of  stokers,  and  the  greater  part  of  her  coal  already 
burnt.  In  ordinary  peace  time  the  colliers  could  be  used 
for  taking  coal  to  the  coaling  stations.  The  cost  of  these 
vessels,  fully  equipped,  with  Temperley  transporters  and 
all  the  necessaries  for  quick  coaling,  would  be  about 
270,000^.  each,  so  that  four  or  five  could  be  built  for  the 
cost  of  one  first-class  armour-clad  or  cruiser,  whilst  four 
could  be  kept  in  commission  for  about  the  cost  of  keeping 
up  an  armour-clad.  In  time  of  war,  the  author  claimed, 
each  collier  would  be  equal'  to  several  additional  warships, 
as  it  would  enable  so  many  of  the  latter  to  remain  at  sea, 
saving  them  the  time  of  going  to  and  fro  for  coal,  and 
giving  them  an  opportunity  to  clean  their  boilers  and  do 
minor  repairs  to  the  engines,  besides  resting  the  whole 
crew,  officers  and  men.  In  the  discussion  which  followed 
the  reading  of  this  paper,  it  was  pointed  out  that  it  was 
more  reasonable  to  transform  a  mercantile  vessel  into  a 
collier  in  time  of  war  than  to  build  such  vessels  purposelv 
for  an  occasion  that  might  never  arise. 

Mr.  James  Hamilton,  of  Glasgow,  next  read  a  paper  in 
which  he  described  an  ingenious  means  which  he  had  de- 
vised for  converting  a  moderate  speed  steamer  into  one  of 
very  high  speed  for  war-like  purposes.  He  pointed  out 
that  the  extreme  speed  now  demanded  by  the  Admiralty 
for  the  new  mercantile  cruisers  to  which  it  was  proposed 
to  give  subsidies  was  higher  than  could  be  used,  with  profit 
to  the  owners,  during  peace  time  for  ordinary  Transatlantic 
service.  The  Admiralty  asked  25  knots ;  Mr.  Hamflton 
put  the  limit  for  mercantile  use  at  22  knots.  If  engines 
are  not  worked  up  to  the  power  for  which  they  are  de- 
signed., they  are  uneconomical  in  themselves,  whilst  for 
excessive  speeds  very  great  engine  power  is  needed.  In 
order  to  solve  this  difficulty,  Mr.  Hamilton  proposes  triple- 
screw  steamers,  with  one  central  screw  and  two  wing 
screws.  For  the  25-knot  speed  all  three  screws  would  be 
used,  and  their  respective  engines  would  therefore  be  at 
work  at  their  full  power,  and  so  be  operating  economically  : 
for  the  22-knot  speed  the  two  wing  screws  only  would  be 
used,  and  in  order  to  prevent  the  drag  of  the  central,  idle 
propeller,  the  latter  is  drawn  forward,  with  its  shaft,  until 
thi  blades  of  the  screw  touch  the  stern-post  of  the  ship. 
This  stern-post  _  is  so  formed  that  the  blades  lie  snugly 
against  it,  and  in  this  way  the  resistance  of  the  water  flow- 
ing past  the  idle  propeller  is  got  rid  of.  For  a  four-bladed 
screw  the  stern-post  is  made  of  cruciform  shape  by  the 
addition  of  two  horizontal  wings.  In  the  discussion  on  the 
paper,  it  was  pointed  out  that  the  shape  of  the  stern-post 
was  not  favourable  to  speed  on  account  of  the  eddy-making 
resistance.  Mr.  Hamilton,  in  reply  to  the  discussion,  said, 
however,  that  the  objection  was  not  of  so  serious  a  nature 
as  was  supposed,  supporting  his  contention  bv  diagrams 
illustrating  the  stream-line  theory. 

On  the  second  day  of  the  meeting,  Wednesday,  June  24, 
Prof.  J.  H.  Biles  read  a  paper  "  On  Cross-Channel 
Stearners,"  in  the  course  of  which  he  gave  particulars  of 
certain  vessels,  and  discussed  the  different  qualities  needed 


July  2,  1903] 


NATURE 


209 


for  success  in  this  particular  kind  of  craft.  The  paper  was 
illustrated  by  a  large  number  of  drawings  of  various 
vessels. 

A  paper  '*  On  Registered  Tonnages,  and  their  Relation  to 
Fiscal  Charges  and  Design  "  was  read  by  Mr.  James 
Maxton.  In  this  the  author  pointed  out  some  of  the 
absurdities  and  anomalies  incidental  to  the  present  stage 
of  the  law  in  regard  to  the  tonnage  of  ships.  A  long  dis- 
cussion followed,  in  the  course  of  which  many  speakers  gave 
expression  to  the  opinion  that  a  change  in  the  law  was 
absolutely  necessary  in  the  interests  of  shipowners,  harbour 
luthorities,  and,  also,  passengers.  Several  shipowners  who 
-poke  laid  it  down  as  a  principle  that  in  cross-channel 
steamers  every  passenger  should  have  a  separate  berth,  and 
it  was  only  the  way  in  which  tonnage  was  measured  that 
prevented  such  a  desirable  feature  being  introduced. 

Prof.  W.  H.  Watkinson  read  a  paper  in  which  he  de- 
scribed some  new  features  of  superheaters.  He  pointed  out 
that,  even  with  a  separate  condenser,  and  all  the  other 
improvements  that  have  been  made  since  the  time  of  Watt, 
from  12  per  cent,  to  30  per  cent,  of  the  steam  supplied  to 
an  engine  is  condensed  during  its  admission  to  the  cylinder. 
The  steam  turbine  is  the  only  engine  in  which  this  condensa- 
tion of  the  steam  by  previously  cooled  surfaces  does  not 
take  place,  but  the  steam  in  turbines  is  wet  from  expansion 
while  doing  work.  Liquefaction  of  steam  may  be  reduced 
by  steam  jacketing ;  by  compounding  the  cylinders ;  by 
steam  separators  ;  by  a  special  arrangement  for  sweeping 
the  condensed  steam  out  of  the  cylinder  at  each  stroke ; 
by  reduction  of  clearance  surface ;  and  by  superheating. 
The  last,  the  author  said,  was  by  far  the  most  effective. 
During  superheating,  although  the  pressure  of  the  steam 
TPinains  constant,  its  volume  is  greatly  increased.  The 
I  mount  of  heat  required  to  superheat  ilb.  of  steam  by 
150°  F.  is  72  British  heat  units;  this  is  only  about  6  per 
cent,  of  the  heat  required  to  generate  ilb.  of  dry  saturated 
steam.  The  increase  in  volume  due  to  this  additional  6  per 
cent,  of  heat  averages  about  30  per  cent.  In  some  cases 
where  superheated  steam  is  used,  the  superheating  is  only 
carried  so  far  as  to  reduce,  or  at  most  to  annihilate,  initial 
condensation.  In  these  cases  the  steam,  after  it  has  been 
admitted  to  the  cylinder  of  an  engine,  becomes  ordinary 
saturated  steam  before  or  at  cut-off,  so  that  during  ex- 
pansion some  condensation  of  steam  takes  place,  due  to 
work  being  done  at  the  expense  of  the  internal  heat  of  the 
steam.  There  is,  then,  no  advantage  due  to  the  increase 
of  volume  of  the  steam  during  superheating,  but  there  is 
great  saving  in  steam  and  in  coal,  due  to  the  reduction  of 
initial  condensation  and  leakage  of  steam  past  the  valves 
and  pistons.  In  the  case  of  large  engines  of  the  usual 
type,  it  is  not  possible  to  superheat  the  steam  by  more 
than  200°  F.,  and  in  some  cases  there  is  trouble  with  the 
valves  if  the  degree  of  superheat  exceeds  150°  F.  With 
piston  valves  the  limit  can  be  considerably  exceeded.  The 
author  next  discussed  the  question  of  independently-fired 
superheaters,  and  those  in  which  the  apparatus  is  jilaced 
In  the  uptake  of  the  boiler  or  is  heated  by  gases  from  the 
furnace.  A  superheater  to  which  a  gas-producer  was 
attached  was  also  illustrated  and  described  by  the  author. 

In  the  discussion  on  this  paper,  Mr.  A.  F.  Yarrow  said 
that  superheating  was  the  direction  in  which  engineers 
must  look  for  improvement  in  the  economy  of  the  steam 
engine.  The  difficulty  in  lubricating  the  cylinders  of  steam 
engines  had  been  spoken  of,  but  it  was  well  known  amongst 
engineers  that  for  years  the  torpedo  boat  builders  had  never 
used  internal  lubrication  for  the  engines  of  the  craft  they 
built.  It  was  interesting  to  note  that  water  would  ooze 
through  places  where  steam  would  not  pass,  and  for  this 
reason  piston  valves  might  be  worked  with  superheated 
steam  without  metal  being  in  rubbing  contact  with  metal. 
Mr.  A.  Morcom  gave  some  particulars  of  a  vertical  engine 
in  which  superheated  steam  had  been  used.  It  was  a 
Sockw.  engine,  and  the  steam  was  at  600°  F.  With 
saturated  steam  the  consumption  of  water  per  kilowatt- 
hour  was  2 lib.  ;  with  superheated  steam  it  was  i61b. 

During  the  stay  in  Belfast,  the  shipyard  and  engine 
works  of  Messrs.  Harland  and  Wol^,  and'  those  of  Messrs. 
Workman  and  Clark,  were  visited.  There  was  a  steamer 
trip  down  Belfast  Lough,  a  reception  at  the  harbour  offices, 
and  a  dinner  given  by  the  Right  Hon.  W.  J.  Pirrie  at  his 
residence  at  Ormiston. 


On  Thursday,  June  25,  members  proceeded  to  Dublin, 
where  they  attended  a  garden  party  given  by  the  Lord 
Lieutenant  at  the  Vice-regal  Lodge ;  rain  entirely  spoilt 
the  pleasure  of  the  reception.  In  the  evening  there  was  a 
ball  at  the  Mansion  House. 

On  the  following  day  the  members  met  in  the  lecture 
theatre  of  the  Royal  Dublin  Society,  when  Mr.  A.  F. 
Yarrow,  vice-president  of  the  Institution,  occupied  the  chair. 
A  paper  by  the  Hon.  C.  A.  Parsons  was  first  taken,  the 
subject  being  "  Modern  Steam  Turbines,  and  their  Applica- 
tion to  the  Propulsion  of  Vessels."  The  paper  was  largely 
of  an  historical  nature,  and  gave  particulars  of  the  various 
vessels  in  which  the  steam  turbine  had  been  fitted,  such 
as  the  two  unfortunate  torpedo-boat  destroyers,  Vi^cr  and 
Cohra,  which  were  both  lost  at  sea.  The  King  Edward 
and  Queen  Alexandra  were  two  passenger  steamers  that 
had  been  running  successfully  on  the  Clyde.  The  Queen  is 
a  cross-channel  steamer,  built  for  the  Dover-Calais  route, 
and  has  been  put  on  her  station  since  the  paper  was  read. 
She  has  machinery  of  8000  I.H.P.  On  her  trial  on  the 
Skelmorlie  mile  she  made  a  mean  speed  of  2173  knots. 
Another  boat  of  the  same  type,  to  be  fitted  with  turbine 
engines,  has  been  built  for  the  L.B.  and  S.C.R.,  and  will 
be  put  on  the  Newhaven-Dieppe  route.  She  is  280  feet 
long  and  of  34  feet  beam,  and  will  shortly  be  launched. 
Three  large  yachts  have  lately  been  fitted  with  steam 
turbines,  the  largest  being  the  Lorena,  built  by  Messrs. 
Ramage  and  Fergusson,  of  Leith.  She  is  25-^  feet  in  Ipntrth 
and  of  33  feet  3  inches  beam.  The  steam  turbines  in  this 
vessel  are  similar  to  those  of  the  King  Edward  and  Queen 
Alexandra,  but  somewhat  larger.  The  trial  of  the  Lorena 
took  place  in  the  Firth  of  Forth  in  May,  the  speed  attained 
being  18  knots.  The  turbine  yacht,  the  Tarantula,  built 
for  the  late  Colonel  McCalmont  by  Messrs.  Yarrow  and 
Co.,  was  of  the  torpedo-boat  type,  but  with  somewhat 
heavier  scantlings.  She  made  25-36  knots  on  her  trial  trip, 
her  displacement  being  150  tons.  The  Velox  is  a  torpedo- 
boat  destroyer  recently  purchased  by  the  British  Admiralty. 
She  has  machinery  similar  to  that  which  was  in  the  Viper, 
and  will  be  capable  of  developing  upwards  of  10,000  H.P. 
Two  small  triple-expansion  reciprocating  engines,  each  of 
150  H.P.,  are  fitted  for  cruising  speeds  up  to  13  knots. 
The  steam  from  these  exhausts  into  the  turbines,  where 
its  expansion  is  completed  before  it  passes  to  the  condensers. 
Another  torpedo-boat  destroyer,  the  Eden,  will  have 
machinery  of  7000  H.P.,  and  her  speed  will  be  25^  knots; 
whilst  a  third-class  cruiser.  Amethyst,  built  for  the  British 
Government,  will  have  turbines  of  9800  I.H.P.,  her  speed 
being  2i|  knots.  The  author  looked  forward  to  the  time 
when  steam  turbines  would  be  fitted  to  vessels  of  the  largest 
size,  such  as  Atlantic  liners.  The  experience  with  the 
marine  turbine  up  to  10.000  H.P.  in  ships  of  fast  as  well 
as  of  moc'erate  speed  had  tended,  he  claimed,  to  justify 
the  anticipation — guided  by  theory — that  the  larger  the 
engines  the  more  favourable  would  be  the  results  as  com- 
pared with  the  reciprocating  engines.  The  saving  in 
weight,  space,  attendance  and  power  would  be  still  more 
marked  with  turbine  engines  of  above  10,000  H.P.,  and 
up  to  60,000  H.P.,  for  which  designs  had  been  prepared. 

The  remaining  paper  read  at  the  meeting  was  on  the 
Dublin  Harbour  works,  the  author  being  Mr.  J.  P.  Griffith. 
During  their  stay  in  Dublin  the  visitors  took  a  steamer 
trip  down  the  Dublin  Bay,  and  on  the  evening  of  Friday 
the  Institution  dinner  brought  the  meeting  to  a  close. 


NO.    1757,   VOL.   68] 


THE    INTERNATIONAL     CONGRESS     FOR 
APPLIED   CHEMISTRY.' 

CO  many  papers  on  analytical  methods  were  presented 
^  that  it  is  impossible  even  to  enumerate  them.  The 
International  Commissions  on  Analysis  and  on  the  Analysis 
of  Fodders  and  Manures  had  not  received  all  the  reports  yet 
which  the  Paris  meeting  had  called  for ;  the  two  Commissions 
over  which  G.  Lunge  presided — Maercker  (Halle),  chair- 
man of  the  second  Commission,  having  died — held  some  of 
their  meetings  jointly  with  sections  i.  (analysis)  and  vii. 
(agricultural  chemistry).  The  proposals  for  a  uniform 
method  of  drawing  up  analytical  reports  were  made  by 
W,  Fresenius  (Wiesbaden) ;  Ch.  Guillaume  (Sevres)  reported 

1  Continued  from  p.  158. 


2  10 


NATURE 


[July  2,  1903 


on  the  mass  of  the  c.c.  of  water  and  on  thermometer 
scales. 

Section  ii.  received  some  important  communications  on 
the  auto-puritication  of  waters.  G.  Weigelt  (Berlin)  has 
experimented  on  the  rates  of  diffusion  of  refuse  waters 
into  river  courses  when  introduced  in  different  circum- 
stances ;  tests  based  upon  average  contamination  are  quite 
misleading  when  injury  to  the  fish  is  concerned.  River 
water  can,  owing  to  its  contents  in  carbonates,  bind 
enormous  quantities  of  sulphuric  acid  and  also  of  alkalis,  by 
decomposition  of  the  bicarbonates,  and  iron  salts  are  quickly 
deposited.  F.  Fischer  (Gottingen)  spoke  on  technically 
pure  water,  and  regretted  that  biological  tests  seemed  to 
supplant  chemical  analysis  ;  the  methods  of  sample  taking 
were  faulty.  In  section  viii.  Vandevelde  (Gand)  remarked 
thai  rest,  absence  of  antiseptic  and  chemical  compounds, 
presence  of  living  organisms,  and  aeration  favoured  the 
auto-purification  of  water  courses.  Hygiene  and  navi- 
gation were  in  opposition  ;  in  flat  country  districts  rivers 
should  be  doubled,  a  canal  to  serve  for  navigation,  and  the 
old  bed  for  purification.  Ch.  Dreyfuss  spoke  on  the  septic 
tanks  of  Manchester,  Proskauer  and  Erlwein  on  the  ozone- 
sterilisation  plants  of  Siemens  and  Halske  at  Wiesbaden 
and  Paderborn.  On  the  suggestion  of  Klaudy  (Vienna)  it 
was  resolved  to  bring  the  water  question  before  the  next 
congress. 

G.  Lunge  reviewed  the  state  of  the  sulphuric  acid  manu- 
facture in  a  very  able  paper,  recommending  water-sprays 
(not  vapour)  for  the  lead  chambers,  and  reaction  plate 
towers  with  artificial  draught,  and  pointing  to  the  great 
improvements  lately  effected  in  concentration  apparatus. 
Kestner  (Lille)  described  his  lead  ventilators  for  artificial 
draught.  E.  Hart  (Easton,  Pa.)  reported  on  sulphuric  acid 
in  the  United  States  since  1900,  and  D.  Pennock  (Syracuse, 
N.Y.)  on  the  progress  in  the  soda  industry  in  the  United 
States.  G.  Beilby  (Glasgow)  reviewed  the  position  of  the 
cyanide  industry,  pointing  out  that  the  actual  plants  could 
supply  more  than  twice  as  much  cyanide  as  is  wanted. 
Synthetic  cyanide  processes  were  further  discussed,  in 
different  sections,  by  F.  Rossler,  G.  Erlwein,  and  A.  Frank. 
The  latter  two  spoke  particularly  on  the  Caro-Frank  pro- 
cess taken  up  by  Siemens  and  Halske.  The  carbides  of 
barium  and  calcium  bind  nitrogen  when  powdered  and 
heated,  forming  CaCN,,  which,  on  extraction  with  water, 
yields  (CN.NH2)2,  and  on  fusion  with  salt  (soda  was  used 
for  the  barium  compound  which  was  first  prepared)  sodium 
cyanide.  The  calcium  cyanamide  can  also  directly  be  pre- 
pared in  the  electric  furnace  from  lime,  coal,  and  atmo- 
spheric nitrogen.  Decomposed  with  water  vapour  under 
pressure  ammonia  results  ;  the  calcium  cyanamide  also  gives 
off  ammonia  in  the  soil,  and  is  used  as  manure  under  the 
name  of  Kalkstickstoif.  J.  Bueb  (Dessau)  explained  the 
recovery  of  the  cyanogen  from  illuminating  gas. 

F.  Mylius  (Reichsanstalt)  showed  that  the  loss  of  weight 
which  glass  undergoes  when  treated  with  water  would 
afford  a  basis  for  the  classification  of  chemical  glasses  ;  an 
electric  conductivity  test  practically  gives  the  necessary 
data.  R.  Dralle  described  glass  blowing  machines ; 
Heinecke,  recent  improvements  in  keramics  effected  at  the 
Royal  Porcelain  Manufactory  of  Berlin  ;  Vogt  (Sevres)  and 
Heintze  (Meissen)  also  contributed  communications  on 
their  porcelains.  H.  Heraeus,  of  Hanau,  showed  his  new 
resistance  furnaces,  in  which  platinum  foil  o  007mm.  in 
thickness  is  used  instead  of  wire.  The  new  iridium  furnace, 
also  shown,  is  an  iridium  tube  03mm.  in  thickness,  which 
was  directly  heated  by  continuous  currents  up  to  2000°  C. 
With  the  aid  of  these  furnaces  and  the  experienced  glass- 
blowers  of  Siebert  and  Kiihn,  of  Cassel,  quartz  vessels  are 
now  made  in  Hanau.  Ordinary  quartz  crucibles  cost  about 
half  as  much  as  platinum  crucibles;  they  are  attacked  by 
metallic  oxides  and  are  permeable  to  hydrogen  above 
1300°  C.  (1100°  G.  according  to  Hahn),  but  do  not  crack 
on  .  sudden  cooling;  water  gas  converts  the  quartz  into 
tridymite.  Siebert  and  .KUhn  had  quartz  thermometers  on 
view..  W...  Hempel  (Dresden)  constructs  simple  high 
temperature  furnaces  by  cementing  small  carbon  rods  to 
a  zig-zag  surrounding  the  crucible  ;  the  shell  is  iron  lined 
with  kieselguhr  and  carbon.  Using  an  arc  furnace  and 
placing  the  substance  in  the  cup  of  a  hollow  carbon  rod, 
he  has  determined  the  following  melting  points  : — mag- 
nesia,    2250° ;    lime,     1900° ;     alumina,     2068° ;     magnesite. 


2000°;  porcelain  (Berlin)  softens  at  1550°;  Meissen  porce- 
lain at  1850°.  In  these  experiments  a  rod  rests  loosely  on 
the  substance,  and  breaks  a  contact  when  sinking.  The 
temperature  is  determined  with  a  Holborn-Kurlbaum  optical 
pyrometer,  or  a  Bunsen  photometer  of  Hempel's,  in  which 
the  rays  are  several  times  reflected ;  for  this  reason 
Hempel  himself  regards  all  these  preliminary  values  as 
probably  too  low.  H.  Bunte  (Karlsruhe)  demonstrated 
with  the  aid  of  laboratory  mantles  that  neither  pure  thoria 
nor  pure  ceria  yield  the  high  luminescence  which  we  obtain 
by  mixtures,  and  that  very  small  percentages  of  uranium, 
platinum,  &c.,  in  thoria  also  produce  brilliant  lamps,  but 
that  none  of  these  are  durable.  The  luminosity  is  probably 
simply  physical,  but  there  may  be  catalysis. 

Section  iiia.,  metallurgy,  discussed  papers  by  H.  Wedding 
and  Th.  Fischer  on  metallic  hydrides,  by  C.  Schiffner  (Frei- 
berg) and  A.  Lodin  (Paris)  on  pyritic  smelting,  by  Ch.  E. 
Munroe  (Washington)  on  mining,  metallurgy,  and  ex- 
plosives in  the  United  States,  Gin  (Paris),  on  extraction  of 
copper  pyrites  with  SO,,  &c.  In  section  iiib.  Brunswig, 
Bichel,  Blochmann,  Mettegang,  Eschweiler,  Watteyne, 
O.  Guttmann  (London),  Knight  (Krijmel),  Lenze,  Berg- 
mann  and  others  had  long  discussions  on  the  Trauzl  lead 
block  test,  determination  of  explosive  velocities,  transport 
of  compressed  gases  and  liquids,  protection  of  explosive 
works  against  lightning,  danger  from  perchlorates  in 
powder,  &c.  O.  Guttmann 's  proposal  for  an  international 
committee  on  explosion  tests  in  experimental  mine  galleries 
did  not  find  sufficient  support. 

Section  iva.  had  many  good  papers  by  C.  Engler,  Bergner 
(Baku),  Aisinmann  (  Campina),  E.  O'Neill  (California), 
Harperath  (Argentina)  on  petroleum ;  Charitchkow 
(Grossny)  proposed  to  fractionate  technically  naphtha  in  the 
cold  by  means  of  alcohol  mixtures.  Connstein  (Berlin) 
described  the  successful  splitting-up  of  fats  by  the  enzymes 
contained  in  Rhicinus  seeds,  &c.  ;  Lewkowitch  (London) 
referred  to  the  same  subject.  Other  papers  were  on 
cyanogen,  illuminating  and  water  gas  (Bunte  and 
F    Fischer),  saccharin  (Fahlberg),  &c. 

Sections  iv6.,  dyes;  v.,  sugar;  vi.,  fermentation  and 
starch;  vii.,  agricultural  chemistry;  viii.,  hygiene,  pharma- 
ceutical and  medicinal  chemistry,  and  foods;  xi.,  legal  and 
economical  questions,  were  all  very  busy. 

Section  ix.,  photochemistry,  discussed  papers  by  J.  M. 
Eder  (Vienna)  and  Ollendorf  (Berlin)  on  sensitometers ; 
on  latent  images,  by  J.  Waterhouse  (Eltham)  and  Schaum 
(Marburg)  ;  on  colour  photography  by  additive  synthesis, 
by  A.  Miethe  and  R.  Neuhaus  (Berlin)  ;  on  photochemistry 
in  the  United  States,  the  centrifugal  bromide  of  silver,  and 
other  points,  by  L.  Baekeland,  Yonkers,  N.Y.  ;  on  the  reso- 
lution of  the  finest  spectrum  lines  on  Doppler's  principle, 
by  O.  Lummer ;  and  an  exhaustive  study  of  the  dichroic 
fog,  by  A.  Seyewitz  (Lyon). 

In  section  x.,  electrochemistry  and  physical  chemistry, 
J.  Traube  and  G.  Teichner  (Berlin)  performed  an  experiment 
apparently  disproving  Andrews's  views  on  the  critical  state 
of  gases.  A  glass  tube  is  partly  filled  with  carbon  tetra- 
chloride ;  it  contains  also  little  spherical  floats  of  glass 
of  different  densities.  The  tube  is  jacketed  with  paraffin 
and  diphenylamine.  When  heated  to  and  above  the  critical 
point,  the  meniscus  disappears,  and  the  floats  do  not  all 
collect  in  the  middle  portion  of  the  tube.  This  is  to  prove 
that  there  is  no  uniform  density  in  the  vapour.  Repeating 
experiments  of  de  Heen  and  Dwelshauvers-Dery,  Traube 
considers  that  van  der  Waals's  molecular  gas  volume  con- 
stant h  is  not  constant,  but  increases  when  the  liquid 
passes  into  the  gaseous  state,  and  that  the  vapour  contains 
liquidogenous  and  gasogenous  molecules  the  proportions  of 
which  depend  upon  the  temperature.  At  the  critical 
temperature  both  molecules  are  soluble  in  one  another  in 
any  proportions. 

W.  Nernst  (Gottingen)  showed  an  apparatus  with  the 
aid  of  which  he  has  determined  the  vapOur  densities  of  CO3 
with  o-30i7mg.,  of  NaCl  with  o  i6mg.,  of  S  with  o-57mg. 
of  substance.  The  substance  is  brought  in  an  iridium 
vessel,  which  is  lowered  into  a  tubular  iridium  furnace 
of  Heraeus  and  heated  up  to  1950°  C.  The  weighing  is 
done  on  a  balance,  consisting  of  a  capillary  glass  tube  as 
beam,  bent  down  at  the  end  to  serve  as  pointer,  and  resting 
on  a  quartz  thread  ;  this  balance  weighs  to  oooimg.,  and 
j  can    be    loaded    with    2mg.    maximum.     The    values    found 


NO.     1757,  VOL.  68] 


July  2,  1903] 


NA  TURE 


21 


are,  e.g.  H,0  17  i  (instead  of  18),  CO^  429  (44),  S  36  and 
377  (32),  so  that  the  sulphur  would  appear  to  be  mon- 
atomic  at  that  high  temperature. 

E.  Wedekind  (Tubingen)  produces  colloid  zirconium  by 
reducing  the  oxide  with  magnesium  and  extracting  with 
hydrochloric  acid ;  O.  Burns  (Boston)  colloids  of  paper, 
oxides,  sulphides,  &c.,  by  shaking  them  for  many  hours. 
Monti  (Turin)  spoke  on  the  concentration  of  solutions, 
perfumes,  wines,  and  ordinary  salts  by  freezing ;  the  acids 
and  salts  collect  in  the  microscopical  interstices  between 
the  small  ice  crystals,  and  when  frozen  blocks  are  left  to 
themselves,  the  substances  diffuse  downward  ;  concentration 
by  cold  is  more  economical  than  by  heat.  Bredig  (Heidel- 
berg) and  Count  Schwerin  (Hochst)  spoke  on  electric 
osmosisp,  E.  .Solvay  (Brussels)  on  a  gravitation 
formula  applicable  to  diffusion  phenomena,  Zengelis 
(Athens)  on  the  production  of  very  high  tempera- 
tures by  burning  aluminium  in  oxygon  and  other  gases. 
The  kinetics  of  the  catalytic  sulphuric  acid  process  were 
discussed  by  Knietsch  (who  has  worked  the  process  cut  in 
Ludwigshafen)  in  section  ii.,  and  by  Bodenstein  and  Bod- 
lander  in  X.  Similar  papers  were  read  by  Schenck  (Mar- 
burg) on  the  splitting  of  CO,  by  H.  Goldschmidt  (Christi- 
ania)  on  the  kinetics  of  reductions,  by  Bodlander  on 
technical  catalysis.  H.  Goldschmidt  (Essen)  reported  on  the 
manufacture  of  steel  in  the  electric  furnaces  of  Stassano, 
Gin-Leleux,  H^roult,  Keller,  Kjellin,  and  others ;  Bancroft 
and  A.  A.  Noyes  on  electrochemical  research  in  the  United 
States ;  Fr.  Foerster  (Dresden)  and  Brandeis  (Aussig)  on 
electrolytic  preparation  of  inorganic  compounds ;  M.  Le 
Blanc  (Karlsruhe)  spoke  on  electrolysis  with  alternating 
currents  and  the  possibility  of  determining  the  velocity  o' 
ionic  reactions ;  Coehn  (Gottingen)  on  electrode  influence 
in  electrolytic  oxidations  and  reductions,  H.  Moissan  on 
metallic  carbides,  H^roult  on  the  efficiency  of  electrolytic 
soda  processes,  Danneel  and  Nissenson  on  the  electrolytic 
deposition  of  metals,  Kiister  (Clausthal)  on  dissociation 
pressure  of  soda  solutions,  W.  Marckwald  on  his  radio- 
active tellurium,  and  Precht  (Hanover)  on  the  spectrum 
and  atomic  weight  of  radium  (in  ix.).  W.  von  Bolton 
demonstrated  what  he  briefly  calls  luminosity  of  the  ions. 
When  a  carbon  rod  is  lowered  as  anode  into  sulphuric  acid, 
containing  a  copper  spiral  as  kathode,  the  rough  surface 
of  the  carbon  becomes  at  once  bright  under  the  influence 
of  currents  of  no  volts.  When  rods  of  metals  (or  of 
carbon)  are  dipped  into  solutions  of  their  salts,  the  rod 
being  the  kathode,  a  platinum  spiral  the  anode,  the  rod 
begins  to  glow  in  brilliant  colours,  and  beautiful  band 
spectra  of  the  ions  (?)  are  obtained,  diff'ering  from  the 
spark  spectra  which  result  when  the  anode  is  glowing. 
The  discussions  were  very  good.  H.  Borns. 

SOUTH-EASTERN    UNION    OF    SCIENTIFIC 

SOCIETIES. 

'T'HE  eighth  annual  congress  of  the  South-Eastern  Union 

-*-  of  Scientific  Societies  was  held  at  Dover  on  June  11-13. 
A  lively  address  by  the  president.  Sir  Henry  Howorth, 
F.R.S.,  put  pin  pricks  into  all  the  infallibilities,  begging 
the  student  to  accept  no  predominant  hypothesis  without 
demur,  to  resist  the  fascination  of  great  names,  to  challenge 
the  exactness  even  of  the  exact  sciences.  Fallacies  might 
often  lurk  in  phrases,  as  when  "  the  survival  of  the  fittest  " 
was  glibly  used  to  mean  nothing  more  than  the  survival  of 
the  survivors.  The  address  impressed  its  hearers  with  the 
advantage  which  every  branch  of  science  might  derive  from 
the  touch  of  a  keen  and  active  critical  faculty,  working  out- 
side the  ranks  of  the  specialists. 

The  papers  contributed  to  the  congress  fall  into  three 
classes,  the  purely  local,  the  general,  and  those  of  divided 
interest.  In  the  last  of  these  Mr.  A.  T.  Walmisley's  essay 
discussed  the  methods  by  which  a  traveller  between  Kent 
and  the  Pas  de  Calais  might  cross  the  intervening  strip  of 
shallow  water,  on,  in,  under,  or  over  it,  without  the  in- 
cidents which  now  so  often  befall  him  when  the  "  silver 
streak  "  is  converted  into  a  tumultuous  concourse  of  atoms. 
The  new  turbine  steamer  was  indicated  as  the  best  chance 
for  humanity — at  least  until  something  better  is  invented. 
Mr  W.  Whitaker,  F.R.S.,  observed  that  clearly  nature  had 
expressly  designed  the  Straits  of  Dover  for  a  submarine 
tunnel,  though  politicians  might  think  otherwise.  Mr. 
A    O.   Walker,  dealing  with  the  effects  of  climate  on  dis- 

NO.    1757,   VOL.    68] 


tribution,  compared  his  long  experience  of  the  fauna  and 
flora  of  Cheshire  and  North  Wales  with  his  later  obser\'- 
ations  while  residing  near  Maidstone. 

Of  local  papers  the  most  important  was  that  by  Mr. 
Sydney  Webb  and  Captain  McDakin  on  the  disappearing 
fauna' and  flora  of  the  district.  There  were  many  lament- 
able and  in  part  unavoidable  losses.  The  dwindling  of 
the  colony  of  seals  at  Beachy  Head  was  deplored,  but  no 
tears  were  seen  to  fall  at  the  news  that  vipers  were  becoming 
scarce  and  polecats  scarcer.  The  congress  museum  was 
instructively  adorned  by  Mr.  Webb's  fine  collection  of  Lepi- 
doptera  with  their  caterpillars,  and  by  the  display  of  plants 
with  their  seedlings  from   the  Catford  Society. 

Prof.  Boulger  opened  a  discussion  on  the  best  means  of 
checking  the  extermination  of  British  plants  and  animals. 
Dr.  Rowe,  in  a  paper  on  the  importance  of  zonal  distribu- 
tion, alluded  to  the  doctrine  that  the  souls  of  good  geologists 
go  hereafter  to  their  favourite  "  sections,"  and  hoped  he 
might  be  allowed  to  stake  out  his  claim  to  a  particular  slice 
of  Dover  Chalk,  from  which  he  had  already  abstracted 
about  5000  fossils. 

The  non-local  discourses  included  an  interesting  account 
by  the  Rev.  R.  A.  Biillen  of  "  a  late  Celtic  cemetery  at 
Harlyn  Bay,"  and  a  valuable  investigation  by  Miss  Ethel 
Sargent,  who  unfolded  the  story  of  Geophilous  plants,  ex- 
plaining how  these  "lovers  of  the  soil,"  to  suit  seasons 
and  climates,  for  periods  of  varying  duration,  keep  them- 
selves close  within  the  protecting  bosom  of  their  mother 
earth,  the  seeds  and  bulbs  in  the  meantime,  with  a  kind  of 
vegetable  instinct,  ever  using  their  foodstore  to  the  best 
advantage.  The  concluding  address  was  by  Dr.  Jonathan 
Hutchinson,  F.R.S.,  the  retiring  president,  who  at  two 
successive  congresses  has  delighted  his  audience  by  a  finely- 
argued  discussion  of  a  subject  not  at  the  first  blush  very 
attractive.  His  theme  was  leprosy.  His  theory  is  now 
well  known,  that  this  disease  is  caused  by  the  consumption 
of  badly  cured  fish,  or  occasionally  by  the  eating  of  food 
which  has  been  handled  by  lepers.  During  the  last  two 
years  he  has  visited  Africa  and  India,  everywhere  seeking 
oat  lepers  and  leprous  communities,  especially  in  places  where 
h-^  had  been  told  that  a  fish  diet  was  out  of  the  question. 
Everywhere  he  found  that  in  that  particular  his  informants 
had  been  misinformed.  A  quotation  from  Erasmus  sent 
to  Dr.  Hutchinson  by  a  classical  friend  represented  the 
Pope  himself  as  proposing  to  proscribe  the  use  of  salt  fish 
on  account  of  its  supposed  tendency  to  spread  leprosy,  though 
it  is  not  salt  fish  in  itself  that  lies  under  any  evil 
imputation.  Erasmus  often  makes  ironical  statements,  but 
on  the  foul  efl'ects  produced  in  his  day  by  the  consumption 
of  putrid  fish  his  dialogue  "  Ichthyophagia  "  speaks  with 
no  ambiguity. 

UNIVERSITY    AND    EDUCATIONAL 
INTELLIGENCE. 

Oxford. — The  following  is  the  text  of  the  speeches  de- 
livered by  Prof.  Love  in  presenting  M.  Poincar^  and  Prof. 
Stcry-Maskelyne  for  the  honorary  degree  of  D.Sc.  at  the 
Enca;nia  on  June  24  : — 

Nescio  an  maximus  inter  mathematicos  qui  nunc  vivunt 
sit  Henricus  Poincar^  :  vir  iure  mirandus  non  solum  quod 
novis  viis  qua;rendi  usus  novos  fructus  adeptus  est,  sed 
quod  tot  et  tam  diversa  doctrinse  genera  unus  complecti 
potuit,  cum  commentariis  innumerabilibus  fere  omnes 
geometrices  et  analyseos  partes  illustraret.  Cum  in  haec 
recondita  doctrinas  arcana  altius  penetrasset,  rite  eum 
Regalis  Societas  ornavit  numismate  aureo  in  memoriam 
Professoris  nostri  Sylvester  instituto  quod  ei  primo  datum 
est.  Non  solum  subtilissimis  illis  quaestionibus  quae  de 
mathematicae  veritatis  natura  inter  philosophos  oriuntur 
hunc  auctorem  plerique  sequuntur,  sed  ingenii  maximi 
viribus  nisus  de  luce,  de  vi  electrica,  de  difficillimo  quoque 
doctrinae  genere  prECclarissime  disseruit.  In  Astronomia 
certe  ea  de  motu  et  de  figura  planetarum  est  commentatus 
ut  omnibus  de  hac  re  quaerentibus  nova  quadam  et  meliore 
via  insistendum  sit.  Hunc  talem  virum  in  omni  genere 
doctrina^  insignissimum,  rerum  naturam  animo  per- 
agrantem,  geometren,  physicum,  astronomum  praestan- 
tissimum,  Academia  nostra  inter  suos  doctores  llbentissime 
adscribit. 

Septeni  et  quadraginta  abhinc  annos  Willelmo  Buckland 
successit  Mervin  Herbertus  Nevil  Storv-Maskelvne,  Minera- 


212 


NATURE 


[July 


90- 


logia;  primo  Prselector  mox  Professor  factus,  quern 
honorem,  nulli  antea  apud  nos  concessum,  novem  et 
triginta  annos  nullo  intervallo  retinuit,  nee  nisi  octo 
abhinc  annos  deposuit.  Primus  etiam  eodem  fere  tempore 
minerarum  in  Musaeo  Britannico  custos  creatus  trium  et 
viginti  annorum  labore  effecit  ut  maxima  vis  minerarum 
omnium,  nusquam  alias  jn  omni  orbe  terrse  invenienda, 
intra  parietes  Mussei  Britannici  congereretur.  Quod  ad 
scientiam  exquisitiorem  pertinet,  natura  lapidum  de  caelo 
iactorum  investiganda  summam  laudem  adeptus  est  :  idem 
minerarum  et  crystallorum  formas  et  species  accuratissime 
descripsit.  Sed  magistri  boni  praecipua  laus  in  discipulis 
constat,  neque  silendum  arbitror  multos  ex  iis,  qui  hodie 
in  hac  scientia  principes  et  signiferi  sunt,  hoc  auctore  et 
Professore  doctissimo  usos  esse.  Idem  rude  iam  donatus 
a  Musaeo  Britannico  ita  recessit  ut  rei  publicae  se  daret  et 
Crickladensium  suffragiis  ornatus  in  publico  totius  civitatis 
consilio  indivisi  imperii  vindex  et  defensor  acerrimus 
sederet.  Addo  quod  Regalis  Societatis  Sodalis  et  Collegii 
AVadhamensis  socius  honoris  causa  creatus  cum  multis 
virorum  doctorum  societatibus  et  in  Europa  et  in  America 
litterarum  commercio  coniunctus  est. 


Prof.  J.  Larmor,  F.R.S.,  has  had  the  honorary  degree 
of  doctor  of  science  conferred  upon  him  by  the  University 
of  Dublin. 

A  COMMITTEE  has  been  formed  with  the  object  of  raising 
a  memorial  in  honour  of  the  late  Mr.  T.  G.  Rooper,  who 
died  on  May  20.  Mr.  Rooper  held  the  office  of  H.M. 
Inspector  of  Schools  in  the  Isle  of  Wight,  Southampton 
and  the  neighbourhood  during  the  last  seven  years,  and 
both  in  his  district  and  elsewhere  he  promoted  the  develop- 
ment of  rational  teaching  of  geography,  natural  history 
and  other  science  studies.  Information  concerning  the  pro- 
posed memorial  will  be  gladly  supplied  by  Profs.  F.  J.  C. 
Hearnshaw  and  J.  F.  Hudson,  Hartley  University  College, 
Southampton. 

The  appeal  for  funds  for  extending  and  modernising  the 
scientific  departments  of  the  University  of  Dublin,  to  which 
reference  was  made  last  week  (p.  188),  should  receive 
liberal  support  not  only  from  graduates  of  the  university, 
but  also  from  all  who  sympathise  with  the  cause  of  higher 
education  in  Ireland.  Each  science  department  of  the 
university  is  in  need  of  funds  for  laboratories,  instruments, 
and  other  means  of  study  and  research.  The  university 
has  already  made  considerable  outlay  in  order  to  increase 
the  efficiency  of  the  scientific  departments,  but  the  new 
demands  created  by  modern  developments  are  too  many 
and  extensive  to  be  met  by  existing  resources,  and  it  is 
necessary  to  ask  for  additional  endowments  if  the  university 
is  to  maintain  its  high  position  among  the  educational 
forces  of  the  British  Isles.  In  making  the  appeal  for  funds, 
it  is  pointed  out  that  the  important  position  assumed  by 
modern  science  as  a  subject  of  collegiate  education,  and  the 
great  expansion  of  the  scientific  professions,  render  it  in- 
curnbent  on  the  older  universities  to  make  a  costly  pro- 
vision for  the  adequate  teaching  of  the  experimental  sciences. 
Not  only  must  the  universities  of  to-day  be  able  to  extend 
to  their  students— whether  professional  or  in  arts— sound 
theoretical  and  practical  instruction  in  the  established  prin- 
ciples of  science,  but  if  these  corporations  are  to  continue 
to  fulfil  their  duties  efficiently,  they  must,  in  addition, 
provide  facilities  for  research  available  both  to  student  and 
teacher.  In  short,  the  demands  on  the  resources  of  universi- 
ties are  not  only  for  the  endowment  of  chairs  of  science  and 
the  salaries  of  assistants  and  demonstrators,  but  also  for 
the  provision,  equipment,  and  maintenance  of  lecture-rooms 
for  teaching,  and  laboratories  for  both  class-work  and  re- 
search. Moreover,  the  provision  for  laboratory  equipment 
must  be  adequate  to  meet  the  ever-fresh  demands  of  scientific 
advance.  In  the  past  the  University  of  Dublin  has  dis- 
charged her  duties  towards  the  newer  studies  in  a  manner 
which  has,  in  many  particulars,  set  example  to  wealthier 
bodies.  But  a  time  has  arrived  when  expenses  must  be 
incurred  beyond  her  existing  resources,  and  the  University 
of  Dublin  must  either  obtain  external  aid  to  build  and  equip 
laboratories  and  lecture-rooms  for  physical  science,  electrical 
and  mechanical  engineering,  botany  and  zoology,  or  con- 
duct under  grave  disadvantages  the  instruction  of  those 
students  who  require  to  include  these  subjects  in  their  pro- 
fessional training,   or  in  their  courses  in  arts. 

NO.    1 7 57 VOL.  68] 


A  REPORT  drawn  up  by  a  committee  appointed  by  the 
Board  of  Trinity  College,  to  consider  the  present  scientific 
requirements  of  the  college,  shows  that  a  sum  of 
at  least  ioo,oooL  is  needed  by  the  scientific  schools 
of  the  university.  The  appeal  from  which  this  state- 
ment of  position  and  needs  of  the  university  has  been  taken 
is  signed  by  Lord  Rosse  (Chancellor  of  the  university),  Mr. 
D.  H.  Madden  (Vice-Chancellor  of  the  university).  Prof. 
Geo.  Salmon  (Provost  of  Trinity  College),  Lord  Ashbourne, 
Lord  Lansdowne,  Lord  Pembroke,  Lord  Ardilaun,  Lord 
Iveagh,  Lord  Rathmore,  Mr.  E.  H.  Carson,  Mr.  W.  E.  H. 
Lecky,  and  Mr.  J.  H.  M.  Campbell.  To  carry  the  recom- 
mendations of  the  committee  into  effect,  a  considerable  ex- 
penditure (for  which  no  provision  can  be  made  out  of 
college  funds)  must  be  incurred,  including  a  capital  out- 
lay (for  building  and  fitting  laboratories  and  the  like  pur- 
poses) of  34,000/.,  in  addition  to  an  annual  charge  for  in- 
creased salaries  and  other  expenses,  estimated  at  2730Z.  per 
annum.  Lord  Iveagh  has  generously  offered  to  provide  the 
capital  sum  of  34,000/.  so  soon  as  a  sufficient  amount  has 
been  collected  and  invested  to  produce  the  annual  outlay 
contemplated  by  the  committee  (viz.  2730/.  per  annum),  and 
this  offer  will  hold  good  for  three  years  from  May  i  next  \ 
or  if  a  sufficient  annual  income  is  assured  by  investments 
for  carrying  out  the  recommendations  of  the  committee 
for  any  one  department,  he  is  prepared  to  contribute  the 
capital  expenditure  necessary  for  the  equipment  of  that 
particular  department.  A  very  large  sum  has  to  be  collected 
during  the  next  three  years,  but  Lord  Iveagh 's  offer  ought 
to  inspire  others  to  contribute  as  generously  as  they  are 
able  to  the  subscription  list.  The  Chancellor  of  the  uni- 
versity, Mr.  Benjamin  Williamson,  and  Prof.  W.  E.  Thrift 
are  acting  as  honorary  treasurers  of  the  science  fund. 


SOCIETIES  AND  ACADEMIES. 

London. 

Royal  Society,  May  14. — "  On  the  Radiation  of  Helium  and 
Mercury  in  a  Magnetic  Field."  By  Prof.  Andrew  Gray. 
F.R.S.,  and  Walter  Stewart,  D.Sc,  with  Robert  A. 
Koustoun,  M.A.,  and  D.  B.  McQuistan,  M.A.,  Research 
Students  in  the  University  of  Glasgow. 

The  experiments  had  for  their  object  primarily  to  test 
for  lines  of  different  substances,  the  proportionality  of  the 
change  d\  of  wave-length,  for  each  of  the  components  into 
which  a  single  spectral  line  is  resolved  by  the  application 
of  a  magnetic  field,  to  the  field  intensity  H,  and  to  deduce 
the  corresponding  values  of  the  ratio  e/tn  of  charge  to  mass 
of  the  electron.  The  apparatus  consisted  of  a  set  composed 
of  a  large  electromagnet  (built  to  Prof.  Gray's  specifica- 
tion), and  an  echelon  spectroscope  of  twenty-six  plates  with 
auxiliary  (by  Hilger,  London).  The  readings  were  obtained 
by  means  of  a  micrometer  eye-piece  fitted  to  the  observing 
telescope.  The  first  observations  were  made  at  right  angles 
to  the  magnetic  field  on  several  of  the  helium  lines,  and  on 
the  green  line  of  mercury.  The  results  were  used  to 
calculate  the  values  of  d\/H\^,  and  of  e/m  by  the  formula 
e/m  =  2irv.d\/H\',  where  v  is  the  velocity  of  light, 
3X10'"  cm.  per  second.  In  every  case  the  normal  triplet 
was  obtained,  and  the  separation  between  the  extreme  com- 
ponents found  to  be  proportional  to  H  up  to  fields  of 
10,000  C.G.S.  ;  at  fields  above  this  the  light  becomes  so 
faint,  in  all  the  tubes  with  which  the  authors  worked, 
that  it  is  impossible  to  obtain  readings.  The  following 
table  shows  the  results  : — 


Substance. 

Wave-length, 
10-8  cm. 

«'A/H. 

rt'A/HA2. 

elf,,. 

Helium  ... 
Mercury... 

5016  (green) 
5876  (yellow) 
6678  (red) 
5461  (green) 

r6ixio-5 
2-07  X  10-' 
2-90 X IO~' 
2-12  X  IO~^ 

6-41  X  10- 
6-OOX  iQ-* 

6-49x10-5 

712X  IO"5 

I2-I  X  10" 

1 1  -3  X  10' 

12-2  X  10' 

i3-4xio« 

At  a  field  incensity  of  13,000  C.G.S.  the  centre  compo- 
nent of  the  normal  triplet  was  doubled,  while  each  of  the 
outer  components  was  itself  tripled.  The  polarisation  of 
the  two  triplets  and  of  the  central   doublet  was  the   same 


July  2,  1903J 


NA  TURE 


213 


as  that  of  the  lines  from  which  they  originated,  namely, 
that  of  the  lines  of  the  normal  triplet.  At  all  fields  up  to 
13,000  the  faint  companion  to  the  yellow  helium  line  D^ 
was  not  tripled,  but  only  doubled. 

For  the  above  lines  observations  were  made  also  along 
the  lines  of  force,  one  of  the  magnet  cores  being  replaced 
by  a  core  drilled  from  end  to  end  with  a  hole  about  a 
<entiiiietre  in  diameter.  The  following  table  gives  the 
numbers  obtained  : — 


With  respect  to  the  green  mercury  line  of  wave-length 
5461  tenth-metres,  the  authors  incidentally  observed  fully  a 
year  ago,  as  they  found  afterwards  had  also  been  done  a 
little  earlier  by  Zeeman,  that  the  line  appeared  to  have 
three  faint  companions  on  the  violet  side,  and  two  (they 
seemed  at  times  to  see  three)  on  the  red  side.  The  com- 
panions are  visible  only  under  special  conditions  of  the 
discharge  tube.  The  values  of  d\  for  the  first  three  are 
—  o'2o8,  —0096,  —0059,  ^nd  ^o''  the  other  two  +0032, 
+  0067.  Though  those  values  do  not  in  every  case  agree 
with  those  given  by  Perot  and  Fabry,  it  is  possible  that, 
on  account  of  hitherto  unexpected  complexity  of  the  line, 
both  sets  of  observations  are  correct. 

It  ought  to  be  noticed  here  that  Runge  and  Paschen  have 
obtained  a  resolution  of  the  green  mercury  line  into  three 
triplets  in  the  magnetic  field.  This  observation  is  entirely 
confirmed  as  to  the  side  triplets  by  those  of  the  authors 
(which  were  made  before  Messrs.  Runge  and  Paschen 's 
paper  came  to  hand),  but  they  have  not  been  able  to  verify 
Runge  and  Paschen 's  result  for  the  middle  group,  which 
;ippears  to  the  authors  to  be  a  doublet.  But  the  instru- 
ment of  Runge  and  Paschen  was  a  large  Rowland  grating 
of  65  metres  diameter  of  circle,  and  the  spectrum  was 
photographed,  so  that  their  observations  were,  no  doubt, 
more  certain  than  the  authors'. 

May  28. — "  Note  on  the  Effect  of  Extreme  Cold  on  the 
Emanations  of  Radium."  By  Sir  William  Crookesi 
F.R.S.,  and  Prof.  James  Dewar,  F.R.S. 

The  first  endeavour  was  to  ascertain  whether  the 
scintillations  produced  by  radium  on  a  sensitive  blende 
screen  were  affected  by  cold. 

/\  small  screen  of  blende  with  a  morsel  of  radium  salt 
close  in  front  was  sealed  in  a  glass  tube,  and  a  lens  was 
adjusted  in  front  so  that  the  scintillations  could  be  seen. 
On  dipping  the  whole  into  liquid  air  they  grew  fainter  and 
soon  stopped  altogether.  Some  doubt  was  felt  whether 
this  might  not  have  been  caused  (i)  by  the  presence  of 
liquid,  (2)  by  the  screen  losing  sensitiveness,  or  (3)  by  the 
radium  ceasing  to  emit  the  heavy  positive  ions.  To  test 
this  two  tubes  were  made,  in  one  of  which  the  radium  salt 
could  be  cooled  without  the  screen,  and  in  the  other  the 
screen  could  be  cooled  while  the  radium  salt  was  at  the 
ordinary  temperature. 

The  results  were  as  follows  : — (i)  Radium  salt  cooled  by 
liquid  air.  Screen  at  ordinary  temperature.  Scintillations 
quite  as  vigorous  as  with  radium  at  the  ordinary  tempera- 
ture, the  screen  and  radium  being  in  vacuo.  (2)  Radium 
at  the  ordinary  temperature  and  screen  cooled  in  liquid  air. 
As  the  screen  cooled  the  scintillations  became  fainter  and 
at  last  could  not  be  seen.  On  allowing  the  temperature  to 
rise  the  scintillations  recommenced.  (3)  A  screen  with  a 
speck  of  radium  salt  in  front  of  it  was  sealed  in  a  tube. 
The  tube  was  sealed  off  when  a  few  fine  drops  of  water 
were  still  remaining  in  the  tube.  The  scintillations  were 
well  seen  in  this  saturated  aqueous  vapour.  The  lower  end 
of  the  tube  was  dipped  in  liquid  air,  which  instantly  con- 
densed the  aqueous  vapour  and  left  a  very  good  vacuum. 
On  now  examining  the  scintillations  they  were  if  anything 
brighter  and  more  vigorous  than  at  first.  When  liquid 
hydrogen  cooling  was  used  instead  of  liquid  air,  the  action 
was  equally  marked,  showing  that  the  highest  vacuum  that 

^^'  1757.  VOL.  68] 


can  be  obtained  by  the  action  of  cold  does  not  diminish  the 
scintillations. 

In  order  to  test  the  activity  of  radium  in  rendering  air 
electrically  conductive  some  radium  bromide  was  sealed  up 
in  a  glass  tube  and  heated  to  the  highest  temperature  the; 
glass  would  stand,  during  the  production  of  as  high  a 
vacuum  as  the  mercurial  pump  would  give.  The  whole 
tube  was  then  immersed  in  liquid  hydrogen  contained  in  a 
vacuum  vessel.  On  bringing  the  radium  in  such  a  vessel 
into  a  room  in  which  a  charged  electroscope  was  placed  it 
began  to  leak  when  the  tube  of  radium  surrounded  with 
liquid  hydrogen  was  some  three  feet  away,  and  was  very 
rapid  in  its  action  when  a  foot  away  from  the  electrometer. 
On  immersing  the  tube  containing  the  liquid  hydrogen  with 
submerged  radium  in  another  large  vessel  of  liquid  air 
and  bringing  the  combination  near  the  electroscope,  the 
action  was  the  same. 

Prof.  Rutherford  and  Mr.  Soddy  have  made  the  important 
discovery  that  a  condensable  emanation  is  diffused  into 
gases  from  solutions  of  radium  salts,  which  is  capable  of 
condensation  from  the  gas  mixture  at  the  temperature  of 
liquid  air.  As  it  was  important  to  ascertain  what  was 
taking  place  in  this  respect  with  the  anhydrous  radium 
bromide  when  isolated  in  the  highest  vacuum,  the  follow- 
ing experiment  was  arranged  : — A  glass  apparatus  was  con- 
structed consisting  of  a  p-shaped  tube  having  a  bulb  at  one 
end,  and  being  drawn  out  to  a  capillary  tube  at  the  other. 
Above  the  bulb  was  a  plug  of  hard-pressed  purified  asbestos. 
The  radium  salt  was  located  at  the  bottom  of  the  bulb,  and 
the  whole  was  most  carefully  heated,  exhausted  to  the  limit 
of  the  mercurial  pump,  and  sealed  off.  In  the  dark  no  trace 
of  phosphorescence  could  be  seen  in  any  part  of  the 
apparatus  unless  from  the  pieces  of  the  radium  bromide. 
The  capillary  tube  was  now  immersed  in  liquid  air  in  a 
large  flask,  so  that  distillation  might  proceed  undisturbed 
for  days.  After  twenty-four  hours  of  this  operation,  on 
looking  at  the  capillary  tube  while  covered  with  the  liquid 
air,  a  marked  phosphorescence  was  recognisable  owing  to 
some  condensed  emanation.  The  luminosity  became  natur- 
ally more  marked  the  longer  the  time  the  action  was 
allowed  to  proceed,  and  it  is  the  authors'  intention  to  con- 
tinue the  experiments  for  a  lengthened  period  of  time,  and 
then  seal  off  the  fine  capillary  part  so  that  the  condensed 
product  may  be  thoroughly  examined. 

Entomological  Society,  June  3.— Prof.  E.  B.  Poulton, 
F.R.S.,  president,  in  the  chair. — Mr.  G.  C.  Champion  ex- 
hibited numerous  specimens  of  Coccinella  distincta,  taken  in 
the  pine  woods  of  Woking.  They  were  found,  as  usual, 
running  about  the  ground  in  company  with  Formica  rufa, 
and  were  perhaps  wanderers  from  some  other  locality.  Mr. 
Donisthorpe  said  the  species  was  still  common  at  Wey- 
bridge  in  the  nests  of  Formica  rufa,  and  that  he  had 
observed  it  also  at  Bexhill,  while  Mr.  Chitty  noted  its 
i  former  occurrence  in  Blean  Woods  in  great  numbers. — Mr. 
H.  St.  J.  Donisthorpe  exhibited  a  very  remarkable  melanic 
\  form  of  Halyzia  iS-guttata,  L.,  black  with  white  spots,  the 
I  type,  which  was  also  exhibited,  being  light  brown  with 
white  spots.  The  former  was  taken  at  Oxshott  on  May  22. 
{  Ha  also  exhibited  Stilicus  fragilis,  Gr.,  a  melanic  form  with 
1  a  black  thorax  instead  of  red  as  in  the  type,  taken  at 
Shirley  on  May  15;  and  Staphylinus  fulvipes.  Scop.,  taken 
by  himself  at  Bamber  Forest  on  June  i,  a  new  locality  for 
this  rare  beetle. — Dr.  T.  A.  Chapman  exhibited  two' full- 
grown  larvae  of  Thestor  hallus,  sent  by  Mr.  H.  Powell,  from 
Hyeres,  and  read  a  description  of  them  in  their  various 
stages.  He  also  exhibited  a  larva  of  Heterogyna  paradoxa, 
full  fed,  reared  from  the  egg  at  Reigate,  and  a  cocoon  of 
Orgyia  auro-limbata,  with  parasite  microgaster.  The 
microgaster  and  the  moth  both  came  from  the  same  larva, 
and  the  moth,  though  containing  a  few  eggs,  laid  none. 
An  imago  and  a  parasite  from  the  same  larva  have  not 
infrequently  been  recorded,  but  there  has  been  some  doubt 
on  the  occurrence. — The  President  exhibited  the  dry  form 
of  Precis  actio  bred  by  Mr.  Guy  A.  K.  Marshall  from  an 
egg  laid  by  a  female  of  the  wet  form.  The  parent  was 
captured  by  Mr.  Marshall  at  Salisbury,  Mashonaland  (5000 
feet),  on  February  14  ;  the  egg  was  laid  on  the  following 
day.  It  hatched  February  20,  the  larva  pupated  March  16, 
the  perfect  insect,  a  male,  emerged  March  28.  The  differ- 
ences between  these  two  forms  are  as  astonishing  as  those 
between  the  two  phases  of  Precis  antilope  bred,  the  dry  from 
the  wet,  by  Mr.  Marshall  last  year.     The  president  said  this 


214 


NA  TURE 


[July  2,  190: 


was  the  third  South  African  species  of  the  genus  Precis  in 
which  Mr.  Marshall  had  produced  incontrovertible  evidence 
of  the  specific  identity  of  forms  widely  separated  in  colours, 
patterns,  shape,  relation  of  upper-  to  under-side,  &c.,  and 
even  instinct,  including  the  selection  of  a  particular  type 
of  country.  The  president  also  showed  a  small  series  of  ants, 
part  of  a  much  larger  collection  made  by  the  late  W.  J. 
Burchell  in  Brazil  between  the  years  1825  and  1830.  Con- 
sidering their  great  age,  the  specimens  were  wonderfully 
well  preserved,  and  were  accompanied  by  remarkably  exact 
and  detailed  data,  and,  in  many  cases,  interesting  notes  on 
habits,  instincts,  &c. — Mr.  O.  E.  Janson  communicated  a 
paper  on  the  genus  Theodosia  and  other  Eastern  Goliath- 
ides,  with  descriptions  of  some  new  species. — Colonel  C. 
Swinhoe  communicated  a  paper  on  new  genera  and  species 
of  the  family  Lymantriidic  in  the  National  Collection. — 
Mr.  G.  W.  Kirkaldy  communicated  a  memoir  on  the  Rhyn- 
chota  collected  by  Dr.  Arthur  Willey  chiefly  in  Berara 
and  Lifu. — Prof.  E.  B.  Poulton  gave  an  account  of  ex- 
periments in  1893,  1894,  and  1896  on  the  colour  relation 
between  certain  lepidopterous  larvjE  and  their  surround- 
ings, and  especially  the  effect  of  lichen-covered  bark  upon 
Odontopera  bidcntata  and  Gastropacha  qucrcifoJia. 

Mineralogical  Society,  June  9. — Dr.  Hugo  Muller, 
president,  in  the  chair. — Mr.  H.  F.  Collins  gave  an  account 
of  a  remarkable  mass  of  wollastonite  with  associated 
minerals  which  occurs  at  Santa  F6,  State  of  Chiapas, 
Mexico.  This  mass  of  nearly  pure  wollastonite  covers  an 
area  of  400  yards  by  160  yards,  and  reaches  to  a  depth  of 
more  than  300  feet ;  it  is  surrounded  on  all  sides  by  granite, 
felsite,  and  other  igneous  rocks,  and  is  separated  by  a  mile 
from  the  nearest  limestone.  Near  the  outskirts  of  the  mass 
occur  extremely  large  crystals  of  wollastonite,  most  of 
which  have  been  partially  or  entirely  converted  into  quartz 
or  semi-opal.  Here  are  also  found  masses  of  garnet  and 
of  workable  copper  ores  containing  gold  and  silver.  The 
author  exhibited  and  described  specimens  of  wollastonite, 
bornite  in  wollastonite,  bornite  in  calcedony,  gold-bearing 
linnaiite,  idocrase  rock,  and  a  remarkable  intergrowth  of 
bornite  and  galena  resembling  graphic  granite. — Prof. 
H.  A.  Miers  described  the  results  he  has  obtained  from 
the  observation  of  the  growth  of  crystals  by  a  new  method. 
The  method  consists  in  tracing  the  changes  of  angle  upon 
a  crystal  during  its  growth  by  measuring  it  at  intervals 
by  means  of  a  specially  devised  inverted  goniometer,  with- 
out moving  it  from  the  solution  in  which  it  is  growing.  It 
was  found  that  an  octahedron  of  alum  yielded  invariably 
three  images  for  each  face,  so  that  the  crystal  had  really 
the  form  of  a  very  flat  triakis-octahedron.  Similar  observ- 
ations on  other  crystals  lead  to  the  conclusion  that  the  faces 
of  a  crystal  are  in  general  not  faces  with  simple  indices, 
but  vicinal  planes  slightly  inclined  to  them,  which  change 
their  inclination  during  the  growth  of  the  crystal.  By 
determinations  of  the  refractive  index  of  the  solution  by 
means  of  total  reflection  within  the  crystal,  it  was  found 
that  in  each  case  the  liquid  in  contact  with  the  growing 
crystal  is  slightly  supersaturated. 

Mathematical  Society,  June  11. — Prof.  H.  Lamb,  presi- 
dent, in  the  chair. — The  president  announced  that,  after  the 
conclusion  of  the  current  volume,  some  changes  would  be 
made  in  the  form  of  publication  of  the  Proceedings,  the 
chief  being  an  increase  in  the  size  of  page  and  type. — The 
following  papers  were  communicated  : — Major  P.  A. 
MacMahon,  The  application  of  quaternions  to  the  algebra 
of  invariants. — Mr.  G.  B.  Mathewrs,  Jacobi's  construction 
for  quadric  surfaces.— Mr.  H.  W.  Richmond,  Automorphic 
functions  in  relation  to  the  general  theory  of  algebraic 
curves.  The  object  of  the  paper  is  to  extend  to  curves  in 
space  of  three  or  more  dimensions  the  methods  which  have 
been  developed  by  Poincard  and  Humbert  for  the  parametric 
representation  of  plane  curves  by  means  of  automorphic 
functions.  Curves  are  classified  by  their  genus  (or  de- 
ficiency), their  order  and  the  number  of  dimensions  of  the 
space  in  which  they  lie,  and  the  properties  of  all  the  curves 
in  a  class  can  be  inferred  from  those  of  particular  members 
of  the  class.  The  genera  i,  2,  3,  4,  5  are  discussed  in 
detail. — Prof.  L.  E.  Dickson,  Addition  to  the  paper  on 
four  known  simple  groups  of  order  25920. — Prof.  A.  C. 
Dixon  made  an  informal  communication  On  a  method  of 
introducing  the  logarithmic  function  by  means  of  geo- 
metrical properties  of  conies. 


NO.    1757,  VOL.  68] 


Edinburgh. 
Royal  Society,  June  i. — Dr.  Munro  in  the  chair. — 
Mr.  George  Muirhead,  commissioner  for  the  Duke  of 
Richmond  and  Gordon,  read  a  paper  on  the  effect  of 
temperature  on  the  taking  of  salmon  by  rod  and  fly  on  the 
River  Spev  at  Gordon  Castle.  From  a  careful  examination 
of  the  full  statistics  which  had  been  kept  for  a  number  of 
years,  and  a  discussion  of  them  in  the  light  of  various 
possible  meteorological  and  climatic  causes,  the  conclusion 
come  to  was  that  the  number  of  salmon  caught  on  a  day 
was  determined,  to  a  large  extent,  by  the  variation  of 
temperature  during  that  day,  the  greater  the  variation  of 
temperature  the  smaller  the  catch. — Dr.  W.  Peddie  read 
a  paper  on  the  theory  of  colour  vision.  The  theories  which 
give  the  best  account  of  the  facts  of  colour  vision  and 
colour  blindness  are  the  Young-Helmholtz  theory  and 
Hering's  theory.  Both  are  trichromatic  theories,  and,  apart 
from  physiological  or  anatomical  questions,  both  can,  by 
proper  choice  of  fundamentals,  be  made  to  give  a  good 
account  of  the  main  facts.  The  facts  of  one-eyed  colour 
blindness  show  that,  on  the  Young-Helmholtz  theory,  colour 
blindness  rnust  be  regarded  as  due  to  fusion  of  at  least  two 
fundamental  sensations.  But  the  curves  of  one  sensation, 
determined  by  observations  on  different  eyes,  differ  con- 
siderably among  themselves.  This  indicates  that  a 
broader  basis  for  the  theory  may  be  desirable.  This  may 
be  sought  for  in  a  tetrachromatic  theory.  But  any  such 
theory  must  explain  the  possibility  of  trichromatic  repre- 
sentation of  all  colours.  The  theory  proposed  assumes  two 
pairs  of  complementary  stimulations,  say,  R,G,  and  G,,V. 
In  this  respect  it  has  a  resemblance  to  Hering's  theory. 
But  whereas,  in  Hering's  theory,  stimulation  of  one 
member  of  a  complementary  pair  means  no  stimulation  of 
the  other  member,  in  the  proposed  theory  equal  stimula- 
tions of  two  such  members  gives  white.  It  is  shown  that 
four  sets  of  equivalent  trichromatic  fundamentals  must 
exist.  Assuming  Helmholtz's  fundamentals  as  such  a  set, 
the  four  mathematically  possible  sets  of  tetrachromatic 
equivalents,  of  which  only  one  can  exist  physically,  are 
deduced  ;  and  it  is  found  that  one  of  these  does  suit  the 
known  facts  of  colour  vision  and  colour  blindness. 
Choosing  this  set,  the  other  three  trichromatic  equivalent 
sets  (Helmholtz's  being  the  fourth)  can  be  deduced.  The  per- 
ceptibility curves  (ordinates  being  differences  of  wave-length 
just  appreciable  to  the  eye  in  the  spectrum)  found  for  one 
of  these  sets  is  compared  with  that  given  by  Helmholtz's 
set.  The  comparison  is  found  to  be  very  satisfactory.  The 
nature  of  the  tetrachromatic  set  shows  that  colour  blindness 
must  be  regarded  as  due  to  suppression  of  one  comple- 
mentary pair  of  sensations,  while  variations  in  normal  eyes 
are  due  to  partial  suppression.  In  this  way  the  sensation 
curves  for  different  eyes  may  have  greater  fixity  as  regards 
form,  depending  on  wave-length,  than  in  the  trichromatic 
set.  This  result  is  desirable  if  the  sensation  curves  are  to 
be  regarded  as  really  corresponding  to  physioloeical  stimu- 
lation produced  photochemically  or  photoelectrically.  A 
simple  theory  of  such  stimulation  is  given  and  shown  to 
lead  to  the  required  form  of  relation  between  the  four 
fundamentals. 

June  15. — The  Hon.  Lord  M'Laren  in  the  chair. — Dr. 
Home  and  Dr.  Peach  read  a  paper  on  the  Canonbie  Coal- 
field :  its  geological  structure,  &c.  Though  of  limited  ex- 
tent, this  coalfield  has  aroused  considerable  interest  owing 
to  the  important  series  of  plants  obtained  from  the  beds 
and  to  the  questions  bearing  on  the  correlation  of  the 
Carboniferous  rocks  of  the  Scottish  border  with  those  of 
the  north  of  England  and  centre  of  Scotland.  About  twenty 
years  ago  it  was  assigned  by  the  Geological  Survey  to  the 
Calciferous  Sandstone  series.  At  that  time,  however,  great 
ditTiculty  was  felt  in  correlating  the  subdivisions  of  the 
Carboniferous  rocks  as  there  developed  with  those  in  the 
midland  valley  of  Scotland,  owing  to  the  marked  variation 
in  some  of  the  groups  from  the  normal  Scottish  types. 
The  palajontological  evidence  then  obtained  Was  not  in 
accord  with  these  conclusions,  for  the  plants  seemed  to  show 
that  the  coalfield  really  belonged  to  the  true  Coal-measures. 
Last  year  the  Canonbie  area  was  reexamined  by  the  Geo- 
logical Survey  and  Mr.  Kidston.  Deep  bores  have  been 
sunk  in  recent  years  by  His  Grace  the  Duke  of  Buccleuch, 
and  these  also  have  furnished  important  geological  evidence. 
By    means    of    horizontal    sections    it    was    shown    that    the 


July  2,  1903J 


NATURE 


215 


following  order  of  succession  prevailed  in  the  Lower  Carbon- 
iferous rocks  of  that  region  : — (i)  at  the  base,  the  Whita 
Sandstone  resting  on  the  Birrenswark  volcanic  platform ; 
(2)  the  cement  stone  group ;  (3)  the  Fell  Sandstones ;  (4) 
the  Glencartholm  volcanic  group  with  Scorpion  Bed ;  (5) 
a  group  of  marine  limestones,  sandstones,  and  shales,  with 
coal  seams  on  two  horizons — a  lower,  the  Lawston  Linn 
and  Muirburn  coals  (Scremerston  position),  and  an  upper, 
the  Kilnholm  coals  (Lickar  position).  The  Upper  Carbon- 
iferous Rocks  of  that  region,  embracing  the  Canonbie 
Coalfield,  have  been  referred  by  Mr.  Kidston  to  the  Lower, 
Middle,  and  Upper  Coal-measures,  in  virtue  of  the  evidence 
obtained  from  the  plants.  The  bores  sunk  in  recent  years 
near  Rowanburn  prove  that  the  Rowanburn  coals  (Lower 
Coal-measures)  overlie  the  marine  limestone  group  with 
the  Kilnholm  (Lickar)  coals ;  and  that,  further,  the  Red 
Sandstones  and  shales  referred  by  Mr.  Kidston  to  the 
Upper  Coal-measures  pass  downwards  into  a  series  of  thin 
coals  which  may  be  the  upper  part  of  the  Byreburn  series. 
Ai>  important  economic  question  arises  as  to  the  extension 
of  this  coalfield,  for  it  appears  that  there  is  good  ground 
for  the  belief  that  the  sandstones  and  shales  of  the  Upper 
Coal-measure  age  overlie  the  Middle  and  Lower  Coal- 
measures.  In  conclusion,  it  was  shown  by  means  of  vertical 
sections  that  the  Carboniferous  succession  in  Eskdale  and 
Liddesdale  resembles  more  closely  that  of  Northumberland 
than  that  of  central  Scotland. — As  an  important  supple- 
ment to  the  foregoing,  Mr.  Kidston  communicated  lists 
of  the  fossil  plants  of  the  Calciferous  Sandstone  series  of 
Dunfermline,  of  the  Carboniferous  Limestone  of  Eskdale, 
of  the  Lower  Coal-measures  of  Canonbie,  of  the  Middle 
Coal-measures  of  Byreburn,  and  of  the  Upper  Coal- 
measures  of  Jockie's  Syke,  Cumberland,  which  borders  on 
Dumfriesshire.  Tables  showing  the  horizontal  distribu- 
tion of  the  species  were  given,  and  some  new  and  interest- 
ing species  described,  among  these  a  new  species  of 
Pinakodendron  (P.  Macconochiei)  being  the  first  record  of 
the  genus  in  Britain. — A  paper  by  Prof.  Evwart  on  the  wild 
horse  will  be  printed  in  full  in  these  columns. 

Dublin. 
Royal  Dublin  Society,  May  19.— Prof.  W.  F.  Barrett, 
F.R.S.,  in  the  chair. — Prof.  T.  Johnson  gave  an  illus- 
trated account  of  a  tylose  which  he  had  found  in  a  tracheide 
in  the  xylem  of  the  rhizome  of  a  bracken  fern  (Pteris 
aquilina,  L.).  He  suggested  that  the  disturbance  in  the 
transpiration  current  resulting  from  cutting  the  bracken 
might  produce  tyloses  in  the  underground  stem. — Mr. 
Richard  J.  Moss  read  a  paper  on  an  Irish  specimen  of 
dopplerite.  This  interesting  substance  does  not  seem  to 
have  been  previously  recorded  as  occurring  in  the  United 
Kingdom,  though  it  would  appear  from  a  reference  to  a 
peculiar  form  of  peat  in  a  report  issued  by  the  Commission 
on  Bogs  in  Ireland  in  181 1  that  the  substance  named 
dopplerite  by  Haidinger  in  1849  had  previously  been 
observed  in  Ireland.  The  dopplerite  recently  found  in  a 
peat  bog  in  the  county  of  Antrim  was  in  the  form  of  an 
elastic  jelly,  velvety-black  in  colour,  and  drying  to  a  solid 
of  jet-like  appearance,  with  a  bright  conchoidal  fracture. 
In  chemical  composition  it  differs  little  from  the  peat  in 
which  it  was  found.  It  is  shown  that  mineral  matter, 
chiefly  iron  oxide  and  lime,  which  constitutes  5  per  cent, 
of  the  dry  substance,  may  be  removed  by  steeping  the  jelly 
in  hydrochloric  acid  without  altering  the  consistence  or 
appearance  of  the  substance.  The  original  jelly  is  acid  to 
litmus,  and  liberates  carbon  dioxide  from  calcium  car- 
bonate. Assuming  that  it  consists  chiefly  of  monobasic 
humic  acid  with  a  molecular  weight  of  350,  the  gas  liber- 
ated corresponds  to  73  per  cent,  of  humic  acid  in  the  dry 
substance.  The  peat  in  which  the  dopplerite  was  found 
liberates  carbon  dioxide  corresponding  to  60  per  cent,  of 
the  dry  substance. — Prof.  VV.  F.  Barrett  exhibited  and 
described  Ililger's  direct-reading  wave-length  spectroscope. 
—Prof.  E.  J.  McWeeney  gave  a  description  of  Streptothrix 
nigra,  an  organism  occurring  in  soil,  and  producing  a 
bright  brown  pigmentation  of  the  nutrient  medium. 

Royal  Irish  Academy,  May  25.— Prof.  R.  Atkinson,  presi- 
dent,  in  the  chair. — Reports  were  presented  by  Dr.   R.   F. 
Scharfr,  R.  L.  PrAogor,  Prof.  G.  A.  J.  Cole,  Prof.  D.  J. 
Cunning-ham,   F.R.S.,    G.   CofTey   and  others    on   the  re- 
NO.    1757.    VOL.    681 


suits  obtained  during  their  exploration  of  the  Kesh  Caves, 
Co.  Sligo.  The  reports  detailed  the  results  obtained  from 
an  exploration  of  the  deposits  of  clay,  rock-fragments,  and 
stalagmite  found  in  the  caves  situated  on  the  slopes  of 
Keishcorran  Mountain  in  Co.  Sligo.  Several  weeks  were 
spent  by  the  committee  in  excavating  these  caves  in  1901. 
The  zoological  results  possess  many  points  of  interest.  The 
brown  bear  was  found  to  have  inhabited  these  caves  in 
great  numbers  in  former  times  ;  in  Ireland  remains  of  this 
animal  have  hitherto  been  found  only  very  locally.  The 
other  animals  found  in  the  caves  which  are  now  extinct 
in  the  country  in  either  a  wild  or  domesticated  state  were 
the  reindeer,  wolf,  and  Arctic  lemming,  the  last  of  which 
is  an  addition  to  the  Irish  fossil  fauna.  Man  was  chiefly  a 
late  inhabitant  of  the  caves,  a  single  polished  axe  being  the 
only  Neolithic  object  found.  Several  implements  of  cran- 
nog  type  were  found,  and  abundance  of  charcoal. 

June  8. — Prof.  R.  Atkinson,  president,  in  the  chair. — 
The  intrusive  gneiss  of  Tirerrill  and  Drumahair,  by  Prof. 
Grenville  A.  J.  Cole.  The  northern  end  of  the  gneissic 
axis  of  the  Ox  Mountains  consists  of  an  intrusive  granite, 
which  contains  blocks  of  amphibolite,  derived  from  an 
earlier  series.  The  banded  phenomena  presented  by  it  are 
connected  with  its  flow,  and  the  contrasts  of  mineral  con- 
stitution in  the  bands  are  connected  with  the  abundance  of 
basic  inclusions,  which  have  become  streaked  out  in  the 
fluidal  mass.  Though  brought  into  their  present  promin- 
ence by  Caledonian  and  Hercynian  movements,  the  crystal- 
line rocks  of  the  chain  may  still  be  of  Archaean  age,  as 
originally  suggested  by  Prof.  Hull. 

P.^RIS. 

Academy  of  Sciences,  June  22.— M.  Albert  Gaudry  in 
the  chair. — Two  fluid  batteries ;  electromotive  force,  con- 
densations, transformations  of  energy  at  the  electrodes,  by 
M.  Berthelot. — On  the  structure  and  history  of  the  lunar 
crust.  Observations  suggested  by  the  seventh  number  of 
the  photographic  atlas  of  the  moon,  by  MM.  LoeiMy  and 
P.  Puiseux.  This  volume  contains  photographs  which 
show  clearly  the  frequent  distribution  of  the  eruptive  orifices 
along  the  lines  of  cleavage.  From  the  mode  of  diffusion 
of  the  scoriae  there  would  appear  to  have  been,  at  a  remote 
period,  an  atmosphere,  and  from  the  state  of  these  deposits 
it  is  clear  that  there  can  be  no  running  water  on  the 
surface. — On  the  loss,  in  time  of  drought,  of  a  spring  fed 
by  infiltration  of  a  sheet  of  water,  by  M.  J.  Boussinesq. 
—On  a  property  of  the  o-rays  of  radium,  by  M.  Henri 
Bocquerel.  If  the  o-rays,  placed  in  a  field  of  magnetic 
intensity  H,  have  a  real  or  fictitious  mass  m,  carrying  an 
electric  charge  e,  they  ought  to  describe  a  circular 
trajectory  of  radius  R,  with  a  velocity  v,  and  the  relation 
RH=vm/c  ought  to  hold  between  these  quantities.  From 
this  RH  ought  to  be  a  fixed  quantity  for  the  a-rays,  but 
this  is  not  the  case,  since  Prof.  Rutherford  has  given 
RH  =3-9x10*,  and  in  the  experiments  now  described  values 
of  RH,  varying  continuously  between  2-91x10'  and 
3-41 X  10',  have  been  obtained.  From  this  it  follows  that 
in  a  uniform  magnetic  field  the  radius  of  curvature  of  the 
trajectory  of  the  o-rays  deviated  by  the  field  increases  with 
the  length  of  the  trajectory,  and  this  may  be  attributed  to 
the  presence  of  air. — The  preparation  of  carbides  and 
acetylene  acetylides  by  the  action  of  acetylene  gas  upon 
the  hydrides  of  the  alkalis  and  the  alkaline  earths,  by 
M.  Henri  Moissan.  At  a  temperature  of  100°  C.  the 
hydrides  of  the  alkalis  and  the  alkaline  earths  react  with 
acetylene,  liberating  hydrogen  and  giving  compounds  of 
the  type  C^K^.C^H,  and  CXa.C,H„.  These  compounds, 
heated  in  a  vacuum,  dissociate  readily  into  acetylene  and 
the  corresponding  carbide,  and  hence  form  a  new  method 
for  the  preparation  of  the  carbides  at  a  low  temperature. 
Neither  methane  nor  ethylene  react  at  100°  C.  with  these 
hydrides. — The  influence  of  the  solvent  on  the  rotatory 
power  of  certain  molecules,  by  MM.  A.  Haller  and 
J.  Mingruin.  Details  are  given  of  experiments  on  several 
camphor  derivatives.  In  solution  in  benzene  and  its  homo- 
logues,  which  are  non-ionising  liquids,  the  rotatory  power 
of  cyano-camphor  was  found  to  be  nearly  zero,  whilst  in 
other  solvents,  especially  in  alkaline  liquids,  which  are 
strongly  ionising,  the  rotatory  power  was  very  high. 
Other  camphor  derivatives  showed  similar  results,  although 
the  differences  were  less  marked. — The  differences  between 


2l6 


NATURE 


[July  2,  1903 


the  diseases  known  as  nagana,  surra,  and  caderas,  by 
MM.  A.  Laveran  and  F.  Mesnil.  It  has  been  previously 
shown  that  the  nagana  or  disease  of  the  tsetse  fly  and 
caderas,  prevalent  in  South  America,  are  distinct  diseases, 
and  a  comparison  of  the  Trypanosoma  from  the  disease 
known  as  the  surra  with  the  two  preceding  shows  that 
this  is  quite  different  from  either.  The  three  diseases  are 
hence  quite  distinct. — The  international  congress  of 
savants  at  the  Universal  Exhibition  of  St.  Louis,  1904,  by 
M.  Newcomb.  This  congress  will  be  held  on  September 
19,  1904,  and  the  five  following  days.  A  short  account  is 
given  of  its  objects  and  the  arrangements  that  have  been 
made. — The  drawings  on  the  walls  of  the  cave  of  Altamira 
(Spain),  by  MM.  Emile  Cartailhac  and  the  Abb^  H. 
Brcuil.  A  comparison  is  made  between  these  drawings 
and  those  recently  described  in  the  French  caves.  The 
style  of  work  and  colouring  is  similar  in  both,  but  in  the 
Spanish  cave  the  colouring  is  much  superior  to  that  in  the 
French  caves ;  it  is  noticeable  that  in  the  former  drawings 
of  the  mammoth  and  reindeer  are  absent. — Remarks  by 
AL  Salomon  Reinach  on  the  preceding  memoir.  It  is  note- 
worthy that  only  animals  which  could  be  used  for  food 
are  depicted  in  these  caves,  there  being  no  representations 
of  carnivora.  The  Aborigines  of  Central  Australia  also 
draw  figures  of  animals  on  the  rocks  and  soil,  with  the 
object  of  increasing  their  multiplication,  and  here,  also, 
carnivora  are  naturally  absent. — The  propagation  of  waves 
in  elastic  media,  according  as  the  media  are  conductors 
or  non-conductors  of  heat,  by  M.  P.  Duhem. — The  per- 
petual secretary  announced  to  the  Academy  the  death  of 
M.  L.  Cremona,  correspondant  for  the  section  of  geometry. 
— On  surfaces  which  may,  in  several  movements,  give  rise 
to  a  family  of  Lam^,  by  M.  A.  Demoulin. — On  the  simul- 
taneous employment  of  the  laws  of  distinct  survival,  by 
M.  Albert  Quiquet. — On  a  method  of  measuring  the  varia- 
tion of  the  current  in  the  armature  in  short  circuit  during 
the  time  of  commutation  in  a  continuous  current  dynamo, 
by  M.  lliovici. — On  the  physical  constitution  of  the  atmo- 
sphere, by  M.  Louis  Maillard.  The  usual  formula  for  the 
density  p  =  273/76o  /)/T  does  not  appear  to  hold  when  />  and 
T  are  both  very  small.  From  the  author's  calculations, 
which  are  partly  based  on  results  from  captive  balloons 
and  partly  on  laboratory  experiments,  the  density  of  the 
air  diminishes  up  to  a  height  of  30  to  50  kilometres,  and 
then  increases  up  to  75  kilometres  (p  =  o-2i).  If  these  re- 
sults are  correct,  the  theories  of  astronomical  refraction 
will  require  some  modifications. — On  the  estimation  of 
vanadium  in  alloys,  by  M.  Paul  Nicolardot.  The  method 
of  Sefstrom  (the  solution  of  the  alloy  in  sulphuric  or  hydro- 
chloric acid)  for  the  qualitative  detection  of  vanadium  in 
Swedish  iron,  when  slightly  modified,  can  be  made  quanti- 
tative. Comparative  analyses  of  the  same  sample  by  three 
methods  are  given. — On  the  esterification  of  the  hydracids, 
by  M.  A.  Villiers. — On  the  benzoyl  derivatives  of  hydrazo- 
benzene,  by  M.  P.  Freundler. — On  the  action  of  abietic 
acid  on  ferments,  by  M.  Jean  Effront. — On  some  combin- 
ations of  chloride  of  gold  and  pyridine,  by  M,.  Maurice 
Franpois. — The  phenyl  substitution  in  the  phenyl- 
methanes,  their  carbinols  and  chlorides,  by  M.  Jules 
?'Chmidlin.  A  thermochemical  paper. — The  preparation 
of  alkyl  nitrates  and  nitrites,  by  MM.  L.  Bouveault  and 
A.  Wahl.  Excellent  yield  of  nitric  esters  can  be  obtained 
by  the  use  of  anhydrous  nitric  acid  in  the  case  of  the 
primary  alcohols ;  with  secondary  alcohols  the  action  is 
quite  different,  the  corresponding"  ketone  being  the  main 
product  of  the  reaction  ;  with  tertiary  alcohols  the  action 
is  destructive.  The  action  of  pure  HNO3  is  suggested  as 
a  reagent  for  differentiating  between  the  three  classes  of 
alcohols.  Excellent  yields  of  nitrous  esters  were  obtained 
by  the  action  of  nitrosyl  chloride  upon  a  mixture  of  the 
alcohol  and  pyridine  at  0°  C— Chlorine  derivatives  of 
methylene  chloroacetate  and  diacetate,  by  M.  Marcel 
Descude. — On  some  new  members  of  the  pyranic  series, 
by  MM.  R.  Fosse  and  A.  Robyn.— On  stachyose,  by  M.  C. 
Tanret.  It  is  shown  that  manneotetrose  and  stachyose 
are  identical,  the  composition  being  C,,H,,0„,. — Compari- 
sons between  the  phenomena  of  nutrition  in  seedlings  with 
or  without  their  cotyledons,  by  M.  G.  Andi-6.— On  some 
conditions  of  oxidation  of  salicylic  aldehyde  by  organs  and 
extracts  of  organs,  by  MM.  J.-E.  Abelous  and  J.  Aloy. 
The  oxidation  of  salicylic  aldehyde  in  extracts  from  the  liver 


NO.    1757,  VOL.   68] 


of  the  horse  or  calf  goes  on  better  in  a  vacuum  than  in  air, 
th"?  presence  of  free  oxygen  diminishing,  or  even  suppress- 
ing, the  oxidation. — On  the  glycerol  in  the  blood,  by  M. 
Maurice  Nicloux. — On  mixtures  of  iodine  and  sulphur,  by 
M.  R.  BoulOMCh.  From  a  dilatometric  study  it  would 
appear  that  sulphur  and  iodine  when  fused  together  give 
rise  to  neither  definite  compounds  nor  solid  solutions. — The 
action  of  the  magnetic  field  on  the  infusoria,  by  MM.  C. 
Ch^neveau  and  G.  Bohn.  Contrary  to  the  results 
obtained  by  M.  H.  du  Bois,  it  is  found  that  an  intense 
magnetic  field  modifies  the  ciliary  movements,  the  growth, 
and  the  multiplication  of  the  infusoria. — The  law  of  the 
action  of  trypsin  on  gelatin,  by  MM.  Victor  Henri  and 
Larguier  des  Bancels. — The  family  of  the  Clostridiaces, 
by  M.  Paul  Vuillemin. — On  the  structure  of  the  seed  of 
Nymphaea  flava,  by  M.  J.  Chifflot.— The  disease  of  the 
plane  tree,  by  M.  J.  Beauverie. — On  the  exotic  plant 
species  in  the  immediate  neighbourhood  of  B^ziers  (H6rault), 
by  M.  P.  Carles. — On  the  geology  of  the  Oubangui  district 
at  Tchad,  by  M.  Lacoin. — The  poisons  of  the  organism 
and  gestation,  by  MM.  Charrin  and  Rochd. — The  results 
of  phototherapy  and  the  technique  of  its  application  in 
lupus,  by  M.  Finsen.  Statistics  of  the  results  obtained  in 
the  treatment  of  lupus  at  the  Finsen  Institute,  Copenhagen, 
with  some  details  of  the  mode  of  treatment. 


DIARY  OF  SOCIETIES. 

FRIDA  Y.  Jui.v  3. 

Institution  of  Mining  Engineers,  at  11.30  a.m.  — Further  Remarks 
on  the  Portuguese  Manica  Gold-field  :  A.  R.  Sawyer.— Coal  fields  of  the 
Faroe  Islands  :  E.  A.  Greener.— Miners"  Anaemia  or  Ankylostomiasis  : 
Dr.  J  S.  Haldane.— Water-softening  Plant:  Vincent  Corbett.— The 
Redevelopment  of  the  Slate-trade  in  Ireland  :  O.  H.  Kinahan.— The 
Smelters  of  British  Columbia  :  W.  Denham  Verschoyle.— The  Common- 
sense  Doctrine  of  Furnace-draught :  H.  W.  Halbaum.— The  Ventilation 
of  Deep  Mines  :  Arthur  C.  Murray. 

Grologists'  Association,  at  8.— Some  Flint  Implements  from  Reading 
and  Maidenhead  :  LI.  Treacher. 


CONTENTS. 


PAGE 


The  Biography  of  Helmholtz.     By    Sir  J.  Burdon- 

Sanderson,  Bart.,  F.R.S.,  and  Harold  Hilton  .  193 
The  Earth-history  of  Central  Europe.  By  T.  G.  B.  196 
Our  Book  Shelf:— 


Whetham  :  "  A  Treatise  on  the  Theory  of  Solution, 

including  the  Phenomena  of  Electrolysis"        .        .     i 
Brough  :    "The   Study     of    Mental    Science." — W. 


97 


JMICU ....  197 

Hasluck  :  "  Photography";  Kilbey  :  "Hand  Camera 

Photography" 198 

Colomer  :   "  Mise  en  Valeur  des  Giles  Mineraux  "  .    .  198 
Letters  to  the  Editor  :— 

Psychophysical  Interaction. — Prof.  J.  H.  Muirhead  198 
Tables    of    Four-figure    Logarithms. — Prof.     John 

Perry,    F.R.S 199 

Ship's  Magnetism.— Capt.  E.W.  Creak,  C.B., F.R.S.  199 

Mercury  Bubbles. — Dr.  Henry  H.  Dixon 199 

Radium    Fluorescence.— F.  Harrison  Glew  ....  200 
A  New  Series  in  the  Magnesium  Spectrum.— William 

Sutherland ...  200 

The  Kite  Competition  of  the  Aeronautical  Society  200 

The  Celtic  Gold  Ornaments      201 

The  University  of  London        201 

A  Charlottenburg  Institute  for  London 203 

The  British  Academy 204 

Notes 205 

Our  Astronomical  Column  : — 

Reported  Change  on  Saturn 207 

Search  Ephemeris  for  Faye's  Comet 207 

Observations  of  Nova  Geminorum 207 

The  Red  Spot  on  Jupiter  ...  208 

The  Study  of  very  Faint  Spectra 208 

Institution  of  Naval  Architects 208 

The  International  Congress  for  Applied  Chemistry. 

By  Dr.  H.  Borns 209 

South-eastern  Union  of  Scientific  Societies  .    ...  211 

University  and  Educational  Intelligence 211 

Societies  and  Academies 212 

Diary  of  Societies 216 


NATURE 


217 


THURSDAY,    JULY   9,    1903. 


RECENT     WORKS    ON    OPTICS. 

Manual  of  Advanced  Optics.  By  C.  Riborg  Mann, 
Assistant  Professor  of  Physics  in  the  University  of 
Chicago.  Pp.  196.  (Chicago :  Scott,  Forseman 
and  Co.,  1902.) 

Practical  Exercises  in  Light :  being  a  Laboratory 
Course  for  Schools  of  Science  and  Colleges.  By 
R.  S.  Clay,  B.A.,  D.Sc.  Pp.  vi+187.  (London: 
Macmillan  and  Co.,  Ltd.,  1902.)     Price  2S.  6d. 

Elementary  Ophthalmic  Optics.  By  Freeland  Fergus, 
M.D.,  F.R.S.E.,  Surgeon  to  the  Glasgow  Eye  In- 
firmary. Pp.  viii  +  107.  (London  :  Blackie  and 
Son,  1903.)     Price  3s.  6d.  net. 

Geometrical  Optics :  an  Elementary  Treatise  upon  the 
Theory,  and  its  Practical  Application  to  the  more 
Exact  Measurements  of  Optical  Properties.  By 
Thomas  H.  Blakesley,  M.A.  Pp.  viii  +  120. 
(London  :  Whittaker  and  Co.,  1903.)     Price  25.  6d. 

Das  Stereoskop.  Seine  anwendung  in  den  technischen 
Wissenschaften.  Uber  Entstehung  und  Konstruk- 
tion  Stereoskopischer  Bilder.  Von  Wilhelm  Man- 
chot,  Architekt  und  Professor  am  Stadel'schen 
Kunstinstitut  zu  Frankfurt  a.M.  Pp.  vi  (3  blank)  + 
68.     (Leipzig:  Vcit  and  Co.,  1903.) 

MR.  MANN'S  book  contains  an  account  of  the  three 
months'  experimental  course  on  optics  pursued 
by  the  senior  students  at  the  University  of  Chicago. 
The  name  Chicago,  uttered  on  this  side  of  the  Atlantic, 
suggests  many  different  things  to  different  persons ; 
to  physicists  it  cannot  but  bring  to  mind  the  name  of 
Prof.  Michelson,  to  whom  we  are  indebted  for  some  of 
the  most  valuable  and  ingenious  optical  investigations 
that  the  last  century  brought  forth.  An  experimental 
course,  developed  according  to  the  ideas  of  Prof. 
Michelson,  could  scarcely  be  other  than  original  and 
stimulating;  the  course  before  us,  in  addition,  is 
systematically  developed,  the  descriptions  are  clear  and 
concise,  and  the  illustrations,  though  few,  are  well 
calculated  to  serve  the  purpose  for  which  they  were 
intended.  Each  chapter  commences  with  a  brief  theo- 
retical investigation,  wherein  the  aim  is  to  concentrate 
attention  on  the  physical,  as  distinguished  from  the 
purely  mathematical,  aspect  of  the  subject;  following 
this  is  a  description  of  the  experiments,  and  the 
manipulation  of  the  necessary  apparatus.  Room  is 
left  for  the  student  to  develop  a  certain  amount  of 
originality  in  his  methods,  and  thus  avoid  reduction 
to  the  state  of  a  mere  mechanical  copyist.  Numerous 
references  are  given  to  original  memoirs,  which  should 
prove  very  useful  to  advanced  students.  Besides  the 
experiments  usually  found  in  books  on  optics,  descrip- 
tions are  given  of  the  method  of  determining  the  re- 
solving power  of  telescopes,  spectroscopes,  and 
gratings.  It  is  interesting  to  find  Prof.  Michelson 's 
classic  researches  on  the  resolution  of  spectral  lines  by 
means  of  the  interferometer  included  in  a  course  for 
students.     In  fine,   no  one  on   glancing  through   this 

NO.    1758,  VOL.  68] 


book  would  hesitate  to  endorse  the  concluding  words 
of  Prof.  Michelson's  introductory  note: — 

"  Those  who  desire  to  enter  into  optical  investi- 
gations cannot  get  a  better  foundation  for  future  work 
than  by  studying  the  optical  theories  here  presented, 
and  performing  the  experiments  described." 

Teachers  have  long  felt  the  want  of  an  inexpensive 
book  on  practical  light,  suitable  for  students  who  are 
commencing  the  study  of  the  subject ;  and  to  these  Dr. 
Clay's  little  book  may  be  confidently  recommended. 
As  stated  in  the  preface,  it  forms  the  elementary  portion 
of  a  "  Treatise  on  Practical  Light,"  now  in  preparation 
by  the  author.  It  is  by  no  means  an  easy  task  to 
arrange  a  series  of  elementary  experiments  on  light, 
which  shall  be  sufficiently  varied  to  prevent  the  interest 
of  the  student  from  flagging,  while  of  sufficient  scope 
and  completeness  to  give  the  student  a  firm  grasp  of 
the  elementary  principles  of  the  subject.  The  author 
is  to  be  congratulated  on  his  success  in  both  the  above 
respects.  The  ordinary  laws  of  reflection,  refraction, 
and  dispersion  are  illustrated  by  the  aid  of  simple  ex- 
periments, which  can  be  performed  without  the  aid  of 
expensive  appliances;  indeed,  the  spectrometer  is  the 
only  piece  of  elaborate  apparatus  required  for  the  course 
described.  In  addition,  numerous  practical  exercises 
are  appended  at  the  ends  of  the  chapters.  Attention  is 
directed  to  the  observation  of  caustics,  and  the 
principle  of  formation  of  the  rainbow.  The  optical 
bench  described  by  the  author  is  to  be  commended  for 
its  simplicity  and  ef!icacy.  Perhaps  the  most  novel  part 
of  the  course  consists  in  a  number  of  experiments  on  the 
optical  properties  of  the  eye,  and  others  on  diffraction 
and  interference.  We  do  not  remember  to  have  pre- 
viously seen  a  description  of  the  method  of  producing 
Lloyd's  single  mirror  fringes  by  the  aid  of  a  prism  and 
spectrometer.  Points  to  which  objections  can  be  raised 
are  neither  numerous  nor  important.  On  p.  86,  it  is 
stated  that  a  telescope  focused  for  infinity  and  directed 
towards  the  sun  gives  rise  to  a  parallel  bundle  of  emer- 
gent rays.  This  is  scarcely  correct;  the  rays  from  any 
particular  point  of  the  sun  will  emerge  parallel  to  each 
other,  but  the  total  emergent  light  consists  of  a  diverg- 
ing bundle  of  pencils,  each  consisting  of  parallel  rays. 
On  p.  127,  it  is  stated  that  the  fovea  centralis  contains 
rods  only  and  no  cones,  while  the  reverse  is  actually 
the  case.  The  account  given  on  p.  132  of  the  mechan- 
ism of  accommodation  could  bear  revision ;  modern  re- 
search indicates  that  the  increased  curvature  of  the 
anterior  surface  of  the  crystalline  lens  is  produced  by 
an  increase  of  tension  in  the  anterior  capsule  layer, 
and  not  by  its  relaxation,  as  was  supposed  by  Helm- 
holtz. 

The  opththalmic  surgeon  has  to  deal  with  the  eye, 
not  alone  as  a  delicate  organ  of  the  human  body,  sub- 
ject, like  other  organs,  to  disease ;  but  also,  in  many 
cases,  as  a  defective  optical  instrument.  Hence  a 
knowledge  of  optics  is  as  necessary  to  him  as  an 
acquaintance  with  the  science  of  electricity  is  neces- 
sary to  the  electrical  engineer.  Dr.  Fergus's  book 
has  been  written  for  medical  students,  as  an 
elementary  introduction  to  the  science  of  geometrical 

L 


2l8 


NATURE 


[July  9,  1903 


optics.  There  are  few  points  in  this  book  calling 
for  remark,  except,  perhaps,  the  very  arbitrary  limit- 
ations of  the  subject-matter.  Thus,  chromatic  aberra- 
tion and  dispersion,  the  "power"  of  a  lens  and  its 
measurement  in  dioptres,  the  use  of  lenses  as  spec- 
tacles or  magnifying  glasses,  and  the  optical  system 
of  the  eye  itself,  alike  remain  unmentioned.  The 
mathematical  theory  of  thick  lenses  is  discussed, 
although  the  subject  of  lens  combinations  is  neglected. 
No  experimental  methods  with  regard  to  lenses  are 
described,  and  no  problems  tor  solution  by  the  student 
are  appended. 

In  taking-  up  the  study  of  light,  students  generally 
commence  with  the  laws  of  geometrical  optics. 
Further  on  in  their  studies  they  find  that  the  instru- 
ments used  for  even  the  simplest  investigations  com- 
prise various  combinations  of  lenses  and  mirrors, 
which  can  be  understood  and  appreciated  only  when 
a  competent  knowledge  of  geometrical  optics  has  been 
acquired.  In  spite,  however,  of  the  manifest  import- 
ance of  this  branch  of  knowledge,  it  has  in  recent 
years  received  scant  attention  from  investigators,  and 
has  shown  few  marks  of  progress.  This  is  un- 
doubtedly due  in  part  to  the  fact  that  the  subject  of 
geometrical  optics  affords  a  happy  hunting-ground  for 
the  mathematician,  who  may,  or  may  not,  have  any- 
thing more  than  a  passing  acquaintance  with  the  prac- 
tical side  of  the  subject;  while  the  attention  of  experi- 
mental investigators  has  mostly  been  absorbed  in 
other  directions.  Let  us  consider,  for  instance,  the 
subject  of  lens  combinations.  Gauss  showed  that  a 
thick  lens,  or  combination  of  lenses,  possesses  four 
important  points  on  the  axis — the  two  principal  points 
and  the  two  principal  foci.  If  the  distances  of  the 
object  and  image  are  respectively  measured  from  the 
first  and  second  principal  points,  then  the  formula  for 
the  combination  takes  a  form  similar  to  that  applic- 
able to  a  single  thin  lens.  In  a  sense,  then,  the  work 
of  Gauss  affords  a  complete  method  of  solving  any 
problem  connected  with  lenses ;  it  labours  under  the 
disadvantage,  however,  that  in  most  problems  the 
necessary  analysis  is  of  a  somewhat  clumsy  character. 
It  has  thus  been  left  for  Mr.  Blakesley  to  introduce  a 
remarkable  simplification,  by  measuring  the  distances 
of  the  object  and  image,  not  from  the  first  and  second 
principal  points,  but  from  the  first  and  second  principal 
foci.  The  resulting  equations  in  u  and  v,  as  well  as 
those  relating  to  the  magnification,  now  take  forms 
amenable  to  simple  analytical  treatment.  The  focal 
length  of  a  lens,  or  lens  combination,  is  taken  as  a  con- 
stant of  one  dimension  in  space,  not  necessarily 
measured  from  any  particular  point ;  in  this  respect  it 
resembles  the  coefficient  of  self-induction  of  a  coil. 

The  advantage  of  this  method  is  well  illustrated  by 
the  investigation  on  the  combination  of  a  lens  and  a 
mirror,  on  pp.  67-71.  It  also  readily  adapts  itself  to 
the  needs  of  experimental  investigations.  A  dis- 
tinguishing feature  of  the  book  is  the  attention  de- 
voted to  practical  determinations  of  the  constants  of 
lens  systems ;  those  involving  the  use  of  a  microscope 
are  particularly  worthy  of  remark,  though  all  are  in- 
teresting. It  is  to  be  regretted,  however,  that  Mr. 
Blakesley  has  preferred  to  speak  of  Gauss's  principal 
NO.    1758,  VOL.  68] 


points  as  "the  points  i  of  the  diagram  ";  a  section 
on  the  graphical  construction  of  images,  using  Gauss's 
principal  planes,  would  also  make  many  problems 
clearer.  In  view  of  their  practical  importance,  with 
respect  to  the  optical  system  of  the  eye.  Listing's 
nodal  points  also  claim  some  mention.  Chapter  xi., 
on  forms  of  lenses  for  minimum  deviation  of  rays,  is 
of  great  interest  and  practical  importance.  It  is  to 
be  feared,  however,  that  the  geometrical  relations  ot 
circles,  which  are  cursorily  alluded  to  in  the  text  as 
"  quite  clear,"  may  greatly  puzzle  many  students  whose 
leaning  is  toward  practical  physics  rather  than  toward 
pure  mathematics.  Further,  the  theory  of  the  achro- 
matisation  of  an  eye-piece  (p.  1 10)  could  bear  amplifica- 
tion. Many  students  arrive  at  the  conclusion  that 
Huyghens's  eye-piece  has  advantages,  with  respect  to 
ordinary  chromatic  aberration,  over  a  single  thin  lens 
used  as  a  magnifying  glass — a  conclusion  which  is 
demonstrably  erroneous.  Mr.  Blakesley  gives  data 
from  which  a  student,  if  sufficiently  enthusiastic  and 
persevering,  might  arrive  at  the  truth  of  this 
matter;  but  a  page  or  so  devoteu  to  the  question 
would  have  enhanced  the  value  of  the  book.  It  is 
further  to  be  regretted  that  a  series  of  problems,  to  be 
solved  by  the  student,  has  not  been  appended;  a  loose 
leaflet  containing  five  such  problems,  issued  as  adver- 
tising the  scope  of  Mr.  Blakesley's  book,  shows  how 
attractive  work  of  this  kind  may  be  made.  Finally, 
however,  it  must  be  said  that  a  more  interesting  and 
stimulating  book  than  that  under  consideration  is 
seldom  likely  to  come  in  the  way  of  the  student.  Mr. 
Blakesley  has,  moreover,  effected  a  notable  advance  in 
geometrical  optical  theory. 

The  stereoscope  is  probably  mentioned,  more  or  less 
briefly,  in  most  lecture  courses  on  optics ;  but  it  is 
seldom  realised  that  this  instrument  is  something  more 
than  a  plaything  or  a  scientific  curiosity.  Yet  it  is 
undeniable  that,  in  many  branches  of  science,  the 
stereoscope  could  be  used  as  a  most  valuable  aid  to 
instruction.  In  commencing  the  study  of  analytical 
geometry  of  three  dimensions,  for  example,  the  chief 
difficulty  of  a  student  is  to  realise  the  actual  signi- 
ficance of  the  more  or  less  conventional  diagrams 
which  he  must  use;  there  can  be  little  doubt  that,  if 
provided  with  proper  diagrams  to  be  viewed  stereo- 
scopically,  he  would  avoid  much  profitless  labour,  and 
gain,  in  the  end,  much  clearer  notions  of  the  signi- 
ficance of  the  processes  employed.  In  practical  solid 
geometry,  architecture,  crystallography,  &c.,  there  are 
other  wide  fields  for  the  use  of  the  stereoscope.  Prof. 
Manchot  mentions  a  further  novel  use  to  which  the 
stereoscope  can  be  put.  If  two  bank  notes  are  viewed 
stereoscopically,  slight  differences,  which  could  scarcely 
be  detected  by  the  eye,  will  give  the  printing  an 
appearance  of  relief  or  depression,  so  that  a  false  note 
can  easily  be  detected. 

That  the  stereoscope  is  not  more  largely  used  is 
doubtless  due  to  the  fact  that,  in  the  forms  ordinarily 
met  with,  the  pictures  or  diagrams  are  limited  to  too 
small  a  size  for  the  full  benefit  of  the  instrument  to 
be  felt.  Prof.  Manchot  has  invented  a  stereoscope 
which  can  be  adapted  to  viewing  diagrams  of  any 
size  whatever,  and  this  instrument  is  fully  described. 


July  9,  1903] 


NATURE 


219 


as  well  as  the  method  of  constructing  stereoscopic 
diagrams  to  be  used  with  it.  To  those  anxious  to 
lighten,  so  far  as  possible,  the  labour  of  the  student, 
while  increasing  the  efficiency  of  the  teacher's  efforts, 
Prof.  Manchot's  little  book  should  afford  suggestive 
reading.  Edwin  Edskr. 


PREVENTION  OF  ACCIDENTS  IN  FACTORIES. 
Infortuni  sul   lavoro.       Mezzi   Tecnici   per   Prevenirli. 

By   Ing.   E.   Magrini.       Pp.   xxxi  +  251.       (Milano : 

Ulrico  Hoepli,  1903.)  Price  L.3. 
'"T'HE  introduction  opens  with  this  apt  quotation, 
-»-  "  Le  fabricant  doit  autre  chose  k  ses  ouvriers 
que  le  salaire. "  And  the  book  purposes  to  teach  the 
manufacturer  how  to  pay  the  debt  by  providing  all  the 
protection  possible  against  dangers  attending  the  use 
oi  machinery. 

The  prevention  of  accidents  is  a  subject  to  which 
much  attention  has  been  given  in  Italy,  first  by  the 
"  As^ociazione  per  prevenire  gli  infortuni  sul  lavoro," 
and  finally  by  the  Government,  which  completed  its 
legislation  in  1899  by  the  issue  of  a  set  of  precautionary 
rules  incumbent  on  all  users  of  machinery.  These 
rules  form  the  framework  of  the  book,  each  chapter 
having,  as  text,  an  extract  from  them,  and  describing 
in  detail  the  appliances  needed  to  give  effect  to  the 
regulation  in  the  various  classes  of  machinery. 

The  first  two  chapters  deal  with  prime  movers,  the 
means  of  fencing  them  and  of  stopping  them,  not 
merely  by  cutting  off  the  motive  power,  but  by  apply- 
ing brakes  to  the  moving  parts.  Transmissions — 
shafts,  belts,  gears,  &c. — form  the  subject  of  chapter 
iii.,  and  share  with  circular  saws  (chapter  v.)  the  dis- 
tinction of  causing  more  accidents  than  any  other  class 
of  apparatus.  .'\  comparison  of  these  two  chapters  is 
instructive.  Of  all  protective  devices,  those  for 
circular  saws  have  called  ior  most  ingenuity  and  met 
with  least  success.  The  numerous  coverings  described 
are  costly  and  complicated  without  being  really 
effective,  and  they  are  devices  which  a  workman  would 
discard  whenever  possible.  On  the  other  hand  the 
protections  described  in  chapter  iii.  are  simple,  effec- 
tive, and  devoid  of  any  hindrance  in  working,  and  call 
for  more  attention  than  they  usually  receive.  Carding 
and  spinning  machines,  emery  wheels,  ladders  and 
protective  clothing,  spectacles,  &c.,  are  dealt  with 
briefly,  while  elevators  of  all  kinds  and  their  safety 
appliances  are  discussed  fully.  In  chapter  vii.  forty 
pages  are  devoted  to  the  dangers  of  manoeuvring  wiiu 
belts  in  motion.  Much  in  this  is  of  great  value,  many 
of  the  devices  being  as  simple  as  they  are  effective. 

Electrical  machines,  fires  and  boilers  receive  very 
inadequate  treatment  in  the  remaining  twenty-five 
pages.  The  chapter  on  electrical  machinery  does  not 
approach  the  standard  of  the  rest  of  the  book  ;  it  is  far 
from  complete,  even  on  more  important  points,  and 
contains  many  statements  and  recommendations  that 
would  find  but  little  acceptance  from  engineers. 

Speaking  of  the  book  as  a  whole,   it  tends  rather 

towards  a  catalogue ;  more  critical  descriptions  of  the 

different  devices  would  have  been  welcome,   ;;nd  tliis 

more   especially   in    regard    to    two   important    points, 

NO.    1758.    VOL.   68] 


which  are  almost  entirely  overlooked.  These  are,, 
firstly,  that  a  device  which  does  not  afford  complete 
protection  often  increases  the  danger;  it  lulls  to  a 
sense  of  false  security.  Secondly,  that  a  protection 
which  can  be  discarded  by  the  workman  is  o;  far  less 
value  than  one  which  he  is  forced  to  adopt.  Most 
safety  devices  are  of  some  hindrance  in  working,  and 
experience  shows  that  workmen  take  no  interest  in 
efforts  made  for  their  protection ;  they  are  merely 
annoyed  at  the  inconvenience  in  their  work. 

These  few  criticisms  are  easily  outweighed  by  the 
praise  which  the  book  well  deserves.  Nearly  all  the 
devices  are  illustrated  as  well  as  described,  and  irk 
matters  of  detail  the  book  gives  numberless  useful 
hints,  and  what  may  be  termed  dodges  rather  than 
appliances ;  a  master,  by  following  these,  could  avoid 
many  dangers  at  little  cost  and  trouble. 

G.  H.  Baillie. 


A   NEW  SWISS   HANDBOOK. 
Guide  to  Switzerland.     Pp.  cvi  +   235;  with  31  maps 
and  6  plans.     (London  :   Macmillan  and  Co.,   Ltd., 
1903.)     Price  55,  net. 

MODERN  tourists,  and  in  particular  those  who 
wander  in  companies,  are  prone  to  haunt  certain 
familiar  centres,  Lucerne,  Grindelwald,  Zemiatt, 
Chamonix,  Pontresina,  and  to  confine  their  excursions 
within  narrow  bounds.  Messrs.  Macmillan  have  de- 
signed a  handbook  to  meet  the  needs  of  this  class.  In 
many  respects  the  conception  of  the  volume  is  good,  but 
the  execution  is  faulty  and  unequal.  To  deal  first  with 
its  merits.  The  eulogy  of  the  political  institutions  of 
the  Swiss  Republic,  and  the  notes  on  the  nature  of 
glaciers,  introduced  among  the  preliminary  chapters, 
ought  to  interest  and  inform  the  better  class  of  sight- 
seers, while  practical  suggestions  on  health  and  outfit 
are  useful  to  all.  The  separate  hotel  list  will  be  found 
convenient  for  reference ;  houses  frequented  by  our 
countrymen  are  distinguished  by  larger  type,  and  prices 
are  in  many  cases  quoted.  As  a  whole,  the  list  seems 
to  be  compiled  with  care,  but  there  are  singular 
omissions;  amongst  them  we  have  noted  Binn,  St. 
Beatenberg,  Montana,  Piora,  Promontogno,  Lanzo 
d'Intelvi,  all  well-known  stopping  places.  At  Binn, 
the  text  tells  us,  "  refreshments  can  be  procured,  and 
if  necessary  beds  obtained  at  the  Curb's."  The  village 
has  for  years  had  a  large  hotel  with  an  English  chap- 
lain attached.  The  inns  on  the  tour  of  Mont  Blanc,  at 
Contamines,  Nant  Borrant,  Chapieux,  are  mentioned 
in  the  route,  but  not  in  the  list. 

When  we  come  to  study  in  detail  the  guide-book 
proper,  we  find  that  the  routes  have  been  conveniently 
airanged  round  the  centres  to  which  they  naturally 
attach  themselves.  The  editors  recommend  their  text 
as  "concise  and  accurate."  As  to  accuracy,  we  can- 
not endorse  their  estimate  of  their  work.  The  section 
relating  to  Davos  is  well  done,  but  that  devoted  to  the 
Upper  Engadine  is  meagre*and  untrustworthy.  The 
new  railway  connecting  Thusis  and  St.  Moritz  by  the 
Schyn  and  Albula,  opened  to  Celerina  this  year, 
ought  to  have  been  described.  Promontogno,  with  its 
good    hotel,    the    natural    halting-place    for    travellers 


2  20 


NATURE 


[July  9,  1903 


coming  from  the  Lake  of  Como,  and  the  exquisite 
drive  to  Soglio,  are  passed  over.  The  "  Palace  Hotel  " 
at  Maloja  has  its  prospectus  printed  almost  in  full, 
but  many  of  the  excursions  from  it  are  catalogued 
under  Sils,  The  carriage  roads  up  the  Fex  Thai  and 
Roseg  Thai,  the  restaurants  at  Curtins,  on  the  Surlei 
Furka,  Piz  Languard,  and  elsewhere,  are  left  out, 
though  in  other  districts  restaurants  are  noted.  The 
Bernina  Hospice  and  Bernlna  Houses  have  been  con- 
fused. The  inn  at  the  foot  of  the  Morteratsch  Glacier 
and  that  on  the  Diavolezza  Pass,  the  latter  the  best 
starting  point  for  many  peaks  and  passes,  are  ignored. 
The  way  to  Boval  is  said  to  be  "  rough  and  over 
snow  ";  there  is  an  excellent  path;  so  there  is,  since 
1902,  up  Piz  Julier,  said  to  be  "diflficult. "  The  Alp 
Misaun  is  suggested  as  a  starting  point  for  Piz 
Morteratsch.  No  travellers  prefer  its  hay  to  the  good 
accommodation  offered  by  the  Roseg  Inn  or  the  much 
higher  Tschierva  hut. 

It  is  an  easy  task  to  pick  holes  in  a  guide-book 
covering  such  an  extensive  field  as  Switzerland.  We 
have  preferred  to  collect  our  bundle  of  blunders  almost 
entirely  from  a  single  district.  We  could  easily  have 
made  it  bigger  without  going  farther,  and  by  extend- 
ing our  survey  we  might  fill  columns.  But  enough 
has  been  done  to  warn  travellers  who  may  be  tempted 
by  the  numerous  and,  as  a  rule,  excellent  maps  to 
purchase  this  volume  that  they  must  not  rely  on  its 
information  as  regards  either  ordinary  excursions  or 
glacier  expeditions.  Nor  in  many  cases  can  u^e  at  all 
agree  with  the  editors'  estimates  of  scenery.  We  should 
hesitate  to  call  the  Bel  Alp  "  a  beautiful  and  secluded 
village,"  or  to  characterise  "  the  scenery  round  the 
Borromean  Islands  "  as  "  strikingly  grand."  The  in- 
dex stands  in  need  of  careful  revision. 


OVR    BOOK   SHELF. 
The   Fauna   of   British   India,    including    Ceylon   and 
Burma.       Published    under    the    Auspices    of    the 
Secretary  of  State  for  India  in  Council.     Edited  by 
W.  T.  Blanford.       Hymenoptera.       Vol.  ii.       Ants 
and  Cuckoo- Wasps.     By  Lieut.-Colonel  C.  T.  Bing- 
ham.    Pp.  xix  +  506.     (London:   1903.) 
The  first  volume  of  this  work  appeared  in  1897,  and 
included   the   wasps   and   bees,    and   now   the   second 
volume   has   been   issued,    containing    the   still    more 
interesting  family  of  the  Formicidag,  and  also  the  small, 
but  very  beautiful,  family  of  the  Chrysididae,  or  ruby- 
tail  wasps;  or,  as  Colonel  Bingham  calls  them,   the 
cuckoo-wasps.       This  completes  the  important  section 
of  Aculeata,  or  stinging  Hymenoptera,  and  the  mono- 
graphing of  the  remaining  groups,  which  are  still  very 
imperfectly  known,  is  very  properly  deferred  for  the 
present.     We  are,  however,  pleased  to  see  that  Colonel 
Bingham  has  undertaken  to  prepare  a  work  on  the 
butterflies  of  British  India  for  the  same  series. 

Colonel  Bingham  divides  the  Formicidae  into  five 
subfamilies,  Dorylinae,  Ponerinae,  Myrmecinae,  Doli- 
choderinae,  and  Camponotinae  (498  species) ;  and  Chry- 
sididae with  four  subfamilies,  Cleptinae,  Ellam- 
pinae,  Chrysidinae,  and  Parnopinae  (79  species).  When 
we  remember  that  instead  of  498  species  of  Formi- 
cidae there  are  only  about  forty  species  in  Britain,  and 
only  about  a  hundred  in  all  Europe,  the  difference 
between  a  temperate  and  a  tropical  fauna  becomes 
sufficiently  obvious. 

NO.    1758,  VOL.  68] 


A  very  clear  account  of  the  external  characters  ot 
ants  is  given  in  the  introduction,  elucidated  by 
numerous  figures  of  structure.  The  bulk  of  the  work 
is  almost  exclusively  descriptive,  but  includes  useful 
keys  to  genera  and  species,  synonymy,  and  occasional 
notes  on  habits.  Exigencies  of  space  necessitate  the 
latter  being  of  the  utmost  brevity,  which,  though 
obviously  unavoidable,  is  none  the  less  to  be  regretted, 
for  the  habits  of  many  Indian  ants  are  extremely 
interesting. 

The  577  species  described  by  Colonel  Bingham  in 
the  volume  before  us  are  illustrated  by  161  text  illustra- 
tions, frequently  including  structural  details  as  well. 
Occasionally  more  than  one  species  of  a  genus  is 
figured.  A  coloured  plate  is  added,  witn  sixteen 
coloured  figures  of  Chrysididae.  Among  the  most 
interesting  of  the  uncoloured  figures  are  those  repre- 
senting the  curious  spiny  ants  of  the  genus  Poly- 
rhachls. 

Comparatively  few  new  species  are  described,  for 
much  has  been  written  on  Indian  Formicidae  in  recent 
years.  But,  except  as  regards  the  obsolete  catalogue 
of  F.  Smith,  almost  all  that  has  been  published  is 
scattered  through  a  variety  of  scientific  periodicals  not 
always  easy  of  access,  and  we  congratulate  Colonel 
Bingham  on  the  completion  of  a  comprehensive  work 
which  must  greatly  facilitate  the  study  of  his  subjec'. 
to  all  future  workers. 

Dendrologische     W  inter  studien.       Von    Camilla    Karl 

Schneider.       Pp.  vi  +  290.       (Jena  :  Gustav  Fischer, 

1903.)  Price  7.50  marks. 
The  study  of  our  tropophytic  trees  and  shrubs  In  their 
winter  condition  has  been  somewhat  neglected  from  the 
systematlst's  point  of  view.  While  such  works  as  those 
of  Sargent  and  Willkomm  have  hitherto  supplied  the 
wants  of  the  forester,  still  the  number  of  species  they 
deal  with  is  limited,  and  a  more  extended  list  is  re- 
quired. To  meet  this  want  the  author  of  the  above 
work  has  set  himself  no  small  task,  and,  in  our 
opinion,  has  achieved  a  degree  of  success  which  only 
great  patience  and  perseverance  could  attain.  The  book 
deals  with  235  genera.  Including  434  species  of  in- 
digenous and  introduced  deciduous  trees  and  shrubs 
in  Europe.  A  notable  feature  of  the  work  Is  the  large 
number  of  Illustrations,  224  in  all,  which  are  reproduced 
from  photographs  and  hand  drawings  of  actual 
specimens. 

The  subject-matter  is  divided  into  three  sections — a 
general,  a  special,  and  a  systematic.  The  first  section 
deals  with  general  organography,  and  gives  a  wide  and 
comprehensive  survey  of  the  subject.  The  reader  Is 
thereby  well  prepared  for  what  is  to  follow  in  the  next 
section,  which  is  the  bulkiest  and  most  important  one 
in  the  book.  It  Is  devoted  to  the  special  consideration 
of  the  various  species  in  their  winter  condition.  The 
descriptions  are  short  and  concise,  many  abbreviations 
being  used,  which  are,  however,  fully  explained  at  the 
beginning  of  the  section.  The  accompanying  figures, 
which  illustrate  the  salient  features  of  the  species  de- 
scribed, are  very  instructive  and  well  drawn.  The 
author  attaches  more  importance  to  good  figures  than 
to  descriptions,  and  has  consequently  produced  a  large 
number  of  drawings  which  alone  would,  in  most 
cases,  amply  suffice  for  purposes  of  identification  and 
comparison.  The  classification  of  the  leafless  twigs  is 
somewhat  intricate,  but  this  is  unavoidable  when  a 
large  number  of  species  has  to  be  tabulated.  Following 
this  comes  a  section  giving  a  systematic  arrangement 
of  the  various  species  dealt  with.  The  system  adopted 
is  that  of  A.  Engler. 

In  the  bibliography  at  the  end,  the  more  important 
dendrological  works  are  cited,  and  a  short  statement  of 
their  contents  given. 


July  9,  1903J 


NA  TURE 


221 


The  work  is  primarily  a  contribution  to  systematic 
dendrology,  and  cannot  fail  to  be  of  interest  and  value 
to  the  systematist.  At  the  same  time,  the  subject  is  of 
considerable  importance  to  the  practical  man,  be  he 
nurseryman,  forester,  gardener,  or  landscape  gardener. 
In  those  professions  winter  operations  often  occur,  in 
which  it  is  very  important  to  be  able  to  identify  ac- 
curately the  different  species. 

The  special  descriptions  of  the  species  dealt  with  in 
the  book,  so  far  as  they  have  been  tested,  have  proved 
to  be  quite  accurate.  There  are  a  few  misprints  and 
slips,  which  are,  however,  corrected  in  the  errata  at 
the  end  of  the  book.  There  are  one  or  two  emenda- 
tions still  required,  such  as  "  Spartium  junceum  "  in- 
stead of  "  Sportium  unceum,"  p.  22,  line  3.  Also  in 
the  reference  to  the  wood  body  of  Fig.  31,  given  on  p. 
56,  line  33,  we  would  substitute  "  undermost  layer  "  for 
"uppermost  layer."  However,  such  slips  will,  no 
doubt,  disappear  in  a  second  edition,  which  we  hope 
to  see  this  work  reach,  and  in  which  the  author  will 
be  able  to  enhance  the  value  of  his  work  by  the  addi- 
tion of  still  more  species. 

La   Tecnica   delle   Correnti  Alternate.     Vol.    i.     Parte 

qualitativa  e  descrittiva.  By  G.  Sartori.     Pp.  xv  + 

336;     260    illustrations.  (Milano  :     Ulrico     Hoepli, 
1903.)     Price  L.8. 

The  course  of  evening  lectures  read  before  a  class  of 
artisans  is  here  given  in  book  form.  Except  for  an 
occasional  algebraic  expression,  mathematics  are 
rigidly  excluded,  and  yet  the  author  tackles  the  most 
complex  phenomena  of  alternate  currents,  and  dis- 
cusses the  behaviour  of  synchronous,  asynchronous 
and  rotary-field  motors,  with  their  various  starting 
devices ;  of  rotary  converters  and  their  tendency  to 
hunt;  of  alternators  running  in  parallel,  and  of  wave 
propagation  in  long  lines.  And  he  does  this  with  so 
much  success  that  the  usual  treatment  on  the  basis 
of  a  sine  wave- form  compares  unfavourably.  A 
mathematical  treatment  of  the  subject  is  practicable 
only  on  the  assumption  of  sine-waves,  and  the  evil  of 
this  is  that  students  are  apt  to  forget  that  in  practice 
the  wave-form  is  rarely  sinusoidal,  and  generally  so 
far  removed  from  it  that  the  theoretical  deductions  are 
then  valueless.  To  deal  with  alternate  currents  is  far 
harder  without  than  with  the  use  of  sine  waves,  and 
the  author  is  to  be  congratulated  on  his  success.  The 
book,  in  fact,  is  not  an  elementary  manual,  but  an 
up-to^ate  treatise,  its  language  suited  to  the  artisan 
and  its  substance  to  any  student. 

Monographie  des  Cynipides  d'Europe  et  d'Algdrie. 
Par  I'Abb^  J.  J.  Kieffer,  Membre  de  la  Socidt^  Ento- 
mologique  de  France.  Tome  Second.  Premier 
Fascicule.  Pp.  288;  avec  les  planches  1^9. 
(Paris  :   Hermann,  1903.)     Price  16  francs. 

This  is  another  instalment  of  the  important  series  of 
monographs  forming  part  of  the  great  work  on 
Hymenoptera  inaugurated  by  the  brothers  Andr^.  It 
includes  the  portion  of  the  parasitic  Cynipidas  com- 
prised in  the  tribes  Allotriinae,  Euccelinae,  and  the 
commencement  of  the  Figitinae.  The  Allotriinae  must 
be  regarded  as  very  useful  insects,  for  they  feed 
chiefly,  if  not  exclusively,  on  Aphidas  and  Coccidae; 
whether  they  ever  attack  other  insects  seems  for  the 
present  to  be  somewhat  uncertain.  The  Euccelinae, 
on  the  other  hand,  are  parasites  on  the  larvae  and 
pupae  of  Diptera,  and  sometimes  on  small  Coleopterous 
larvae,  and  the  single  recorded  instance  of  their  attack- 
ing .Aphidae  is  considered  by  Kieffer  to  require  con- 
firmation, while  the  known  larvae  of  the  Figitinae  are 
parasitic  on  the  larvae  of  Diptera,  Coleoptera,  and 
Neuroptera. 

•     NO.   1758,  VOL.  68] 


The  subject  is  treated  in  a  similar  manner  to  that 
of  the  first  volume,  which  we  have  recently  noticed, 
and  several  species  are  described  as  new.  The  former 
standard  of  excellence  i^  well  kept  up,  both  as  regards 
the  text  and  plates. 

Spirals  in  Nature  and  Art.     By  Theodore  Cook.     Fp. 

xxi  +  200.       (London:   John  Murray,    1903.)       Price 

7s.  6d.  net. 
That  spiral  curves,  or,  more  strictly,  helices,  and 
screw  motions  should  play  an  important  part  both  in 
the  natural  world  and  in  structures  constructed  by 
human  hands  is  a  fact  for  which  a  mathematician  can 
easily  suggest  an  explanation  on  general  grounds. 
Without  professing  to  bring  any  extensive  scientific 
or  technical  knowledge  to  bear  on  the  subject,  Mr. 
Cook  has  made  a  most  interesting  study  of  the  resem- 
blances between  the  spiral  forms  occurring  in  nature 
and  in  art,  and  has  produced  a  book  the  study  of  which 
will  be  a  delightful  recreation  to  any  class  of  reader. 
Apart  from  the  mere  spiral  form,  Mr.  Cook  finds  re- 
markable resemblances  between  the  structure  and 
sculpturing  of  certain  staircases  in  France  and  those  of 
the  shells  of  certain  mollusca.  It  is  certain  that 
Leonardo  da  Vinci  studied  shells,  and  that  he  was  in 
France  about  the  time  when  these  staircases  were  built, 
and  an  obvious  connection  suggests  itself.  While  the 
author's  study  of  the  works  of  Leonardo  da  Vinci — 
illustrated  by  copies  of  his  drawings — is  interesting, 
the  connection  of  Leonardo's  studies  of  the  flight  of 
birds  with  spiral  curves  strikes  a  reader  as  somewhat 
doubtful.  Even  Pettigrew's  figure-of-eight-shaped 
curve,  and  the  oval  curve  familiar  to  readers  of 
Marey's  "  Vol  des  Oiseaux,"  which  represent,  ac- 
cording to  modern  views,  the  relative  paths  of  points 
on  the  wings  of  a  wasp  and  a  bird,  can  hardly  be  said 
to  produce  a  spiral  curve  when  compounded  with  the 
forward  motion  of  the  animal. 

Lois  generales  de  I'Action  des  Diastases.     Par  Victor 

Henri.  Pp.  xi+129.  (Paris:  A.  Hermann,  1903.) 
After  a  general  introduction  on  catalysis  and  a 
classification  of  catalysers,  the  author  gives  a  historical 
account  of  the  work  already  done  on  the  action  of 
diastases.  Then  follows  a  description  of  his  own  re- 
searches on  the  action  of  invertase  on  cane-sugar, 
together  with  the  theoretical  deduction  of  a  formula 
which  represents  with  considerable  accuracy  the  actual 
course  of  the  reaction  under  varying  conditions  of 
concentration.  The  book  concludes  with  two  short 
chapters  on  the  action  of  emulsin  on  salicin,  and  of 
amylase  on  starch.  The  author  shows  an  intimate 
acquaintance  with  the  mode  of  application  of  the  laws 
governing  the  velocity  of  chemical  action,  and  has 
been  successful  in  selecting  appropriate  experiments  to 
solve  the  problem  with  which  he  was  confronted. 

Sylviculture.     By  Albert  Fron.     Pp.  xii  +  563.     (Paris: 

J.  B.  Baillifere  et  Fils,  1903.)  Price  5  francs. 
This  is  one  of  the  volumes  of  the  useful  "  Encyclo- 
pddie  Agricole  "  which  is  appearing  in  France  under 
the  auspices  of  a  "  Reunion  d'lng^nieurs  agronomes. " 
It  deals  succinctly  with  the  methods  of  cultivation  of 
woods  for  commercial  purposes,  gives  an  account  of 
the  chief  timber  trees,  and  also  deals  with  the  products 
of  forests  and  the  manner  of  their  conversion,  in 
accordance  with  French  practice. 

The  book  has  no  special  feature.  It  is, well  adapted 
to  the  requirements  of  students  of  the  "  Ecole  Nation- 
ale  d 'Agriculture,"  for  whom  it  is  intended,  and 
forms  a  useful  addition  to  its  series  without  replacing 
the  larger  text-books  on  the  forestry  of  France — such 
as  those  of  Boppe. 


222 


NA  TURE 


[July  9,  1903 


LETTERS    TO    THE    EDITOR. 

\The  Editor  does  not  hold  himself  responsible  for  opinions 
expressed  by  his  correspondents.  Neither  can  he  undertake 
to  return,  or  to  correspond  with  the  writers  of,  rejected 
manuscripts  intended  for  this  or  auy  other  part  of  Nature. 
No  notice  is  taken  of  anonymous  communications.] 

Radium  and  Solar  Energy. 
The  extraordinary  discovery  that  radium  has  the  property 
of  continuously  radiating  heat  without  itself  cooling  down 
to    the    temperature    of    surrounding    objects    may    possibly 
afford  a  clue  to  the  source  of  energy  in  the  sun  and  stars. 

Taking  the  Curies'  observation  that  one  gram  of  radium 
can  supplv  loo  calories  per  hour,  I  thought  it  would  be  of 
interest  to  compute  how  much  radium  would  suffice  to 
supply  the  sun's  output  of  energy. 

Taking  from  Langley's  observations  that  this  is  equal  to 
828,000,000  calories  per  square  cm.  per  hour,  I  find  that 
3-6  grams  of  radium  per  cubic  metre  of  the  sun's  volume 
would  supply  the  entire  output. 

It  may   be  possible  that  at  solar  temperatures  radium   is 
capable  of  much  more  energetic  radiation,   and,   if  so,    the 
36  grams  might  be  reduced  to  a  much  smaller  figure. 
Daramona,  July  i.  W.  E.  Wilson. 


"Red  Rain"  and  the  Dust  Storm  of  February  22. 

In  a  letter  under  the  above  heading  which  you  did  me 
the  honour  to  print  in  your  issue  of  May  21,  vol.  Ixviii. 
p.  53,  I  gave  the  results  of  the  chemical  examination  of  a 
sample  of  dust  collected  from  the  roof  of  Bayham  Abbey, 
Lamberhurst,  after  the  dust  storm  of  February  22,  and  sent 
to  me  by  the  kindness  of  Lord  Camden,  and  I  stated  that 
it  would  be  interesting  to  compare  its  characters  with  those 
of  the  dust,  presumably  of  African  origin,  which  was 
observed  to  fall  in  the  district  of  Taormina  by  Sir  Arthur 
Rticker,  and  was  the  subject  of  an  interesting  communica- 
tion to  Nature  by  Prof.  Judd  in  1901  (vol.  Ixiii.  p.  514). 

Thanks  to  the  kindness  of  Prof.  Judd,  who  sent  me  about 
a  gramme  of  the  Taormina  dust  collected  by  Sir  Arthur 
Riicker  and  placed  among  the  geological  specimens  at 
South  Kensington,  I  have  been  enabled  to  make  the  com- 
parison. 

In  external  characters  the  Taormina  dust  closely  re- 
sembles that  from  Bayham  Abbey.  Its  microscopical 
features  are  also  generally  similar. 

Mr.  C.  Simmonds,  of  the  Government  Laboratory,  to 
whom  I  am  indebted  for  the  analyses  already  published, 
found  that  after  drying  at  100°  C,  the  sample  had  the 
following  composition  : — ■ 

Per  cent. 

Silica         3632 

Alumina 16-35 

Ferric  oxide,  with  traces  of  manganese  oxide       608 
Cobalt    oxide        ...         ...         ...         ...         ...       032 

Lime  ...         ...         ...         ...         ...         ...       6-24 

Magnesia  221 

Sodium  oxide       ...         ...         ...         ...         ...       2  59 

Potassium   oxide  ...         ...         ...         ...       2  72 

Water  and  organic  matter     2349 

Chlorides   and    sulphates  traces 

Carbonic    acid      ...         ...         ...         ...         ...       3  68 


The  cobalt  oxide  may  include  a  little  nickel,  but  the 
quantity  was  too  small  to  identify  with  certainty. 

After  being  heated  to  redness,  2808  per  cent,  of  the 
sample  was  dissolved  on  boiling  with  dilute  hydrochloric 
acid,  the  soluble  constituents  being  : — 

Per  cent. 

Silica         088 

Alumina    ...         ...         ...         ...         ...         ...  10  16 

Ferric    oxide        552 

Lime          624 

Magnesia               ...         ...         ...         ...         ...  2-21 

Alkalis        257 

Carbonic  acid  (by  difference)  ...         ...         ...  0-50 


2808 


The  organic  carbon  in  the  sample  amounted  to  989  p6r 
cent.,    and   the   organic   nitrogen    to   016   per   cent.       This 

NO.    T758,  VOL.  68] 


small  proportion  of  nitrogen  shows  that  the  organic  matter 
is  mainly,  or  entirely,  of  vegetable  origin.  Calculated  from 
the  mean  proportion  of  carbon  in  cellulose  and  humic  acid, 
the  amount  of  organic  carbon  present  in  the  sample  would 
correspond  to  about  19  per  cent,  of  organic  matter,  or,  from 
cellulose  alone,  to  163  per  cent. 

A  comparison  of  the  dust  from  Taormina  with  the  "  red 
rain  "  dust  from  Bayham  Abbey  may  be  made  by  calculating 
the  inorganic  constituents  as  percentages  on  their  sum, 
after  deducting  water  and  organic  matter  :— 


Taormina 

Rayham 

Dust. 

Abbey  Dust 

Per  cent. 

Percent. 

Silica        

...      47.47 

•••      5053 

Alumina    ... 

...     21-37 

...      20-18 

Ferric    oxide 

...       7-94 

...         7-23 

Cobalt   oxide 

...       042 

Lime 

...       8-i6 

...        9-50 

Magnesia 

...       2-89         ... 

...         204 

Sodium    oxide      ... 

...       338 

1-27 

Potassium    oxide 

...       3-56 

253 

Carbonic  acid 

...       4.81 

...         6.72 

loooo  100  00 

Reduced  thus  to  a  common  basis  for  comparison,  the 
inorganic  portions  of  the  two  samples  show  a  general 
similarity  of  composition,  the  chief  differences  being  that 
the  Bayham  Abbey  specimen  contains  a  little  more  silica 
and  chalk,  and  a  little  less  alumina  and  alkalis,  than  the 
sample  from  Taormina. 

The  constituents  soluble  in  dilute  hydrochloric  acid  may 
similarly  be  compared,  after  deducting  carbonic  acid  and 
raising  the  figures  to  percentages  : — 


Taormina 

Bayham 

Dust. 

Abbey  Dust 

Per  cent. 

Per  cent. 

Silica 

...        3-19 

...         2.28 

Alumina 

...      3684           ... 

-     39  93 

Ferric    oxide 

...      2002 

•••    19-35 

Lime 

...      22.62 

...     29-20 

Magnesia 

...        8-01 

...     403 

Alkalis      

...        932 

...          5-21 

100  00 

1 00. 00 

It  is  of  interest  to  compare  the  foregoing  results  with 
an  old  analysis  by  Gibbs  of  dust  which  fell  on  a  ship 
in  the  Atlantic  (Pogg.  Ann.,  Ixxi.,  367).  After  deducting 
18.53  Psr  cent,  of  water  and  organic  matter,  the  composition 
was  found  to  be  as  follows  : — 

Per  cent. 

Silica           45-58 

Alumina    ...         ...         ...         ...         ...         ...  2055 

Ferric    oxide        ...  939 

Manganic    o.xide ...         ...         ...         ...         ...  4-22 

Calcium    carbonate        ...         ...         ...         ...  11-77 

Magnesia              2-21 

Potash        ...         ...         ...         ...         ...         ...  364 

Soda           233 

Cupric    oxide        031 


Except  for  the  presence  in  this  sample  of  a  notable  quan- 
tity of  manganese  and  copper,  the  analysis  bears  a  close 
resemblance  to  that  of  the  Taormina  dust ;  the  fact  of  the 
similarity  is  particularly  interesting,  considering  that  some- 
thing like  half  a  century  has  probably  elapsed  since  Gibbs 's 
sample  was  collected. 

Mr.  J.  J.  H.  Teall,  the  director  of  the  Geological  Survey, 
kindly  sent  me  a  sample  of  "  blood  rain  "  dust  which  fell 
at  Palermo  at  about  the  same  time  as  the  dust  from  Taor- 
mina collected  by  Sir  Arthur  Riicker.  This  closely  re- 
sembles the  Taormina  dust  in  general  characters.  Mr. 
Teall  has  suggested  that  the  question  of  the  origin  of  the 
dust  might  be  elucidated  if  the  samples  were  found  to 
contain  free  aluminium  hydroxide.  The  bearing  of  this 
upon  the  question  of  origin  is  as  follows  : — Evidence  has 
been  recently  adduced  to  show  that  laterite,  a  decomposition- 
product  of  the  felspars,  is  an  aluminium  hydroxide,  though 
always  mixed  with  more,  or  less  silica.  This  type  of  de- 
composition, it  is  believed,  occurs  only  in  tropical  regions, 
and  hence  the  presence  of  uncombined  alurnina  in  the  dust. 


July  9.  1903J 


NATURE 


223 


if   it  could   be   established,    would   be   evidence   of   tropical 
origin. 

Following  out  Mr.  Teall's  suggestion,  the  Taormina 
sample,  and  also  the  one  from  Bayham  Abbey,  have  been 
examined  to  see  if  any  evidence  could  be  obtained  showing 
the  presence  in  them  of  aluminium  hydroxide.  A  study  of 
the  actions  of  solutions  of  caustic  and  carbonated  alkalis 
upon  the  dusts  showed  that  both  silica  and  alumina  could 
be  dissolved  from  them  by  the  former  solvent ;  but  similar 
results  were  also  obtained  from  orthoclase  and  oligoclase, 
whilst  the  treatment  with  sodium  carbonate  showed  that  no 
large  quantity  of  amorphous  silica  was  present  in  either 
of  the  specimens.  The  results  are  not  conclusive,  but,  so 
far  as  they  go,  they  point  to  there  being  no  uncombined 
alumina  in  the  samples.  T.   E.  Thorpe. 


Dust  Storms  in  New  Zealand. 

An  event  of  more  than  ordinary  interest  occurred  here 
last  November,  and  seeing  that  it  has  a  certain  importance 
not  altogether  restricted  to  us  and  our  neighbourhood,  I 
have  ventured  to  address  you  on  the  subject. 

From  Invercargill,  at  the  extreme  south  of  the  South 
Island,  it  was  reported  on  November  14  that  in  various  parts 
of  the  town  and  district  tank  water  had  a  clayey  appear- 
ance, and  exposed  objects  were  covered  with  a  fine  dust  or 
mud.  A  similar  report  came  from  many  places  in  the 
south-east  portion  of  the  island,  and  inland  as  far  as 
Wakatipu,  where  heavy  gales  and  thunderstorms  are  stated 
to  have  occurred  on  that  date.  At  Dunedin  no  sign  of  the 
dust  was  visible  during  the  day,  but  in  the  evening,  from 
8  to  10  p.m.,  the  moon  was  at  times  obscured  by  clouds 
of  a  reddish  colour,  but  the  weather  kept  dry  and  no  dust 
fell.  At  Waipawa,  near  the  east  coast  North  Island,  a  very 
heavy  dust  storm  commenced  at  9  a.m.  on  November  15. 
It  lasted  for  several  hours,  extended,  and  became  very 
thick.     It  was  not  due  to  local  causes. 

Samples  of  the  dust  examined  by  a  local  authority  in 
Dunedin  were  stated  to  be  of  volcanic  origin,  and  possibly 
connected  with  eruptions  in  Samoa  or  in  South  Victoria. 

Dr.^  Benham,  of  the  Otago  University,  kindly  gave  me 
a  sample  of  the  dust  that  fell  at  Otakaia^  a  few  miles  south 
of  Dunedin.  I  submitted  it  to  microscopical  and  chemical 
examination  with  the  following  result  : — 

The  specimen  was  in  a  small  bottle  with  water  ;  it  had 
fallen  into  a  bucket  which  was  quite  clean,  and  in  such  a 
position  that  contamination  was  impossible.  The  sediment 
was  of  a  reddish-brown  colour,  very  fine  in  grain.  A 
mounted  specimen  examined  with  an  |-inch  objective  showed 
various  vegetable  cells,  apparently  portions  of  the  feathery 
pappus  of  fruits  of  composites  and  similar  light  inatter. 
Small  rounded  grains  of  inorganic  matter  were  frequent,  in 
some  cases  large  enough  (003mm.  diameter)  to  depolarise 
light.  They  were  chiefly  quartz,  but  some  were  apparently 
augite,  and  others  particles  of  weathered  minerals  coloured 
red  with  iron  oxides.  To  these  last  the  colour  of  the  dust 
in  mass  was  due.  There  were  also  in  every  preparation 
observed  several  diatoms.  In  one  preparation  there  was 
a  piece  of  vegetable  tissue  composed  of  fine  cells.  In  all 
there  was  much  carbonised  matter.  A  partial  quantitative 
analysis  gave  the  following  result  after  complete  drying 
in  an  air  bath  :— SiO^  53-68,  Al^Oj  1844,  Fe,03  654, 
CaO  095,  MgO  1-52,  K,0  258,  Na,0  167.  "Loss  on 
Ignition,  1460.  Total,  9998.  I  have  been  unable  to  find 
any  analysis  of  dust  borne  any  great  distance  by  wind  with 
which  to  compare  this.  A  partial  analysis  of  dust  col- 
lected in  Kngland,  given  in  a  March  number  of  your  paper, 
does  not  differ  much  from  this  except  that  the  loss  on 
ignition  is  36-4,  and  the  other  constituents  correspondingly 
lower. 

There  is  no  doubt  that  this  dust  was  derived  from  a 
desiccated  surface  ;  the  carbonised  matter  suggests  that  it 
had  been  swept  by  fire,  and  as  the  weather  all  over  New 
Zealand  had  been  very  wet  for  weeks  previously,  there  is 
no  possibility  of  a  local  origin  of  the  dust. 

Since  Australia  had  just  previously,  after  a  period  of  most 
prolonged  drought,  suffered  from  the  effects  of  severe  gales, 
I  ausing  dust  storms  that  produced  almost  total  darkness  in 
Melbourne  and  Sydney,  it  is  natural  to  look  to  that  conti- 
nent for  the  origin  of  the  dust  storm.  Through  the  kind- 
ness of  Prof.  J.  W.  Gregorv,  F.R.S.,  I  was  sent  a  specimen 


of  dust  that  fell  in  Gippsland  during  a  dust  storm  on 
October  11,  and  this,  though  coarser,  was  so  essentially 
similar  to  our  dust  that  a  comparison  of  the  two  speci- 
mens at  once  established  the  extreme  probability  of  identity 
of  origin. 

The  distance  in  a  straight  line  from  Melbourne  to  Inver- 
cargill is  1200  miles,  and  to  Dunedin  1300  miles,  and  from 
Sydney  to  Waipawa  1300  miles.  The  origin  of  the  dust 
was  probably  some  distance  to  the  west  of  the  Blue  Moun- 
tains. There  seems,  therefore,  no  doubt  that  this  dust  was 
carried  1500  miles,  1200  of  which  was  over  a  water  surface. 

Your  readers  are  doubtless  aware  that  the  climate  of 
New  Zealand,  and  of  Australia  on  its  eastern  seaboard,  is 
chiefly  dependent  on  the  passage  of  deep  cyclonic  disturb- 
ances travelling  in  a  general  N.W.-S.E.  direction.  In 
front  of  the  centre  of  these  the  wind  blows  strong  from  the 
N.VV.,  and  behind  the  centre  from  the  S.W.  The  baro- 
metrical and  weather  records  appended  show  that  at  the 
date  mentioned  such  a  cyclonic  disturbance  of  rather  more 
than  the  average  intensity  was  experienced  at  the  time  of 
the  dust  fall. 

In  connection  with  this  I  may  mention  that  after  the 
famous  "  Black  Thursday  "  in  Melbourne,  Dunedin  and 
the  southern  portion  of  the  south  island  of  New  Zealand 
generally  experienced  a  dense  smoke,  and  comparatively 
large  fragments  of  carbonised  vegetable  matter  fell. 

In  conclusion,  I  should  like  to  point  out  the  significance 
of  such  an  observation  as  this  in  connection  with  the  dis- 
tribution of  plants  in  the  Southern  Hemisphere.  Since 
diatoms  and  vegetable  particles  of  recognisable  size  were 
present  in  the  very  small  portion  of  the  dust  examined,  it 
seems  quite  possible  that  in  the  large  total  of  dust  that 
fell  some  of  the  smaller  and  lighter  seeds  of  Australian^ 
plants  may  have  been  present. 

««      5:1     ii  !  2.S  I  g-  !  s-  ;      3=      I  Sc 

Sj       H  c       E  5   1    ?.a       oj       E^  S  «       '    Bg 

Pate,  1902  or.       --a       o.fliou       J;©       00  *;=       ,oS 

caM     w'-^-     (Ss  I  «<  1  Q*  ;  m^        CQ        ^gQ 

^^..-.^  j  ^  , 

Nov.  II 30-08    30  01  I  29'9i    29*95      ~  —    I     N.W.     ;  29  72- 

Nov.  12  30*09    29-96  I  29  78    a9"6i    S.E.  I   29*9  '      S.W.        23  50 

Nov.   13  ag^**    29'53  1  29'63    3003      W.  29-3        S.W.        2982 

i             I             ,  N.W.  10     29-42 

N°^-  M 1 2998  29-90 1 30-04 1 30 27 :   -      -     N^E^io  ; 

!  i      I  ''•w.    - 

Nov.   J5  —       30-13  !  30-14  i  30-18  ;     —  —     i      S.W.      12992 


P.  Marsh.all. 
Otago  University,  Dunedin,  New  Zealand,  Mav  3. 


NO.    1758,  VOL.  68] 


Science  and  Naval  Promotion. 

The  friends  of  the  advancement  of  science  in  the  Navy 
can  hardly  fail  to  be  very  pleased  with  the  recognition  it 
has  received  in  the  recent  promotions  to  the  rank  of  com- 
mander. Of  the  twenty-seven  lieutenants  promoted  on 
June  30  last,  twenty-one  were  "  specialised  officers."  In  a 
batch  of  promotions  such  as  this  there  is  much  to  encourage 
our  best  officers  to  direct  their  attention  to  the  more  scientific 
work  of  their  profession,  yet  one  cannot  but  remark  upon 
a  feature  in  the  analysis  of  these  promotions,  namely,  the 
marked  difference  in  the  average  times  these  new  com- 
manders remained  lieutenants.  Thus,  three  lieutenants 
(T)  averaged  10  years ;  nine  lieutenants  (G)  averaged  10-5 
years;  nine  lieutenants  (N)  averaged  12-2  years.  This  is 
anything  but  encouraging  to  the  specialist  in  navigation, 
but  in  view  of  the  immense  importance  of  securing  the  best 
men  to  navigate  our  fleets  and  handle  them  in  action,  it 
is  much  to  be  hoped  that  in  future  lieutenants  (N)  will  not 
be  so  heavily  weighted  on  their  way  to  the  higher  ranks  of 
the  service.  It  is,  however,  only  just  to  add  that  the  theory 
and  practice  of  navigation  under  recent  legislation  have 
been  placed  in  a  position  in  the  front  of  scientific  education 
they  never  occupied  before.  N.  G.  T. 

Purple  Flowers. 
It   is   generally   thought   that   purple   flowers   are   due   to 
selection  by  bees,  and  the  small  number  of  blue  and  purple 
flowers  in  New  Zealand  is  accounted  for  by  the  supposed 


224 


NATURE 


[July  9,  1903 


absence  of  bees.  This,  however,  is  hardly  correct,  for  there 
are  several  species  of  native  bees  in  New  Zealand  which 
constantly  visit  composite  flowers.  But  Pleurophyllum 
speciosum  has  very  conspicuous  purple  flowers,  although  it 
is  found  only  in  Campbell  and  Auckland  Islands,  where 
there  are  no  bees  or  flower-visiting  moths.  Nor  does  it 
stand  alone,  for  Celmisia  vernicosa,  and  its  ally  C.  chap- 
mani,  are  the  only  species  of  the  genus  with  purple  discs, 
and  yet  they  also  are  only  found  in  Campbell  and  Auckland 
Islands.  In  C.  vernicosa,  also,  the  leaves  have  become 
rigid,  although  no  animal  feeds  upon  it. 

I  think  that  these  facts  are  of  sufficient  interest  to  bring 
to  the  notice  of  botanists,  at  a  time  when,  perhaps,  we  too 
readily  accept  selection  as  the  explanation  of  every  character. 
For  in  these  Antarctic  islands  the  conditions  of  life  are  so 
simple  that  we  can  eliminate  many  causes  which  complicate 
the  same  problems  in  areas  with  more  varied  life. 

F.    W.     HUTTON. 

Christchurch,  New  Zealand,  May  23. 


The  Origin  of  Variation. 

The  following  argument  may  be  of  interest  to  your 
readers,  if,  as  1  suspect,  it  has  never  been  thus  formulated 
before. 

In  order  to  account  for  the  origin  of  species,  we  must 
assume  that  the  tendency  of  an  individual  to  vary  is  handed 
down  to  future  generations  by  appropriate  modifications  in 
the  transmitted  germ-plasm.  But,  unless  we  believe  in  the 
inheritance  of  acquired  characters  (for  which  we  have  no 
certain  evidence),  the  tendency  of  the  first  individual  to  vary 
can  only  have  become  manifest  if  it  had  originated  in  a 
modification  of  its  own  parents'  germ-plasm  ;  otherwise  thai 
tendency  could  not  have  been  inherited.  Leaving  out  of 
account  the  play  of  changing  external  conditions,  we  are 
thus  forced  to  regard  the  variability  of  individuals  as  the 
result  of  variations  in  the  parental  germ-plasm.  The 
problem  is,  how  are  such  variations  produced? 

Charles  S.  Myers. 

Gonville  and  Caius  College,  Cambridge,  June  29. 


THE    BRITISH    ASSOCIATION. 

THE  Southport  meeting  of  the  British  Association 
will  begin  on  Wednesday,  September  9.  The  local 
arrangements,  which  have  been  in  the  hands  of  a  large 
and  representative  committee  for  many  months  past, 
are  now  well  advanced,  and  give  every  indication  that 
the  meeting  will  not  fall  short  of  that  held  in  Southport 
twenty  years  ago. 

It  was  not  without  fear  and  misgiving  on  the  part 
of  some  of  its  more  prominent  members  that  the  Asso- 
ciation visited  Southport  in  1883,  but  the  success  of  the 
meeting  in  the  northern  watering-place  was  so  con. 
spicuous  that  at  the  final  general  meeting  there  was 
a  unanimous  expression  of  opinion  that  the  Southport 
meeting  of  1883  had  been  one  of  the  most  successful 
ever  held,  and  a  desire  to  repeat  it  at  some  future  date. 
The  meeting  then  stood  sixth  in  point  of  numbers,  and 
third  in  receipts.  Since  that  date  the  Southport  meet- 
ing has  only  been  exceeded  in  numbers  by  the  meetings 
in  the  neighbouring  cities  of  Manchester  and  Liver- 
pool, and  in  receipts  by  Manchester  alone.  2714  people 
attended  the  meeting  of  1883,  and  it  is  confidently 
hoped  that  this  number  will  be  exceeded  in  1903. 

The  Corporation  of  Southport  is  working  with  the 
local  committee  to  make  the  meeting  a  success,  and 
has  placed  at  its  disposal  the, handsome  suite  of  Muni- 
cipal Buildings  for  use  during  the  week  of  the  Associa- 
tion's visit.  These  buildings  include  the  Town  Hall, 
Cambridge  Hall,  Art  Gallery,  and  Victoria  Science 
and  Art  Schools.  The  three  first  named  of  these  were 
in  use  at  the  former  Southport  meeting  of  the  British 
Association,  but  they  were  then  without  direct  com- 
munication one  with  another.  They  are  now  connected 
by  corridor  bridges,  and  form  an  admirable  suite  of 

NO.    1758.  VOL    fS81 


rooms  for  municipal  and  other  social  functions.  The 
Victoria  Science  and  Art  Schools  occupy  a  site  behind 
the  Cambridge  Hall,  with  which,  as  well  as  with  the 
Art  Gallery,  they  are  connected  on  the  first  floor,  thus 
forming  a  further  addition  to  the  suite  of  reception 
rooms.  This  block  of  Municipal  Buildings,  which 
stands  directly  in  the  centre  of  the  town,  facing  Lord 
Street,  will  be  the  headquarters  of  the  Association.  The 
reception  room  will  be  situated  in  the  Examination 
Hall  of  the  Science  and  Art  Schools,  the  entrance  being 
by  the  main  doorway  of  Cambridge  Hall.  It  is  pro- 
posed that  the  Examination  Hall  shall  be  used  for 
counter  business  only,  the  large  room  of  the  Art  Gallery 
close  by  being  used  as  a  second  reception  room  for 
conversational  and  general  purposes.  Two  other  of 
the  picture  galleries  will  be  set  apart  for  reading  and 
writing  rooms,  whilst  a  fourth  will  be  allotted  to  the 
representatives  of  the  Press. 

Three  of  the  sections  will  meet  in  the  Science  and 
Art  Schools,  viz.  Sections  A  (which  is  in  two  depart- 
ments. Mathematics  and  Astronomy),  B  (Chemistry), 
and  G  (Engineering).  Section  L  (Education)  will  meet 
in  the  Cambridge  Hall,  and  Section  H  (Anthropology) 
in  the  Town  Hall.  Five  out  of  the  ten  sections  meeting 
this  year  will  thus  be  located  in  the  Municipal  Build- 
ings, and  in  easy  communication  one  with  another. 

The  council  of  the  Association  will  meet  in  the 
council  chamber  of  the  Town  Hall,  and  here  also  the 
general  committee  and  the  council  of  recommendations 
will  hold  their  meetings.  Two  of  the  Corporation  com- 
mittee rooms  in  the  Town  Hall  have  been  set  aside  for 
the  deliberations  of  the  I'lternational  Meteorological 
Committee,  which  is  meeting  in  Southport  at  the 
same  time  as  the  British  Association,  and  of  which  a 
notice  has  already  appeared  in  Nature  (May  14). 

The  laboratory  of  the  Science  and  Art  Schools  will  be 
used  as  a  meteorological  museum,  and  for  the  recep- 
tion of  apparatus  and  specimens  illustrative  of  papers 
communicated  to  the  sections. 

The  remaining  five  sections  are  all  located  in  build- 
ings within  three  minutes'  walk  of  the  reception  room. 
Sections  D  and  E  (Zoology  and  Geography)  will  meet 
in  the  Temperance  Institute,  London  Street,  Section  C 
(Geology)  in  Hoghton  Street  Church  schoolroom. 
Section  K  (Botany)  in  Chapel  Street  Church  school- 
room, and  Section  F  (Economics),  in  the  Y.M.C.A. 
building,  Eastbank  Street.  The  conference  of  dele- 
gates of  corresponding  societies  will  have  two  rooms 
placed  at  its  disposal  in  Chapel  Street  Schools.  All 
these  buildings  lie  close  to  one  another,  and  are  easily 
reached  by  trams  from  all  parts  of  the  town. 

The  first  general  meeting  of  the  Association  will  be 
held  on  Wednesday  evening,  September  9,  at  8.30,  in 
the  Opera  House,  when  the  president.  Sir  Norman 
Lockyer,  will  deliver  his  inaugural  address. 

The  Friday  evening  discourse  will  be  delivered  by 
Dr.  Robert  Munro,  on  "  Man  as  Artist  and  Sportsman 
in  the  Palaeolithic  Period."  On  Monday  evening  a 
discourse  will  be  given  by  Dr.  Arthur  Rowe  on  "  The 
Old  Chalk  Sea,  and  some  of  its  Teaching-s. "  The 
Saturday  evening  lecture  to  working  men  will  be  given 
by  Dr.  J.  S.  Flett,  his  subject  being  the  recent  volcanic 
eruptions  in  the  West  Indies.  All  these  three  lectures 
will  be  delivered  in  the  Cambridge  Hall,  which  seats 
about  1500  persons. 

On  Thursday  evening  the  Mayor  of  Southport  (Mr. 
T.  T.  L.  Scarisbrick)  will  give  a  reception  in  the  Muni- 
cipal Buildings,  and  the  local  committee  will  give  a 
conversazione  in  the  same  place  on  September  15. 

The  Mayor  will  further  give  a  garden  party  in 
Hesketh  Park  on  Friday  afternoon,  and  Sir  George 
Pilkington  gives  a  garden  party  to  a  limited  number 
of  members  at  his  residence.  Belle  Vue,  on  the  after- 
noon of  Mondav  or  Tuesday,  September  14  or  15. 


July  9,  1903J 


NATURE 


225 


The  sections  will  not  meet  on  Saturday,  September 
12,  that  day  being  set  apart  for  excursions.  Six  whole- 
day  and  two  half-day  excursions  have  been  arranged, 
and  provision  has  been  made  in  all  for  about  a  thousand 
porsons.  The  excursions  will  be  to  (i)  Manchester, 
visiting  the  works  of  the  British  VVestinghouse 
Electrical  and  Manufacturing  Company  at  Old  Traf- 
ford.  Opportunity  will  also  be  given  of  inspecting 
the  new  Technical  School,  the  John  Rylands 
Library,  and  the  Chetham  Hospital;  (2)  Stonyhurst 
College  and  Whalley;  (3)  Ribchester  and  Hoghton 
Tower;  (4)  Windermere;  (5)  Chester;  (6)  The  Wirral 
Peninsula.  Specially  prepared  pamphlets  will  be 
issued  as  guides  to  the  excursions.  The  VVestinghouse 
Co.  has  kindly  promised  to  entertain  the  Manchester 
party  to  luncheon,  and  similar  hospitality  has  been 
offered  by  the  authorities  at  Stonyhurst  College  and  by 
the  Chester  Society  of  Natural  Science,  Literature,  and 
.\rt  at  Chester.  The  afternoon  excursions  on  Saturday 
comprise  drives  to  Hoole  (the  scene  of  the  labours  of 
Jeremiah  Horrocks,  the  astronomer),  Rufford  Old 
Hall,  and  the  ancient  churches  of  Ormskirk  and 
Halsall. 

On  the  concluding  day  of  the  meeting,  Wednesday, 
September  16,  the  following  unofficial  excursions  have 
been  arranged  for  the  afternoon  :^(i)  Port  Sunlight, 
Cheshire,  Messrs.  Lever's  model  village  and  soap 
works;  (2)  the  Diamond  Match  Works  at  Seaforth, 
Liverpool;  (3)  the  Cunard  s.s.  Lucania  at  Liver- 
pool. On  the  Thursday  following  the  meeting,  oppor- 
tunity will  be  afforded  of  visiting  the  Prescot  Watch 
Works  (a  revived  Lancashire  industry),  the  British  In- 
sulated Wire  Co. 's  works  at  Prescot,  the  Lancashire 
and  Yorkshire  Railway  Co. 's  works  at  Horwich,  and 
two  collieries  at  Wigan.  It  has  also  been  arranged 
for  a  steamer  to  run  to  Llandudno  on  this  day. 

Southport  has  made  rapid  advances  in  every  direction 
during  the  last  twenty  years.  Since  1883  much  of  the 
town  has  been  rebuilt,  the  promenade  has  been  widened, 
the  marine  parks  and  lake  constructed,  and  many  other 
important  works  of  improvement  have  been  effected. 
The  Municipality  of  Southport  is  in  the  forefront  of 
local  government,  and  to  its  enterprise  is  in  a  large 
measure  due  the  remarkable  development  of  the  town 
in  recent  years.  Lord  Street,  the  principal  thorough- 
fare of  the  town,  is  a  magnificent  boulevard  a  mile 
long  and  rtiore  than  eighty  yards  wide,  with  broad  foot- 
ways bordered  by  trees,  suggesting  comparison  with  the 
streets  of  continental  rather  than  with  those  of  Eng- 
lish cities.  The  Municipal  Gardens  in  Lord  Street,  in 
front  of  the  Town  Hall  and  Cambridge  Hall,  have  be- 
come since  last  year,  especially  for  visitors,  the  centre 
of  life  and  movement  in  the  town.  Here  the  Cor- 
poration Military  Band  plays  two  or  three  times  daily, 
and  at  night  the  trees  are  lit  up  with  thousands  of 
electric  lights,  the  effect  being  striking  and  unique. 

A  handbook,  or  guide  to  the  district,  is  being  pre- 
pared, a  copy  of  which  will  be  presented  to  each  mem- 
ber attending  the  meeting.  The  book  will  be  illustrated 
and  will  contain  specially  prepared  maps  illustrating 
the  topography  and  geology  of  the  district.  The  dis- 
trict, roughly  speaking,  is  that  portion  of  south-west 
Lancashire  lying  between  the  rivers  Ribble  and  Mersey. 

The  following  subjects  will  be  dealt  with  in  the  hand- 
book : — "Sketch  ot  the  History  of  Southport"; 
"  Meteorology,"  by  Mr.  Joseph  Baxendell,  Borough 
Meteorologist;  "Health,"  by  Dr.  J.  J.  Weaver, 
Medical  Officer  of  Health ;  "  Geology  and  Physical 
Features  of  the  District,"  by  Mr.  E.  Dickson  and  Mr. 
H.  Brodrick;  "  Botany,"  by  Mr.  Henry  Ball  and  Mr. 
W.  H.  Stansfield;  "  Marine  Zoology,"  by  Prof.  W.  A. 
Herdman,  F.R.S.,  and  Mr.  Isaac  C.Thompson; 
"  Coleoptera,"  by  Dr.  G.  W.  Chaster  and  Mr.  E. 
Burgess  Sopp ;  "  Mollusca,"  by  Dr.  G.  W.  Chaster; 
NO.    1758,  VOL.  68] 


"Mosses,"  by  Dr.  J.  A.  Wheldon ;  and "  Antiqui- 
ties," by  Mr.  W.  Brunt.  Mr.  G.  Napier  Clark 
is  contributing  a  chapter  on  Jeremiah  Horrocks, 
the  astronomer,  and  his  connection  with  the  dis- 
trict. The  scientific  portion  of  the  handbook  is 
being  prepared  under  the  direction  of  the  South- 
port  Society  of  Natural  Science,  and  the  general 
editors  are  Dr.  G.  W.  Chaster,  Mr.  Geo.  E.  Johnson, 
and  Mr.  F.  H.  Cheetham. 

In  connection  with  the  meeting  and  with  the  excur- 
sions, the  following  notes  on  the  Southport  district  will 
be  of  interest.  For  the  paragraph  dealing  with  geology 
I  am  indebted  to  Mr.  Harold  Brodrick,  for  those  on 
botany  to  Mr.  Henry  Ball,  and  for  those  on  zoology  to 
Mr.  Isaac  C.  Thompson. 

Geology. — The  geology  of  the  Southport  district  has 
for  the  most  part  to  do  with  the  Glacial  and  post-Glacial 
deposits.  Of  the  older  formations  only  comparatively 
small  areas  are  exposed,  having  been  entirely  covered 
by  Glacial  deposits  which  have  only  in  few  places  been 
denuded  to  the  underlying  strata.  In  the  neighbour- 
hood of  Parbold,  some  ten  miles  inland,  is  a  good  ex- 
posure of  Millstone  Grit,  while  the  Coal-measures  may 
be  well  seen  about  Wigan,  the  Wigan  coalfields  being 
some  of  the  most  productive  in  England.  Two  small 
sections  of  the  Permian  rocks,  with  a  thin  stratum  of  a 
true  magnesian  limestone,  may  be  examined  in  the  beds 
of  two  small  streams  near  Parbold.  These  beds  have 
been  proved  to  be  fossiliferous,  but  only  slightly  so,  not 
more  than  a  dozen  fossils  in  all  having  been  found  in 
them.  Underlying  the  Boulder-clay,  within  eight  miles 
of  the  coast  and  exposed  in  several  places,  are  consider- 
able deposits  of  the  Keuper  and  Bunter  divisions  of  the 
Trias. 

In  probably  no  part  of  England  can  that  combination 
of  clay,  sand  and  gravel  known  as  the  Glacial  Drift  be 
better  studied  than  in  this  district.  Overlying  the 
older  formations,  in  some  cases  to  a  depth  of  more  than 
one  hundred  feet,  the  Boulder-clay  has  suffered  both 
denudation  and  erosion.  By  the  latter  action  a  range 
of  prehistoric  sand-dunes  has  been  formed  several  miles 
inland  of  the  present  coast.  These  dunes  offer  several 
exceedingly  interesting  problems,  and  papers  will  be 
read  before  the  Geological  Section  on  this  subject. 
Further  inland,  near  Tarleton,  are  several  large  de- 
posits of  Glacial  sand  and  gravel  containing  a  consider- 
able number  of  shells  of  an  arctic  type. 

The  Boulder-clay  itself  is  of  great  interest,  contain- 
ing, as  it  does,  boulders  of  Silurian  Grits  and  Carboni- 
ferous Limestone  from  north  Lancashire,  Eskdale  and 
Buttermere  granites,  and  also  several  local  granites  and 
grits  from  the  south-west  of  Scotland.  These  clays 
also  contain  a  large  number  of  Foraminifera,  mostly  of 
an  arctic  type. 

A  very  large  area  is  covered  by  peat  mosses  which 
have  formed  in  the  beds  of  old  lakes  and  also  covered 
the  surrounding  districts.  These  peat  mosses  in  places 
are  twenty  feet  in  depth,  and  in  them  many  canoes  hol- 
lowed out  of  single  tree  trunks  have  been  found.  One 
of  these,  17  feet  long,  will  be  on  view  during  the  visit  of 
the  Association. 

The  coast  is  fringed  with  a  line  of  sand-dunes  for  a 
distance  of  some  fifteen  miles,  while  the  whole  of 
Southport  is  built  on  ground  formerly  covered  with 
dunes,  which  have  been  levelled ;  in  some  places,  as 
near  Formby,  six  miles  south  of  Southport,  these  dunes 
are  more  than  three  miles  in  width  and  rise  to  a  height 
of  more  than  80  feet.  The  sand  of  the  dunes  is  composed 
of  materials  eroded  from  the  Triassic  sandstones  and 
then  cast  on  to  the  shore  by  the  sea,  from  where  it  is 
blown  into  dunes  by  the  prevailing  westerly  winds.  A 
considerable  area  in  the  estuary  of  the  Ribble  to  the 
north  of  .Southport  is  covered  by  a  salt  marsh  formed 
by  the  deposition  of  silt  at  the  meeting  of  the  waters  of 


226 


NATURE 


[July  9,  1903 


the  Ribble  with  those  of  the  sea.  This  district  is  of 
considerable  interest,  as  in  it  may  be  studied  the  ques- 
tion of  the  formation  of  estuarian  clays  and  their 
attendant  flora  and  fauna. 

On  the  whole,  although  at  first  sight  the  district  does 
not  seem  to  offer  many  opportunities  of  study  to  the 
.geologist,  yet  on  further  consideration  many  problems 
and  objects  of  great  interest  are  to  be  found. 

Botany. — Turning  to  the  flora  of  the  district,  we 
Jlnd  that,  in  spite  of  the  apparent  bareness  of  the  long 
stretch  of  sand-dunes,  they  are  by  no  means  barren  from 
a  collector's  point  of  view.  In  addition  to  the  usual 
littoral  flora,  which  is  even  here  thoroughly  representa- 
tive in  variety,  nature,  and  outline,  the  diligent  seeker 
will  be  rewarded  by  many  choice  finds.  We  must  be 
pardoned  for  placing  as  an  easy  first,  in  regard  to 
heauty  as  well  as  variety,  the  seaside  form  of  the  round- 
leaved  winter-green,  Pyrola  rotundifolia,  Linn.,  var. 
miarititna,  Kenyon.  This  plant  is  here  abundant,  and 
when  in  full  bloom  is  an  object  of  great  loveliness. 
Here  also,  nearer  to  the  sea  line,  may  easily  be  found 
•quite  a  family  group  of  the  centaurys  (locally  termed 
sanctuary).  Every  species  now  recorded  in  the  London 
catalogue,  save  one,  has  been  gathered  on  this  coast. 
The  rarest  of  them,  however,  the  broad-leaved  centaury, 
Erythraea  latifoUa,  though  originally  found  here, 
rseems  to  be  now  extinct.  Accompanying  these  plants 
(there  occurs,  sometimes  in  patches  like  small  fields, 
another  member  of  the  same  natural  order  (Gen- 
.tianeae),  the  yellow- wort,  Blackstonia  perfoliata, 
Hudson,  whilst  in  similar  patches,  and  even  more 
luxuriantly,  there  grows  the  Grass  of  Parnassus,  Par- 
nassia  palustris,  Linn.  In  higher  and  drier  situations, 
too,  the  searcher  is  rewarded  by  the  discovery,  in  fairly 
large  quantities,  of  two  beautiful  euphorbias,  both 
comparatively  rare  elsewhere,  namely.  Euphorbia 
Paralias,  Linn.,  and  E.  Portlandica,  Linn.  The  latter 
is  a  lovely  object  in  the  autumn,  its  green  foliage 
-changing  to  a  bright  crimson  as  the  plant  gradually 
fades. 

The  aquatic  plants  of  the  district  are  well  worthy 
:serious  study,  and  include  a  very  interesting  group  of 
■drop-worts  (Qinanthe),  marestail,  Hippuris  vulgaris, 
Linn.,  and  a  few  miles  inland  whole  dykes  covered 
■over  with  the  beautiful  water-violet,  Hottonia  palustris, 
Linn.  To  refer  once  more  to  the  sand-dunes,  the  col- 
lector may  be  interested  to  know  that  here  grows  that 
wonderful  botanical  enigma,  the  yellow  bird's  nest, 
Hypopitys  Monotropa,  Crantz,  and  a  capital  variety  of 
■orchids,  including  Epipactis  palustris,  Crantz.  On  the 
whole,  to  anyone  in  search  of  British  wild  flowers,  the 
district  is  rich  and  repaying. 

Zoology. — With  the  exception  of  its  marine  fauna, 
which  is  very  rich,  and  is  to  be  specially  dealt  with  in 
the  handbook  now  in  preparation,  Southport  cannot  be 
said  to  possess  any  very  distinctive  zoological  features. 
No  quadrupeds  are  peculiar  to  the  district.  But  in  early 
times,  probably  succeeding  the  last  Glacial  epoch,  when 
the  flat  country  around  Southport  was  more  elevated 
than  now,  it  is  evident  that  the  Irish  elk,  Cervus 
megaceros,  roamed  here  in  abundance,  many  skulls 
and  other  remains  of  this  animal  having  been  found 
embedded  in  the  clay  beds  of  a  large  Inland  lake  no 
longer  existing,  known  as  Martin  Mere.  It  is  sug- 
;gested  by  Mr.  G.  W.  Lamplugh,  in  his  recent  geological 
survey  of  the  Isle  of  Man,  that  the  Irish  elk  migrated 
across  the  waning  ice-sheet  which  lingered  in  the  Irish 
Sea  at  the  close  of  the  Glacial  period. 

In  ornithology  Southport  bears  a  good  record,  and 
though  the  number  must  have  been  decreased  of  late 
years,  no  less  than  130  species  of  birds  were  known  to 
the  district  half  a  century  ago.  Among  the  birds  that 
now  visit  the  neighbourhood  during  spring  and  summer 
are  the  swallow,  stone-chat,  white-throat,  vellow  wag- 
NO.    1758,  VOL.   681 


tail,  northern  diver,  snow  bunting,  black  and  little 
tern,  and  wheatear,  for  many  of  which  the  numerous 
sandhills  offer  congenial  attractions.  In  winter  the 
bodies  of  storm-tossed  birds,  as  the  puffin,  razor-bill, 
and  stormy  petrel,  are  often  cast  upon  the  shore,  or 
become  entangled  in  the  fishermen's  nets. 

Numerous  lizards  haunt  the  sandhills,  where  also  the 
conchologist  will  reap  a  good  harvest  not  only  in  land 
mollusca,  which  are  very  abundant,  but  in  marine 
species,  including  some  of  which  no  representatives  are 
now  found  on  the  shore,  and  which  were,  doubtless,  de- 
posited at  a  distant  era  when  the  sea  covered  much  of 
the  present  land.  Cockles  and  shrimps  are  yet  taken 
at  Southport  in  great  abundance.  To  the  entomologist 
the  sandhills  of  Southport  afford  a  valuable  hunting 
ground,  as  will  be  seen  from  the  number  of  species  and 
genera  recorded  in  the  forthcoming  handbook. 

Archaeology. — The  district  of  Southport  is  not  so 
destitute  of  interest  to  the  antiquarian  as  might  at  first 
be  supposed.  Southport  itself  can  boast  no  history  prior 
to  the  end  of  the  eighteenth  century,  but  Blrkdale  and 
Churchtown,  at  the  two  extremes  of  the  borough,  can 
both  claim  a  respectable  antiquity.  Roman  coins  are 
said  to  have  been  found  on  Blrkdale  Common. 

This  part  of  Lancashire  is  the  "  Inter  Ripam  et 
Mersham  "  of  the  Domesday  Survey,  but  the  anti- 
quarian Interest  goes  back  to  Roman  times,  when 
there  were  Roman  stations  on  both  the  Mersey  and 
Ribble,  a  Roman  road  leading  from  what  is  now 
Warrington  through  Wigan  to  RIbchester.  The 
country  west  of  the  line  of  this  road  was,  until  com- 
paratively recent  times,  very  isolated,  and  consisted 
largely  of  low,  swampy  ground  interspersed  with  woods 
and  growing  timber.  The  Roman  station  at  RIb- 
chester will  receive  the  attention  of  the  members  of  the 
British  Association  on  one  of  the  Saturday  excursions, 
when  Mr.  John  Garstang,  of  University  College, 
laverpool,  and  author  of  "  Roman  RIbchester," 
will  explain  the  history  of  the  Roman  occupation  on 
the  site.  Mr.  Garstang  will  also  read  a  paper  on 
Roman  RIbchester  before  Section  H. 

Close  to  Southport  Is  the  site  of  Martin  Mere,  once  a 
large  shallow  fresh-water  lake.  It  Is  now  drained  and 
used  as  agricultural  land.  Mention  has  already  been 
made  of  a  large  canoe  dug  up  here,  and  it  is  hoped  that 
other  antiquities  (bronzes,  &rc.)  obtained  from  the  site 
of  the  lake  may  be  on  exhibition  at  the  time  of  the  meet- 
ing. Martin  Mere  is  one  of  the  manj^  places  which 
claim  connection  with  the  Arthurian  legend.  The 
river  Douglas,  the  whole  course  of  which  lies  within  this 
district,  is  reported  to  be  the  scene  of  some  of  King 
Arthur's  most  bloody  battles  !  Claims  are  also  put  for- 
ward by  both  the  Ribble  and  Mersey,  north  and  south 
of  Southport,  as  the  site  of  Athelstane's  great  victory  of 
Brunanburg. 

Lancashire  is  rich  in  old  halls,  and  many  of  these  are 
within  easy  reach  of  Southport.  Visits  will  be  paid  to 
Ruff'ord  Old  Hall,  which  contains  a  very  fine  example 
of  a  great  hall  of  the  fifteenth  century,  and  to  Hoghton 
Tower,  an  interesting  and  finely  situated  Elizabethan 
mansion,  recently  restored,  the  residence  of  Sir  James 
de  Hoghton,  Bart.  Hoghton  Tower  disputes  with 
Pimp  Hall,  Essex,  the  title  of  being  the  house  In  which 
King  James  I.  knighted  the  loin  of  beef.  Of  the  lesser 
halls  in  the  Immediate  vicinity  of  Southport,  mention 
may  be  made  of  Lydiate,  Hurleston,  Mawdesley,  and 
Heskln.  Larger  houses,  like  Speke  and  Smithells,  lie 
further  afield,  and  can  only  be  visited  by  special  per- 
mission. 

In  ancient  ecclesiastical  architecture  Lancashire  can- 
not be  said  to  be  well  off.  There  is  an  ancient  Norman 
chapel  at  Stydd,  near  RIbchester,  an  opportunity  of 
visiting  which  will  be  given,  but  otherwise  nearly  all 
the    churches    of    Lancashire    belong    to  the  late  Per- 


July  9,  1903] 


NATURE 


2  27 


pendicular  period.  Halsall,  however,  four  miles  from 
Southport,  possesses  a  fine  parish  church,  largely  of 
fifteenth  century  date,  which  will  be  visited,  and  the 
church  at  Ormskirk  is  unique  in  England  in  possessing 
a  western  tower  and  spire  standing  side  by  side. 
Sefton  church  is  a  late  sixteenth  century  building,  with 
remains  of  earlier  work  in  parts,  and  has  some  good 
interior  woodwork.  At  Burscough,  eight  miles  dis- 
tant, are  the  remains  of  an  Augustinian  priory,  which 
in  its  day  was  one  of  the  most  considerable  religious 
houses  in  Lancashire. 

Carr  House,  at  Hoole,  a  brick  building  erected  in 
lb  13^  is  reputed  to  be  the  house  in  which  Jeremiah 
Horrocks  observed  the  transit  of  Venus  in  1639,  and 
Hoole  Church,  though  without  architectural  merit  of 
any  kind,  is  interesting  as  the  chapel  at  which  Horrocks 
officiated.  There  are  the  remains  of  a  large  number  of 
wayside  crosses  in  this  part  of  Lancashire,  an  excel- 
lent specimen  standing  in  Scarisbrick  Park,  about  four 
miles  from  Southport. 

Lathom  is  the  scene  of  the  famous  siege  of  Lathom 
House  by  the  Parliamentary  forces  in  1644,  where 
Charlotte  de  |a  Tremouille,  Countess  of  Derby,  made 
her  famous  defence.  She  is  buried  along  with  the 
Earl  in  the  neighbouring  church  of  Ormskirk.  Old 
Lathom  House  has  given  place  to  a  classic  mansion 
erected  in  1724-34  from  the  designs  of  Leoni.  Scaris- 
brick Hall  is  another  old  Lancashire  mansion  that  has 
been  rebuilt,  the  modern  house,  designed  by  .Augustus 
Welby  Pugin,  being  a  fine  example  of  the  domestic 
work  of  the  Gothic  revival. 

All  along  the  coast  of  Lancashire  are  evidences  of  sub- 
merged lands,  and  the  interest  of  the  Leasowe  coast  of 
the  Wirral  Peninsula  is  well  known  to  all  those  who 
have  inquired  into  the  subject  of  the  alteration  in  the 
coast  line  of  the  country  since  Roman,  or  even  Norman, 
times.  An  opportunity  will  be  afforded  of  inspecting 
the  submerged  forest  at  Leasowe,  and  another  sub- 
merged forest  is  to  be  seen  nearer  to  Southport,  at  the 
mouth  of  the  .Alt,  near  Formby. 

Of  places  not  falling  within  the  Southport  district, 
but  which  will  be  visited  by  the  .Association,  the  anti- 
quarian interest  of  Chester  is  too  well  known  to  need 
comment.  At  Whalley  are  the  remains  of  a  great 
Cistercian  abbey,  and  Whalley  church  is  a  building  full 
of  architectural  and  antiquarian  interest  from  the 
thirteenth  to  the  sixteenth  centuries.  It  contains  the 
stalls  belonging  to  the  abbey  church,  which  has  com- 
pletely disappeared.  In  the  churchyard  are  three  pre- 
Norman  crosses.  Time  may  allow'  also  of  a  visit  to 
Mytton  church  and  Little  Mvtton  Hall,  which  lie  be- 
tween Whalley  and  Stonyhurst.  Stonyhurst  itself  has 
>nme  antiquarian  interest,  the  original  building  being 
a  fine  Elizabethan  house,  now  incorporated  in  the  vast 
college  buildings.  At  .Manchester  mention  must  be 
made  of  the  fifteenth  century  Chetham  Hospital  and 
Library,  adjoining  the  Cathedral. 

The  archaeology  of  the  immediate  district  of  South- 
port  may  be  described  as  of  local  rather  than  of  general 
interest,  but  a  reference  to  the  volumes  of  proceedings 
of  the  Historic  Society  of  Lancashire  and  Cheshire,  and 
of  the  Lancashire  and  Cheshire  .Antiquarian  Society, 
which  will  be  found  in  the  Southport  Reference  Library,' 
will  show  that  antiquarian  research  is  very  active  in  the 
two  counties. 

The  railway  companies  will  issue  return  tickets  to 
Southport  from  the  principal  stations  in  the  United 
Kingdom  at  a  fare  and  a  quarter  on  surrender  of  the 
usual  voucher  issued  to  members.  The  tickets  will  be 
available  from  September  8  to  September  18  inclusive. 
The  local  railway  companies  will  issue  return  tickets  at 
a  fare  and  a  quarter  to  members  during  the  meeting  for 
short  distance  journeys.  F.  H.  Cheetham. 

NO.    1758,   VOL.  68] 


NEW  SERUM  DEPARTMENT  OF  THE 
JENNER  INSTITUTE. 
I  T  PON  the  invitation  of  Lord  Lister  and  the  governing 
^  body  of  the  Jenner  Institute  of  Preventive  Medi- 
cine, a  number  of  distinguished  guests  inspected,  on 
Friday  last,  the  new  laboratories  and  stables  which  the 
institute  has  recently  acquired  at  Queensberry  Lodge,^ 
Elstree,  Herts. 

The  removal  from  the  former  site  at  Sudbury,  near 
Harrow,  became  necessary  from  the  encroachment  of 
th,e  Great  Central  Railway,  and  the  authorities  of  the 
institute  were  fortunate  in  acquiring  a  site  which  is 
eminently  suitable  for  carrying  on  the  work  of  the 
department.  This  work  consists  largely  in  the  pre- 
paration and  testing  of  antitoxins,  such  as  diphtheria 
antitoxin,  tetanus  antitoxin,  and  antistreptococcic 
serum,  ^nd  in  carrying  on  research  work  in  connection 
with  thes^,  and  on  questions  of  immunity. 

Certain  i^esearches  also  in  comparative  pathology  can 
be  suitably  conducted  only  under  such  conditions  as 
exist  in  a  department  of  this  character. 

The  buildings  are  on  the  summit  of  a  small 
hill,  and  are  surrounded  by  about  twenty-eight 
acres  of  meadcyw  land,  which  is  conveniently  divided 
into  small  fielc^s  suitable  for  pasturing  and  exer- 
cising the  hordes  and  other  animals,  such  as 
goats  and  sheep,  which  are  used  in  connection 
with  the  work.  Queensberry  Lodge  itself  has  been  re- 
tained practically  as  it  was  when  the  estate  was  ac- 
quired by  the  institqte,  and  is  now  used  for  the  accom- 
modation of  the  junior  staff,  administrative  offices,  &c. 
The  bacteriologist-in^charge  lives  in  a  separate  house. 
The  laboratories,  whjch  have  been  built  by  the  insti- 
tute from  designs  by  Mr.  Paul  Waterhouse^  are  of  the 
most  modern  type,  with  papyrolith  floors  with  rounded 
corners,  white  glazed  adamant  walls  with  a  dado  of 
white  tiles,  and  large  window  space.  They  are  warmed 
by  open  fireplaces.  T^ere  is  a  good  gas  and  water 
supply,  and  the  buildings  are  lit  by  Welsbach  incan- 
descent gas  burners.  Jhe  main  ideas  in  the  arrange- 
ment of  the  departments  have  been  to  provide  separate 
buildings  and  isolated  rooms  for  carrying  out  the 
different  processes  for  the  production  and  testing  of 
antito.xins,  thus  avoiding  risk  of  contamination  of 
the  serum,  and  at  the  same  time  affording  adequate 
laboratory  accommodation  for  the  prosecution  of  re- 
search work.  In  this  connection  it  has  been  considered 
advisable  to  have  several  small  laboratories  for  one 
or  two  workers  where  undisturbed  work  can  be  carried 
on  rather  than  large  laboratories  capable  of  accom- 
modating a  number  of  workers. 

The  laboratories  comprise  : — 

.1  Large  Routine  Laboratory.— This  room  is  furnished 
with  both  side  and  roof  lights,  and  is  fitted  with  centre  and 
side  benche*.  fume  chamber,  &c.  It  is  used  for  general 
chemical  work,  for  the  filtration  of  diphtheria  toxins,  for 
fitting  up  apparatus,  and  for  such  work  as  section-cutting 
and  blow-pipe  work. 

Two  Private  Research  Laboratories. — These  rooms  are 
well  lighted  with  a  north-east  aspect.  They  are  completely 
equipped  as  bacteriological  laboratories,  have  low  benches 
for  microscopical  work,  and  separate  Hearson  incubators, 
shelves  for  reagents,  media,  &c. 

The  Serum  Laboratory. — The  windows  in  this  room  are 
of  ruby  glass  so  as  to  ensure  a  non-actinic  light.  It  is 
used  for  the  filtration  and  storing  of  the  various  sera,  and 
contains  two  large  ice-safes  for  that  purpose.  It  is  fitted 
with  a  work  bench  which  has  connections  with  a  water- 
vacuum  pump,  and  is  also  furnished  with  a  Geryk  pump. 

The  Engine  Room  is  fitted  with  a  gas  engine  driving  a 
large  Runne's  centrifugal  machine  and  a  disintegrator. 
There  is  also  a  Root's  blower,  which  supplies  sterile  air 
to  the  bottling  room.  There  is  a  water-pump  supplying  a 
vacuum  and  high-pressure  air  to  the  neighbouring  rooms. 


228 


NATURE 


[July  9,  1903 


The  Incubation  Room  is  a  small  insulated  room,  the  in- 
sulation being  obtained  by  its  having  double  walls,  the 
space  between  which  is  packed  with  asbestos.  It  has  two 
doors  forming  a  small  "  air-lock  "  to  prevent  the  inrush  of 
cold  air  on  opening  the  door.  By  means  of  a  gas  stove 
and  Roux  regulator  the  temperature  is  maintained  at  body- 
heat.  This  room  is  used  for  the  cultivation  of  the  different 
microorganisms  used  in  connection  with  the  work  of  the 
establishment. 

The   Bottling   Room   is   reserved    entirely   for   filling   the 

JENNER   INSTITUTE  OF  PREVENTIVE   MEDICINE 
ALDENHAM      HERTS. 


LARGE 
GROUND 


LABORATORY 
FLOOR  PLAN 


SCALE    OF   FEtT 


serum  into  flasks.  The  windows  are  of  non-actinic  ruby 
glass,  and  are  air-tight.  Before  bottling  is  commenced  the 
room  is  filled  with  formalin  vapour,  which  is  allowed  to 
remain  in  the  closed  room  all  night.  In  the  morning  the 
formalin  vapour  is  displaced  by  a  current  of  cold  air  from 
the  outside  of  the  building,  which  is  blown  into  the  room 
by 'the  Root's  blower  in  the  engine  room.  This  air  is 
sterilised  before  its  entry  by  passage  through  a  large  filter 
of  sterile  cotton  wool.  The  current  of  sterile  air  is  main- 
tained throughout  the  process  of  bottling,  entering  the 
room  through  the  filter  and  passing  out  by  an  exit  in  the 
roof  through  a  cotton-wool  filter. 

The  Culture  Medium  and  Sterilising  Room. — This  room 
is  used   for   the   preparation    and    sterilising   of   the   media 

NO.     175^,    VOL.   68] 


employed  in  the  cultivation  of  the  various  microorganisms. 
It  is  fitted  with  autoclaves,  steam  sterilisers,  thermostats, 
&c.  This  room  communicates  with  the  cultivation  room 
by  double  doors,  through  which  the  flasks  can  be  passed 
after  inoculation,  thus  avoiding  lowering  the  temperature 
of  the  hot  room  by  repeatedly  entering  it. 

The  Glass  Cleaning  Room  contains  a  dry-heat  disinfector 

for   sterilising   the   glass   apparatus,    and    is   fitted   specially 

for  the  purpose  of  cleaning  and  sterilising  glass  apparatus. 

An   Isolated   Laboratory   stands   entirely   apart   from   any 

other  building.  It 
is  used  for  the 
preparation,  filtra- 
tion, and  precipita- 
tion of  such  things 
as  tetanus  toxin, 
&c.,  and  for  the 
examination  of 
small  animals. 

At  a  considerable 
distance  from  the 
main  laboratories, 
there  is  a  complete 
small  department 
with  stables  for 
carrying  on  work 
in  connection  with 
other  infectious  dis- 
eases, in  addition  to 
those  previously 

mentioned. 

The  A  nimal 
Houses  are  ordinary 
garden  greenhouses 
which  have  been 
adapted  and  prove 
excellent  for  the 
purpose,  as  they  are 
easily  kept  to  an 
even  temperature. 
The  largest  is  used 
as  an  experimental 
animal  house  for  the 
housing  of  animals 
employed  in  the 
testing  of  the  sera, 
toxins,  &c.  The 
roof  is  covered  with 
vines,  which  have 
been  retained  as 
affording  a  shelter 
from  the  sun  in 
summer.  The  two 
smaller  houses  are 
used  for  breeding 
purposes.  The  three 
houses  are  heated 
by  a  system  of  hot 
water  pipes. 

The  Principal 
Stables  form  two 
blocks  of  buildings 
about  200  yards 
from  the  labora- 
tories. They  are  all 
brick,  and  of  the 
most  modern  type. 
There  are  two 
yards,  the  first  of  which  is  covered  by  a  high  glass  roof, 
and  opening  from  this  yard  is  the  operating  room,  where 
the  horses  are  injected  and  bled.  The  stabling  consists 
entirely  of  loose  boxes,  which  are  very  well  ventilated,  and 
are  all  of  a  large  size,  so  that  the  animals  have  ample  room 
to  move  about  freely. 

In  the  vicinity  of  the  operating  room  is  a  small  isolated 
room  with  slate  benches,  where  the  blood  flasks  are  allowed 
to  stand,  and  where  the  serum  is  decanted. 

In  one  of  the  meadows,  at  a  distance  from  the  stables,  is 
a  loose  box  which  is  used  as  an  isolation  box.  All  new  horses 
here  undergo  a  period  of  quarantine.  There  are  several 
other  loose  boxes  in  the  various  meadows,  as  well  as  an 
isolated  cow-shed,  goat-house,  pigeOn-house,  rabbit-runs,  &-c. 


PAUL   WATERHOUSE 
ARCHITECT 


of  the  Jenner  Institute  at  Elstree,  Herts. 


July  9,  1903] 


NATURE 


229 


ARCnJEOLOGlCAL    DISCOVERIES   IN    CRETE 
AND    EGYPT. 

T^HE    undoubtedly   close    connection    which    existed 

A  between  the  Bronze  age  civilisations  of  Greece 
and  Egypt  is  now  generally  recognised  by  archae- 
ologists. Not  only  was  Egyptian  influence  on  the 
development  of  the  **  Mycenaean  "  culture  always  very 
marked,  especially  from  the  period  of  the  thirteenth 
Egyptian  dynasty  (b.c.  2000)  to  the  end  of  the  eighteenth 
(B.C.  1400),  but  the  most  recent  discoveries  seem 
to  point  to  the  unlooked-for  conclusion  that  the  two 
chief  civilisations  of  the  Eastern  Mediterranean  may 
have  had  a  common  origin,  presumably  in  Africa. 
Ortainly  the  further  we  go  back  the  more  striking 
are  the  parallels  between  early  Egyptian  and  early 
Creek  culture.  It  is,  then,  nowadays  natural  to  group 
together  the  archaeological  discoveries  which  are  being 
made  in  Egypt  and  in  Crete,  which  was  apparently  the 
seat  of  the  most  fully  developed  phase  of  the  Greek 
civilisation  of  the  Bronze  age. 

During  the  present  season  (1903)  Mr.  A.  J.  Evans 
and  Mr.  Mackenzie  have  pursued  the  investigation  of 
the  great  palace  of  Knossos  in  Crete,  the  legendary 
seat  of  the  Minoan  dominion  over  land  and  sea.  The 
chief  discoveries  of  the  year  are : — (i)  a  stepped 
theatre,  after  the  fashion  of  that  at  Phaistos,  but 
smaller  and  not  so  well  preserved,  lying  to  the  west 
of  the  north  gate;  (2)  a  building,  perhaps  a  small 
sanctuary,  lying  immediately  north  of  the  north  gate, 
and  directly  in  the  line  of  its  axis ;  (3)  a  house,  lying 
a  quarter  of  a  mile  to  the  north-east,  on  the  slope  of 
the  hill,  overlooking  the  stream  of  the  Kairatos ; 
and  (4)  two  magnificent  bronze  vases,'  one  of  them 
closely  resembling  a  type  depicted  among  the  offer- 
ings of  the  Keftian  Cretans  in  the  tomb  of  Rekhmara 
at  Thebes    in  Egypt,  circa  1550  B.C. 

The  house  is  remarkable,  and  contains  a  room  with 
an  apsidal  end;  it  is,  in  fact,  a  sort  of  prototype  of 
the  basilica,  which  is  now  carried  back  to  Mycenaean 
days  ! 

What  next  year's  excavations  may  bring  forth  it  is 
impossible  to  guess,  but  there  certainly  seems  no  end 
to  Knossos. 

The  Italian  excavations  at  the  small  palace  of  Agia  j 
Triada,  near  Dib^ki,  in  the  Messar^,  are  proceeding  j 
under  the  direction  of  Prof.  Halbherr  and  Drs.  Pernier  i 
and  Peribeni ;  the  finds  have  been  important,  consist-  | 
ing  of  fragments  of  stone  vases  decorated  with  reliefs 
representing  gladiatorial  combats,  bull-fights,  and  the 
presentation  of  spears  to  departing  warriors  by  a  king, 
and  of  a  hoard  of  great  talents  of  copper  and  bronze, 
measuring   each   more   than   a   foot   long,    which   are 
identical   in    type   with    the   metal   ingots   brought   as 
tribute  to  Egypt  by  the  Keftians.     The  vases  are  of 
the   same  kind  as   that  representing  a   harvest-home 
procession,  found  at  Agia  Triada  last  year. 

The  American  and  English  excavations  at  Gournii\ 
and  Palaiokastro,  under  Miss  Boyd  and  Mr.  R.  C. 
Bosanquet  respectively,  have  produced  interesting  re- 
sults, especially  in  the  domain  of  pottery  and  small 
cult-objects,  of  which  Palaiokastro  and  a  hill-sanctuary 
in  its  vicinity  have  afforded  numbers  of  interesting 
examples. 

Apart  from  the  discovery  of  the  tomb  of  King 
Thothmes  IV.  by  Mr.  Carter  at  Thebes,  and  of  a  small 
portrait  figure  of  King  Khufu  (Cheops),  the  builder  of 
the  Great  Pyramid,  by  Prof.  Petrie  at  Abydos,  the  most 
interesting  excavations  undertaken  during  the  past 
season  in  Egypt  have  been  those  of  Mr.  Garstang  at 
Beni  Hasan.  Below  the  well-known-  large  tombs  of 
the  Twelfth  Dynasty  nomarchs,  he  has  discovered  a 
row  of  Sixth  Dynasty  sepulchres,  and  a  great  number  of 
"  pit-tombs,"  of  the  Eleventh  and  early  Twelfth  Dynas- 
ties. In  some  of  these,  notably  in  that  of  Nefer-i,  a 
NO.    7758.  VOL.  68] 


physician,  has  been  discovered  the  funeral  furniture 
intact.  This,  as  is  usually  the  case  with  burials  of 
this  period,  included  numbers  of  wooden  models  of  the 
boats  in  which  the  mummies  were  ferried  across  the 
stream  to  the  necropolis,  and  of  the  Nile-ships  in 
ordinary  use,  with  their  crews,  &c.,  notably  a  war- 
ship on  which  is  a  group  of  two  men  playing  chess 
under  a  canopy,  formed  of  two  of  the  great  cow-hide 
shields  in  use  at  the  time;  a  similar  shield-canopy  is 
seen  on  a  boat  of  the  same  period  in  the  British 
Museum,  No.  35293.  Models  of  granaries  and  model 
groups  of  fellahin  engaged  in  their  daily  avocations 
were  also  found.  Photographic  records  were  taken 
of  the  various  stages  of  the  opening  of  all  tombs,  more 
than  450  negatives  being  secured.  This  is  a  most 
satisfactory  feature  of  Mr.  Garstang 's  excavations. 
It  is  also  satisfactory  to  know  that  most  of  the  finds 
will  be  placed  in  public  museums  and  private  collec- 
tions in  England.  The  results  of  the  Cretan  excava- 
tions have  to  remain  in  Crete,  housed  in  a  ramshackle 
Turkish  ex-barrack,  the  floors,  staircases,  beams,  and 
pillars  of  which  are  of  wood,  and  in  which  smoking 
is  freely  permitted.  The  collections  brought  together 
there  by  the  energy  of  English,  American,  and  Italian 
excavators  are  unique,  and  include  many  classes  of 
objects,  e.g.  the  inscribed  tablets  from  Knossos,  which 
are  unrepresented  in  the  properly  built  and  protected 
museums  of  Europe.  It  would,  indeed,  be  deplorable 
if  the  treasures  of  Knossos,  which  have  survived  one 
conflagration — that  in  which  the  palace  was  destroyed 
— were  to  perish  in  another. 


WHITE  SPOT   ON  SATURN. 

ON  July  I,  after  observing  Jupiter  for  some  time,  I 
directed  my  lo-inch  reflector  to  Saturn,  and  found 
the  details  sharply  defined.  The  dusky  north  polar 
cap  was  very  distinct,  and  so  was  the  dark  belt  on  the 
north  side  of  the  equator.  The  belt  was  darkest  and 
more  strongly  outlined  on  its  southern  side,  probably 
by  contrast  with  the  bright  equatorial  zone.  I  soon 
noticed  a  large  bright  spot  on  the  north  side  of  the 
belt,  and  in  a  position  nearing  the  western  limb  of 
the  planet.  It  was  followed  by  a  diffused  dusky  mark- 
ing. The  luminous  spot  must  have  been  on  the 
planet's  central  meridian  at  about  i4h.  im.,  but  this 
is  only  a  rough  estimate,  as  the  marking  was  far  past 
transit  when  I  first  saw  it.  It  is  to  be  hoped  that  this 
feature  will  prove  fairly  durable,  in  which  case  it  may 
be  expected  to  furnish  an  excellent  means  of  redeter- 
mining the  rotation  period  of  Saturn. 

A  telegram  from  Kiel  (mentioned  in  your  last 
number)  states  that  Barnard,  of  the  Yerkes  Observ- 
atory, saw  a  white  spot  in  Saturn's  N.  hemisphere 
central  on  June  23,  i5h.  47.8m.  Williams  Bay  time. 
Allowing  for  the  difference  of  longitude,  this  would 
be  2ih.  42m.  G.M.T.  Adding  eighteen  rotations  of 
Saturn  of  about  loh.  14m.  will  bring  us  to  the  time 
when  the  spot  was  approximately  in  transit  as  observed 
at  Bristol,  and  there  seems  no  doubt  as  to  the  identity 
of  the  objects. 

This  disturbance  on  Saturn  will  recall  Prof.  Asaph 
Hall's  white  spot  seen  in  the  winter  of  1876-7,  and 
followed  from  December  7  to  January  2.  A  number 
of  transits  of  this  object  were  observed  by  Hall,  East- 
man, Newcomb,  Edgecomb,  and  A.  G.  Clark,  and 
from  the  data  obtained  the  former  found  the  rotation 
period  of  Saturn  to  be 

loh.    14m.   23-8s.  ±  2-30S.    mean   time. 
The  spot'  lengthened  out  into  a  bright  belt,  and  soon 
lost  its  distinctive  character. 

Should  the  present  object  remain  visible,  it  will  be 
on  or  near  the  central  meridian  of  Saturn  on  July  10, 
i3h.,  July  13,  i2^h.,  and  July  16,  i2h.  lom. 

W.  F,  Denning. 


230 


NATURE 


[July  9,  1903 


NOTES. 

The  visit  of  President  Loubet  to  England,  as  a  guest  of 
the  British  Court,  is  an  event  which  should  not  pass  un- 
noticed in  the  scientific  world  ;  he  comes  as  the  representa- 
tive pf  the  French  nation.  On  many  occasions  President 
Loubet  has  shown  interest  in  scientific  meetings  and  con- 
gresses held  in  France,  and  has  extended  the  warmest 
hospitality  to  the  foreign  members  who  attended  them. 
His  country  takes  a  place  in  the  foremost  rank  of  those 
which  are  contributing  to  the  advancement  of  science,  and 
th*  flames  of  leading  French  investigators  are  familiar 
words  not  only  in  the  British  Isles,  but  in  all  places  where 
scientific  knowledge  is  cultivated.  It  is  a  pity  that  the 
British  associates  and  correspondants  of  the  Academy  of 
Sciences  have  not  taken  the  opportunity  to  welcome  Presi- 
dent Loubet,  as  the  representatives  of  the  scientific  interests 
of  both  nations.  Such  an  act  of  simple  courtesy  ought  not 
to  have  been  omitted. 

Lord  Kelvin  and  Lord  Lister  have  been  elected  honorary 
members  of  the  Royal  Society  of  New  South  Wales. 

Lord  Lister  has  been  admitted  to  the  honorary  freedom 
of.  the  Merchant  Taylors'  Company  in  recognition  of  his 
",lpng  and  valuable  services  to  the  country,  and  particularly 
to  surgery,  by  the  discovery  and  application  of  the  anti- 
septic treatment." 

At  a  meeting  held  last  week  in  the  rooms  of  the  Royal 
Statistical  Society,  it  was  resolved  to  form  a  society  for  the 
promotion  of  scientific  and  philosophical  studies  in  sociology. 
A:  committee  was  appointed  to  consider  the  question  of  the 
spbpe  and  aims  of  the  society,  and  to  draft  a  constitution 
to  be:  submitted  to  a  meeting  in  the  autumn. 

'A'  Paris  correspondent  writes  : — On  July  3  the  Temps 
resolved'  to  send  a  message  round  the  world  by  telegraphy, 
uiirig  the  Anglo-French  system  of  transoceanic  cables.  The 
rriessage  was  sent  from  Paris  at  11  a.m.,  and  consisted  of 
the  two  words  Temps,  Paris,  with  the  indication  of  the 
route,  via  Malta,  Aden,  Singapore,  Brisbane,  Vancouver, 
and  French  Atlantic  Cable.  As  the  indication  of  the  route 
is  not  paid  for,  the  cost  of  the  experiment  was  only  13s.  i^d. 
No  previous  explanation  or  preliminary  notice  had  been 
served  to  the  several  companies,  but  the  organisation  of  the 
Anglo-French  system  is  so  perfect  that  the  message  arrived 
at  the  Temps  office  at  5.30  p.m.  The  time  spent  had  been 
six  hours  for  travelling  about  40,000  miles,  a  measure  of 
th'>  commercial  speed  of  electricity  on  the  occasion  of  the 
inauguration  of  the  American,  Sandwich,  Philippine,  and 
Hqng  Kong  system. 

The  automobile  races  in  Ireland  last  week  give  remark- 
a\)\e  evidence  of  the  power  and  perfection  of  modern  motors. 
The  race  for  the  Gordon  Bennett  Cup,  over  a  course  of 
37of  miles,  was  won  by  a  German  car,  driven  by  a  Belgian, 
M.  Jenatzy.  The  net  time  spent  in  covering  this  distance 
was  6h.  39m.,  which  gives  an  average  of  nearly  56  miles  per 
hour  on  ordinary  roads.  The  second  place  was  taken  by  a 
French  car,  the  time  being  6h.  50m.  40s.  Three  other 
competitors  finished  the  race,  two  of  them  driving  French 
cars,  while  the  fifth  place  was  taken  bv  an  English  car. 
Some  extraordinary  speeds  were  attained  by  automobiles 
over  a  course  in  Phoenix  Park,  Dublin,  on  Saturday.  For 
racing  purposes  the  programme  was  divided  into  three 
sections,  one  for  motor  cycles,  one  for  touring  cars,  and 
one  for  racing  cars.  The  fastest  motor  cycle  travelled  at 
the  rate  of  48-2  miles  an  hour,  and  the  fastest  touring  car 
at  46-5  miles  an  hour.  In  the  racing  section  a  D^cauville 
light  racer  covered  the  course  in   im.   ^t,   1-5S.,   at  the  rate 


of  62J  miles  an  hour ;  a  6o-h.p.  Merc^d^s  at  the  rate  of 
7S  miles  an  hour  ;  a  70-h.p.  Mors  at  the  rate  of  83  miles  an 
hour,  and  also  at  859  miles  an  hour. 

Reuter's  Agency  is  informed  that  Commander  Irizar,  the 
Argentine  naval  officer  who  will  command  the  relief  ex- 
pedition which  is  being  sent  out  by  the  Argentine  Govern- 
ment in  search  of  Dr.  Otto  Nordenskjold's  South  Polar 
Expedition,  will  leave  for  Buenos  Ayres  in  a  few  \yeeks. 
The  ship — the  Uruguay — will  be  in  charge  of  Argentine 
officers  and  crew,  and  will  be  provisioned  for  two  years. 
It  is  not,  however,  probable  that  she  will  winter  in  the 
Antarctic. 

The  eighty-sixth  annual  meeting  of  the  Soci^t6  helv^tique 
des  Sciences  naturelles  will  be  held  at  Locarno  on  September 
2-5.  At  the  same  time  and  place  the  annual  meetings  will 
be  held  of  the  Swiss  societies  of  geology,  botany,  zoology, 
and  chemistry,  and  the  Zurich  Physical  Society.  In  addition 
to  the  general  and  special  meetings,  there  will  be  several 
receptions,  banquets,  and  excursions  to  places  of  interest. 
The  officers  of  the  annual  committee  are  M.  A.  Pioda,  presi- 
dent, Prof.  G.  Mariani,  vice-president.  Dr.  R.  Natoli  and 
M.  C.  Orelli,  secretaries. 

An  expedition  recently  left  Baltimore  for  the  purpose  of 
making  an  exhaustive  study  of  the  Bahama  Islands,  and 
presenting  reports  upon  them  to  the  United  States  Govern- 
ment. We  learn  from  the  Scientific  American  that  the 
expedition  originated  with  Prof.  George  B.  Shattuck,  of 
the  Johns  Hopkins  University,  and  is  under  the  auspices 
of  the  Geographical  Society  of  Baltimore,  which  defrays  a 
portion  of  its  expenses.  Some  of  the  principal  lines  of  in- 
vestigation will  be  concerned  with  the  animal  and  plant 
life  of  the  islands.  The  geology  of  the  group  will  also 
be  examined,  and  a  bench  mark  will  be  left  with  the  view 
of  ascertaining  to  what  extent,  if  any,  the  Bahamas  are 
sinking  or  rising  above  sea  level.  The  industries  will  be 
made  the  subject  of  a  special  chapter  of  the  reports,  as 
well  as  the  physical  condition  of  the  inhabitants,  the  extent 
of  the  commerce  of  the  principal  towns,  and  any  other 
economic  features  which  may  suggest  themselves.  An 
elaborate  outfit  of  scientific  apparatus  for  studying  the 
meteorology  and  climatic  conditions,  for  microscopic  ex- 
amination, and  for  photographic  work  has  been  provided. 
The  diseases  which  may  be  prevalent  and  general  sanitary 
conditions  will  be  included  in  the  investigation.  This 
portion  of  the  work  will  be  in  charge  of  Dr.  Clement  A. 
Penrose,  of  Baltimore,  assistant  director  of  the  expedition. 

In  Nature  of  April  30  (vol.  Ixvii.  p.  601)  Prof.  J.  J. 
Thomson  put  forward  the  view  that  the  energy  of  the 
Becquerel  radiation  given  out  by  radio-active  substances  is 
produced  by  a  change  in  the  configuration  of  the  atom.  Dr. 
J.  Stark  writes  from  Gottingen  to  state  that  this  view  was 
suggested  by  him  in  his  book  "  Die  Elektrizitat  in  Gasen  " 
(Leipzig,  1902,  p.  34),  and  later  in  the  Naturwissenschaft- 
liche  Rundschau  (January,  1903).  Dr.  Stark  adds  : — "  As 
the  transformation  of  atoms  in  some  elements  is  still  going 
on,  it  may  be  supposed  that  there  was  a  time  when  our 
chemical  atoms  did  not  exist  in  the  present  amount,  while 
other  types  of  matter  were  more  common.  In  the  later 
change  of  the  arrangement  of  the  positive  and  negative 
electrons,  or  in  the  genesis  of  the  present  chemical  atoms,  a 
very  large  amount  of  the  potential  energy  of  their  electrons 
was  transformed  to  kinetic  energy.  The  energy  liberated 
in  the  change  of  chemical  atoms  is  of  a  higher  order  of 
magnitude  than  that  produced  in  known  chemical  reactions. 
Therefore  it  is  reasonable  to  suppose  that  the  temperature 
of  the  sun  and  stars  is  partly  due  to  the  genesis  of  chemical 
atoms." 


NO.    1758,  VOL.   68] 


JULV  9.    1^03] 


NATURE 


231 


The  prospect  of  active  work  in  connection  with  the  ship 
•canal  across  the  Isthmus  of  Panama  has  directed  attention 
to  the  climate  of  the  district,  in  which  engineering  work 
•of  exceptional  difficulty  will  have  to  be  undertaken.  The 
results  are  generally  reassuring,  and  with  ordinary  care 
a  repetition  of  the  horrors  that  accompanied  the  construc- 
tion of  the  Panama  railway  need  not  be  feared.  The  most 
noticeable  feature  in  the  temperature  factor  is  its  con- 
stancy throughout  the  year,  the  monthly  range,  in  the 
mean,  being  confined  between  78°  4  and  8o°i.  The  daily 
range  on  the  coast  is  from  68°  to  87°,  and  in  the  interior 
from  64°  to  94°.  It  is  easy  to  see  the  effect  of  the  oceans 
in  thus  limiting  the  range  of  temperature,  but  necessarily 
(here  is  an  increase  in  the  humidity,  which  is  always  high, 
throughout  the  year.  There  is  a  great  difference  in  the 
rainfall  on  the  Pacific  and  on  the  Atlantic  coasts ;  about 
140  inches  may  be  anticipated  on  the  former,  while  only 
half  that  amount  will  fall  on  the  Atlantic  side.  From 
January  to  April  the  fall  is  very  slight  throughout  the 
Isthmus,  and  therefore  several  successive  months  of  dry 
weather  can  be  counted  upon,  which  cannot  but  be  of  great 
advantage  in  the  engineering  operations.  Winds  are 
always  light,  and  give  no  trouble.  Greater  velocities  than 
twenty  miles  an  hour  are  rarely  met  with.  The  general 
health  statistics  are  not  unfavourable.  Recent  inquiries 
show  that  the  mortality  due  to  diseases  of  the  climate  has 
steadily  diminished  since  1881,  while  the  percentage  of 
deaths  arising  from  European  diseases  has  not  increased. 
Of  the  total  death  rate,  91  per  cent,  is  due  to  chronic 
organic  diseases  common  to  all  countries,  and  only  9  per 
cent,  is  chargeable  to  local  effects.  This  material  improve- 
ment is  due,  in  some  measure,  to  the  fact  that  the  excav- 
ations have  reached  a  level  below  the  poisonous  emanations 
of  decaying  organic  matter,  while,  on  the  other  hand, 
greater  sanitary  precautions  have  reduced  the  effects  of  the 
most  deadly  of  the  infectious  diseases,  yellow  fever.  Colon 
has  been  practically  free  from  this  scourge  for  some  time, 
but  improvements  in  Panama  are  loudly  demanded. 

In  the  Rendiconto  of  the  Naples  Academy  for  April,  Prof. 
Ernesto  Pascal  gives  the  integration  of  a  differential  equa- 
tion of  Riccati's  form,  but  of  a  more  general  character 
than  those  previously  considered.  The  right-hand  side  of 
Prof.  Pascal's  equation  contains  three  constant  coefficients, 
and  the  equations  integrated  by  Malmst6n,  Brioschi,  and 
-Siacci  are  the  particular  cases  deduced  by  putting  one  or 
other  of  these  coefficients  equal  to  zero. 

Vol.  v..  No.  i,  of  the  series  of  monograph  supplements 
of  the  Psychological  Review  is  a  thesis  by  Dr.  Joseph  W.  L. 
f  Jones  on  "Sociality  and  Sympathy."  The  author  traces 
the  development  of  consciousness  to  the  point  at  which 
"  consciousness  of  kind  "  emerges,  and  discusses  the  gradual 
evolution  of  social  relationships  and  the  rise  of  sympathy 
in  any  given  race. 

Dr.  Costantino  Gorim  discusses  in  the  Lombardy 
Rcndiconti  the  remarkable  power  e.\hibited  by  the  typhus 
bacillus  of  spreading  along  the  surfaces  of  solids  in  contact 
with  the  nutrient  liquid.  This  effect  the  author  considers 
is  due  to  the  formation  of  filaments  rather  than  to  the 
mobility  of  the  bacteria  themselves,  but  it  suggests  the 
danger  which  may  arise  from  watering  food-plants  with 
water  containing  the  bacteria. 

A  REPORT  on  the  dilatation  of  steel  at  high  temperatures 
is  given  by  MM.  G.  Charpy  and  L.  Grenet  in  the  Bulletin 
■cli-  la  Sociiti  d' Encouragement  for  May.  The  most  notice- 
iible  features  brought  out  in  the  experiments  were  the 
-udden  contraction  at  a  temperature  of  about  700°  common 


to  carbon  steels,  the  existence  of  a  second  point  of  contrac- 
tion at  about  300°  in  tempered  steel  containing  065  to 
I  per  cent,  of  carbon,  and  of  a  further  point  of  contraction 
near  150°  for  tempered  steels  with  more  than  i  per  cent, 
of  carbon,  and  the  absence  of  any  observed  relation  between 
the  dilatation-curves  of  nickel  steel  and  their  magnetic 
properties. 

The  eleventh  volume  of  the  Atti  of  the  Naples  Academy 
of  Physical  and  Mathematical  Sciences  contains  a  mono- 
graph by  G.  de  Lorenzo  and  Carlo  Riva  on  the  crater  of 
the  Astroni,  one  of  the  most  remarkable  craters  in  the 
Phlegrean  fields.  It  derives  a  melancholy  interest  from  the 
fact  that,  before  its  completion,  Signor  Riva  met  with  his 
death  in  the  prime  of  life  while  ascending  Monte  Grigna 
from  the  Lake  of  Como.  Another  noteworthy  feature  is 
the  monograph  of  220  pages  on  the  totality  of  prime 
numbers  up  to  a  given  limit,  by  G.  Torelli. 

Under  the  title  of  "  Bathymeter,"  Mr.  Leonard  Murphy 
describes  in  the  Economic  Proceedings  of  the  Royal  Dublin 
Society  a  simple  apparatus  for  gauging  the  depth  of  liquids 
in  wells  and  tanks.  An  air  tube  dips  into  the  liquid  to  be 
measured,  and  an  air  compressor  is  connected  both  with 
this  tube  and  with  a  reservoir  of  liquid  into  which  there 
dips  a  gauge  glass.  On  working  the  compressor  the  liquid 
in  the  gauge  glass  rises  until  the  pressure  is  sufficient  to 
force  the  air  out  at  the  bottom  of  the  air  tube,  and  the 
height  of  liquid  in  the  gauge  glass  then  indicates  the 
height  of  liquid  in  the  well  above  the  end  of  the  tube. 

In  the  Annali  di  matematica  pura  ed  applicata,  Signor 
T.  Levi-Civita  deals  with  singular  solutions  in  the  problem 
of  three  bodies  or  particles  which  attract  each  other  accord- 
ing to  the  Newtonian  law.  The  only  case  in  which  singular 
solutions  occur  is  when,  at  some  instant  of  the  motion,  two 
of  the  particles  coincide ;  this  involves  an  impact  between 
the  particles.  The  motion  in  which  the  particles  are 
approaching  impact  is  called  by  the  author  a  trajectory 
of  collision,  the  reversed  motion  being  a  trajectory  of 
ejection.  The  case  discussed  is  that  in  which  the  bodies 
are  moving  in  one  plane,  and  the  mass  of  one  is  negligible 
compared  with  those  of  the  other  two. 

From  the  Economic  Journal  we  take  the  following  table 
of  the  ages  of  German  university  professors  in  the  year 
1901,  quoted  from  an  article  by  Dr.  F.  Eulenburg  in  the 
Jahrbticher  fiir  N ationaloekonomie  : — 

Age  30    35    40    45    50    55 

Number  ...  2    23   124   206   256   262 

Age    60        65         70        75        80        85 

Number     ...  197       194       108       36         18         3 
where    the    upper    figures    represent    ages,    and    the    lower 
figures  represent  numbers  of  German  professors  in   1901   in 
the   intervals  between   those  ages.     In    1890  the   maximum 
number  was  between  the  ages  of  forty-six  and  fifty. 

In  Cosmos,  M.  Lucien  Fournier  discusses  the  phenomenon 
recently  described  as  the  "  flow  of  marble,"  which  results 
in  a  gradual  bending  or  deformation  of  marble  blocks,  as 
was  described  by  Dr.  T.  J.  J.  See  in  a  letter  to  Nature  of 
November  20,  1902  (vol.  l.wii.  p.  56).  Among  the  theories 
proposed  to  account  for  the  effect,  the  actions  of  sunshine 
and  moisture  have  hitherto  received  support.  M.  Fournier 
now  suggests  another  possible  cause — elasticity.  It  is 
observed  that  blocks  of  granite  frequently  expand  when 
they  have  been  relieved  from  the  pressure  of  the  surround- 
ing rocks  in  the  process  of  quarrying.  It  is  now  suggested 
that  a  similar  cause  may  account  for  the  bending  of  the 
blocks  of  marble,  and  this  explanation  would  account  for 
deflections  which  assume  a  different  direction  from  that 
which  would  be  expected  if  heat  and  damp  were  the  causes. 


NO. 


1758,   VOL.    68] 


2^2 


NATURE 


[July  9,  1903 


The  Journal  de  Physique  contains  two  short  papers  by 
M.  R.  Blondlot  on  a  new  kind  of  light  obtained  originally 
after  filtering  the  rays  from  a  focus  tube  through  aluminium 
or  black  paper.  In  studying  the  action  of  the  radiations  on 
an  electric  spark,  they  were  shown  to  present  the  phenomena 
of  rectilinear  polarisation,  and  it  was  further  found  that 
both  quartz  and  sugar  produced  rotatory  effects.  On  pass- 
ing the  rays  through  a  plate  of  mica,  double  refraction  took 
place ;  finally,  the  existence  of  refraction  was  proved  by 
concentrating  the  rays  with  a  lens,  and  reflection  was  also 
observed.  It  followed  that  the  radiations  were  entirely 
different  from  Rontgen  rays,  and  must  be  attributable  to  a 
new  kind  of  light.  In  the  second  paper  in  the  July  number, 
M.  Blondlot  finds  that  radiations  possessing  identical 
properties  are  obtained  from  an  Auer  lamp,  and  that  the 
new  rays  will  pass  through  certain  metals  and  substances 
which  are  opaque  to  the  radiations  discovered  by  Prof. 
Rubens. 

In  the  Proceedings  of  the  Royal  Society  for  March,  Mr. 
H.  M.  Macdonald,  F.R.S.,  gave  an  investigation  of  the 
bending  of  electric  waves  round  a  spherical  obstacle,  which 
was  suitable  to  explain  Mr.  Marconi's  successes  in  employ- 
ing wireless  telegraphy  over  distances  representing  con- 
siderable arcs  of  the  earth's  circumference.  Mr.  Mac- 
donald's  solution  has  been  called  in  question  in  papers  com- 
municated to  the  Royal  Society  by  Lord  Rayleigh  and  M. 
Poincar^.  It  is  pointed  out  that  Mr.  Macdonald's  con- 
clusion as  to  the  diffraction  taking  place  without  the  pro- 
duction of  any  sensible  shadow  does  not  agree  with  the 
results  known  in  the  case  of  light ;  indeed,  if  the  conclusion 
were  accepted  without  any  limitations,  there  would  neces- 
sarily be  daylight  all  night.  From  a  mathematical  point 
of  view  the  results  depend  on  the  assumption  that  the 
spherical  functions  entering  into  the  expression  for  the 
potential  satisfy  a  condition  of  the  form  dW/dr^ifcW ; 
this  is  true  in  the  case  of  spherical  functions  of  low  order, 
but  unless  the  series  for  the  potential  is  uniformly  con- 
vergent, the  solution  may  involve  spherical  functions  of 
high  order,  for  which  the  condition  in  question  does  not 
hold  good. 

We  have  received  from  Prof.  B.  Sresnevsky  a  pamphlet 
containing  synoptic  tables  of  the  daily  rainfall  values  at  all 
the  meteorological  stations  of  the  Russian  Baltic  provinces 
for  the  year  1900. 

The  Transactions  of  the  South  African  Philosophical 
Society  for  April  last  contains  a  lengthy  contribution  by 
Mr.  J.  R.  Sutton,  superintendent  of  the  De  Beers 
meteorological  station  at  Kenilworth,  Kimberley,  on  the 
results  of  some  experiments  upon  the  rate  of  evaporation. 
For,  as  the  author  points  out,  of  the  dozens  of  patterns 
of  evaporators,  not  one  has  hitherto  been  unreservedly 
accepted  as  a  standard,  and  the  results  obtained 
fforti  some  of  them  show  a  rate  of  evaporation  fully 
twice  as  great  as  others.  The  greatest  mean  annual  result 
of  seven  years'  observations  by  the  author  gives  an  evapor- 
ation of  90- 1 1  inches,  and  was  obtained  from  a  copper  pan 
about  5  inches  deep  and  8  inches  in  diameter,  kept  nearly 
full  of  water,  and  protected  from  the  sun's  rays.  The 
monthly  means  varied  from  about  3  inches  in  June  to  nearly 
12  inches  in  each  of  the  months  November  and  December. 
For  the  year  1900,  the  comparative  annual  values  given  by 
four  evaporators  are  :— 8-inch  copper  pan,  90-82  inches  ;  a 
screened  iron  tub,  enamelled  white  inside  and  out,  14  inches 
in  diameter  and  20  inches  high,  61-98  inches;  circular  steel 
tank,  nearly  4  feet  in  diameter  and  30  inches  deep,  55-21 
inches ;  a  Piche  evaporating  tube  of  the  usual  pattern,  82-83 
NO.    1758,   VOL.   68] 


inches.  The  author  finds  (i)  that  the  most  potent  agency 
regulating  the  rate  of  evaporation  was  the  humidity  of  the 
air;  (2)  that  a  wind  factor  is  suggested;  and  (3)  that  the 
great  perturbing  influence  attributed  to  the  temperature  of 
the  water  has  not  been  exactly  confirmed.  The  paper  will 
well  repay  a  careful  study. 

Evidence  of  a  connection  between  the  occurrence  of 
thunderstorms  and  the  moon's  age  has  been  referred  to  in 
Nature  on  several  occasions.  Prof.  W.  H.  Pickering  gives 
a  table  in  Popular  Astronomy  to  show  the  results  of  investi- 
gations of  this  relationship  by  various  observers.  From 
this  table,  which  is  abridged  below,  it  will  be  seen 
that,  with  one  exception,  the  number  of  thunderstorms 
occurring  near  the  first  two  phases  of  the  moon  is  greater 
than  the  number  occurring  near  the  last  two. 

The  Moon's  Phases  and  Thunderstorms. 


New  and 

Full  and 

Station. 

Authority. 

Years. 

First 
Quarter. 

Last 
Quarter. 

Kremsmunster    ... 

Wagner   ...     ..- 

86 

54 

46 

AixlaChapelle... 

Polls        

60 

54 

46 

Batavia,  Java      ... 

Vand.  Stok    ... 

9 

52 

48 

Gotha 

Lendicke 

9 

27 

Germany     

Koppen   

5 

56 

t^ 

Glatz  County      ... 

Richter 

8 

62 

N.  America 

Hazen      

I 

57 

43 

Prague         

Gruss       

20 
20 

51 

S3 

49 

47 

Gottingen    

Meyer      .  .     ... 

24 

54 

46 

Greenwich 

MacDowall     ... 

13 

54 

^t 

Madrid        

Ventatasta 

20 

52 

4& 

Providence,  R.I. 

Seagrave 

6 

49 

51 

Prof.  Pickering  adds  :— "  The  number  of  observations  here 
collected  seems  to  be  large  enough  to  enable  us  to  draw 
definite  conclusions,  without  fear  that  further  records  will 
revise  or  neutralise  them.  From  these  observations  we 
conclude  that  there  really  is  a  greater  number  of  thunder- 
storms during  the  first  half  of  the  lunar  month  than  during 
the  last  half,  also  that  the  liability  to  storms  is  greatest 
between  new  moon  and  the  first  quarter,  and  least  between 
full  moon  and  last  quarter.  Also  we  may  add  that  while 
theoretically  very  interesting,  the  difference  is  not  large 
enough  to  be  of  any  practical  consequence.  Thus  it  would 
seem  that,  besides  the  tides  and  certain  magnetic  disturb- 
ances, there  is  a  third  influence  that  we  must  in  future 
attribute  to  the  moon." 

Fresh  evidence  is  continually  coming  to  light  to  prove 
the  artistic  skill  of  the  cave  men  of  late  Palaeolithic  times. 
M.  E.  Cartailhac  has  begun  a  memoir  in  V Anthropologic 
(tome  xiv.  No.  2)  on  the  stations  at  Bruniquel,  on  the  banks 
of  the  Aveyron,  which  will  add  materially  to  our  knowledge 
of  these  interesting  people.  Especially  remarkable  is  an 
engraving,  published  by  the  same  author  (p.,  179),  of  two 
bands  of  horses  in  alignment  on  a  slab  of  stone  from  the 
main  cave  at  Chaffaud,  Vienne.  This  is  the  first  example 
of  regular  grouping,  and  an  indication  of  perspective  in 
Pala;olithic  pictorial  art. 

The  shell-heaps  of  the  Lower  Eraser  River,  British 
Columbia,  have  been  carefully  investigated  by  Mr.  Harlan 
I.  Smith  in  connection  with  the  Jesup  North  Pacific 
Expedition,  and  his  results  are  now  published,  with 
numerous  illustrations,  in  the  Memoirs  of  the  American 
Museum  of  Natural  History,  vol.  iv.  These  shell-heaps 
seem  to  have  certain  peculiarities  of  their  own  ;  the  objects 
found  in   them  are  more  numerous  and   of  higher  artistic 


July  9,  1903] 


NATURE 


233 


value  than  those  found  in  the  coast  shell-heaps,  and  skele- 
tons are  frequently  found  in  the  former  and  but  rarely  in  the 
latter.  It  is  probable  that  at  an  early  time  a  migration 
tooic  place  from  the  interior  to  the  coast  and  Vancouver 
Island.  This  migration  carried  the  art  of  stone-chipping, 
pipes  and  decorative  art  to  the  coast.  The  culture  of  the 
ancient  people  who  discarded  the  shells  forming  these  heaps 
was  in  all  essential  particulars  similar  to  that  of  the  tribes 
at  present  inhabiting  the  same  area,  but  it  was  under 
.  much  stronger  influence  from  the  interior  than  is  found 
ut  the  present  time. 

Arch.TiOlogical  excavations  have  been  made  by  Lieut. 
r..  Desplagnes  in  the  tumuli  qf  Killi,  in  the  region  of 
Goundam,  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Timbuktu  (c/. 
VAnihro\,o\ogic,  tome  xiv.  p.  151).  The  mounds  appear 
to  have  been  the  tombs  of  chiefs,  along  with  whom  were 
buried  women  and  captives,  and  large  quantities  of  offer- 
ings of  various  kinds.  The  originators  of  these  funeral 
monuments  surpassed  the  existing  people  of  the  district  in 
the  art  of  making  varnished  pottery  and  in  the  fabrication 
of  bronze.  The  presence  of  marine  shells  shows  that  they 
had  relation  with  maritime  peoples,  and  other  objects  prove 
an  extensive  commerce.  There  appears  to  be  some  evidence 
that  these  unknown  people  were  partly  related  to  the 
Berbers,  and  that  they  were  overwhelmed  by  the  spread 
of  Islamism  in  the  eleventh  century.  The  author  thinks 
that  perhaps  certain  isolated  peoples  whom  he  mentions 
may  be  the  fugitive  remnants  of  this  formerly  relatively 
advanced  nation. 

A  ME.MOiR  on  the  geology  of  North  Arran,  South  Bute 
and  the  Cumbraes,  with  parts  of  Ayrshire  and  Kintyre,  has 
just  been  issued  by  the  Geological  Survev.  It  is  the  work 
mainly  of  the  late  William  Gunn,  with  contributions  by 
Sir  A.  Geikie,  Dr.  Peach,  and  Mr.  A.  Harker,  and  is  an 
explanation  of  Sheet  21  of  the  one-inch  map  of  Scotland 
A  great  variety  of  subjects  is  dealt  with,  as  may  be  gathered 
from  the  lengthy  table  of  formations  represented,  and  there 
IS  much  to  justify  the  statement  referred  to  by  the  authors 
that  the  geology  of  Arran  is  an  epitome  of  that  of  Scotland' 
The  central  granite  mass  forms  the  dominant  feature 
rismg  to  2866  feet  at  Goatfell,  and  it  is  bordered  by  the 
older  metamorphic  rocks,  schists  into  which,  as  observed 
by  Hutton  more  than  a  century  ago,  the  granite  has  been 
mtruded.  Rocks  probably  of  Arenig  age,  black  schists 
cherts  and  grits,  similar  to  those  of  Ballantrae,  and  associ- 
ated with  old  lavas  and  tuffs,  have  been  discovered  in  the 
course  of  the  survey.  Notable  additions  have  also  been 
made  to  our  knowledge  of  the  volcanic  rocks,  and  especially 
with  respect  to  a  huge  volcanic  vent,  probably  of  Tertiary 
age,  in  which  are  preserved  remnants  of  Rh^tic,  Liassic 
and  Cretaceous  formations,  hitherto  unrecognised  in  the 
r.»gion.  Full  particulars  are  given  of  the  granite,  and  of 
the  dykes  and  sills  of  felsite  and  quartz  porphyry,  pitch- 
stone,  and  other  Tocks.  The  Old  Red  Sandstone  and  the 
Carboniferous  rocks,  the  determination  of  the  Triassic  age 
•  the  newer  red  sandstones,  conglomerates  and  marls,  and 
•  accounts  of  the  Glacial  phenomena  and  economic 
'logy,  furnish  many  topics  of  great  interest.  The  memoir 
nains  ten  photographic  plates,  and  is  issued  at  the  price 

Ihe  additions  to  the  Zoological  Society's  Gardens  during 
•3   past   week   include  a   Pinche   Monkey   {Midas  oedipus) 
Horn  Colombia,  presented  by  Mr.   E.   G.  Percy;  two  Grey- 
headed Love-birds  {Agapornis  cana)  from  Madagascar,  pre- 
nted   by   Miss   Luff;   a   Whistling   Swan    {Cygnus   colum- 
nius)  from  North  America,  presented  by  Dr.  Cecil  French  ; 
NO.    1758,  VOL.   68] 


a  Mexican  Snake  {Coluber  melanoleucus)  from  Mexico,  pre- 
sented by  Mr.  W.  G.  Kershaw ;  two  Whistling  Swans 
{Cygnus  columbianus),  a  Mocassin  Snake  {Tropidonotus 
fasciatus),  a  King  Snake  {Coronella  getula),  two  Mexican 
Snakes  (Coluber  melanoleucus),  a  Seven-banded  Snake 
{Tropidonotus  septemvittatus),  two  Testaceous  Snakes 
{Zatnenis  flagelliformis),  a  Striped  Snake  {Tropidonotus 
ordinatus  sirtalis),  a  Long-nosed  Snake  {Heterodon  nasicus) 
from  North  America,  a  Chained  Snake  {Coluber  catenifer), 
a  Couch's  Snake  {Tropidonotus  ordinatus  couchi)  from 
California,  a  Horned  Lizard  {Phrynosoma  cornutum)  from 
Mexico,  two  Smooth  Snakes  {Coronella  austriaca),  an 
Ocellated  Sand  Skink  {Chalcides  ocellatus),  European ;  a 
Black-faced  Spider  Monkey  {Ateles  ater)  from  Eastern  Peru, 
a  Common  Rat  Kangaroo  {Potorous  tridactylus),  two  Brush 
Bronze-winged  Pigeons  {Phaps  elegans)  from  Australia,  a 
Banded  Aracari  {Pteroglossus  torquatus)  from  Central 
America,  a  Rat-tailed  Opossum  {Didelphys  nudicaudata),  a 
Salvin's  Amazon  {Chrysotis  salvini)  from  South  America, 
two  Cutthroat  Finches  {Amadina  fasciata)  from  West 
.Africa,  deposited ;  a  Yak  {Poephagus  grunniens),  born  in 
the  Gardens. 


OUR  ASTRONOMICAL   COLUMN. 

Comet  1903  c. — The  following  elements  and  ephemeris 
have  been  computed  by  M.  G.  Fayet,  Paris,  from  observ- 
ations made  on  June  22,  24,  and  27,  and  published  in 
Circular  No.  60  of  the  Kiel  Centralstelle  : — 

Elements. 
T=  1903  Aug.  28-4715  {M.  T.  Paris).    ■ 

«=I25  56  53  ^ 
Si  =293  38  40  hi903  o. 
1=    84    6  48  j 
•ogi'  =  9'539534 

Ephemeris  izh.   (M.T.   Paris). 


1903  a 

h.    m.     s. 

July     5  ...  21  27  33 

„     9  ...  21     6  46 

,,   13  ...  20  26  15 

„   17  ...  18  53  22 

,,  21  ...  15  46  14 


&  log  .1  Brightnes.s 

+  12      109   ...  96105  ...      4*5 

+  24     44-8   ...  9-5213  ...      7-6 

+  3«    57*9    -  94322  ..  12-9 

+  60   430  ..  94424  ...  14-1 

+  68    40-8  ...  9-4948  ...   12-9 


On  July  13  the  comet  will,  according  to  the  above 
ephemeris,  be  about  7m.  20s.  following,  and  sS'-g  south  of 
7  Cygni,  whilst  on  July  21  it  will  be  seen  in  the  constel- 
lation Draco  a  little  more  than  one-third  .the  distance  from 
7  Ursae  Minoris  to  tj  Draconis  on  a  straight  line  joining 
these  two  stars. 

The  above  scale  of  brightness  takes  for  its  unit  value  the 
brightness  at  the  time  of  discovery,  and  on  June  25,  when 
the  value  on  this  scale  was  about  1-4,  M.  Pidoux  recorded 
that  the  comet  was  equal  in  brightness  to  an  eighth  magni- 
tude star. 

Penetrative  Solar  Radiations. — In  a  paper  com- 
municated to  No.  24  of  the  Comptes  rendus,  M.  R. 
Blondlot  describes  some  simple  experiments  he  has  per- 
formed which  appear  to  show  that  certain  rays  (which  he 
calls  "  the  n  rays  ")  emitted  by  the  sun  are  capable  of 
passing  through  various  kinds  of  wood,  metals,  &c.  He 
placed  a  fine  glass  tube  containing  a  phosphorescent 
material,  e.g.  sulphide  of  calcium,  in  a  darkened  room  in 
which  there  was  a  window  exposed  to  the  sun,  but  closed 
by  means  of  an  oaken  shutter  15mm.  thick,  and  then  found 
that  the  phosphorescent  material,  which  he  had  previously 
exposed  for  a  very  short  time  to  feeble  sunlight,  continued 
to  glow,  but  if  a  plate  of  lead  were  interposed  between  the 
shutter  and  the  tube  the  phosphorescence  became  feebler, 
whilst  it  again  increased  when  the  lead  was  removed.  Then 
an  oaken  joist  3cm.  thick,  a  piece  of  cardboard,  and  several 
plates  of  aluminium   were  successively   interposed,   and   the 


234 


NATURE 


[July  9    1903 


phosphorescence  emitted  did  nol  diminish,  but  a  thm  layer 
of  pure  water  entirely  arrested  the  n  radiations.  These 
radiations  may  be  concentrated  by  a  quartz  lens,  but  are 
regularly  reflected  by  a  polished  glass  surface,  whilst  an 
unpolished  glass  surface  diffuses  them. 

The  Spectra  of  Metals  and  Gases  at  High  Tempera- 
tures.— In  No.  25,  vol.  xxxviii.,  of  the  Proceedings  of  the 
American  Academy  of  Arts  and  Sciences,  Prof.  J.  Trow- 
bridge gives  the  details  and  results  of  an  exhaustive  series 
of  experiments  on  the  spectral  phenomena  observed  when 
gases  and  metals  are  together  subjected  to  high  tempera- 
tures. Employing  a  large  variety  of  conditions  as  to  the 
temperature  employed,  the  size  of  the  capillary  tubes  and 
the  materials  from  which  they  are  made,  and  the  distance 
and  material  of  the  poles,  Prof.  Trowbridge  arrives  at 
several  interesting  conclusions,  all  of  which  tend  to  show 
that  in  many  cases  the  lines  obtained  are  possibly  due  to 
products  of  the  interactions  between  the  gas,  the  poles,  and 
the  containing  tube,  which  take  place  at  high  tempera- 
tures, rather  than  to  the  elements  themselves.  For  instance, 
the  metallic  lines  obtained  from  terminals  placed  icm. 
apart  in  rarefied  air,  or  hydrogen,  were  reversed,  the 
reversal  coinciding  in  position  with  the  line  obtained  in 
ordinary  air,  but  the  line  was  much  broadened  on  the  least 
refrangible  side.  The  author  suggests  that  this  indicates 
the  presence  of  a  gaseous  product,  probably  due  to  the 
oxidation  or  hydration  of  the  poles.  Again,  when  highly 
heated  and  rarefied  hydrogen,  or  air,  was  passed  through 
a  tube  of  amorphous  silicon  or  glass,  broad  bands,  co- 
inciding with  the  fainter  silicon  lines  obtained  under 
ordinary  conditions,  were  produced,  and  Prof.  Trowbridge 
believes  that  in  the  case  of  highly  refractive  metals,  such 
as  silicon,  these  bands  are  not  really  due  to  the  metals 
themselves,  but  to  the  interaction  between  the  metals  and 
gases  present. 

The  experiments  showed  that  iron  lines  did  not  appear 
under  what  seemed  to  be  favourable  conditions,  whilst 
aluminium  lines  did  appear  under  these  conditions.  For 
this  reason  the  author  enters  a  caveat  as  to  the  care  it  is 
necessary  to  exercise  when  classifying  stars  solely  from 
the  variations  in  the  appearances  of  their  respective  spectra. 

Zenith-telescope  Results. — In  vol.  ii.  part 
i.  of  the  Publications  of  the  University  of 
Pennsylvania  (Series  in  Astronomy),  Mr.  C.  L. 
Doolittle,  director  of  the  Flower  Observatory, 
gives  the  results  obtained  from  the  observations 
made  with  the  zenith-telescope  during  the 
period  September  6,  1898,  to  August  30,  1901. 
After  describing  the  corrections  applied  to  the 
observed  values,  the  report  gives  full  details 
of  each  observation  and  its  corrections,  and 
then  gives  the  values  of  the  "aberration  con- 
stant determined  during  1898-1899  and 
1900-June,  1901,  as  2o"-540±o"-oio3  and 
2o"-56i +o"-oo85  respectively.  A  curve  and  a 
set  of  tables,  showing  the  variation  of  lati- 
tude at  Philadelphia  from  October  i,  1896,  to 
August  30,  1901,  are  also  included  in  the 
report. 


it  make  a  round  hole  to  fit  the  eye-piece  of  the  microscope. 
Glue  this  to  the  camera  front. 

In  use  the  microscope  is  focused  on  object  for  distinct 
vision  for  a  normal  eye.  If  the  experimenter  be  long-  or 
short-sighted,    then    he    must    use    apt)r(ipriate    spectacles. 


The  light  issuing  from  the  eye-piece  is  thus  rendered 
parallel,  and  if  the  camera  be  placed  on  the  top  of  the  eye- 
piece an  image  of  the  object  will  be  in  focus  on  the  sensitive 
film.  Of  course,  the  optical  axes  of  the  camera  and  micro- 
scope must  be  parts  of  the  same  straight  line,  and  the  card 
glued  to  the  camera  is  to  assist  the  centring.  The  visual 
field  is  the  exact  area  photographed. 


Rhyoli 


PHOTOMICROGRAPHY    WITH    A    BROWNIE 
CAMr.RA. 

'T'HIS  article  does  not  put  forth  anything  new  in  prin- 
ciple,  but  is  the  explanation  of  a  simple  method 
by  which  any  student  can,  with  little  trouble  and  little 
expense,  produce  his  own  photographs  of  microscope 
objects,  the  idea  being  to  direct  attention  to  the  inexpensive- 
ness  of  the  necessary  apparatus. 

The  apparatus  required  includes  only  a  small  microscope 
and  a  light  "  fixed-focus  "  camera,  and,  of  course,  the 
necessaries  for  developing  the  negatives.  The  writer  used 
a  microscope  of  the  rigid  type  generally  regarded  as  little 
more  than  a  toy,  and  worth  only  a  very  few  shillings,  and 
a  Brownie  Kodak.  The  instruments  need  practically  no 
alterations  to  make  them  fit  for  use  ;  the  utmost  that  need 
be  done  is  this  : — Cut  a  piece  of  rather  thick  cardboard  the 
same  size  as  the  front  of  the  camera,  and  in  the  centre  of 


NO. 


1758,  VOL.  68] 


The  exposure  is  made  in  the  usual  way,  using  the  camera 
shutter.  In  the  middle  of  a  fine  day  exposures  of  from 
one  to  two  minutes  have  been  found  ample,  while  in  the 
evening  ten  or  twenty  minutes  are  necessary,  using  plates 
of  the  speed  generally  known  as  "  Special  Rapid."  The 
Brownie  camera  is  made  for  roll-films,  but  plates  may  be 
used  thus  : — The  camera  back  is  opened  and  a  plate 
22"  X  2^"  laid  on  the  frame  over  which  the  film  is  generally 
passed.  On  the  back  of  the  plate  is  placed  a  piece  of  black 
paper  or  thin  card,  and  the  back  closed.  This  paper  is 
necessary  in  order  to  exclude  the  light  from  the  little  red 
window,   which  is  not  non-actinic. 

After  exposure  development  is  proceeded  with  in  the 
ordinary  way,  using  pyro-soda  or  any  other  developer  the 
experimenter  may  prefer. 

It  will  be  seen  from  the  specimens  that  the  definition  is, 
of  course,  not  of  the  highest  order,  but  considering  the 
apparatus,    one   must   not   expect   too   much.       The   photo- 


July  9,  1903 J 


NATURE 


?35 


graphs    are    certainly    more    accurate    than    the    student's 

sketches   would   be,   and   are  probably   made   in   less   time. 

The  lack  of  sharp  focus  at  the  edges  is  due  to  the  cheap 

microscope   used,    and    not    to   the   camera,    which    is   good 

iiough   for  combination   with   any   instrument  likely  to  be 

nployed  in  this  manner.     Any  microscope  and  any  similar 

iiiiera   may   be  used.     The   specimens   reproduced   show   a 

agnification  of   X  20  diameters. 

Considering  the  simplicity  of  the  method  and  the  slight 
st  of  the  apparatus,   the  idea  should  recommend  itself  to 
.  good  many  students.  W.  Moss. 

SEISMOLOGICAL  NOTES. 

IN  the  nineteenth  report  of  the  Tokio  Physico-mathe- 
matical  Society  Dr.  F.  Omori  gives  two  short  papers  on 
ilie  velocity  with  which  earthquake  waves  are  propagated. 
in  calculating  these  velocities  it  is  assumed  that  the  paths 
followed  are  m  all  cases  arcual,  and  that  a  correct  velocity 
is  arrived  at  by  dividing  the  distance  between  Tokio  and 
a  station  in  Europe  by  the  difference  in  time  at  which 
similar  phases  of  movement  were  recorded  at  two  such 
places,  .^s  to  the  soundness  of  this  method,  excepting  as 
applied  to  the  large  waves  of  earthquakes,  opinions  vary. 
In    another    note    by    the    same    investigator,    attention    is 

awn    to   the   difference    in   the   character   of   seismograms 

iained  at  two  stations  about  a  mile  apart.  At  one 
-i.ition,  two  distinct  groups  of  maximum  movements  are 
shown.  These  are  explained  as  the  longitudinal  and  trans- 
verse components  of  elastic  vibrations  simultaneously  pro- 
duced at  the  seismic  centre.  At  the  other  station  the 
records  are  described  as  a  series  of  maximum  movements 
at  fairly  regular  intervals.  This  feature  is  attributed  to  a 
ihvthmic   interference   between   the   proper   oscillation   of   a 

it    surface    soil    and    the    movements    of    an    underlying 

ider  ground.  In  a  discussion  on  pulsations  or  small 
.:.uvements  of  non-seismic  origin,  it  is  shown  that  the 
period  of  these  corresponds  to  the  period  of  preliminary 
tremors,  from  which  it  is  inferred  that  for  both  of  these 
movements  their  periods  depend  upon  the  nature  of  the 
soil  where  they  are  observed. 

The  thirteenth  number  of  the  Publications  of  the  Earth- 
quake Committee  (Tokio)  consists  of  a  series  of  papers  also 
by  Dr.  F.  Omori,  several  of  which  are  identical  with  those 
to  which  we  have  just  referred. 

Long  registers  are  given  for  the  year  1900,  the  earth- 
quakes in  each  of  which  originated  in  the  same  locality 
or  at  great  distances  from  the  observing  stations  in  Tokio. 
In  the  earthquakes  with  distant  origins,  the  periods  of 
the  preliminary  tremors  do  not  depend  upon  their  duration, 
the  duration  of  preliminary  tremors  being  proportional  to 
the  distance  such  earthquake  motion  may  have  travelled. 
This  is  probably  true  for  other  phases  of  motion,  and  it 
has  also  been  shown  to  exist  for  macro-seismic  disturbances. 

Other  analyses  relate  to  the  relative  magnitudes  of  earth- 
quake movements,  direction  of  first  displacements,  and 
matters  of  greater  or  less  seismological  interest. 

In  the  Bulletin  issued  by  the  Philippine  Weather  Bureau 
for  December,  1902,  the  Rev.  Marcial  Sold,  S.J.,  gives 
an  account  of  a  violent  earthquake  which  originated  near 
Manila,  and  was  recorded  at  many  stations  around  the 
world.  Materials  from  twenty-three  of  these  stations  are 
analysed,  and  the  velocities  with  which  waves  were  pro- 
pagated through  and  round  the  world  have  been  calculated, 
lor  the  first  waves,  along  chords  corresponding  to  a.xes 
'   -^  than  46°,  the  velocity  was   102km.  per  second.,   whilst 

I     longer    paths,    up    to    154°,    this    became    124km.    per 

I  ond.  The  maximum  phase,  travelling  on  arcs,  did  so 
with  a  velocity  of  3  ikm.  per  second,  the  lengths  of  the 
waves  varying  between  106  and  iSikm.  Although  these 
results  fall  closely  in  line  with  those  of  other  observers,  it 
may  be  pointed  out  that,  if  the  time  at  which  the  earth- 
quake originated  was  known,  the  values  for  velocities 
arrived  at  would  be  somewhat  reduced. 

In  the  last  Bolletino  (vol.  viii.  No.  8)  issued  by  the  Seis- 
mological Society  of  Italy,  Dr.  Giulio  Grablovitz  contributes 
a  short  paper  describing  a  modified  form  of  his  vasca 
sismica.  This  is  a  circular  tank  about  i-5m.  in  diameter  and 
im.  in  depth.  On  this  there  is  a  floating  tray,  the  move- 
:  ment  of  which  at  the  time  of  earthquakes  is  recorded  upon 
a  rotating  cylinder.  The  chief  feature  in  the  records 
obtained  from  such  a  fluid  pendulum,   the  period  of  which 


NO.    1758,   VOL.   68] 


is  short,  is  that  the  indicated  amplitude  of  the  preliminary 
tremors  is  usually  more  pronounced  than  that  shown  by 
other  types  of  instruments. 

Dr.  G.  Agamennone  gives  an  account  of  the  earthquake 
which,  on  June  29,  1896,  originated  in  Cyprus,  and  was 
recorded  at  stations  more  than  3000km.  from  jts  centre. 
With  the  assumption  that  the  wave  paths  were  arcual,  the 
first  movements  were  propagated  with  speeds  slightly  ex- 
ceeding 13km.  per  second.  It  may  be  pointed  out  that  these 
values  would  be  reduced  had  the  wave  paths  been  considered 
chordal.  The  remainder  of  the  Bolletino  is  taken  up  with 
earthquake  registers.  These  commenced  in  January,  1895, 
and  have  now  reached  June,  1901.  Inasmuch  as  they  do 
not  simply  refer  to  earthquakes  noted  in  Italy,  but  to  earth- 
quakes which  have  spread  over  the  whole  world,  for  this 
class  of  earthquakes  the  Italian  catalogue  is  for  many  pur- 
poses the  most  valuable  which  seismologists  possess. 

ETHNOGRAPHICAL  STUDIES  IN  NORTH 
QUEENSLAND.' 
'T'HE  student  of  folk  tale,  custom  and  belief  will  find  in 
■*■  the  last  Bulletin  issued  by  Dr.  Walter  E.  Roth  a 
mine  of  trustworthy  data  which  will  furnish  new  illustra- 
tions of  the  working  of  the  mind  of  a  primitive  people. 
Though  similar  stories,  ideas  and  habits  may  have  been 
recorded  previously  by  various  observers  in  this  and  other 
parts  of  the  world,  yet  none  the  less  this  record  is  of  value 
as  it  confirms  the  older  accounts  in  their  broad  aspects,  and 
gives  instructive  variations  in  details.  Some  of  the  customs 
appear  to  be  peculiar  to  the  North  Queensland  natives, 
while  others  are  definitely  Australian  in  character.  The 
information  is  given  in  those  short,  pithy  paragraphs  to 
which  Dr.  Roth  has  accustomed  us ;  at  times  we  could 
wish  for  more  detailed  information,  but,  on  the  other  hand, 
we  are  spared  any  unnecessary  verbiage,  and  there  are  no 
hypotheses  or  guesses.  It  is  a  comfort  not  to  have  to 
pick  out  facts  from  a  mass  of  writing,  and  also  to  feel 
that  the  information  can  be  absolutely  trusted. 

Readers  of  Spencer  and  Gillen's  memorable  book,  "  The 
Native  Tribes  of  Central  Australia,"  will  remember  that 
the  .Arunta  do  not  recognise  the  relation  between  the  sexual 
act  and  conception ;  this  seemed  so  strange  that  it  was 
felt  that  some  confirmation  of  this  ignorance  was  needed, 
and  Dr.  Roth  now  gives  it  to  us,  for  he  says  that  though 
the  relation  is  not  recognised  among  the  Tully  River 
blacks  so  far  as  they  themselves  are  concerned,  it  is 
admitted  as  true  for  all  animals — indeed,  this  idea  con- 
firms them  in  their  belief  of  superiority  over  the  brute 
creation.  Dr.  Roth  offers  the  following  explanation  of  this 
strange  belief  : — "  When  it  is  remembered  that  as  a  rule 
in  all  these  northern  tribes,  a  little  girl  may  be  given  to  and 
will  live  with  her  spouse  as  wife  long  before  she  reaches 
the  stage  of  puberty — the  relationship  of  which  to  fecundity 
is  not  recognised — the  idea  of  conception  not  being  neces- 
sarily due  to  sexual  connection  becomes  partly  intelligible." 
\'arious  other  beliefs  and  customs  connected  with  sexual 
history  are  narrated,  amongst  which  may  be  mentioned  the 
seclusion  of  girls  at  puberty,  at  which  period,  as  in  the 
western  islands  of  Torres  Straits,  as  Dr.  Seligmann  has 
pointed  out,  the  girls  are  half-buried  and  surrounded  by  a 
leafy  bower. 

Numerous  magical  practices  are  described ;  many  have 
for  their  object  the  procuring  of  disease  or  death,  others 
are  curative,  some  induce  success  in  love,  while  others  give 
luck  in  hunting  or  fishing.  A  vital  principle,  breath, 
thought,  will-power,  soul,  spirit,  or  whatever  it  may  be 
termed,  is  recognised  by  all  the  tribes,  but  some  deny  this 
to  animals  and  plants,  while  others  will  grant  it  to  animals 
but  not  to  plants.  Dr.  Roth's  explanation  of  the  opinion 
widely  spread  among  the  white  men  that  the  blackfellow 
believes  he  is  transformed  into  a  white  man  at  death,  or, 
as  it  is  expressed,  "  black  jump-up  white-fellow,"  is  that 
the  vital  principle,  or  spirit,  of  a  native  may  be  re- 
incarnated in  a  white  man,  and  not  that  his  body  is  actually 
transformed  into  that  of  a  European.  A  number  of  illustra- 
tions further  add  to  the  value  of  this  important  publication. 

A.  C.  H. 

1  North  Queensland  .Ethnography,  Bulletin  No.  5.  "Superstition, 
Magic  and  Medicine,"  by  Walter  E.  Roth,  the  Norihern  Protector  of ; 
Aboriginals,    Queens'and.      (Home     Secretary's    Department,    Brisb*n«, 


2c;6 


NATURE 


[July  9,  1903 


UNIVERSITY    AND    EDUCATIONAL 
INTELLIGENCE. 

The  Allied  Colonial  Universities  Conference  is  to  be  held 
at  Burlington  House  to-day,  July  9.  Mr.  James  Bryce 
is  to  preside  at  the  morning  session,  and  Lord  Strathcona 
and  Mount  Royal  at  the  afternoon  session.  Official  re- 
presentatives have  been  appointed  by  the  governing  bodies 
of  universities  throughout  the  Empire  to  attend  the  con- 
ference. The  universities  of  England  and  Wales,  Scotland, 
and  Ireland  will  be  represented,  and  also  fourteen  Canadian 
universities,  three  Australian  universities,  New  Zealand 
University,  and  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  University.  Among 
the  representatives  appointed  by  colonial  universities  we 
notice  the  names  of  Prof.  H.  T.  Bovey,  F.R.S.,  Prof.  E. 
Rutherford,  F.R.S.,  Prof.  J.  G.  MacGregor,  F.R.S.,  Prof. 
R.  Threlfall,  F.R.S.,  Prof.  Horace  Lamb,  F.R.S.,  and  Prof. 
T.  H.  Beare.  The  following  resolutions  will  be  sub- 
mitted : — (i)  That  in  the  opinion  of  this  conference  it  is 
desirable  that  such  relations  should  be  established  between 
the  principal  teaching  universities  of  the  Empire  as  will 
secure  that  special  or  local  advantages  for  study,  and  in 
particular  for  post-graduate  study  and  research,  be  made 
as  accessible  as  possible  to  students  from  all  parts  of  the 
King's  dominions.  Proposed  by  the  Vice-Chancellor  of 
Cambridge,  seconded  by  the  Vice-Chancellor  of  McGill 
University,  Montreal,  and  supported  by  the  principal  of  the 
University  of  London.  (2)  That  a  council,  consisting  in 
part  of  representatives  of  British  and  colonial  universities, 
be  appointed  to  promote  the  objects  set  out  in  the  previous 
resolution,  and  that  a  committee  be  appointed  to  arrange 
for  the  constitution  of  the  council.  Proposed  by  the 
Pro-Vice-Chancellor  of  Oxford,  seconded  by  Prof.  R. 
Threlfall  (representing  the  University  of  Sydney,  New 
South  Wales),  and  supported  by  the  principal  of  the 
University  of  Birmingham.  In  addition  to  the  above- 
named.  Lord  Kelvin,  Sir  Henry  Roscoe,  Prof.  Rutherford, 
and  several  other  representatives  of  universities  have 
signified  their  intention  of  supporting  the  resolutions.  Mr. 
R.  B.  Haldane,  Sir  Michael  Foster,  K.C.B.,  F.R.S.,  Sir 
Norman  Lockyer,  K.C.B.,  F.R.S.,  Mr.  Fletcher  Moulton, 
F.R.S.,  Prof.  H.  L.  Callendar,  F.R.S.,  Prof.  J.  A.  Ewing, 
F.R.S.,  and  Dr.  H.  P.  Gurney  (principal  of  the  Durham 
College  of  Science)  will  also  be  among  the  speakers.  A 
dinner  will  be  held  at  the  Hotel  Cecil  to-morrow  evening, 
when  the  Prime  Minister  will  occupy  the  chair. 

In  an  address  delivered  at  a  congregation  of  the  Uni- 
versity of  Birmingham  on  Saturday  last,  the  Chancellor, 
Mr.  Chamberlain,  described  the  progress  and  purpose  of 
the  university,  and  referred  to  the  scheme  for  a  post- 
graduate institute  of  applied  science  in  London.  In  the 
course  of  his  remarks  Mr.  Chamberlain  said  that,  shortly 
after  the  idea  of  a  university  for  Birmingham  and  district 
was  put  forward,  the  promoters  found  that  much  more  than 
had  originally  been  contemplated  would  be  necessary  to  keep 
abreast  of  modern  work  and  modern  enterprise.  Accord- 
ingly, a  million  of  money  was  asked  for  instead  of  the 
quarter  of  a  million  originally  contemplated.  Up  to  the 
present  time  donations  to  the  amount  of  something  like 
450,000/.  have  been  received.  Of  that  amount,  300,000/.  are 
being  spent  in  the  first  buildings  of  the  new  university. 
The  City  of  Birmingham  has  voted  a  contribution  equiva- 
lent to  a  halfpenny  rate,  which  will  provide  an  annual  con- 
tribution which  at  the  present  time  is  between  6000Z.  and 
7000Z.  a  year.  The  county  councils  of  Worcestershire  and 
Staffordshire  have  contributed  a  present  sum  of  500Z.  per 
annum  each.  As  to  the  purpose  of  the  university,  the  view 
is  perpetually  borne  in  mind  that  it  is  to  be  a  seat  of  all 
learning  and  an  establishment  for  the  promotion  of  original 
research.  Every  branch  of  learning  which  has  its  technical 
side  will  be  separately  represented  by  its  own  library,  its 
own  laboratory,  and  its  own  museum.  The  constitution  of 
the  university  has  undoubtedly  given  a  stimulus  to  the 
higher  education  throughout  the  United  Kingdom.  Follow- 
ing the  example  of  Birmingham,  the  colleges  of  Liverpool 
and  Manchester,  and  also  of  Leeds,  are  developing  them- 
selves on  the  technical  side,  and  are  applying  for  indepen- 
dent charters  as  separate  universities.  And  a  scheme  has 
been  put  forward  for  a  technical  college  in  London  with 
similar  objects  to  those  of  Birmingham  University.  When 
all    these   institutions  are   completed,    there   will   be   in   our 


NO.    1758,  VOL.  68] 


country,  as  there  is  already  in  Germany  and  in  North 
America,  a  network  of  institutions  all  of  which  may  help 
each  other.  These  modern  universities  must  of  necessity 
be  specialised  to  suit  the  conditions  of  the  district  in  which 
they  are  established.  May  it  not  be,  then,  in  the  future 
that  ideas,  and  even  students,  may  be  exchanged,  and  that 
many  students,  as  in  Germany  already,  may  find  their  full 
course  can  only  be  completed  by  going  from  one  university 
to  another  and  seeking  in  each  what  it  is  best  fitted  to 
afford? 

The  Lord  Mayor  of  London  laid  the  foundation  stone  of 
the  new  buildings  of  the  University  College  of  Sheffield  on 
June  30.  These  buildings  are  part  of  a  large  scheme  of 
extension  and  consolidation,  and  will  cost  more  than 
I  io,oooZ.  The  new  metallurgical  extension,  containing  new 
furnaces,  is  practically  completed.  The  extensions  for 
engineering,  and  new  accommodation  for  electrical  engineer- 
ing, are  in  process  of  erection.  The  block  for  which  the 
foundation  has  just  been  laid  is  situated  on  a  site  about 
three-quarters  of  a  mile  from  the  centre  of  the  city,  on  the 
ridge  of  a  hill,  420  feet  above  sea  level,  and  adjoins  the 
Weston  Park  on  two  sides.  The  general  plan  is  that  of 
buildings  surrounding  a  quadrangle,  with  an  annexe  for 
thi  library.  The  buildings  on  three  sides  of  the  quadrangle 
are  to  be  erected  immediately,  the  fourth  side  hereafter 
when  required.  The  building  on  the  west  side  of  the  ' 
quadrangle,  with  a  front  to  the  park,  is  for  the  departments 
comprising  arts,  physics,  biology,  chemistry,  law  and  com- 
merce. That  on  the  north  side — also  with  a  front  to  the 
park — contains  accommodation  for  architecture,  and  the 
whole  of  the  medical  department,  comprising  anatomy, 
physiology,  pathology,  bacteriology,  and  public  health, 
together  with  lecture  rooms  and  medical  library.  It  is 
expected  that  college  work  will  be  in  full  swing  in  the  new 
buildings  in  October,  1905.  As  the  result  of  an  appeal  that 
was  made  a  short  time  ago  for  funds  which  would  enable 
a  University  of  Sheffield  to  be  constituted,  the  sum  of 
51,400/.  has  been  subscribed  towards  the  new  buildings,  but 
it  is  understood  that  a  further  sum  of  10,000/.  is  required 
to  complete  the  portion  now  to  be  proceeded  with,  whilst 
10,000/.  will  also  be  needed  for  the  library,  and  about 
10,000/.  to  complete  the  equipment  of  the  various  labora- 
tories. It  is  desired  to  make  adequate  provision  for,  and 
to  grant  degrees  in,  the  four  following  faculties  :— (i)  Arts, 
including  education  and  commerce ;  (2)  pure  science  ;  (3) 
medicine  ;  and  (4)  applied  science  (engineering,  metallurgy 
and  mining).  The  City  Council  has  pledged  itself  by  a 
unanimous  vote,  in  case  university  powers  are  obtained,  to 
giant  an  annual  sum  not  exceeding  one  penny  in  the  pound 
out  of  the  rates,  equivalent  to  a  capitalised  sum  of  about 
200,000/.  To  carry  out  the  proposed  university  scheme  in 
its  entirety,  a  further  annual  income  of  5000/.  would  be 
required. 

At  University  College,  London,  on  Monday,  Prof.  E.  H. 
Starling,  F.R.S.,  Dean  of  the  Faculty  of  Science,  in  his 
report  of  the  work  of  the  last  session,  referred  to  the  scheme 
for  the  incorporation  of  the  college  into  the  University  of 
London,  and  the  suggested  institute  for  advanced  technical 
work.  He  remarked  that  certain  conditions  had  to  be 
fulfilled  before  the  incorporation  could  take  place — namely, 
the  provision  of  new  buildings  for  the  clinical  school  and 
for  the  boys'  school.  The  financial  means  to  completely 
carry  out  these  objects  were  still  wanting.  The  college 
would  need  40,000/.  for  the  building  of  the  clinical  school 
and  60,000/.  for  the  boys'  school.  Believing  that  money 
would  be  forthcoming  for  so  essential  a  step  in  the  provision 
of  higher  education  for  London,  the  council  of  the  college 
and  the  university  were  cooperating  in  drawing  up  a  Bill 
to  enable  incorporation  to  take  place,  and  they  hoped  that 
the  Bill  would  be  introduced  next  session.  It  was  proposed 
in  the  Bill  to  seek  general  powers  for  the  incorporation  of 
other  institutions  into  the  university.  Only  by  incorporation 
of  these  interests  into  one,  and  by  giving  to  the  Senate  of 
the  university  full  control  over  the  whole  university  teach- 
ing of  London,  could  they  hope  to  be  strong  enough  to 
develop  higher  education  and  research  in  accordance  with 
the  growing  needs  of  the  time.  This  being  their  policy, 
it  was  with  some  apprehension  that  he  had  seen  the  publica- 
tion of  a  scheme  for  creating  a  body,  well  equipped  and 
endowed,  within  the  university,  but  not  belonging  to  the 
university.  If  the  control  of  the  new  institution  was  secured 
to  the  university  it  would  be  certain  to  succeed,   and  they 


July  9,  1903] 


NATURE 


237 


need  not  trouble  about  the  self-contradictory  statements  of 
the  aims  and  the  objects  of  the  new  institution  with  which 
they  were  favoured  by  enthusiastic  amateurs. 

A  VACATION  course  in  practical  and  clinical  bacteriology 
will  be  held  at  King's  College,  London,  commencing 
Wednesday,  August  5,  and  ending  Saturday,  August  15. 
Names  must  be  sent  in  as  soon  as  possible  to  the  secretary 
or  to  Prof.   Hewlett. 


SOCIETIES  AND  ACADEMIES. 

London. 

RoyAl  Society,  June  11.— "On  the  Propagation  of  Tremors 
over  the  Surface  of  an  Elastic  Solid."  By  Horace  Lamb, 
F.R.S. 

The  paper  treats  of  the  propagation  of  vibrations  over 
the  surface  of  a  "  semi-infinite  "  isotropic  elastic  solid,  i.e. 
a  solid  bounded  only  by  a  plane.  For  purposes  of  descrip- 
tion, this  plane  is  conceived  as  horizontal,  and  the  solid  as 
lying  below  it. 

The  vibrations  are  supposed  due  to  an  arbitrary  appli- 
cation of  force  at  a  point.  In  the  problem  most  fully  dis- 
cussed this  force  consists  of  an  impulse  applied  normally 
to  the  surface  ;  but  some  other  cases,  including  that  of  an 
internal  source  of  disturbance,  are  also  considered.  Owing 
to  the  complexity  of  the  problem,  attention  is  concentrated 
for  the  present  on  the  vibrations  as  they  manifest  them- 
selves at  the  free  surface,  and  the  modifications  which' 
the  latter  introduces  into  the  character  of  the  waves  pro- 
pagated into  the  interior  are  accordingly  not  examined 
minutely. 

The  investigation  claims  interest  on  theoretical  grounds, 
and  also  in  relation  to  the  phenomena  of  earthquakes. 
Attempts  to  interpret  seismic  phenomena  by  the  light  of 
elastic  theory  have  hitherto  been  based,  for  the  most  part,  on 
the  general  laws  of  wave-propagation  in  an  unlimited 
medium,  as  developed  by  Green  and  Stokes  ;  but  Lord  Ray- 
leigh's  discovery  of  a  special  type  of  surface-waves  has 
made  it  evident  that  the  influence  of  the  free  surface  in 
modifying  the  character  of  the  vibrations  is  more  definite, 
and  more  serious,  than  had  been  suspected.  The  present 
memoir  seeks  to  take  a  further  step  in  the  adaptation  of 
the  theory  to  the  actual  conditions,  by  investigating  cases 
of  forced  waves,  and  by  abandoning  the  restriction  to 
simple-harmonic  vibrations. 

It  is  found  that  the  surface  disturbance  produced  by  a 
single  impulse  of  short  duration  may  be  analysed  roughly 
into  two  parts,  which  we  may  distinguish  as  the  "  minor 
tremor  "  and  the  "  main  shock,"  respectively.  The  minor 
tremor  sets  in  at  any  place,  with  some  abruptness,  after 
an  interval  equal  to  the  time  which  a  wave  of  longitudinal 
displacement  (in  an  unlimited  medium)  would  take  to 
traverse  the  distance  from  the  source.  Except  for  certain 
marked  features  at  the  inception,  and  again  (to  a  lesser 
extent)  at  an  epoch  corresponding  to  that  of  direct  arrival 
of  transversal  waves,  it  may  be  described,  in  general  terms, 
as  consisting  of  a  long  undulation  leading  up  to  the  main 
shock,  and  dying  out  gradually  after  this  has  passed. 
Its  time-scale  is  more  and  more  protracted,  and  its  ampli- 
tude more  and  more  diminished,  the  greater  the  distance 
from  the  source.  The  main  shock,  on  the  other  hand,  is 
propagated  as  a  solitary  wave  (with  one  maximum  and  one 
minimum,  in  both  the  horizontal  and  vertical  displace- 
ments) ;  its  time-scale  is  constant,  and  its  amplitude 
diminishes  only  in  accordance  with  the  usual  law  of 
annular  divergence,  so  that  its  total  energy,  unlike  that  of 
the  minor  tremor,  is  maintained  undiminished.  Its  velocity 
is  that  of  free  Rayleigh  waves,  and  is  accordingly  somewhat 
less  than  that  of  waves  of  transversal  displacement  in  an 
unlimited  medium. 

"  A  Method  for  the  Investigation  of  Fossils  by  Serial 
Sections."     By  Prof.   W.  J.   Solla*.  F.R.S. 

Mechanical  difficulties  preclude  the  study  of  fossils  by 
serial  thin  slices,  but  serial  polished  surfaces  may  be 
obtained  at  any  desired  degree  of  proximity,  and  these,  when 
the  fossil  and  its  matrix  offer  sufficient  optical  contrast, 
serve  most  of  the  purposes  of  thin  slices.  They  may  be 
photographed  under  the  microscope,  so  as  to  furnish  a  trust- 
worthy and  permanent  record.     The  sections  may  be  used 


to  obtain  reconstructions  of  the  fossil  in  wax.  Several 
fossils  have  been  successfully  studied  in  this  way,  such  as 
Palaeospondylus  Gunni,  Ophiura  Egertoni,  Lapworthura 
Miltoni,  Monograptus  priodon,  and  Palaeodiscus  ferox. 
The  sections  are  obtained  at  regular  intervals,  usually  of 
0025mm.,  by  means  of  an  apparatus  designed  for  the 
purpose  by  the  Rev.  F.  Jervis-Smith,  F.R.S.,  reader  of 
mechanics  in  the  university. 

"  An  Account  of  the  Devonian  Fish,  Palaeospondylus 
Gunni,  Traquair."  By  Prof,  W.  J.  Sollas,  F.R.S.,  and 
Igerna  B.  J.  Sollas. 

June  18. — "  Some  Preliminary  Observations  on  the 
Assimilation  of  Carbon  Monoxide  by  Green  Plants."  By 
Prof.  W.  B.  Bottomley  and  Mr.  Herbert  Jackson.  Com- 
municated by  Prof.  J.   Reynolds  G.-een,   F.R.S. 

"  The  Bionomics  of  Convoluta  roscoffensis.'"  By  Dr. 
F.  W.  Gamble  and  Frederick  Keeble,  M.A. 

Convoluta  is  a  minute  green  Turbellarian  organism  that 
lives  in  such  prodigious  numbers  on  the  coast  of  Brittany 
as  to  cover  long  stretches  of  the  beach  with  a  thick  green 
scum. 

Previous  observers  have  directed  attention  to  the  fact 
that  Convoluta  is  not  merely  an  animal,  but  is  an  associa- 
tion of  an  animal  and  a  plant,  or  plant-like  organism,  which 
is  represented  by  the  green  cells.  These  cells  contain 
chlorophyll,  perform  photosynthesis,  and  store  starch,  but, 
unlike  algal  cells,  they  have  no  cell-wall,  and  they  are 
believed  to  have  no  power  of  surviving  the  death  of  the 
animal  tissue.  Whether  they  are  exceptional  animal  cells 
or  infecting  plant-cells,  or  algae  acquired  in  past  time  and 
now  inherited,  is  unknown.  But  it  is  supposed  that  the 
life  of  the  animal  has  been  modified  to  suit  their  require- 
ments, that  from  their  reserves  the  animal  is  fed,  and  that 
to  the  renewal  of  these  reserves  its  movements  are  directed. 

The  present  paper  is  an  attempt  to  gain  further  insight 
into  this  strange  problem.  Dealing  first  with  the  question 
of  food,  the  authors  show  what  rays  of  light  are  effective 
in  producing  a  surplus  of  starch,  but  they  believe  that  this 
reserve  does  not  furnish  the  source  of  food  on  which  the 
animal  tissue  of  Convoluta  is  nourished  ;  for  not  only  does 
this  starch  disappear  with  extreme  slowness  (7-8  days)  in 
darkness,  but  direct  evidence  is  forthcoming  that  in  all 
stages  of  development  Convoluta  can,  and  does,  ingest,  that 
in  the  earlier  ones  diatoms  and  algae  are  normally  ingested 
and  digested,  and  that  in  the  later  stages  the  green  cells 
are  bodily  aggregated  and  digested  in  the  gut. 

Passing  to  the  development  of  the  green  cells,  the  authors 
find  the  first  trace  of  these  cells  as  colourless,  nucleated 
structures  in  the  gut  of  the  recently  hatched  animal.  Direct 
proof  of  the  intrinsic  or  extrinsic  origin  of  these  colourless 
cells  is  still  lacking.  The  indirect  evidence,  however,  is 
strongly  in  favour  of  the  latter  mode  of  origin.  On  this 
view  Convoluta  makes  a  pure  culture  from  a  mixed  in- 
fection. 

Further  analyses  than  heretofore  of  the  effects  of  light, 
heat,  gravity,  and  other  agencies  on  the  behaviour  of  Convo- 
luta are  given.  The  tonic,  even  more  than  the  tropic,  effect 
of  light  determines  the  periodic  tidal  movements,  now  to 
the  surface  of  the  sand,  and  now  below  the  surface.  The 
direct  tropic  effect  of  light  is  greatest  in  the  green  rays, 
absent  in  the  blue,  and  reversed  in  the  red.  The  effect  is 
modified  by  the  absorbing  or  scattering  character  of  the 
background,  and  by  the  age  of  the  animal.  At  the  moment 
of  hatching,  Convoluta  is  aphototropic. 

Geotropic  response  is  not  exhibited  by  those  Convoluta 
which  fail  to  develop  their  otolith.  Normally  it  is  shown 
from  the  moment  of  birth. 

The  paper  concludes  with  a  description  of  the  daily  and 
lunar  variations  in  the  size  and  behaviour  of  the  colonies, 
and  with  an  explanation  of  these  variations  in  terms  of  the 
tropisms  and  other  habits  of  Convoluta. 

"  The  Spyectra  of  Neon,  Krypton,  and  Xenon."  By 
E.  C.  C.  Baly,  Lecturer  on  Spectroscopy  in  University 
College,  London. 

The  gases  were  illuminated  by  the  passage  of  the  dis- 
charge from  an  induction  coil  through  them  under  reduced 
pressures.  Vacuum  tubes  were  filled  with  each  one  of 
them,  and  the  glowing  gas  in  a  capillary  portion  was  ex- 
amined "  end  on  "  through  a  quartz  window.  Considerable 
difficulty  was  experienced  in  the  use  of  the  tubes,  owing  to 
th?  disintegration  of  the  electrodes  and  the  absorption  of 


NO.    1758,  VOL.  68] 


238 


MATURE 


[July  9,  1903 


the  gas  when  the  current  was  kept  passing  for  l«ftg  periods. 
The  measurements  were  all  made  upon  phot<^lPaphs  taken 
with  a  Rowland  concave  grating  of  lo  feet  focus  and  14,438 
lines  to  the  inch  ;  the  first  three  order*  of  spectra  were  em- 
plo3ed,  and  nearly  all  the  chief  liin'es  were  measured  in  two 
orders  ;  the  probable  error  of  "thfe  measurements  is  less  than 
003  Angstrom  unit.  Each  gas  gives  bright-line  spectra, 
krypton  and  xenon  having  two  and  neon  one ;  the  second 
spectra  of  krypton  and  xenon  are  produced  bv  placing  a 
Leyden  jar  and  a  spark  gap  in  the  circuit  with  the  vacuum 
tube. 

•  Physical  Society,  June  26. — Dr.  R.  T.  Glazebrook, 
F.R.S.,  president,  in  the  chair. — Dr.  Waller  gave  a 
demonstration  of  the  effect  of  light  on  green  leaves.  The 
origin  of  these  researches  was  the  result  of  the  consider- 
ation of  the  retinal  effects  after  light  stimulation,  and  the 
wish  to  have  a  sensitive  surface  naturally  spread  out  for 
examination.  The  efTect  of  light  is  to  produce  a  current 
(of  an  E.M.F.  of  the  order  of  001  volt),  at  first  from  the 
illuminated  to  the  dark  parts  in  the  leaf,  and  later  (or  as 
an  after-effect)  from  dark  to  illuminated.  These  currents 
are  apparently  an  index  of  two  opposite  processes  in  the 
leaf,  i.e.  dissimilation  and  assimilation,  and  give  very  close 
analogies  to  the  analogous  processes  in  animal  tissues  (e.^. 
nerves).  Dr.  Waller  also  demonstrated  the  "  blaze  " 
currents  in  animal  and  vegetable  tissues.  These  are  seen 
when  a  strong  exciting  current  (such  as  an  induction-shock 
of  sufficient  voltage)  is  led  through  a  pair  of  non-polarisable 
electrodes,  and  these  are  then  connected  with  a  galvano- 
meter. An  electrical  response  (of  greater  energy  than  the 
exciting  current)  is  given  in  a  direction  commonly  homo- 
drome  to  the  latter,  i.e.  in  the  reverse  direction  to  the 
ordinary  polarisation  counter-currents.  This  "  blaze  " 
response  is  the  algebraic  sum  of  post-anodic  and  post- 
kathodic  currents  ;  the  resultant  is  commonly  homodrome, 
but  an  antidrome  blaze,  distinguished  from  polarisation  by 
its  much  greater  order  of  magnitude,  is  also  seen.  Dr. 
Waller  also  showed  two  methods  for  the  quantitative 
estimation  of  chloroform  vapour  in  air.  The  first  was  by 
receiving  the  mixed  gases  into  a  flask  of  known  capacity', 
absorbing  the  chloroform  by  means  of  olive  oil,  and  reading 
the  reduction  of  pressure  by  a  manometer.  The  second  was 
by  the  simple  weighing  of  a  light  flask,  first  filled  with 
air,  then  filled  with  mixed  air  and  chloroform  vapour. — 
Dr.  N.  H.  Alcock  exhibited  a  method  of  determining  the 
temperature-limits  of  nerve  activity  in  warm-blooded  and 
cold-blooded  animals.  The  higher  limit  was  obtained  by 
immersing  the  isolated  nerve  in  105  per  cent.  NaCl  solution. 
It  lies  between  40°  C.  and  42°  C.  in  the  frog,  48°  and  49° 
in  the  mammal,  and  is  at  53°  in  the  bird,  corresponding 
closely  to  the  coagulating  point  of  the  tissue  proteids.  The 
lower  limits  were  obtained  by  cooling  the  nerve-chamber 
as  a  whole,  and  taking  the  temperature  of  the  nerve  with 
a  compensated  thermo-junction.  The  limits  were  —  3°-5  C. 
for  the  frog,  -|-3°-8  C.  for  the  mammal,  -|-6°-8  C.  for  the 
bird,  giving  a  range  of  nerve-action  of  45°  C.  to  46°  C.  for 
all  animals.  The  method,  therefore,  permits  of  an  hitherto 
impossible  analysis  of  actually  living  nerve-substance. 

Zoological  Society,  June  16.  — Dr.  F.  Du  C>*ne  Godman, 
F.R.S.,  vice-president,  in  the  chair. — Dr.  H.  Woodward, 
F.R.S.,  made  a  communication  from  Miss  Dorothy  M.  A. 
Bate  which  contained  a  description  of  the  remains  of  an 
extinct  species  of  Genet  from  a  Pleistocene  cave-deposit  in 
Cyprus,  and  which  it  was  proposed  to  name  Genetta 
plesictoides,  sp.  n. — Mr.  G.  A.  Boulen^er,  F.R.S.,  de- 
scribed a  new  species  of  Gobiid  fish  from  British  New 
Guinea  under  the  name  of  Khiacichlhys  novae- guineae. — 
Mr.  G.  A.  Boulenger  also  described  the  following  five  new 
species  of  reptiles  from  British  New  Guinea  : — Lygosoma 
milnense,  L.  granulatum,  L.  pulchrum,  L.  pratti,  and 
Toxica  calamus  stanleyantis.. — A  second  instalment  of  a 
paper,  by  Mr.  Cyril  Crossland,  on  the  Polychaeta  of 
Zanzibar  and  British  East  Africa,  contained  descriptions 
of  three  new  species  of  Marphysa,  viz.  M.  macintoshi,  M. 
simplex,  and  M.  furcellata,  and  a  new  key  to  the  known 
species  of  that  genus.  It  also  contained  remarks  on  Lysidice 
collafis  and  its  variations,  and  on  the  two  species  Diopatra 
neapolitana  and  Onuphis  holobranchiata,  which  had  hither- 
to rtot  been  met  with  in  East  Africa. — A  communication 
on   the  parasites  collected  by   the  "  Skeat   Expedition  "   to 

NO.    1758,   VOL.   68] 


Lower  Siam  and  the  Malay  Peninsula  in  the  year  1900  wa- 
read  by  the  secretary  on  behalf  of  Mr.  Arthur  E.  Shipley. 
The  author  stated  that  the  area  in  which  the  collection  wa~ 
gathered  had  been  hitherto  unsearched  by  students  of  para 
sites,  and  referred  to  the  high  proportion  of  new  forni> 
that  had  been  obtained.  Among  these  were  a  new  species 
of  Tetrarhynchus,  found  in  an  Echinoderm,  and  an  un- 
determinable species  of  Tetrarhynchus  found  in  a  sea-snake.. 
The  occurrence  of  these  forms  in  such  hosts  was  practically 
new  to  science.  There  were  also  described  eight  new  species 
of  Acanthocephala. — A  communication  from  Messrs.  Lcuis 
Murbach  and  Cresswell  Shearer  dealt  with  a  collection 
of  Medus;e  from  the  coast  of  British  Columbia  and  Alaska, 
made  in  1900.  Specimens  of  fourteen  species — of  which  five 
were  new — were  contained  in  the  collection,  and  these  were 
remarked  upon  or  described. — Mr.  F.  E.  Beddardy 
F".R.S.,  read  a  paper  upon  the  modifications  of  the  Syrinx 
in  the  Accipitres.  The  syringes  of  a  number  of  genera 
were  described  in  detail,  and  it  was  pointed  out  that  the 
group  could  be  divided  into  two  families  according  to  the 
form  of  this  organ. 

Chemical  Society,  June  17.— Prof.  W.  A.  'lilden,  F.R.S., 

in  the  chair. — The  Longstaff  medal  was  presented  to  Prof. 
W.  J.  Pope  in  recognition  of  his  researches  on  the  stereo- 
chemistry of  compounds  of  elements  other  than  carbon. — 
The  following  papers  were  read  : — The  estimation  of  arsenic 
in  fuel,  by  Prof.  T.  E.  Thorpe,  P'.R.S.  A  known  quantity 
of  the  finely-powdered  fuel  is  burnt  in  a  stream  of  oxygen,, 
the  issuing  gas  is  passed  through  a  suitable  absorption 
apparatus,  and  the  absorption  liquid,  as  well  as  the  ash 
of  the  fuel,  are  tested  for  arsenic. — The  electrolytic  estim- 
ation of  minute  quantities  of  arsenic,  more  especially  ia 
brewing  materials,  by  Prof.  T.  E.  Thorpe,  F.R.S.  A 
special  electrolytic  arrangement  is  adopted  whereby  the 
electrolysis  of  dilute  sulphuric  acid  is  brought  about  in 
presence  of  the  arsenical  liquid,  and  the  formation  of 
arseniuretted  hydrogen  is  detected  in  the  usual  way. 
— Crystallised  ammonium  sulphate  and  the  position  of 
ammonium  in  the  alkali  series,  by  Dr.  A.  E.  H.  Tutton. 
The  molecular  constants  of  crystals  of  ammonium  sulphate 
indicate  that  the  substitution  of  two  ammonium  groups  for 
the  two  atoms  of  potassium  in  potassium  sulphate  produces 
approximately  the  same  change  as  the  substitution  of  two 
atoms  of  rubidium ;  on  the  other  hand,  the  specific  con- 
stants show  that  the  ammonium  radicle  exerts  a  certain 
influence  peculiar  to  itself  in  the  series  of  alkali  sulphates. 
— The  action  of  hydrogen  on  sodium,  by  Mr.  A.  Holt. — 
The  action  of  halogens  on  compounds  containing  the 
carbonyl  group,  by  Dr.  Lapworth.  It  is  shown  that  the 
bromination  of  these  compounds  takes  place  more  rapidly 
in  presence  of  acids  and  alkalis. — Reactions  involving  the 
addition  of  hydrogen  cyanide  to  carbon  compounds,  by  Dr. 
Lapworth. — The  acetoacetic  ester  synthesis,  by  Messrs. 
Hann  and  Lapworth. — Rimu  resin,  by  Prof.  Easterfleld 
and  Mr.  Aston.  This  resin  consists  principally  of  rimuic 
acid  C,gH2oO,T — Note  on  the  karaka  fruit,  by  Messrs. 
Easterfleld  and  Aston.  This  material,  which  in  the  raw 
state  is  bitter  and  poisonous,  contains  the  glucosides  karakin 
and  corynocarpin.  When  an  aqueous  extract  of  the  fruit  is 
distilled,  a  distillate  containing  hydrocyanic  acid  is  obtained. 
— The  slow  oxidation  of  methane  at  low  temperatures,  by 
Messrs.  Bone  and  Wheeler. — The  alkylation  of  sugars,  by 
Prof.  Purdie  and  Mr.  Irvine. — Trimethyl-a-methylglucoside 
and  trimethylglucose,  by  Messrs.  Purdie  and  Bridgrett. — 
Note  on  the  corrosion  of  an  Egyptian  image,  by  Mr.  H. 
Bassett,  jun.  An  examination  has  been  made  of  a  green 
coating  covering  a  bronze  image,  probably  dating  from  the 
period  200-100  b.c,  recently  found  in  the  delta  of  the  Nile. 
The  principal  constituents  are  cupric  chloride  and  oxide, 
lead  oxide,  stannic  oxide,  water,  silica,  and  small  quantities  uf 
nickel  and  iron  oxides. — The  oxidation  of  pinene  with  chromyl 
chloride,  by  Prof.  Henderson,  Messrs.  Gray  and  Smith. 
— Some  physical  and  chemical  properties  of  strong  nitric 
acid,  by  Messrs.  Veley  and  Manley.  It  is  shown  that  the 
density,  contraction,  refractive  index,  and  electrical  con- 
ductivity vary  regularly  until  the  concentration  of  the  acid 
reaches  92  per  cent.,  but  from  this  point  to  100  per  cent, 
the  variation  is  exceptional.  These  facts  are  in  harmony 
with  Hartley's  view  that  acid  of  96  per  cent,  strength  con- 
tains a  definite  compound  of  the  formula  3H2N20g,H3NO,. 
— Notes  on  ozone,  bv  Mr.   Ing^lis.     The  molecular  state  of 


July  9,  1903] 


NA  TURE 


239 


ozone  in  acid  and  aqueous  solutions  cannot  be  ascertained 
by  solubility  determinations,  since  equilibrium  between  the 
gas  and  its  solutions  cannot  be  secured. 

Geological  Society,  June  ic— Mr.  J.  J.  Harris  Teall, 
F.R.S.,  vice-president,  in  the  chair. — On  primary  and 
secondary  devitrification  in  glassy  igneous  rocks,  part  i., 
by  Mr.  John  Parkinson.  The  types  of  primary  devitrifi- 
cation as  found  at  Obsidian  Cliff  are  briefly  reviewed,  and 
reference  is  made  to  the  conditions  which  favoured  primary 
devitrification  at  Obsidian  Cliff.  After  a  brief  reference  to 
secondary  devitrification,  this  part  of  the  paper  concludes 
with  a  summary  in  which  the  several  relations  of  secondary 
to  primary  devitrification-structures  are  given. — Part  ii., 
by  Prof.  T.  G.  Bonnsy,  F.R.S.  Certain  conditions,  such 
as  slow  cooling,  supersaturation,  and  the  presence  of  in- 
clusions are  favourable  to  crystallisation,  some  special  cases 
of  which  are  discussed  in  the  paper.  The  structures  thus 
formed  in  rocks  may  be  classified  as  (i)  the  linear,  and  (2) 
the  granular,  and  the  former  may  be  subdivided  into  (a) 
the  rectilinear,  (h)  the  curvilinear.  Spherulitic  structure 
in  its  simpler  form  falls  under  (a),  and  is  at  first  little  more 
than  a  radial  grouping  of  molecules,  the  process  becoming 
gradually  more  complicated.  Of  this,  "  graphic  "  or 
"  pegmatitic  "  structure  is  a  final  stage,  where  two  minerals 
•TtM  crystallising  out  of  a  solution,  and  one  has  slightly  the 
advantage  over  the  other,  so  that  it  virtually  forms  a 
.skeleton-crystal.  Into  this  the  ordinary  radial  growth  of  a 
spherulite  may  be  seen  to  pass;  likewise  also  examples  of 
(a)  into  those  of  (6),  the  latter  being  due  to  the  "  leading  " 
mineral  meeting  with  a  rather  stronger  resistance,  as  if  a 
crystal  were  forming  in  a  very  tough  jelly.  The  granular 
structure  is  discussed,  and  explanations  are  offer^  of  its 
varieties.  In  conclusion,  the  relation  of  some  of  these 
structures  to  an  eutectic  composition  is  discussed. — Geology 
of  the  .Ashbourne  and  Buxton  branch  of  the  London  and 
North-Western  Railway — Crake  Low  to  Parsley  Hay,  by 
Mr.  H.  H.  Arnold-Bemrose.  The  present  paper  is  a  con- 
tinuation of  one  published  in  1890,  and  deals  with  the 
geology  of  the  next  eight  miles  of  this  railway. 

Royal  Microscopical  Society,  June  17. — Mr.  Wm. 
Carruthers,  F.R.S.,  vice-president,  in  the  chair. — In  the 
absence  of  Lord  Rayleigrh,  his  paper  on  the  theory  of 
optical  images  with  special  reference  to  the  microscope  was 
read  by  Dr.  Hebb. — Dr.  H.  Siedentopf  read  a  paper  on 
the  rendering  visible  of  ultra-microscopic  particles  and  of 
ultra-microscopic  bacilli.  The  subject  was  illustrated  by 
microscopes  fitted  with  special  illuminating  apparatus, 
various  objects,  and  drawings  on  the  blackboard.— A  com- 
munication relating  to  the  preceding  subject,  sent  by  Dr. 
Johnstone  Stoney,  was  read  by  the  secretary.  There  was  a 
lengthv  discussion  on  the  three  papers,  in  which  Prof. 
J.  D.  Everett,  Dr.  S.  Czapski,  Mr.  J.  W.  Gordon,  Mr. 
Rheinberg,  Dr.  C.  V.  Drysdale,  Dr.  Beilby,  and  Mr.  Conrad 
Beck  took  part.  Owing  to  the  lateness  of  the  hour,  the 
following  papers  were  taken  as  read  : — On  the  "  lag  "  in 
microscopic  vision  (continued) ;  an  improved  horseshoe 
stage  and  a  micrometric  correction  for  minute  objects,  by 
Mr.  E.  M.  Nelson ;  and  a  method  of  mounting  bacteria 
from  fluid  media,  by  Mr.  J.  k.  Hill. 

Challenger  Society,  June  24.  — Or.  R.  N.  Wolfcnden  in 
the  chair. — Mr.  V.  H.  Blacknian  contributed  some  notes 
on  Bipolar  plants ;  a  comparison  of  the  259  Arctic  and 
•(>9  Antarctic  Alg.-x;  shows  that  no  less  than  54  species  are 
ound  both  north  and  south  of  the  tropics,  but  not  between 
ihem;  of  the  larger  brown  seaweeds  not  even  a  genus  is 
common  to  the  two  poles. — Dr.  Fowler  read  notes  on  the 
distribution  of  some  Amphipoda  collected  by  him  in  the 
Bay  of  Biscay  at  various  depths  during  a  cruise  in  H.M.S. 
Research,  1900;  they  had  been  identified  by  the  Rev. 
T.  R.  R.  Stebbing.  Among  these  were  two  Arctic  cold- 
water  forms,  Scina  borealis,  Sars.,  and  Cyphocaris  anonyx, 
Boeck.,  taken  between  750-500  fathoms  and  300-400 
fathoms  respectively,  but  not  known  from  shallow  vvater  at 
low  latitudes ;  and  Hyperioides  lon^ipes,  Chevreux,  dis- 
tributed round  the  100  fathom  horizon  as  a  centre,  but  not 
occurring  at  the  surface  or  at  great  depths. 
Cambridgb. 

Philosophical  Society.  May  18.— Dr.  Baker,  president, 
in  the  chair. — A  coleopterous  insect  embedded  in  the  wall 
of   the   human    intestine,    by    Mr.    D.    Sharp,    F.R.S.     The 

NO.    7758,  VOL.    68] 


author  gave  an  account  of  the  finding,  by  Dr.  W.  H.  Ligert- 
wood,  of  a  living  specimen  of  Otiorhynchus  tenebricosus 
embedded  in  the  wall  of  the  intestine  of  a  patient  who  died 
in  the  Wells  Asylum.  The  position  of  the  foreign  body  was 
in  the  ileum  about  eighteen  inches  from  the  ileo-ccecal 
valve.  This  beetle  is  purely  herbivorous  in  its  habits. — 
Exhibition  of  a  rare  parasite,  by  Mr.  A.  E.  Shipley. — On 
the  influence  of  electrons  on  colloidal  solutions,  by  Mr. 
W.  B.  Hardy,  F.R.S.  Specially  purified  globulin  from 
blood  was  dissolved  (a)  in  a  trace  of  acetic  acid,  (6)  in  a 
trace  of  sodium  hydrate.  In  presence  of  acetic  acid  the 
globulin  was  found  to  move  in  an  electric  field  from  anode 
to  kathode,  in  presence  of  alkali  it  inoved  from  kathode  to 
anode.  In  the  former  case,  therefore,  the  globulin  particles 
carried  a  positive  charge,  in  the  latter  a  negative  charge. 
These  two  solutions  were  exposed  to  the  radiations  from 
radium  bromide,  and  it  was  found  that  the  electro-negative 
solution  of  globulin  was  turned  into  an  opaque  jelly  in 
three  minutes,  while  the  electro-positive  solution  became 
more  mobile  and  less  opalescent. — On  bismuth,  by  Mr. 
R.  H.  Adie.  The  discrepancies  between  the  atomic  weight 
of  bismuth  as  determined  by  Schneider  and  Marignac  =208 
and  by  Classen  =2089,  have  been  hitherto  discussed  on  the 
assumption  that  the  cause  is  the  presence  of  lead.  The 
author,  by  adopting  a  combination  of  fractionation  as  sub- 
nitrate  and  distillation  as  chloride,  has  succeeded  in  obtain- 
ing sufficient  silica  from  pure  bismuth  to  account  for  the 
low  values  of  the  former  observers.  The  determination  of 
the  atomic  weight  and  the  isolation  of  a  new  coloured  sub- 
stance is  now  proceeding. — On  the  influence  of  great 
dilution  on  the  absorption  spectra  of  highly  concentrated 
solutions  of  the  nitrates  and  chlorides  of  didymium  and 
erbium,  by  Mr.  J.  E.  Purvis.  The  experiments  prove  that 
(i)  the  absorption  bands  of  very  highly  concentrated  solu- 
tions of  the  chlorides  of  didymium  and  erbium  are  not 
altered  when  the  solutions  are  highly  diluted.  (2)  The 
absorption  bands  of  very  highly  concentrated  solutions  of 
the  nitrates  of  didymium  and  erbium  are  considerably  less 
diffuse  when  the  solutions  are  highly  diluted.  This  effect 
is  analogous  to  that  produced  in  the  spectra  of  some  gases 
and  vapours  by  diminishing  the  density  of  the  gas  or 
vapour.  (3)  The  absorption  bands  of  very  concentrated  and 
very  diluted  solutions  of  the  chlorides  of  didymium  and 
erbium  are  precisely  similar  to  those  observed  in  the  very 
diluted  solutions  of  the  nitrates  of  these  two  earths. — On 
a  method  of  estimating  the  amounts  of  the  oxides  of  didy- 
mium and  erbium  by  means  of  the  absorption  bands  of  their 
solutions,  by  Mr.  J.  E.  Purvis.— A  lecture  experiment  to 
illustrate  the  rotation  of  a  magnetic  pole  around  a  straight 
current,  by  Mr.  P.  V.  Sevan. — Irreversible  simultaneous 
linedr  reactions,  by  Mr.  H.  O.  Jones  and  O.  W. 
Richardson. 

Paris. 
Academy  of  Sciences,  June  29.— M.  Albert  Gaudry  in 
the  chair. — Researches  on  one  and  two  fluid  batteries,  bv 
.VI.  Berthelot. — On  the  mechanical  analysis  of  soils,'  bv 
M.  Th.  SchlcBsingr.  A  discussion  of  the  relation  between 
the  nature  and  amount  of  a  substance  deposited  from  sus- 
pension in  water,  and  the  time  taken  to  settle.  Experi- 
mental results  on  sandy,  clay,  and  loam  soils  are  given. — 
On  the  influence  of  the  introduction  of  unsaturated  radicles 
on  the  rotatory  power  of  active  inolecules,  o-allyl,  a-propyi, 
and  5-methyl-)8-cyclopentanonecarboxylic  esters,  by  MM.  A. 
Haller  and  M.  Desfontaines.  The  conversion  of  an 
aliphatic  active  molecule  into  a  cyclic  molecule  is  accom- 
panied with  a  large  rise  in  the  rotatory  power.  The  rota- 
tory pov/er  of  the  allyl  ester  is  distinctly  higher  than  that 
of  the  propyl  derivative. — Observations  on  the  comet  1903  c, 
discovered  by  .M.  Borrelly  at  the  Observatory  of  Marseilles, 
June  21,  by  M.  E.  Stephan.  The  comet  possesses  a  nucleus 
of  the  tenth  magnitude,  and  a  tail  extending  5'  or  6'. 
— Observations  made  at  the  Observatory  of  Lyons  during 
the  partial  eclipse  of  the  moon  of  April  1 1  ;  final  results, 
by  M.  Ch.  Andrd. — Observation  of  the  bright  spot  of 
Saturn  with  the  38cm.  equatorial  of  the  Observatory  of 
Toulouse,  by  M.  F.  Rossard. — The  elements  of  the  Borrelly 
comet,  by  M.  G.  Fayet.  Calculated  from  observations 
made  at  the  Paris  Observatory.  The  brightness  of  the  comet 
will  reach  its  maximum  about  July  14,  and  the  comet  will 
then  be  in  a  position  very  favourable  for  observation,  and 
may  be  visible  to  the  naked  eye  for  some  days. — Observ- 


240 


NA  TURE 


[July  9,  1903 


ations  on  the  new  Borrelly  comet  made  at  the  Paris  Observ- 
atory, by  M.  G.  BiKourdan. — Observations  on  the  Borrelly 
comet  made  with  the  3i-8cm.  equatorial  at  the  Observatory 
of  Algiers,   by  MM.   Rambaud   and  Sy. — Observations  on 
the  Borrellv  comet  made  at  the  Paris  Observatory,   by  M. 
Salot.— ODservations  on  the  comet  1903   c  (Borrelly)  made 
at  the  Observatory  of  Besangon,   by   M.   P.    Chofardet.— 
Observations  on  the  Borrelly  comet  made  with  the  Brunner 
16cm.  equatorial  at  the  Observatory  of  Lyons,   by  MM.  J. 
Quillaume   and    G.    Le   Cadet. — The   influence   of   altitude 
on  the  duration  of  the  reduction  of  the  oxyhaemoglobin  in 
man,   by   M.   A.   H^nocque.     The  effect  of  living  at   alti- 
tudes of  1000  to  2000  metres  is  to  produce  a  marked  pro- 
longation in  the  duration  of  the  reduction  of  the  oxyhaemo- 
globin,   a  phenomenon   which   gives  a   new   explanation   of 
the   adaptation   of   the  human   body   to   these   heights. — On 
the  integration  of  series,   by   M.   W.    H.   Young. — On   the 
experimental     laws     of     sliding     friction,     by     M.     Henri 
Chaumat. — The    electrotypograph    and    the    teletypograph, 
by  M.  de  Tavern ier. — On  the  theory  of  nickel  steels,  by 
M.    C.    E:.    Guillaume.     Nickel    steels'  can   be   classified    in 
two   divisions,    according   as   they   do   or   do   not   possess   a 
thet  mal  hysteresis. — On  the  spontaneous  dichroism  of  mixed 
liquids,  by  M.   Georges  Meslin.     All  liquids  which  possess 
spontaneous  dichroism  are   also  those   which   are   the  most 
active   under   the   influence   of   the  magnetic   field  ;    the   re- 
ciprocal of  this  is  also  true. — On  the  phenomena  connected 
with  the  mast  in  wireless  telegraphy,  by  MM.  Andr^  Broca 
and    Turchini. — The    relation    between    the    dielectric    co- 
hesion  of   a   gas   and   its   temperature,    by    M.    E.    Bouty. 
For  temperatures  between  20°  C.  and  190°  C,  air,  hydrogen 
and  detonating  gas  possess  a  dielectric  cohesion   which   is 
independent    of    the    temperature,    from    which    the    law    is 
deduced  that  the  dielectric  cohesion  of  a  gas  or  of  a  mixture 
of  gases   depends   only  on   the   mean   distance   of   the   mole- 
cules.— Determination   of   the   electrochemical    equivalent   of 
silver,   by  MM.   Pellat  and  Leduc.     A  detailed  account  is 
given  of  the  numerous  precautions  observed  in  this  deter- 
mination,  the  mean  result  being  0011195. — On  the  electro- 
lytic   transport    of    certain    ions    in    gelatin,    by    M.    Aug. 
Charpentier. — The  production  of  ozone  in  spirals  with  high 
tension  currents  of  high  frequency,  by  M.  H.  Guilleminot. 
—Positive    accumulator    plates    of    high    capacity,    by    M. 
Vaugeois.     Capacities   of   from   07    to    124   ampere-hours 
per    square    decimetre    of    plate    have    been    obtained. — On 
recent  results  obtained  in  the  treatment  of  arterial  hyper- 
tension  by   d'Arsonvalisation,    by   M.    A.    Moutier. — A_  new 
method    for   putting    in    evidence   ultra-microscopic   objects, 
by  MM.  A.  Cotton  and  H.   Mouton. — On  the  anticipated 
liquefaction  of  oxygen   from   air,   by   M.   Georges  Claude. 
If  air  is  liquefied  progressively,   the  first  portions  are  rich 
in  oxygen. — Study  of  the  mode  of  oxidation  of  manganese 
salts  by    alkaline   persulphates    in   acid   liquids,    by    M.    H. 
Baubigny. — The   preparation   and  properties  of  some  new 
plumbic    derivatives,    together    with    their    thermochemical 
data,   by   M.   Albert  Colson. — On   an  organic  base  contain- 
ing phosphorus,    its   constitution   and   some   of   its   salts,    by 
M.    P.    Lemoult.       The    substance    obtained    by    the    inter- 
action    of     PCI-     and     aniline     has     not     the     constitution 
PCl(NH.CeH-)^''ascribed  to  it  by  Gilpin,  but  is  more  prob- 
ably the  hydrochloride  of  a  new  base,  (C,H,.NH)P.N.C,H,, 
various     salts     of     which     are     described. — The     volumetric 
estimation   of  nitric   nitrogen,    by   M.    Debourdeaux. — On 
silicon    amide    and    imide,    by    MM.    Em.    Vig:ouroux    and 
Husot.     The  amide  is  produced  by  the  interaction  of  silicon 
tetrachloride    and    ammonia    at    temperatures    below    0°    C, 
above  0°  the  imide  is  the  chief  product. — Combinations  of 
hydroferrocyanic    acid    with    organic    compounds,    by    MM. 
Chretien    and    Guinchant. — The    preparation    of    primary 
alcohols  by  means  of  the  corresponding  acids,  by  MM.   L. 
Bouveault  and  G.   Blanc.     The  methyl  and  ethyl  ester  of 
the    fatty    acid    is    reduced    by    sodium    in    the    presence    of 
absolute  alcohol.     Details   are  given   for  octanol.^ — The   in- 
fluence of  the  nature  of  the  external  medium  on  the  form- 
ation and  evolution  of  odoriferous  compounds  in  plants,  by 
MM.   E.  Charabot  and  A.   Hebert. — New  method  for  the 
estimation    of    oxalic    acid    in    urine,    food,     &c.,    by    M. 
Aibahary. — On     the     production     of     glucose     by     animal 
tissues,   by   MM.    Caddac   and   Maignon. — Researches  on 
the    transversal    scalariform    striated   bands    in    the   cardiac 
fibres,  by  M.  F.  Marceau. — The  action  of  carbon  dioxide 
on    the    eggs    of    echinoderms,    by    M.    C.    Viguier.       The 


theory  of  temporary  poisoning  of  Delage  is  not  true  for 
the  sea  urchins  ;  carbon  dioxide  is  not  clearly  differentiated 
from  other  reagents  used  in  experiments  on  artificial  par- 
thenogenesis.— On  the  development  of  the  ovary  of 
Polyxenus  lagurus^  by  M.'  A.  Ldcaillon. — The  action  of 
emulsin  on  salicin  and  amygdalin.  Theory  of  the  action 
of  emulsin,  by  MM.  Victor  Henri  and  S.  Lalou.  The 
emulsin  forms  an  intermediate  compound  with  the  body 
upon  which  it  is  acting,  and  this  is  decomposed,  regener- 
ating the  ferment. — On  the  teratological  forms  of 
Sterigmatocystis  nigra  deprived  of  potassium,  by  MM. 
Molliard  and  H.  Coupin. — On  Cryptostegia  madagascar- 
iensis,  by  M.  Henri  Jumelle. — On  a  new  group  of  fungi, 
the  Bornetineae,  and  on  Bornetina  Coriuni  of  the  vine,  by 
MM.  L.  Mang-ln  and  P.  Viala. — On  the  bilateral  symmetry 
of  the  rootlets  of  Pontederia  crassipes,  by  M.  ChiffTot. — On 
the  presence  of  macroscopic  crystals  of  albite  in  the  dolo- 
mites of  the  Trias  of  Crete,  by  M.  L.  Cayeux. — Observ- 
ations on  glacial  phenomena  in  Corsica,  by  M.  Paul 
Castelnau. — On  the  existence  of  two  great  circles  of 
maximum  seismic  instability,  by  M.  de  Montessus  de 
Ballore. — On  a  chicken  which  lived  seven  days  after 
hatching  out,  with  a  second  yolk  enclosed  in  the  abdomen, 
by  M.  Fr(§d6ric  Houssay. — Apparatus  for  the  inhalation  of 
oxygen,  by  M.  Gugrlielminetti. — The  variable  state  of 
active  muscles  during  the  time  of  a  contraction  in  the 
ergograph,  by  MM.  A.  Imbert  and  J.  Gagrnifere. — Dust 
shower  recently  observed  in  Iceland,  by  M.  Stanislas 
Meunier. 


CONTENTS.  PAGE 

Recent  Work  on  Optics.     By  Edwin   Edser  ....  217 
Prevention   of  Accidents   in  Factories.     By  G.  H. 

Baillie 219 

A  New  Swiss  Handbook 219 

Our  Book  Shelf:— 

"The  Fauna  of  British  India,  including  Ceylon. and 

Burma,"  vol.  ii ...        •    •  220 

Schneider:   "  Dendrologische  Winter.studien"         .    .  220 

Sartori  :  "  La  Tecnica  delle  Correnti  Alternate  "        .  221 
Kieffer  :  "  Monographie   des   Cynipides    d' Europe  et 

d'Algerie"          221 

Cook:  "Spirals  in  Nature  and  Art  "     •    •■    •        .    .  221 

Henri:  "  Lois  generales  de  I'Action  des  Diastases"  221 

Fron  :  "Sylviculture" 221 

Letters  to  the  Editor  : — 

Radium  and  Solar    Energy.— Dr.  W.  E.  Wilson, 

F.R.S 222 

"  Red  Rain  "  and  the  Dust  Storm  of  February  22. — 

Prof.  T.  E.  Thorpe,  F.R.S.           222 

Dust  Storms  in  New  Zealand.— P.  Marshall  .    ...  223 

Science  and  Naval  Promotion.  —  N.  G.  T 223 

Purple  Flowers.  — Capt.  F.  W.   Huiton,  F.R.S.    .  223 

The  Origin  of  Variation. — Charles  S.  Myers        .  224 

The  British  Association.     By  F.  H.  Cheetham    .  224 
New  Serum  Department  of  the  Jenner   Institute. 

{IVM  Diagram.) 227 

Archaological  Discoveries  in  Crete  and  Egypt    .    .  229 

White  Spot  on  Saturn.     By  W.  F    Denning     .    .    .  ^29 

Notes 230 

Our  Astronomical  Column  :— 

Comet  1903  c 233 

Penetrative  Solar  Radiations        233 

The  Spectra  of  Metals  and  Gases  at  High  Tem  peratures  234 

Zenith-telescope  Results 234 

Photomicrography  with  a  Brownie  Camera,     {///tts^ 

trated.)     By  W.    Moss 234 

Seismological  Notes         .    .            235 

Ethnographical  Studies  in  North  Queensland.     By 

A.  C.  H 235 

University  and  Educational  Intelligence 236 

Societies  and  Academies 237 


NO.    1758,  VOL.  68] 


NATURE 


24 


THURSDAY.  'JULY    16,    1903. 


TUE   UNIVERSITY  IN  THE  MODERN  STATE. 
IV. 

IN  previous  articles  we  have  pointed  out  that  the 
penuriousness  of  our  national  policy  towards  the 
Universities  results  in  the  worst  form  of  extravagance, 
the  waste  of  thought  and  effort  through  want  of  proper 
tools.  Because  we  will  not  give  more,  even  what  we 
do  give  is  robbed  of  its  proper  fruit.  Few  institutions 
could  be  found  which  illustrate  this  more  clearly  than 
the  three  colleges  of  the  University  of  Wales,  in  spite 
of  the  active  work  which  they  are  doing. 

The  earliest  of  their  charters  is  barely  twenty  years 
old,  and  the  University  was  only  founded  in  1895,  yet 
they  have  within  their  walls  some  800  matriculated 
students  pursuing  full  degree  courses,  and,  roughly 
speaking,  as  many  more  who  are  either  preparing  for 
external  degrees  or  diplomas,  like  the  medical 
students  at  Cardiff;  or  taking  some  university  courses 
as  a  part  of  a  professional  curriculum,  like  most  of 
the  normal  and  many  of  the  theological  students  at 
all  three  colleges.  The  total  population  of  Wales 
amounts  to  only  1,700,000,  so  that  a  total  of  some  1500 
students  makes  a  proportion  of  nearly  9  in  10,000,  as 
against  nearly  5  in  England,  nearly  8  in  Germany, 
and  nearly  13  in  America  (see  our  article  of  May  14). 
This  is  strong  evidence  of  the  eagerness  with  vi'hich 
university  education  is  sought  in  the  Principality,  and 
of  the  confidence  felt  in  its  colleges.  And  the  sound- 
ness of  their  teaching  as  a  whole  is  indicated  both  by 
the  names  that  appear  on  the  list  of  their  teachers  and 
by  the  successes  won  by  their  former  students  at  older 
Universities  and  elsewhere. 

What,  then,  is  their  need  to-day?  Why  can  they 
not  continue  the  work  they  have  begun? 

For  two  reasons.  First,  because  their  achievements 
so  far  have  been  attained  at  too  great  a  cost.  The 
beginning  of  a  new  and  promising  national  movement 
aroused  among  its  first  promoters  a  spirit  of  enthu- 
siasm and  self-sacrifice  which  has  not,  indeed,  passed 
away,  but  which  has  been  sobered  by  bitter  lessons. 
Those  who  knew  anything  of  the  life  of  the  late 
Principal  Viriamu  Jones  know  that  he  was  literally 
i  killed  by  the  burden  of  too  heavy  a  task ;  and  there 
have  been  several  other  cases  of  serious  overstrain, 
though  none  have  ended  so  tragically. 

From  facts  before  us  it  is  clear  that  not  merely  the 
principals,  but  the  heads  of  all  the  large  departments 
in  the  colleges,  feel  that  the  difficulty  of  meeting  the 
g-rowing  duties  of  the  university  without  any  increase 
in  its  endowments  has  reached  an  intolerable  degree, 
that  is  to  say,  from  the  outsider's  standpoint,  it  has 
become  incompatible  with  real  efficiency. 

In  the  second  place,  the  cost  of  university  education 
has  risen  greatly  since  the  colleges  began  their  work. 
The  developments  in  education  which  have  taken  place 
in  cities  like  Liverpool  and  Birmingham — to  mention 
these  alone — have  created  a  new  demand  for  men  fitted 
for  professorial  work ;  and  conditions  which  twenty 
years  ago,  when  the  work  of  the  colleges  was  lighter 
NO.    1759,  VOL.  68] 


than  it  is  now — and  when  the  Civil  Service  drew  no 
men  from  the  Universities — were  sufficient  to  attract 
young  men  of  distinction,  no  longer  seem  so  desirable. 

Nearly  all  the  English  colleges  have  been  steadily 
forced  by  competition  to  raise  the  terms  they  offer  to 
their  staff.  YVe  know  of  two  or  three  instances  in 
which  stipends  have  been  specially  raised  in  order  to 
secure  some  professor  who  was  at  the  time  in  the 
service  of  a  Welsh  college. 

Even  from  an  English  point  of  view  it  is  clear  that 
this  implies  that  larger  funds  will  have  to  be  found 
if  university  education  is  to  be  maintained  at  an  effi- 
cient level.  But  in  Wales,  where  it  is  impossible  to 
raise  such  funds  on  any  adequate  scale,  the  facts  wear  a 
more  serious  aspect.  The  colleges  feel  their  needs  in 
three  directions,  in  teaching,  in  research,  and  in 
administration ;  all  alike  are  unnaturally  burdened  by 
poverty.  In  regard  to  teaching,  perhaps  the  worst 
case  is  that  of  subjects  like  geology,  botany  and 
economics,  which  in  more  than  one  college  are  repre- 
sented only  by  lecturers;  their  remuneration  varies, 
but  is  at  best  scarcely  more  than  half  the  professorial 
stipend.  In  all  the  colleges,  changes  of  staff  are  un- 
desirably frequent. 

It  seems  unkind  to  point  out  further  that  large 
branches  of  knowledge  like  chemistry  and  engineer- 
ing, or,  on  the  "  Arts  "  side,  English  or  philosophy, 
not  to  mention  older  subjects,  have  outgrown  the 
power  of  any  one  man  to  teach  properly.  This  fact 
has  been  recognised  by  wealthier  colleges  (especially 
in  Germany  and  America),  in  which  each  of  these 
subjects  employs  several  professors. 

In  Wales,  again,  the  later  developments  of  uni- 
versity study,  such  as  the  different  branches  of  com- 
merce, are  hardly  represented  at  all. 

Finally,  under  this  head,  we  may  observe  that  in  no 
one  of  the  colleges  is  there  any  provision  for  pension- 
ing their  teachers  when  they  reach  the  limits  of  effec- 
tive work,  and  it  is  clear  that  this  will  shortly  become 
a  serious  question. 

In  research  we  must  acknowledge  how  much  good 
work  has  been  done — the  names  of  Principal  Viriamu 
Jones  and  Prof.  Gray  (now  of  Glasgow)  at  once  suggest 
themselves  in  the  department  of  physics  alone;  and 
among  the  present  members  of  the  colleges  there  are 
men  of  distinction  both  in  science  and  letters.  But 
the  difficulties  they  have  had  to  face  have  always  been 
serious,  and  of  late  years  have  grown  greater  rather 
than  less. 

For  want  of  adequate  endowments  both  the  labora- 
tories and  the  libraries  have  grown  steadily  poorer  in 
proportion  to  the  growing  demands  of  study.  In  one 
of  the  colleges  the  total  expenditure  on  the  library 
for  more  than  twenty  subjects,  including  the  cost  of 
periodicals  and  binding,  is  some  150/.  a  year  I  Every- 
one knows  the  discouraging  effect  of  finding  that  some 
instrument  or  book  of  which  one  is  in  pressing  need 
is  put  of  reach. 

The  long  vacation,  it  is  true,  offers  opportunities, 
but  here,  again,  a  man's  powers  of  research  are 
limited  by  financial  conditions.  Men  who  are  hard  at 
work  examining  through  most  of  July  and  August  will 
not  produce  a  great  deal  of  original  work  in  Septem- 

U 


242 


NATURE 


[July  i6,  1903 


ber,  and  the  administrative  work  of  the  colleges  now 
continually  intrudes  even  upon  the  long  vacation. 
From  a  general  point  of  view,  however,  such  dis- 
abilities of  members  of  the  staff  would  be  of  less  con- 
sequence if  the  younger  members  of  the  colleges, 
honours  students,  or  graduates  of  promise  could 
secure  more  favourable  conditions.  Unfortunately,  it 
is  only  too  obvious  that  where  a  professor's  chances  of 
conducting  original  work  are  meagre,  those  of  his 
students  will,  as  a  rule,  be  more  meagre  still.  And 
in  spite  of  the  zeal  with  which  the  University  of  Wales 
has  striven  to  foster  original  research,  in  every  sub- 
ject, in  the  regulations  for  its  higher  degrees,  it  is 
clear  that  unless  the  colleges  can  be  placed  in  a 
better  position  financially,  these  efforts  are  doomed  to 
disappointment.  In  one  of  the  colleges  a  recent  gift 
of  valuable,  if  not  unique  apparatus  is  Ij'ing  unused, 
and  must  do,  until  funds  are  found  to  build  and  main- 
tain a  proper  laboratory  to  contain  it. 

Thirdly,  and  perhaps  chiefly,  the  colleges  suffer 
from  their  present  position  on  their  administrative 
side. 

Making  bricks  without  straw  is  not  merely  a  uis- 
couraging,  but  an  extremely  difficult  operation,  and  in 
any  institution  which  attempts  it,  in  the  long  run  the 
best  wits  of  its  staff  will  be  those  that  are  set  to  the 
task.  The  colleges  are  finding  more  and  more  that 
even  their  teaching  day  is  honeycombed  with  business. 

Nor  is  this  all.  Where  money  is  scarce,  the  spend- 
ing of  it  is  apt  to  be  attended  with  an  amount  of 
ceremony  which  is  itself  a  burden.  In  one  college 
we  are  told  it  needs  a  series  of  resolutions  discussed 
by  four  or  five  bodies  before  a  new  charwoman  can  be 
engaged.  There  could  not  be  a  better  illustration  of 
the  waste  of  time  which  poverty  entails.  All  the 
colleges  serve  some  eight  or  nine  masters  in  the  shape 
of  outside  public  bodies,  who  maintain  different  classes 
of  students,  and  the  necessity  of  explaining  and  justify- 
ing points  of  educational  policy  to  so  large  a  number 
of  different  popular  authorities  is  a  very  serious  task. 
At  every  turn  it  is  necessary  to  consider  not  merely 
what  is  the  right  course,  but  what  is  the  best  form  in 
which  to  secure  its  adoption.  That  under  such  con- 
ditions the  colleges  should  have  been  able  to  do  any- 
thing at  all  is  satisfactory  evidence  not  only  of  the 
keen  interest  in  the  university  which  is  taken 
generally  by  the  public  bodies  of  Wales,  but  also  of 
the  wisdom  with  which  the  colleges,  especially  their 
principals,  have  discharged  their  task.  Whatever 
may  be  thought  of  the  policy  of  a  democratic  basis  for 
university  education,  it  will  be  admitted  that  the 
burden  of  the  arrangements  ought  not  to  fall  upon  those 
who  are  also  responsible  for  the  solid  work  of  teaching. 
In  Wales  this  is  largely  the  case,  and  both  the  teaching 
and  the  policy  of  the  colleges  are  likely  in  the  end  to 
suffer. 

In  the  second  article  of  this  series  (March  12) 
we  saw  that  the  great  bulk  of  the  endowments  of  the 
German  universities  was  provided  by  the  State,  81 
per  cent,  of  the  total  being  so  provided  in  Prussia,  and 
74  per  cent,  in  Germany  as  a  whole.  Wales,  happily 
or  unhappily,  possesses  comparatively  few  men  whose 
individual  possessions  could  enable  them  to  take  part 
NO.    1759,  VOL.   68] 


in  endowing  her  colleges  in  any  way  commensurate 
with  the  need.  Of  the  sums  that  have  been  raised  for 
buildings,  a  great  part  has  been  collected,  at  the  cost 
of  healthy  but  disproportionate  effort,  from  the  shil- 
lings and  pence  of  artisans  and  small  farmers  or 
traders.  It  is  not  surprising,  therefore,  to  find  that  the 
colleges  and  the  university  depend  already  mainly 
upon  public  funds.  The  County  Council  grants  to- 
Cardiff  and  Aberystwyth  must  in  fairness  be  counted  as 
fees,  not  endowments,  since  they  are  given  in  return 
for  teaching  a  definite  class  of  students,  and  a  change 
of  policy  in  the  local  authorities  might  at  any  time 
modify  or  even  divert  their  contributions.  The  figures- 
are  approximately  *  as  follows,  reckoning  the  interest 
on  investments,  as  heretofore,  at  2\  per  cent.,  and  in- 
cluding in  the  Government  grants  those  devoted  to- 
special  objects,  such  as  agriculture,  and  the  training 
of  primary  teachers. 

Present  Enaowinent  oj   University  Education  in  Wales. 


Income  from 

Private 
Endowments. 


University  College,  Aberyst- 
wyth  

University  College,  Bangor 
University  College,  Cardiff 
The  University  of  Wales    ... 

Totals    

Percentages 


375 
1225 

750^ 


^2350 
10 


Income  from 

Govarnment 

Grants. 


6000 
6000 
5250 
4000 


;^2I,2SO 

90 


There  Is  only  one  conclusion.  In  great  cities  like 
Liverpool  and  Manchester  there  is  accumulated  wealth 
and  an  accumulated  tradition  of  culture  to  which  their 
colleges  have  appealed  with  some  success.  In  Wales 
the  culture  has  been  for  centuries  remote  from  univer- 
sity life,  and  the  wealth,  as  we  have  seen,  is  non- 
existent. If,  therefore,  the  Government  wishes  that 
the  2i,oooZ.  a  year  which  it  now  spends  in  grants  to 
the  colleges  and  the  University  of  Wales  shall  not  be 
wasted,  It  Is  high  time  that  It  should  face  the  question 
of  what  they  really  need. 

In  order  to  represent  these  needs  in  as  concrete  a 
form  as  possible,  we  have  made  inquiries  as  to  the 
sums  which.  In  the  opinion  of  responsible  persons  at 
each  college,  would  suffice  to  place  them  in  a  position 
to  discharge  their  work  with  real  efficiency.  In  each 
case  we  shall  mention  two  capital  sums,  the  one  that 
required  to  construct  or  complete  the  buildings  and 
equipment  of  the  college,  the  other  that  required  as 
an  endowment  for  maintenance,  the  interest  in  this 
latter  case  being  reckoned  at  2\  per  cent.  Aberyst- 
wyth has  from  the  first  been  the  most  fortunate  of  the 
three  colleges  in  the  matter  of  buildings,  so  that  its 
needs  under  this  head  are  smaller;  similarly  Bangor 
needs  slightly  less  towards  maintenance  as  being  pos- 
sessed of  somewhat  larger  invested  endowments, 
Cardiff  and  Aberystwyth  having  only  very  small  posses- 
sions of  this  kind ;  trust-funds  for  scholarships  are,  of 
course,  disregarded  altogether  in  the  estimate. 

The  figures  assume  that  the  present  Government 
grants  will  continue,  and  under  both  heads  state  the 

1  The  exact  figures  vary  slightly  from  year  to  year. 

3  Including  the  annual  grant  of  350/.  from  the  Diapew'  Company  for 
Engineering. 


July  i6,  1903] 


NA  TURE 


243^ 


sums    needed    in    addition    to    all    the    resources    the 
colleges  at  present  possess. 

Funds  needed  for  University  Education  in  Wales. 


A.  For  Buildings 
and  equipment 


University  College,  Aberystwyth 

University  College,  Bangor 

University  College,  Cardiff 

The  University  of  Wales       


99,800 
176,500 
162,000 


B    For  endow- 


i. 

1,071,500 
960,400 

1,176,400 
288,400 


Totals        

;^438,300      L^3, 496,700 

Grand  total       

^3.935.000 

In  round  figures,  therefore,  we  may  say  that  univer- 
sity education  in  Wales  needs  an  endowment  of  four 
millions  sterling  to  secure  its  efficiency.  This  will  not 
be  thought  an  extravagant  figure  when  it  is  remem- 
bered that  the  need  of  the  Birmingham  University  was 
estimated  at  five  millions,  and  that  the  Welsh  colleges 
minister  to  the  needs  of  a  far  more  diverse  population. 
The  agriculture,  the  manufactures,  the  mining  and 
the  over-sea  commerce  of  Wales  all  demand  the  en- 
lightenment and  intelligence  which  can  only  be  de- 
veloped in  universities  efficiently  equipped  for  their 
work. 


FORMOSA. 
The  Island  of  Formosa.       By  James   W.    Davidson, 
Consul  of  the  United  States  for  Formosa.     Pp.  646  + 
xxviii  +  46.       (London   and   New   York:    Macmillan 
and  Co.,  Ltd.,  1903.)     Price  25s.  net. 

CONSUL  DAVIDSON'S  work  on  Formosa  is  a 
heavy  quarto  volume  of  700  pages,  in  which  the 
liberal  use  of  small  type  indicates  that  its  author  has 
tried  to  pack  as  much  as  possible  within  a  given  space. 

It  is  not  a  lap  book,  but  a  book  for  the  study  table, 
in  which  168  photographs  and  other  pictures  give  of 
themselves  a  liberal  education  about  things  Formosan. 
A  coloured  frontispiece  shows  Mount  Morrison  capped 
with  snow,  13,880  feet  in  height.  This,  which  is  one 
of  the  many  peaks  in  the  mountain  ranges  which  form 
the  backbone  of  Formosa,  is  the  highest  mountain  in 
the  Japanese  Empire.  Another  illustration  is  that  of 
sea  cliffs  on  the  eastern  coast.  These,  which  attain 
heights  of  5000  to  6000  feet,  are  possibly  the  highest 
sea  cliffs  in  the  world.  Orographic  features  with  these 
magnitudes  in  an  island  about  half  the  size  of  Scotland 
are  certainly  remarkable.  From  other  pictures,  in 
which  are  depicted  generals,  battles,  dismantled  forts, 
Chinese  temples,  the  surrender  of  the  Dutch  to 
Koxinga,  the  torturing  of  Dutch  by  the  Chinese, 
Japanese  streets,  tea  houses  and  barracks,  a  Christian 
church,  a  police  station,  a  meteorological  observatory 
and  railways,  it  may  be  inferred  that,  politically  and 
socially,  Formosa  has  had  a  chequered  history. 

The  Chinese,  who  have  known  Formosa  since  a.d. 
608,  tell  us  that  it  was  created  by  certain  fierce  dragons 
which  glided  out  from  the  gates  of  Foochow,  and 
NO.   1759,  VOL.  68] 


lashed  up  the  bed  of  the  ocean  until  Formosa  was- 
created.  The  origin  of  this  may  rest  on  the  fact  that 
Formosa  has,  at  least  in  part,  resulted  from  volcanic 
activity,  and  in  the  Eastern  mind  such  activities  and 
dragons  were  in  past  ages  closely  associated.  In  the 
early  Middle  Ages  the  harbours  of  this  island,  which 
are  almost  entirely  confined  to  its  western  shores,  were 
used  as  clearing  houses  for  trade  between  China  and; 
Japan,  and  also  as  homes  for  pirates.  One  princely 
freebooter  who  settled  and  married  in  Japan  started, 
lif.i  as  a  Chinese  tailor.  Before  he  died,  by  raids  and; 
intrigues  he  commanded  3000  sail,  and  was  so  powerful, 
that  he  could  riot  be  opposed  even  by  the  Emperor  of 
vast  Cathay.  He  became  a  Christian,  and  was 
christened  Nicholas.  His  son,  Koxinga,  born  in. 
Japan,  was  more  powerful  than  his  father,  and  re- 
mains one  of  the  most  remarkable  characters  in 
Eastern  history.  In  1662  he  drove  the  Dutch  (who- 
had  supplanted  the  Chinese)  from  Formosa,  established 
a  court,  promoted  industries,  enacted  wise  laws,  and 
ruled  a  nation  of  exiles  and  outlaws.  China  was  help- 
less against  him,  and  but  for  his  sudden  death  it  seems . 
likely  that  he  would  have  driven  the  Spanish  from  the 
Philippines.  His  grandson,  a  weakling,  allowed  the 
"  Beautiful  Isle  "  to  fall  back  under  Chinese  mis- 
management, and  had  these  original  owners  only, 
taken  steps  to  award  punishment  for  massacres  and 
murders  of  shipwrecked  crews,  chiefly  of  foreign 
nations,  Formosa  might  possibly  have  remained  part 
of  the  Celestial  Empire  until  the  present  day. 

In  1874,  in  consequence  of  an  outrage  committed  ou 
the  crew  of  a  Loochooan  vessel,  Japan  undertook  a 
punitive  expedition  against  Formosan  outlaws.  This 
was  the  thin  end  of  a  wedge  which,  after  the  war  of 
1895,  was  driven  home,  and  Formosa  was  added  to  the 
Japanese  Empire.  It  is,  however,  yet  far  frorn  being 
completely  under  Japanese  jurisdiction.  The  moun- 
tainous and  densely  wooded  centre  and  eastern  parts 
of  the  island  still  safely  shelter  head-hunting  savages, 
whilst  the  borderland  of  these  pathless  jungles  is  a 
home  for  outlaws,  and  it  is  particularly  against  the 
latter  that  the  Japanese  seem  helpless.  The  difficulty- 
is  to  find  them.  At  night  villages  may  be  looted  by  a 
howling  mob,  but  next  morning  the  sun  rises  upon . 
smiling  agriculturists. 

After  describing  the  tea  industry,  we  are  entertained 
with  a  long  account  relating  to  camphor.  The  cam- 
phor trees  are,  unfortunately,  within  the  domains  of 
the  Aborigines,  with  the  result  that  the  camphor  in- 
dustry, head-hunting  and  butchery  still  go  hand  in 
hand.  The  chief  victims  appear  to  be  the  Chinese, 
the  Japanese  being  but  rarely  attacked.  Other  in- 
dustries are  those  of  sugar  and  the  mining  of  coal  and: 
gold.  When  speaking  of  the  sulphur  deposits,  which 
are  associated  with  geysers  and  a  variety  of  spiteful 
volcanic  vents,  Mr.  Davidson  tells  us  that,  in  order  to- 
prevent  certain  insurgents  obtaining  material  for  the 
manufacture  of  gunpowder,  an  Imperial  edict  arrived 
from  Pekin  ordering  officials  to  destroy  all  sulphur  de- 
posits by  fire,  and  to  stop  up  all  offending  craterlets 
which  produced  this  substance.  Altogether  eighty- 
eight  volcanic  orifices  were  discovered,  on  which  for- 
several  years  officials  paid  quarterly  calls,   and  with* 


244 


NATURE 


[July  i6,  1903 


perseverance,  hope,  and  clods  endeavoured  to  stop 
their  roarings.  ,  This  was  in  1833. 

Long  lists  and  descriptions  are  given  of  various 
plants  having  an  economic  value,  amongst  which  we 
note  indigo  and  other  dye  plants,  fibre  plants,  paper 
plants,  oil  plants,  tobacco,  coffee,  &c.,  together  with 
some  account  of  forest  trees. 

The  description  of  the  savages  is  derived  from  the 
work  of  Mr.  Y.  Ino,  who  devoted  several  years  to 
their  study.  Eight  groups  are  referred  to,  and  for 
each  of  these  an  account  is  given  of  their  dwellings, 
dress,  ornaments,  food,  diseases,  head-hunting, 
language,  and  generally  on  subjects  of  anthropological 
interest.  All  we  have  bearing  upon  zoology  is  a  list 
of  land  birds  by  J.  D.  de  la  Touche,  and  a  list  of 
mammalia  by  the  late  Mr.  Robert  Swinoe,  the  latter, 
unfortunately,  only  bringing  us  up  to  1872.  Meteor- 
ology and  seismology  are  referred  tQ  in  a  short 
appendix,  but  about  geology  Mr.  Davidson  is 
practically  silent. 

With  this  and  a  few  other  exceptions  the  work  is 
encyclopaedic  in  its  character,  and  it  may  well  be  re- 
commended to  commercial  and  scientific  men  who 
search  for  information  about  the  island  of  Formosa. 


THE  BASIS   OF  PLANT-SURGERY. 
Pathologische  Pflanzenanatomie.   By  Dr.  Ernst  Kiister, 
Pp.    300,    and    index.       (Jena  :    G.    Fischer,    1903.) 
Price  8  marks. 

THAT  plants  have  their  diseases  is  a  truth  that  has 
forced  itself  more  and  more  on  this  colonial  em- 
pire of  ours,  and  that  the  signs  of  disease  frequently 
express  themselves  in  abnormal  structures  and  out- 
growths is  well  known  to  those  few  experts  who  have 
to  deal  with  the  galls,  cankers,  pustules,  tumours,  and 
other  "  malignant  "  tissue-formations,  the  very  names 
of  which  remind  us  of  the  ills  to  which  flesh  is  heir. 

Moreover,  there  is  a  surgery  of  plants,  as  well  as 
of  animals,  and  the  true  basis  of  this  growing  art  is 
in  both  cases  a  thorough  understanding  of  the  path- 
ological, or  diseased,  as  well  as  of  the  normal  or 
healthy  anatomy  of  the  patient. 

This  scientific  basis  of  a  refined  art  is  the  subject  of 
the  work  before  us. 

The  author  of  this  treatise  had  already  distinguished 
himself  in  Munich  by  his  work  on  the  anatomy  of  galls, 
and  it  is  with  the  greatest  satisfaction  that  we  find 
him  inaugurating  his  career  at  Halle  by  a  thorough 
•exploration  of  what  is  to  a  large  extent  a  practically 
new  theme,  and  one,  moreover,  so  worthy  of  the  tradi- 
tions of  his  present  post,  for  it  is  remarkable  that,  while 
we  have  several  modern  books  on  physiological 
anatomy  and  on  the  pathology  of  plants,  no  competent 
botanist  has  given  us  a  detailed  and  comprehensive 
treatise  on  this  now  important  and  rapidly  extending 
subject. 

Kiister 's  book  consists  of  300  pp.  of  excellent  and 
clearly- written  matter,   illustrated  by   121   figures  not 
always  worthy  of  his  text,  though  never  obscure  or 
irrelevant.   . 
•   He  divides  his  subject  into  six  chapters,  of  which 

NO.  1759,  VOL.  68] 


five  are  devoted  to  technical  and  special  descriptive 
anatomy  as  modified  from  the  normal  by  pathological 
changes  in  the  life-work  of  the  tissues  and  cells,  while 
the  sixth  is  told  off  to  do  duty  as  a  general  account  of 
the  pathological  processes  themselves,  and  of  what 
little  theory  we  as  yet  possess  on  the  subject. 

Much  as  we  admire  the  collection  of  anatomical 
facts,  and  the  descriptions  of  morbid  anatomy  in 
special  cases,  comprised  in  these  first  five  chapters,  it 
must  be  evident  that  the  subdivisions  are  somewhat  un- 
fortunate. The  author  himself  apparently  sees  this, 
as  is  evinced  by  the  uncertainty  as  to  which  heading 
certain  cases  shall  be  placed  under,  and  we  believe  that 
the  shortcomings  are  partly  due  to  a  somewhat  slavish 
following  of  the  terminology  of  the  animal  path- 
ologists. 

These  headings  are  : — I.  Restitution,  under  which 
are  placed  cases  in  which  changes  in  growth,  induced 
by  sections  and  wounds,  lead  to  the  new  formation  of 
the  cut-off  parts,  or  to  proliferations  of  various  kinds. 

H.  Hypoplasie,  or  arrested  development  of  organs 
or  parts  due  to  various  inhibiting  reactions,  which 
bring  about  diminutions  in  the  number  or  sizes  of  cells, 
or  otherwise  change  the  tissues  so  that  they  stop  short 
of  a  stage  of  development  which  would  normally  be 
regarded  as  complete. 

HL  Metaplasie,  or  progressive  changes  due  to  over- 
stimulations which  result  in  the  cells  and  tissues  under- 
going structural  changes  in  excess  of  the  normal, 
though  not  suffering  the  enlargements  or  increase  in 
numbers  dealt  with  under  the  next  and  the  fifth 
heading. 

IV.  Hypertrophic,  where  the  cells  attain  dimensions 
more  or  less  inordinate,  and  due  to  excessive  growth 
while  young  and  turgid.  Most  galls — in  the  widest 
sense — afford  examples  of  these  cases,  which  are  ex- 
tremely common. 

V.  Hyperplasie,  or  those  abnormalities — usually  en- 
largements and  distortions — which  owe  their  origin  to 
inordinate  increase  in  the  average  numbers  of  cells. 

It  is,  of  course,  impossible  to  discuss  examples  of 
these  various  cases  of  abnormal  anatomy  here,  and  we 
have  already  expressed  our  satisfaction  with  the 
general  subject-matter.  We  may  note  in  passing  that 
while  Miss  Dale's  beautiful  work  on  "  Intumescences  " 
is  properly  acknowledged,  and  one  of  her  excellent 
illustrations  suitably  used  on  p.  86,  the  best  results  of 
her  ingenious  experiments  on  the  kind  of  light  which 
induces  these  abnormalities  are  not  adequately  given 
or  apparently  apprehended  in  the  summary  on  p.  87. 

To  most  readers,  however,  it  will  be  the  subject- 
matter  of  chapter  vi.  which  will  prove  most  attractive, 
though  there  is  disappointment  in  store  for  anyone 
who  expects  anything  beyond  the  most  sketchy  survey 
of  the  factors  concerned  in  aetiology  and  development 
and  their  bearing  on  pathology.  The  sections  on 
stimuli  and  reactions  seem  to  us  particularly  weak,  and 
the  conclusion  that  any  tissue  can  give  rise  to  any 
tissue  element—''  aus  jeden  Gewebe  kann  alles  wer- 
den  "—may  appear  too  lightly  arrived  at  unless  the 
reader  is  acquainted  with  the  somewhat  voluminous 
j  literature.  The  same,  perhaps,  applies  to  Kuster's  con- 
I  elusion    that    tissue-elements      quite    foreign    to    the 


July  i6,  1903^ 


NA  TURE 


245 


species  may  arise  in  a  pathological  structure,  though  in 

our  opinion  he  establishes  his  contention. 

The  book  is  undoubtedly  a  stirring  contribution  to 
botanical  science,  and  ought  to  stimulate  research  in 
many  directions,  and  although  it  escapes  the  responsi- 
bilities of  being  a  great  work,  it  is  certainly  one  that 
must  be  on  the  shelves  of  every  investigator  of  first 
rank  who  has  anything  to  do  with  the  anatomy  or 
pathology  of  plants.  We  cordially  welcome  this  in- 
tiresting  book  as  a  pioneer  work  of  what  will  grow- 
to  be  an  immense  subject. 


COMETS  AND   THEIR   TAILS. 
Comets  and  their  Tails,  and  the  Gegenschein  Light. 
By  Frederick  G.  Shaw.  Pp.  70.  (London  :  Bailli^re, 
Tindall,  and  Cox,  1903.) 

THE  theory  of  comet's  tails  has  not  yet  arrived  at  its 
ultimate  destiny,  which  we  suppose  is  that  of  be- 
coming an  orthodox  branch  of  applied  mathematics ; 
anu  consequently  it  still  possesses  a  fascination  for  the 
world  at  large.  True,  the  phenomena  have  been  dis- 
cussed by  Prof.  Bredichin,  in  a  succession  of  papers 
that  now  go  back  nearly  thirty  years ;  but  the  origin  of 
the  forces  required  for  Bredichin 's  theory  is  very  ob- 
scure, and  the  net  result  is  to  excite  rather  than  to  re- 
move conjecture.  During  the  last  few  years  the 
general  mental  ferment  over  the  new  views  of  the  con- 
stitution of  matter  has  given  a  fresh  stimulus  to  specu- 
lators in  this  part  of  astronomy,  and  a  considerable 
literature  has  already  gathered  round  the  suggestions 
of  J.  J.  Thomson,  Arrhenius  and  Deslandres. 

Mr.  Shaw,  whose  book  now  lies  before  us,  is  not  a 
follower  of  any  of  these  schools ;   he   holds   that   the 
comet's   tail  is  caused  by  the  rays  of  the  sun  being 
altered  (by  concentration  and  refraction)  by  their  pas- 
sage through  the  cometic  atmosphere,  and  thus  ren- 
dered more  capable  of  being  reflected  from  the  meteoric 
matter  in  the  neighbourhood.     In  other  words,  the  tail 
does  not  really  exist;  it  is  merely  a  local  illumination  1 
of  the  general  circumambient  dust  of  space.     The  idea 
bears  some  resemblance  to  the  now  frequently  accepted  ; 
explanation    of   the   lighting-up   of    the    Nova    Persei  | 
nebula.  ! 

After  stating  this  theory,  and  offering  a  general  justi- 
fication, the  author  proceeds  to  examine  the  records  of 
the  great  comet  of  1858  in  the  light  of  it.  For  this 
purpose  he  uses  G.  P.  Bond's  monograph  to  a  con- 
siderable extent,  a  mistake  which  occurs  in  the  first 
plate  of  the  Harvard  astronomer's  account  being  un- 
fortunately twice  reproduced ;  the  point  chiefly  dwelt 
on  is  the  sympathy  between  the  phenomena  of  the 
nucleus  and  those  of  the  tail. 

The  work  as  a  whole  is  brief,  its  tone  is  very 
modest,  and  it  is  not  claimed  that  the  theory  has  been 
worked  out  in  detail.  It  is  therefore  scarcely  fair  to 
blame  the  author  for  the  difficulty  which  one  finds  in 
attempting  to  explain  by  causes  of  this  kind  the  singu- 
larly complex  character  of  cometary  appendages.  But 
any  theory  of  the  kind  must  offer  some  explanation  of 
their  most  constant  and  remarkable  features,  such  as 
the  multiplicity  of  tails,  their  curvature,  and  the 
"broken"  appearances  often  seen;  and  it  may  be 
NO.    1759.  VOL    fS8l 


doubted  whether  the  author's  theory  in  its  present  state 
is  capable  of  meeting  these  demands.  "  So-called 
secondary  tails,  &c.,"  he  accounts  for  "by  irregular 
ebullitions  of  gas  from  the  comet,"  presumably  giving 
rise  to  special  fields  of  refracted  rays. 

But  at  the  root  of  the  whole  matter  lies  the  question 
of  whether  refraction  in  the  cometic  envelope  is  likely 
to  take  place  at  all  on  a  scale  comparable  with  that 
required  by  Mr.  Shaw's  hypothesis,  and  at  present  ob- 
servation seems  to  negative  this  possibility. 

The  latter  part  of  the  book  is  devoted  to  the  Gegen- 
schein, for  which  a  similar  explanation  is  given — the 
refraction  being  in  this  case  produced  by  the  earth's 
atmosphere,  and  the  phenomenon  being  due  to  the  re- 
flection of  this  refracted  light  from  meteoric  dust.  An 
interesting  criticism  of  Barnard's  views  is  given. 


OUR  BOOK  SHELF. 
Physical  Chemistry  for  Physicians  and  Biologists. 
By  Ernst  Cohen.  Authorised  Translation  from  the 
German  by  M.  H.  Fischer.  Pp.  ix  +  343.  (New 
York  :  Henry  Holt  and  Co.,  1903.) 
Physiologists  and  pharmacologists  have  from  the 
first  been  ready  to  adopt  and  apply  the  recent  theories 
of  physical  chemistry.  Indeed,  the  eagerness  with 
which  these  theories  have  been  received  by  biologists 
has  frequently  led  to  their  misapplication,  inasmuch 
as  the  conditions  existing  in  the  animal  organism  are 
so  widely  different  from  those  for  which  the  theories 
were  developed,  that  direct  adoption  of  purely  physico- 
chemical  results  is  in  nine  cases  out  of  ten  inadmis- 
sible. In  the  book  before  us  we  have  a  series  of  seven- 
teen lectures  delivered  by  an  energetic  worker  in  pure 
physical  chemistry  to  an  audience  of  physicians.  The 
physicochemical  principles  bearing  on  biological  prob- 
lems are  expounded,  the  chief  methods  of  experiment 
adequately  described,  and,  what  is  of  most  import- 
ance, a  critical  account  is  given  of  many  of  -their 
applications.  These  applications  include,  for  ex- 
ample, disinfection  in  the  light  of  the  theory  of  electro- 
lytic dissociation,  the  pharmacology  of  complex 
mercury  salts  and  of  uric  acid  solvents  from  the  same 
point  of  view,  the  taste  of  dilute  solutions,  osmotic 
analysis,  and  the  toxicity  of  electrolytic  solutions.  The 
book  is  admirably  adapted  to  its  purpose,  and  may  be 
heartily  recommended. 

Trapper  "Jim."     By   Edwyn    Sandys.     Pp.    ix  +  441; 

illustrated.       (New  York  and   London  :    Macmillan 

and  Co.,  Ltd.,  1903.)  Price  65.  net. 
Although,  as  indicated  by  its  title,  this  admirable 
little  volume  is  devoted  rather  to  sport  and  trapping 
than  to  natural  history,  yet  it  contains  scattered 
through  its  pages  such  excellent  descriptions  of  the 
wild  life  of  the  United  States  that  the  naturalist  can- 
not fail  to  find  much  valuable  information  with  regard 
to  the  habits  of  many  of  the  mammals  and  birds 
mentioned.  Specially  interesting  are  the  notes  on  the 
various  species  of  American  hares,  and  it;  will  come  as 
a  revelation  to  many  that  the  so-called  "  jack-rabbit  " 
{Lepus  callotis)  is  probably  the  fleetest  member  of  all 
its  tribe.  Many  references  are  made  to  the  need  for 
the  cultivation  of  a  true  sporting  instinct  among 
hunters,  that  is  to  say,  to  the  enjoyment  of  the  sport 
itself,  as  distinct  from  making  a  "big  bag."  The 
name  of  Mr.  Sandys  is  too  well  known  as  a  writer  on 
the  sport  and  popular  natural  history  of  North  America 
to  stand  in  need  of  any  commendation  on  our  part,  but 
we  may  safely  say  that  his  popularity  will  certainly 
be  enhanced  by  his  latest  effort.  '  R.  L. 


246 


NATURE 


[July  16,  1903 


Das   Gesetz   der   Translation   des    Wassers.       Von   T. 

Christen,    Oberforster.       Pp.  viii  +  179 ;    with    one 

lithographed  plate.     (Leipzig  :  Wilhelm  Engelmann  ; 

London  :  Williams  and  Norgate,  1903.) 
Much  has  been  written  about  the  flow  of  water  in 
pipes,  channels,  and  rivers,  considered  from  the  point 
■of  view  of  the  hydraulic  engineer,  and  many  attempts 
have  been  made  to  obtain  empirical  formulae  for  pur- 
poses of  numerical  calculation.  In  this  volume  the 
-author  proposes  the  formula  z/  =  -^</(QI)/ t'B,  where  v 
is  the  mean  velocity,  Q  the  total  flow  per  second,  I 
the  gradient  as  a  sine,  and  B  the  half-breadth  of  the 
channel.  A  comparison  of  the  results  of  the  author's 
formulae  is  made,  both  with  the  results  of  experi- 
ment and  with  those  of  other  writers,  especially 
Bazin,  and  calculations  are  given  of  the  velocity  curves 
for  difl'erent  sections  and  under  different  conditions. 
Reynolds's  critical  velocities  are  also  discussed.  The 
book  contains  a  bibliography,  tables  of  coefficients,  and 
a  diagram  of  the  author's  experiments  and  of  velocity 
curves. 

The  new  laws  are  admittedly  only  empirical,  and  the 
author  Indicates  that  many  points  might  with  advan- 
tage be  discussed  at  greater  length,  but  he  has  cer- 
tainly succeeded  In  Including  a  large  amount  of  im- 
portant and  suggestive  information  In  a  book  of 
small  compass,  and  his  theories  will.be  read  and  dis- 
cussed with  the  greatest  interest  by  hydraulic  engineers 
and  experimenters  who  have  worked  in  the  subject. 

Colloquies  of  Common  People.  By  James  Anstie, 
K.C.  Pp.  530.  (London:  Smith,  Lider  and  Co., 
1902.) 
The  English  language  contains  few  good  specimens 
■of  the  philosophical  dialogue,  perhaps  none  except  the 
masterpieces  of  Berkeley.  In  attempting  to  revive 
this  most  difficult  form  of  composition  Mr.  Anstie  has 
ventured  on  a  daring  task,  and  I  fear  cannot  be  said 
to  have  achieved  a  great  success.  Like  others  before 
him,  he  forgets  that  a  dialogue  Is  Intolerable  unless 
its  author  Is  dramatist  enough  to  confer  Individual 
character  on  the  interlocutors ;  nothing  Is  heavier  read- 
ing than  wedges  of  disquisition  by  mere  puppets.  Of 
the  variety  of  topics  handled  by  Mr.  Anstie 's  puppets  It 
Is  impossible  to  give  any  summary,  as  they  appear  to 
begin  their  discussion  anywhere  and  to  argue  anyhow. 
They  seem,  however,  in  the  course  of  his  five  hundred 
■  odd  pages  to  touch  on  most  of  the  current  topics  of 
ethics  and  psychology.  The  reader  should  at  least 
have  been  assisted  to  follow  their  excursions  by  a  table 
of  contents  and  an  Index.  A.  E.  T. 

A  Country  Reader.  II.  By  H.  B.  M.  Buchanan, 
B.A.  (Cantab.).  Pp.  vIIi-+233;  with  illustrations. 
(London:  Macmlllan  and  Co.,  Ltd.,  1903.)  Price 
IS.  6d. 
As  Mr.  Buchanan  says,  a  child  is  much  more  likely  to 
learn  to  read  fluently  and  with  intelligence  If  his  read- 
ing book  Is  concerned  with  subjects  falling  within  his 
everyday  experience,  and  from  this  point  of  view  the 
set  of  readers,  of  which  this  is  the  second,  will  prove 
useful  and  popular  in  rural  primary  schools.  The 
various  sections  of  the  book  deal  In  simple,  Interest- 
ing language  with  the  characters  and  uses  of  the  goat, 
th.^  donkey,  the  cat,  our  common  reptiles,  the  fish  of 
our  ponds  and  streams,  pastures  and  grasses.  The 
illustrations  are  numerous  and  exceptionally  good, 
though  it  is  a  pity  the  author  has  omitted  to  Indicate 
the  scale  of  the  drawings;  there  Is  some  fear,  for  in- 
stance, that  quite  a  wrong  Idea  of  the  relative  sizes 
of  the  carp  and  minnow  will  be  obtained  by  the  pupil 
from  the  pictures  which  face  one  another  on  pp.  96 
and  97. 

NO.    1759,  VOL.   68] 


LETTERS  TO  THE  EDITOR. 
^The  Editor  does  not  hold  himself  responsible  for  opinions 
expressed  by  his  correspondents.  Neither  can  he  undertake 
to  return,  or  to  correspond  with  the  writers  of,  rejected 
manuscripts  intended  for  this  or  any  other  part  of  Nature. 
No  notice  is  taken  of  anonymous  communications.] 

Gases  Occluded  by  Radium  Bromide. 

Rutherford  and  Soddy  {Phil.  Mag.,  1902,  p.  582  ;  1903, 
p.  453  and  579)  pointed  out  that  the  almost  invariable 
presence  of  helium  in  minerals  containing  uranium  indicated 
that  that  gas  might  be  one  of  the  ultimate  products  of  the 
disintegration  of  the  radio-elements.  Rutherford,  more- 
over, determined  the  mass  of  the  projected  particle  which 
constitutes  the  "  a-ray  "  of  radium  (Phil.  Mag.,  1903. 
p.  177)  to  be  approximately  twice  as  great  as  that  of  the 
hydrogen  atom,  an  observation  which  points  in  the  same 
direction.  These  a-particles  are  readily  absorbed  by  solids, 
and  should  accumulate  in  the  solid  salts  of  radium  and  in 
the  radio-active  minerals. 

We  have  been  engaged  for  some  months  in  examining 
the  spectrum  of  the  "  radio-active  emanation  "  from 
radium,  and  during  this  work  the  opportunity  presented 
itself  of  examining  the  gases  occluded  by  20  mgrs.  of  radium 
bromide  which  had  been  kept  for  some  time  in  the  solid 
state.  These  gases,  which  are  continuously  generated, 
have  already  been  partially  examined  by  J:heir  discoverer, 
Giesel,  and  by  Bodlander  {Ber.  deutsch.  chem.  Ges.,  36. 
p.  347),  and  found  to  consist  mainly  of  hydrogen  and  some 
oxygen.  We  have  found  that  after  removing  hydrogen  and 
oxygen  from  the  gases  evolved  from  20  mgrs.  of  radium 
bromide,  the  spectrum  showed  the  presence  of  carbon 
dioxide.  On  freezing  out  the  carbon  dioxide,  and  with  it. 
a  large  proportion  of  the  radium  "  emanation,"  the  residue 
gave  unmistakably  the  D3  line  of  helium.  This  was  con- 
firmed by  sealing  off  the  tube,  and  comparing  its  spectrum 
with  that  of  a  helium  tube.  The  coincidence  of  the  two 
lines  may  be  taken  to  be  at  least  within  i/ioth  of  the 
distance  between  D^  and  D^,  or  say  0-5  of  an  Angstrom  unit. 

This  observation,  if  confirmed,  substantiates  the  theory 
already  mentioned,  and  brings  ordinary  methods  to  bear 
on  the  changes  occurring  in  radio-active  bodies. 

William    Ramsay. 

July  10.  Frederick   Soddy. 

P.S.  (July  13). — We  have  repeated  the  experiment  with 
30  mgrs.  of  fresh  radium  bromide,  kindly  placed  at  our 
disposal  by  Prof.  Rutherford,  which  had  probably  been 
kept  for  several  months  in  the  solid  state.  Entirely  new 
apparatus  was  constructed  for  the  purpose,  and  better  pre- 
cautions were  taken  to  exclude  from  the  spectrum  tube 
carbon  dioxide  and  the  emanation.  The  spectrum  was 
practically  that  of  pure  helium,  with  the  addition  of  two 
new  lines.     The  lines  identified  are  : — 

4932 
4713 
4472 

The  additional  lines  are  one  in  the  red  and  one  in  the 
green  ;  these  we  have  been  unable  to  identify. 


The  Extirpation  of  Culex  at  Ismailia. 

I  BEG  to  enclose  for  publication  the  translation  of  a 
report  received  from  the  general  secretary  of  the  Suez  Canal 
Company  regarding  the  effects  of  the  anti-malaria  cam- 
paign at  Ismailia  since  the  visit  of  Sir  William  MacGregor 
and  myself  last  September.  While  it  is  obviously  too  early 
to  speak  definitely  regarding  the  result  on  the  rnalaria  rate, 
the  secretary  is  able  to  announce  that  mosquitoes  of  the 
genus   Culex  "  ont  6t6   supprimes  d'une  manni^re  presque 


Red        

6677 

Green-blue 

Yellow  (D3)  .. 

5876 

Blue      ... 

Green    

5016 

Violet  ... 

July  i6,  1903] 


NATURE 


247 


absolue."  Under  the  term  Culex,  I  think  he  means  to 
include  also  gnats  of  the  genus  Stegomyia. 

I  have  received  confirmatory  evidence  from  a  gentleman 
in  Egypt,  who  says  that  he  was  recently  able  to  sleep  at 
Ismailia  without  mosquito  nets. 

The  campaign  against  Culex  at  Ismailia  originally 
promised  to  be  a  difficult  one,  owing  to  the  large  number 
of  sewage-cisterns  under  the  houses,  and  the  result  shows 
how  easily  a  simple  and  obvious  idea  like  that  of  diminish- 
ing mosquitoes  by  dealing  with  their  breeding  places  can 
be  acted  upon  by  an  intelligent  and  effective  executive 
which  sets  to  work  at  once,  instead  of  wasting  time  on 
useless  discussions — as,  for  the  most  part,  we  have  been 
doing  in  British  possessions  during  the  last  four  years. 

It  is  to  be  hoped  that,  following  the  work  of  Gorgas  at 
Havana,  and  Logan  Taylor  at  Freetown,  the  result  at 
Ismailia  will  be  accepted  as  clinching  the  proof  of  the  fact 
that  Culex,  at  least,  may  be  materially  diminished  in 
tropical  towns.  Ronald  Ross. 

Liverpool,  July  ii. 

Translation  of  letter,  dated  July  2,  from  M.  le  Secre- 
taire g^n^ral  de  la  Compagnie  universelle  du  Canal  mari- 
time de  Suez,  Paris,  to  Major  Ronald  Ross,  Liverpool 
School  of  Tropical  Medicine  : — 

"  Sir.^I  have  the  honour  to  inform  you  that,  following 
your  mission  of  last  September,  numerous  works  of  drain- 
age and  filling  up  of  ditches  have  been  effected,  and  that 
a  permanent  department  has  been  created  for  the  purpose 
of  oiling  cisterns  and  pits  and  suppressing  marshes  and 
pools  of  water  amongst  the  habitations  of  Ismailia.  More- 
over, measures  of  prophylaxis,  consisting  of  the  gratuitous 
distribution  of  quinine  and  arsenic,  commenced  in  the 
month  of  April,   1902,  are  continued  without  interruption. 

"  Since  last  December,  the  number  of  cases  of  fever  has 
very  sensibly  diminished  by  comparison  with  previous 
months  and  with  the  corresponding  period  of  last  year, 
and  this  decrease  is  maintained  until  to-day. 

"  Owing  to  the  time  at  which  the  sanitary  works  were 
undertaken,  the  complete  disappearance  of  the  Anopheles 
is  not  yet  realised,  but  it  can  be  stated  that  recently 
captured  insects  have  not  been  infected — which  can  perhaps 
be  attributed  to  the  fact  that  the  number  of  cases  of  fever 
have  been  considerably  reduced. 

"  On  the  other  hand,  it  is  interesting  to  note  that,  thanks 
to  methodical  petrolage,  and  to  the  incessant  surveillance 
of  the  breeding-places  of  mosquito  larvae,  the  mosquitoes 
called  Culex  have  been  suppressed  in  a  manner  almost 
absolute,  and  that,  in  the  hottest  period  of  the  year,  it  has 
been  possible  to  abandon  the  use  of  mosquito  nets. 

"  Regarding  the  consequence  of  these  measures,  a 
definite  statement  cannot  be  made  until  after  August  to 
November  next,  the  principal  malaria  season.  We  have 
every  ground  for  hoping  that  the  efforts  with  which  you 
have  been  so  usefully  associated  will  end  in  the  complete 
extinction  of  malaria  in  the  town  of  Ismailia,  and  we  will 
communicate  with  you  when  we  receive  definite  inform- 
ation on  this  interesting  subject." 


Another  White  Spot  on  Saturn. 

On  July  9,  at  i4h.  4m.,  I  observed  another  large  white 
spot  in  the  northern  hemisphere  of  Saturn,  and  on  the 
central  meridian  of  the  planet.  The  spot  was  quite  bright 
in  contrast  with  the  dark  belt  adjoining  it,  and  a  tolerably 
easy  object.  I  saw  the  spot  again  on  July  12,  when  it 
shone  with  a  bright  pearl-like  aspect,  and  was  estimated 
on  the  central  meridian  at  I2h.  50m.  The  marking  is 
much  distended  in  longitude,  and  this  makes  it  rather 
dillicult  to  note  its  central  passages  accurately,  but  the 
motion  of  the  object  seems  decidedly  swifter  than  the  rate 
usually  adopted  for  the  rotation  period  of  Saturn. 

The  following  end  of  a  bright  extension  on  the  eastern 
side  of  the  spot  was  on  CM.  at  i3h.  35s.  on  July  12,  and 
a  dusky  patch  between  the  N  equatorial  belt  and  the  polar 
shading  followed  at  i4h.   im. 

The  markings  above  alluded  to  are  quite  different  from  the 
bright  spot  seen  by  Barnard  on  June  23,  and  by  myself  on 
July  I.  The  present  disturbance  on  Saturn  seems  to  have 
affected  a  very  large  area,  and  I  have  never  observed  any- 
thing of  the  same  conspicuous  character  on  the  planet  in 
past  years.  W.  F.  Denning. 

Bishopston,  Bristol. 

NO.    1759,  VOL.  68] 


The  Thunderstorm  of  May  31. 

Mr.  C.  H.  Hawkins,  of  Croydon,  has  sent  me  a  copy  of 
a  photograph  of  a  lightning  flash  taken  by  him  at  "  Addis- 
combe,"  Croydon,  on  Whitsunday  morning,  May  31,  at 
2.30  a.m. 

The  upper  part  of  the  main  flash  and  the  side  flash  both 
show  reduplication,   and  the  photograph  exhibits  so  many- 


Lightning  discharge  photographed  at  Addiscombe,  Croydon, 
on  May  31,  at  2.30  a.m.     Direction  N.N.W 

characteristic    features     that    its    reproduction    may    be    of 
service  for  comparison  with  other  photographs. 

I  therefore  enclose  a  copy  with  Mr.  Hawkins's  permission. 

Meteorological  Office,  S.W.,  July  7.  W.  N.  Shaw. 


THE   LODGE-MUIRHEAD   SYSTEM   OF 
WIRELESS  TELEGRAPHY. 

THE  system  of  wireless  telerraphy  which  Sir  Oliver 
Lodge  and  Dr.  A.  Muirhead  have  been  develop- 
ing for  some  years  has,  within  the  past  few  months, 
been  brought  to  a  degree  of  perfection  which  justifies- 
the  inventors  in  the  belief  that  it  is  now  of  practical 
commercial  value.  Thanks  to  the  courtesy  of  Messrs. 
Muirhead  and  Co.,  we  have  had  an  opportunity  of  see- 
ing the  system  at  work  at  a  small  experimental  instal- 
lation which  has  been  put  up  in  a  field  adjoining 
Messrs.  Muirhead's  works  at  Elmers  End,  Kent.  At 
this  station  signals  were  being  transmitted  to  and 
received  from  a  similar  installation  at  Downe.  The 
distance  betv^^een  the  two  stations  is  only  six  or  seven- 
miles,  but  the  chalky  nature  of  the  Kentish  soil  and  the 
fact  that  the  station  at  Elmers  End  lies  In  a  hollow 
make  this  distance  equivalent  to  eight  or  nine  times 
as  much  over  water.  Experiments  which  have  been 
made  under  the  conditions  which  would  obtain  in  the 
practical  application  of  the  system  for  maritime  work 
and  also  over  the  Admiralty  sixty-mile  range  have 
shown  that,  with  the  same  power  and  the  same  adjust- 
ments as  are  required  between  Elmers  End  and' 
Downe,  thoroughly  satisfactory  communication  can 
be  maintained  across  sixty  miles  of  ocean.  Considera- 
tions of  distance  are,  however,  of  secondary  importance 
in  estimating  the  merits  of  wireless  telegraphy  systems, 
for  the  recent  work  of  Mr.  Marconi  and  others  has 
made  it  clear  enough  that,  given  sufficient  power, 
almost  any  range  can  be  attained.  Trustworthiness,, 
clearness,  the  design  of  circuits  and  apparatus,  and 
the  possibility  of  successful  syntonlsatlon  are  factors 
of  greater  importance.  Looked  at  from  this  point  of 
view,  the  Lodge-Mulrhead  system  presents  severat 
novel  and  interesting  features  which  show  that,  though 
it  may  be  one  of  the  latest  to  come  into  the  field  of 
practical  wireless  telegraphy,  it  is  likely  to  prove  one 


248 


NATURE 


[July  16,  1903 


of  the  most  efficient.  Most  noteworthy  feature  of  all 
is  the  remarkably  delicate  coherer  which  has  been 
finally  evolved  from  numerous  experiments,  a  coherer 
which  not  only  promises  to  be  accurate  and  trust- 
worthy in  practical  work,  but  also  possesses 
several  advantages  from  an  experimental  point  of  view, 
a  characteristic  of  no  small  importance  in  a  piece  of 
apparatus  which  has  to  be  employed  in  an  art  in  which 
there  is  so  much  to  be  learnt. 

In  g-eneral  outline  the  Lodge-Muirhead  system  does 
not  differ  materially  from  other  wireless  telegraph 
systems,  a  fact  which  is  not  remarkable  when  it  is  re- 
called how  much  other  systems  owe  to  the  pioneering 
work  which  Sir  Oliver  Lodge  has  carried  on  ever  since 
the  earliest  days  of  Hertzian  waves.  In  fact,  if  we 
retrace  the  development  of  Hertzian  telegraphy  from 
Maxwell's  theory  of  light,  the  name  of  Sir  Oliver 
Lodge  is  singularly  prominent,  and  must  be  associated 
with  all  the  more  important  advances.  The  connec- 
tion begins  in  1888,  when  he  read  a  paper  on  the  velocity 
of  electromagnetic  waves  along  wires  at  the  meeting 
of  the  British  Association,  at  which  Prof.  Fitzgerald 
directed  attention  to  the  work  that  Hertz  had  accom- 
plished;  a  little  later  he  discovered,   in   its   simplest 


between  Elmers  End  and  Downe  there  is  no  earth 
connection.  The  precise  utility  of  an  earth  connection 
has  been  often  in  dispute,  most  people  maintaining  that 
it  merely  serves  to  introduce  the  earth  as  the  second 
plate  in  a  large  condenser,  the  first  plate  being  repre- 
sented by  the  aerial  wire  and  any  capacity  connected 
to  it.  In  the  system  under  consideration,  a  second 
capacity  is  provided  which  lies  upon  but  is  insulated 
from  the  earth ;  in  the  Elmers  End  station  the  capacity 
was  beneath  the  floor  of  the  instrument  shed,  and  was 
connected  to  one  terminal  of  the  spark  gap  (or  trans- 
former), the  other  terminal  being  connected  to  the 
aerial,  which  has  an  open  wire  cage  serving  as  a 
suitable  capacity  at  its  upper  end.  We  need  not  enter 
here  into  the  various  ways  in  which  the  circuits  can 
be  connected  up ;  the  relative  positions  of  coherer, 
spark  gap,  capacity  and  self-induction,  the  employ- 
ment or  not  of  the  transformer,  &c.,  offer  a  number 
of  solutions  to  the  problem  of  designing  a  complete 
station  each  of  which  has  its  special  merits  for  par- 
ticular purposes.  In  principle,  all  result  in  the  same 
thing — a  very  large  Hertz  radiator  transmitting  into 
space  a  succession  of  untuned  or  carefully  tuned  electro- 
magnetic waves.     The   two  questions  of  primal   im- 


FiG.  I. — Complete  Lodge-Muirhead  Apparatus. 
From  left  to  right  as  follows  : — Battery,  receiver,  spark  gap,  induction  coil,  signalling  key,  buzzer  (at  the  back),  automatic  transmitter,  and  perforator. 


form,  coherer  action,  and  it  is  interesting  to  note  that 
after  long  trial  of  the  filings  coherers  derived  from 
the  discoveries  of  Branly,  there  seems  to  be  a  tendency 
on  all  sides  to  return  to  simpler  designs  much  more 
closely  resembling  Lodge's  original  single  contact 
coherer.  To  Lodge  also  belongs  the  credit  of  having 
been  the  first  to  insist  upon  the  importance  of  tuning, 
and  of  having  pointed  out  how  this  might  be  possibly 
attained  by  the  proper  use  of  self-induction  and  capa- 
city. Moreover,  it  was,  we  believe,  he  who  suggested 
using  a  transformer  in  the  aerial  circuit  at  both  trans- 
mitting and  sending  stations  instead  of  connecting  the 
spark  gap  or  coherer  direct  to  the  aerial ;  this  device  is 
now  in  general  use  for  tuned  systems.  It  will  readily 
be  realised,  therefore,  that  a  system  which  has  been 
designed  by  Sir  Oliver  Lodge  is  likely  to  be  one  of  the 
most  promising  of  wireless  telegraph  systems,  and  that 
this  is  all  the  more  likely  to  be  the  case  in  the  present 
instance,  as  Sir  Oliver  has  had  the  cooperation  of  Dr. 
Muirhead. 

We  do  not  propose  to  give  a  general  description  of 
the  system,  for,  as  we  have  said,  other  systems  are 
similar  in  general  outline,  and  with  these  most  people 
are  by   now   famiUar.       In    the   installation   working 


portance  are  how  to  produce  those  waves,  and  how  to 
detect  them  at  the  receiving  end. 

The  production  of  the  Hertzian  waves  presents  several 
difficulties.  Even  for  moderate  ranges  of  transmission 
fairly  powerful  sparks  have  to  be  used;  these  are  ob- 
tained from  a  special  induction  coil  and  spark  gap 
(Fig.  i).  Here  again  one  notices  in  the  simple  spark 
gap  between  two  rods  a  return  to  less  complicated 
apparatus ;  in  the  early  days  of  wireless  telegraphy  a 
spark  gap  between  polished  balls  in  oil  or  vaseline 
used  to  be  regarded  almost  as  essential.  In  using 
this  apparatus  for  syntonic  work  a  very  great  deal 
depends  upon  the  spark.  It  is  necessary,  in  the 
first  place,  to  obtain  a  regular  succession  of 
sparks  for  every  depression  of  the  signalling  key. 
The  ordinary  forms  of  make-and-break  used  with  in 
duction  coils  have  not  been  found  satisfactory,  and  a 
special  form  of  interrupter  or  "  buzzer,"  as  it  is  called, 
has  been  designed.  This  is  seen  at  the  back  on  the 
right  of  Fig.  i.  It  consists  of  an  ordinary  mercury 
break  operated  by  two  cross-connected  telegraphic 
sounders.  The  first  of  these  sounders  works  in  the 
same  manner  as  an  ordinary  electric  bell,  the-  arm 
vibrating  to  and  fro  when  the  signalling  key  is  de- 


NO. 


1759,  VOL.  68] 


July  i6,  1903] 


NATURE 


249 


pressed  and  the  circuit  closed ;  the  vibrating  arm  opens 
and  closes  the  circuit  of  the  second  sounder,  to  which 
is  attached  the  dipping  rod  of  the  mercury  break.  It 
is  said  that  this  arrangement  gives  a  more  regular 
succession  of  sparks  than  is  obtained  with  one  sounder 
only.  An  automatic  transmitting  apparatus  has  also 
been  worked  out  by  Messrs.  Lodge  and  Muirhead. 
This  is  shown  at  the  right  of  Fig.  i,  in  front  of  the 
buzzer,  and  consists  of  two  pieces  of  apparatus,  a  per- 
forator and  a  transmitter,  which  are  used  in  conjunc- 
tion with  the  buzzer,  &c.,  in  place  of  the  ordinary  sig- 
nalling key. 

A  regular  succession  of  sparks  having  been  thus 
obtained,  still  only  part,  and  that  the  simpler  part, 
of  the  difficulty  has  been  overcome,  for  it  is  not  the 
period  of  the  sparks  but  the  period  of  the  oscillations 
in  the  spark  which  has  to  be  syntonised.  When  one 
considers  how  short  is  the  train  of  waves  from  each 
individual  spark  and  how  long  comparatively  the 
interval  between  two  successive  sparks,  it  is  easy  to 
see  the  importance  of  getting  the  best  results  possible 


!  detail  in  Figs.  2  and  3.     Fig.  2  represents  the  com- 
!  plete  receiving  instrument.     The  instrument  looks  at 
I  first  sight  much  like  a  Morse  recorder;  the  coherer  is 
mounted  behind  the  box  which  contains  the  clockwork 
i  for  feeding  forward  the  tape  and  rotating  the  coherer 
wheel.   Its  construction  (fan  be  seen  from  Fig.  3,  which 
shows  a  coherer  by  itself.     It  consists  of  a  small  steel 
disc  with  a  fine  razor  edge  which  dips  into  a  little  pool 
of  mercury  in  an  ebonite  cup.     The  mercury  is  covered 
I  by  a  thin  film  of  oil,  and  the  disc  is  adjusted  so  that 
I  under  normal  conditions  the  oil  serves  just  to  insulate 
it  from  the  mercury.     When  oscillations  are  set  up  in 
the    coherer   circuit,    this    thin    layer   of   insulation    is 
;  broken  down,  and  connection  established  between  the 
disc  and  the  mercury.     The  disc  is  slowly  rotated  by 
means  of  the  notched  wheel    seen  clearly  in  the  illus- 
tration, which  gears  with  a  similar  wheel  at  the  back 
i  of  the  clockwork  box.     Connection  is  thus  no  sooner 
established  between  the  disc  and  mercury  than  it  is 
broken  again  by  a  fresh  oily  portion  of  the  edge  coming 
round;  there  is  consequently  only  connection  during 
the  time  the  oscillations  are  actually  arriving  and  the 


from  each  spark.  Herein,  indeed,  seems  to  lie  one  of 
the  chief  unsolved  problems  of  wireless  telegraphy — 
the  problem  of  obtaining  a  really  continuous  series  of 
undamped  oscillations.  It  seems  doubtful  whether, 
even  with  the  best  possible  design  and  arrangement  of 
apparatus,  a  satisfactory  solution  will  ever  be  found 
by  means  of  disruptive  sparks.  Perhaps  we  must  look 
to  some  quite  different  method  of  setting  up  the 
oscillations.  The  method  that  gives  most  promise  of 
ultimate  success  is  some  application  of  the  principle 
of  Mr.  Duddell's  musical  arc,  as  suggested  by  Mr. 
Duddell  at  the  Royal  Institution  last  year  (see  also 
the  Electrician,  May  i,  vol.  li.  p.  84).  It  certainly 
seems  that  from  this  discovery  may  be  developed  a 
means  of  producing  a  continuous  series  of  undamped 
oscillations  of  high  frequency,  and  if  this  should  prove 
to  be  possible  a  change  amounting  almost  to  a  revolu- 
tion would  be  effected  in  the  practice  of  syntonic  wire- 
less telegraphy. 

We  may  pass  now  to  a  consideration  of  the  receiving 
instruments    which  are  shown  in  Fig.  i,  and  in  more 

NO.    1759,  VOL.  68] 


Fig.  3.- The  Coherer. 

[coherer  is  self-decohering  and  requires  no  tapping 
'back.  In  some  respects  the  device  recalls  a  sugges- 
tion made  by  Rupp  five  or  six  years  ago,  who  proposed 
mounting  a  filings  coherer  so  that  it  was  rotated  slowly 
by  the  Morse  tape.  The  Lodge  coherer  is,  however,  a 
far  more  mechanical  contrivance  than  a  filings  tube 
however  the  latter  may  be  decohered.  In  order  to  keep 
the  edge  of  the  disc  clean  a  pad  of  felt  is  pressed  lightly 
against  it;  this  can  just  be  seen  on  the  left  near  the 
top  of  the  disc;  contact  is  made  by  a  spring  pressing 
against  the  shaft  on  which  the  disc  is  mounted.  The 
coherer  will  only  work  with  a  very  small  potential  dif- 
ference— a  fraction  of  a  volt — between  mercury  and 
disc;  it  is  therefore  connected  in  series  with  a  potentio- 
meter, which  reduces  the  voltage  from  the  cell. 

Another  feature  of  the  receiving  circuit  is  the  absence 
of  any  relay;  the  coherer  and  potentiometer  are 
directly  in  series  with  the  recording  instrument,  which 
takes  the  form  of  a  simple  syphon  recorder.  This  is 
seen  on  the  right  of  the  clockwork  in  Fig.  2 ;  the  pert 
consists  of  a  fine  glass  syphon  tube  suspended  from 
the  galvanometer  coil,  one  end  dipping  in  a  cup  of  ink 


2  so 


NA  TURE 


[July  i6,  1903 


and  the  other  resting  on  the  tape.  When  no  signals 
are  being  received  the  pen  draws  a  fine  line  on  the 
.paper,  but  when  a  signal  arrives  it  is  deflected.  The 
result  can  be  seen  from  the  specimen  of  tape  in  Fig  4. 
There  is  an  arrangement  by  which  the  amplitude  of 
the  deflection  can  be  controlled  by  rnaking  the  syphon 
come  up  against  a  stop.  It  is  obvious  that  the  tops 
•of  the  humps  in  the  line  representing  dots  and  dashes 
are  not  needed  for  reading  the  message,  since  it  is 
easy  to  see  from  the  length  of  the  break  in  the  base 
line  whether  the  signal  is  a  dot  or  a  dash.  The  tops 
•of  these  humps  have,  however,  a  special  interest.  It 
will  be  noticed,  on  examining  them  closely,  that  they 
are  not  smooth,  but  are  slightly  irregular.  These 
irregularities  represent  the  sparks,  and  it  is  possible 
therefore  to  see  from  the  form  of  the  humps  whether 
the  sparking  at  the  transmitting  end  is  good  or  bad. 
A  particularly  bad  spark  is  seen  at  the  beginning  of 
the  third  signal  (the  second  dot)  in  the  letter  \,  and  a 
careful  examination,  of  the  dashes  more  especially, 
■shows  quite  clearly  the  nature  of  the  sparking  at  the 
transmitting  station  seven  miles  off.  This  not  only 
points  to  the  great  sensitiveness  of  the  coherer,  but 
shows  that  it  should  prove  particularly  useful  in  re- 
search, since  by  its  use  one  can  obviously  much  better 
investigate  the  conditions  necessary  for  good  signal- 
ling. In  spite  of  this  delicacy,  it  is  remarkable  how 
easy  the  coherer  is  to  adjust.  A  milled  head  screw 
allows  the  mercury  to  be  raised  or  lowered  at  will, 
and  it  is  quite  easy  to  get  proper  adjustment  in  a  few 
•seconds,  even  though  one  starts  with  the  disc  either 


(6)  Does  the  University  of  afford  any  special  facili- 
ties for  post-graduate  study  (in  particular  with  regard  to 
applied  science)  to  the  graduates  of  colonial  universities? 
Does  the  university  reward  special  post-graduate  students 
by  bestowing  upon  them  degrees,  and  on  what  conditions 
as  to  residence  or  tests  of  fitness  are  such  degrees  bestowed? 

(c)  Does  the  University  of  possess  any  special  en- 
dowments for  the  encouragement  of  colonial  students ;  or 
are  colonial  students  habitually  aided  by  any  endowments 
not  under  the  control  of  the  university? 

(d)  What  is  the  average  number  of  colonial  students 
studying  in  the  University  of — — ? 

The  colonial  universities  (with  the  exception  of  the 
universities  of  India)  had  meanwhile  been  asked  to 
appoint  delegates  to  represent  them  at  the  conference, 
with  the  result  that,  when  the  conference  opened, 
almost  every  university  within  the  Empire  was  directly 
represented. 

The  actual  session  occupied  one  day  only,  but  a 
good  deal  of  hospitality  was  exhibited  during  the 
week,  and  whatever  view  may  be  held  as  to  the  value 
of  the  business  actuallj'  ti'ansacted,  there  can  be  no 
question  as  to  the  quality  of  the  entertainment  pro- 
vided. The  informal  meetings  between  the  delegates, 
both  before  and  after  the  session  day,  constituted 
probably  the  most  important  part  of  the  conference ; 
the  opportunity  for  interchange  of  ideas  was  abso- 
lutely unparalleled  in  the  history  of  British  education, 
for  not  only  were  the  delegates  drawn  from  practically 
every  university  within  the  Empire,  but  they  were,  on 
the  whole,  exceptionally  well  qualified  for  their  duties. 
It  is   not  possible   to  set  down   in   writing  a   precise 


s\j — \J\J\ 


f\J\ 


Fig.  4. — Facsimile  of  Tape. 


"in  permanent  contact  or  right  out  of  contact  with  the 
mercury;  in  fact,  the  whole  coherer  can  be  dismantled 
-and  set  up  again  in  a  few  minutes.  This  coherer  seems 
to  us  one  of  the  most  promising  features  of  the  system ; 
it  is  a  device  at  once  quite  simple  and  thoroughly 
mechanical,  easy  to  reproduce,  and  easy  to  adjust, 
and,  judging  by  the  results  which  have  been  obtained, 
is  both  sensitive  and  trustworthy  in  practical  work. 
:So  far  as  one  can  judge  without  lengthy  experiment,  it 
is  more  promising  than  any  other  form  of  receiving 
.apparatus  yet  devised. 

vVe  may  add  that  the  system  has  been  adopted  by 
■the  Eastern  Extension  Telegraph  Company  on  its 
two  new  cable  ships,  and  is  reported  to  be  giving  every 
;satisfaction.  In  conclusion,  we  should  like  to  express 
thanks  to  Messrs.  Muirhead  and  Co.  for  showing  us 
the  system  at  work,  and  for  lending  the  photographs 
from  which  the  illustrations  to  this  article  have  been 
made.  Maurice   Solomon. 


THE    ALLIED    COLONIAL    UNIVERSITIES 
CONFERENCE. 

A  STRONG  committee— Sir  Gilbert  Parker  being 
the  moving  spirit — addressed  the  following 
■circular  letter  to  the  universities  of  the  United  King- 
'dom  on  May  30  : — 

In  order  to  facilitate  the  proceedings  at  the  Allied 
^Colonial  Universities  Conference,  to  be  held  at  Burlington 
House  on  July  9,  I  shall  be  very  much  obliged  if  you  can 
assist  me  with  information  upon  the  following  points  : — 

(a)  Whether,  and  if  so  in  what  way,  the  conditions  under 

■which    degrees    are   given    by    the    University    of   are 

modified  in  the  case  of  persons  who  have  studied  in  or 
taken  the  degrees  of  colonial  universities. 

NO.    1759,  VOL.  68] 


[  estimate  of  the  advantage  to  be  drawn  from  informal 
conversations  between  those  who  are  interested  in  the 
same  things  but  have  few  opportunities  of  discussing 

i  them;  the  British  Association,  however,  affords  a 
proof,  repeated  annually,  that  there  is  a  very  important 
advantage  to  be  gained  in  this  way.  Those  engaged 
in  carrying  on  university  work  in  new  countries  and 
in  communities  where  the  importance  of  that  work  is 
not  always  properly  understood,  are  apt  to  wonder  now 
and  again  whether  they  are  really  on  the  right  track, 
whether  their  work  is,  after  all,  as  important  as  they 
have  been  in  the  habit  of  thinking  it  is,  and  whether 
their  methods  are  sound  and  progressive.  To  such 
men  the  stimulus  of  a  conference  such  as  the  one  just 
over  is  invaluable,  and  the  chance  of  learning  at  first 

i  hand  what  others  are  doing  is  also  invaluable. 

To  come  to  the  conference  itself.  The  chairman, 
Mr.  Bryce,  called  the  meeting  to  order  with  commend- 

[  able  punctuality,  and  explained  in  a  scholarly  way — 

I  though  in  the  most  general  terms — how  universities 
might  cooperate  to  their  mutual  advantage.  The 
Vice-Chancellor  of  Cambridge  then  proposed  the  first 
resolution  : — 

"That  in  the  opinion  of  this  conference  it  is  desirable 

j  that  such  relations  should  be  established  between  the 
principal  teaching  universities  of  the  Empire  as  will 

j  secure  that  special  or  local  advantages  for  study,  and 
in  particular  for  post-graduate  study  and  research,  be 
made  as  accessible  as  possible  to  students  from  all 
parts  of  the  King's  dominions." 

This  was  supported  with  businesslike  brevity  by 
various  delegates  both  from  the  United  Kingdom  and 
from  Greater  Britain,  and  was  finally  passed  without 
dissent.  From  thie  discussion  the  following  principles 
finally  emerged  :— 


July  i6,  1903] 


NATURE 


251 


(i)  There  must  be  no  thought  of  attempting  uni- 
formity of  regulation — each  university  must  decide  for 
itself  how  it  should  treat  post-graduate  students  from 
other  universities. 

(2)  The  question  at  issue  was,  for  practical  purposes, 
to  be  limited  in  the  first  instance  to  the  consideration 
-of  post-graduate  facilities.  In  this  connection  it  was 
shown  by  Sir  Henry  Roscoe  that  the  scholarship 
system  of  the  Commissioners  of  the  1851  Exhibition 
had  proved  itself  to  be  a  great  success,  and  Prof. 
Ewing  showed  that  the  Cambridge  "  research  tripos  " 
liad  also  succeeded  beyond  all  expectation. 

Cambridge  appears  to  be  the  only  university  which, 
so  far,  has  provided  satisfactory  machinery  for  post- 
graduate students  of  other  universities,  and  one  of  the 
■objects  of  the  conference  was  to  induce  other  universi- 
ties to  show  themselves  as  liberal  as  Cambridge  in 
this  respect. 

(3)  It  appeared  that  more  scholarships  on  the  lines  | 
•of    the    Commissioners    of    the    185 1    Exhibition    were 
needed,  and  could  be  worthily  allotted. 

(4)  The  magnificent  hospitality  of  the  University  of 
France  and  of  the  universities  of  Germany  at  present 
-attract  a  large  number  of  British  students.  It  was 
felt  that,  though  this  might  be  regretted  on  senti- 
mental grounds,  the  only  legitimate  manner  of  dealing 
with  it  was  to  provide  within  the  King's  dominions 
at  least  as  great  freedom  and  facility  for  study  as 
could  be  obtained  abroad. 

It  was  abundantly  clear  that  the  delegates,  as  a 
whole,  were  extremely  viell  informed  on  educational 
subjects.  For  instance,  it  was  practically  taken  for 
granted  by  all  the  speakers  that  there  can  be  no  serious 
education  which  does  not  embrace  a  certain  amount  of 
research  work ;  the  only  speaker  who  did  not  appear 
to  endorse  this  view  being  Prof.  Mahatfy,  of  Dublin, 
who  was  witty  on  the  subject  in  the  well-known  mid- 
Victorian  manner.  Since  Germany  has  given  to  our 
disadvantage  a  definite  experimental  proof  of  the 
success  of  research  as  an  instrument  of  education,  the 
delegates  probably  felt  that  the  matter  had  gone 
beyond  the  range  of  academic  discussion. 

It  was  also  interesting  to  note  that  the  principle  of 
""  examination  by  the  teacher  "  appeared  to  be  fully 
admitted  on  all  hands. 

The  afternoon  session  was  devoted  to  a  quite  similar 
discussion  on  a  motion  for  the  appointment  of  a  stand- 
ing committee.  The  committee  so  proposed  did  not 
explain  in  any  way  what  steps  it  intended  to  take,  nor 
did  any  speaker  ask  it  to  do  so,  or  make  any  very 
distinct  suggestion  as  to  its  duties,  so  that  future  de- 
velopments must  depend  entirely  on  personal  initiative 
within  the  committee.  It  would  have  been  better, 
probably,  had  the  committee  been  less  reticent. 

On  the  whole  the  conference  must  be  regarded  as 
having  met  with  a  quite  unanticipated  measure  of 
success.  There  was  an  enthusiasm  and  go  about  it 
throughout  which  was  most  stimulating,  and  of  the 
best  possible  augury  for  the  future  of  English-speak- 
ing university  education.  If  secondary  education 
could  be  brought  up  to  a  corresponding  standard,  we 
should  be  much  better  off  than  we  are. 

The  proceedings  culminated  in  a  huge  dinner  of 
about  500  people  at  the  Hotel  Cecil  on  the  evening 
of  July  10,  with  Mr.  Balfour  in  the  chair,  and  at  his 
best  in  proposing  the  toast  of  the  evening  afterwards. 

The  conference  was  excellently  managed  through- 
out, and  it  is  fair  to  say  that  a  good  deal  of  the  success 
attained  must  be  attributed  to  the  exertions  of  the 
honorary  secretary,  Mr.  Kinloch  Cooke.  A  conference 
for  which  no  precedent  exists  requires,  in  the  words 
of  Lord  Palmerston,  "a  lot  of  bottle-holding,"  and 
Mr.  Kinloch  Cooke  appeared  to  be  equal  to  all  the 
demands  made  upon  him.  R,  T. 

NO.    1759,  VOL.  68] 


Mr.  Balfour  on  Academic  and  Scientific 
Education. 

We  reprint  from  the  Times  of  July  1 1  the  report  of  the 
speech  made  by  Mr.  Balfour  in  proposing  the  toast  of 
the  evening,  "The  Universities  of  the  King's  Over-Sea 
Dominions  "  at  the  AUied  Colonial  Universities'  dinner 
on  Friday  last  : — 

We  are  here,  if  I  may  venture  to  say  so,  a  remarkable 
gathering  in  the  individual  capacity  of  the  members  who 
compose  it.  But  I  think  we  are  still  more  remarkable 
taken  in  connection  with  the  central  idea  which  has  brought 
us  together.  '  It  is  not  merely,  or  simply,  or  chiefly  that 
there  are  in  this  room  the  representatives  of  scholarship 
and  science,  of  all  the  great  spheres  of  activity  in  which 
modern  thought  is  indulging  itself.  It  is  that  we  are  here 
representing  what  will  turn  out  to  be,  I  believe,  a  great 
alliance  of  the  greatest  educational  instruments  in  the 
Empire — an  alliance  of  all  the  universities  that,  in  an  in- 
creasing measure,  are  feeling  their  responsibilities,  not 
merely  for  training  the  youth  which  is  destined  to  carry  on 
all  the  traditions  of  the  British  Empire,  but  also  to  further 
those  great  interests  of  knowledge,  scientific  research,  and 
culture  without  which  no  Empire,  however  materially 
magnificent,  can  really  say  that  it  is  doing  its  share  in  the 
progress  of  the  world.  I  think  that  we  who  in  this  room 
belong  to  the  old  country,  and  who  were  educated  in  the 
older  universities  of  England,  of  Scotland,  or  of  Ireland, 
have  great  reason  to  be  proud  of  those  who  may  be  de- 
scribed as  our  educational  children — I  mean  the  universities 
of  the  other  portions  of  the  Empire. 

We  boast  of  community  of  blood,  of  language,  of  law,  of 
literature ;  but  surely  we  may  also  boast,  and  with  not 
less  reason,  that  the  ideals  of  education  which  are  working 
a  great  work  in  the  old  country  are  now  doing  their  work 
among  its  younger  children,  and  are  carrying  on  in  all 
the  self-governing  nations  of  the  Empire  work  like  that 
which  they  perform  in  the  parent  country.  Now,  my  lords 
and  gentlemen,  I  have  mentioned  two  subjects  already  in 
the  few  sentences  I  have  uttered  which,  each  separately, 
has  been  exercising  the  minds,  at  all  events,  of  people  on. 
this  side  of  the  Atlantic — the  ideals  of  education  and  the 
ideals  of  Empire.  We  have  been  quarrelling — it  would, 
perhaps,  not  be  too  much  to  say  we  are  still  quarrelling^ 
over  both.  I  ask  you  to  consider  them  in  conjunction,  but 
I  hope  that  the  two  elements  brought  into  this  chemical 
composition  will  prove  less  explosive  than  they  do  in  their 
separate  and  individual  character.  At  all  events,  I  am 
certain  that  nothing  I  shall  say  will  hurt  the  sentiments 
even  of  the  most  ardent  opponents  of  the  Education  Act 
passed  through  Parliament  last  year,  or  will  in  the  smallest 
degree  anticipate  that  interesting  discussion  upon  tariff  re- 
form with  which  it  is  promised  us  that  the  autumn  is  to 
be  occupied.  I  mean  to  talk  of  education,  and  I  mean  to 
talk  of  Empire ;  but  I  hope  and  believe  I  shall  tread  upon 
nobody's  toes,  and  that  is  partly  because  I  think  I  am 
justified  in  treating  very  lightly  on  an  occasion  like  this 
that  part  of  the  great  educational  problem  which  touches 
upon  secondary  education.  I  confess  that,  as  far  as  I  am 
concerned,  I  have  never  been  able  to  make  a  theory  satis- 
factory to  myself  as  to  what  is  or  is  not  the  best  kind 
of  education  to  be  given  in  those  great  public  schools  which 
are  the  glory  of  our  country,  and  which,  in  their  collective 
effect  upon  British  character,  I  think  cannot  be  overrated, 
but  which  are  subjected,  and  perhaps  rightly  subjected,  to 
a  great  deal  of  criticism  as  to  that  portion  of  their  efforts 
which  is  engaged  on  the  scholastic  and  technical  side  of 
education. 

I  cannot  profess  myself  to  be  satisfied  with  the  old 
classical  ideal  of  secondary  education ;  and  yet  I  am  not 
satisfied — perhaps  I  ought  to  put  it  more  strongly  and  say 
I  am  still  less  satisfied — with  any  substitute  I  have  seen  for 
it.  I  have  heard  the  old  system  defended  on  the  ground 
that  the  great  classical  languages  contain  masterpieces 
of  human  imagination  which  have  never  been  surpassed  ; 
and,  of  course,  that  is  true.  But  I  do  not  think  we  can 
defend  classical  education  in  the  great  public  and  secondary 
schools  on  that  ground  alone.  You  have  only  got,  after 
all,  to  make  a  simple  statistical  calculation,  which  perhaps 
we  cannot  put  down  in  figures,  but  which  every  man  with 


252 


NATURE 


[July  i6,  1903 


the  smallest  experience,  perhaps  with  the  smallest  memory 
of  what  he  was  and  what  his  school  fellows  were  at  the 
age  of  seventeen  or  eighteen,  can  make,  to  know  that  the 
master  of  the  dead  lahguages  of  a  kind  which  enables 
them  to  enjoy  those  great  works  with  their  foot  on  the 
hearth,  which  is  the  only  way  to  enjoy  any  work  of  litera- 
ture, the  number  of  boys  who  leave  the  great  public  and 
secondary  schools  with  that  amount  of  knowledge  is  a  very, 
very  small  percentage.  You  cannot  keep  up  a  system  of 
education  for  a  very,  very  small  percentage ;  and,  if  that 
is  the  only  defence  of  classical  education,  I  think  it  will 
have  to  be  abandoned  except  for  the  few  who  are  qualified 
to  derive  all  the  immense  advantages  which  to  the  few 
they  are  capable  of  imparting.  But  when  I  turn  to  the 
other  side  and  ask  what  the  substitute  is,  then  I  confess 
I  am  even  less  happy  than  when  I  consider  the  classical 
ideal ;  for  I  am  quite  sure — no,  I  am  not  quite  sure,  but  I 
think — you  will  never  find  science  a  good  medium  for  con- 
veying education  to  classes  of  forty  or  fifty  boys  who  do 
not  care  a  farthing  about  the  world  they  live  in  except 
in  so  far  as  it  concerns  the  cricket  field,  or  the  football 
field,  or  the  river — you  will  never  make  science  a  good 
medium  of  education  for  those  boys ;  for  only  a  few  are 
capable  at  that  age,  and  perhaps  at  any  age,  of  learning 
all  the  lessons  which  science  is  capable  of  teaching.  I  go 
further.  I  never  have  been  able  to  see,  so  far  as  I  am 
concerned,  how  you  are  going  to  get  that  supply  of  science 
teachers  for  secondary  schools  who  have  both  the  time  to 
keep  themselves  abreast  of  the  ever-changing  aspects  of 
modern  science  and  to  do  all  the  important  work  which 
the  English  schoolmaster  has  to  do,  which  is  that  not 
simply  of  teaching  classes,  but  of  influencing  a  house  and 
impressing  moral  and  intellectual  characteristics  on  those 
committed  to  his  charge. 

I  do  not  know  whether  it  was  Lord  Kelvin's  presence 
which  inspired  me  to  say  something  which  I  was  afraid 
he  would  not  like.  I  did  not  mean  to  deal  with  this  topic 
at  any  length.  I  only  meant  to  say  that  while,  as  far 
as  I  am  concerned,  I  think  we  have  not  yet  arrived  at  the 
ideal  system  or  the  ideal  character  of  our  secondary  and 
public  school  education,  I  do  think  that,  so  far  as  this 
assembly  is  concerned  and  the  universities  are  concerned, 
we  are  on  much  more  solid  ground  when  we  come  to  the 
education  with  which  they  have  got  to  deal ;  and  especially 
and  chiefly  do  I  say  that  we  are  on  absolutely  secure  ground 
when  we  are  dealing  with  that  post-graduate  education 
which,  I  hope,  will  be  the  great  practical  result,  or  one 
of  the  great  practical  results,  of  the  meeting  which  I  am 
addressing  to-night.  We  know  exactly  what  we  want  when 
dealing  with  post-graduate  education,  and  it  is  our  busi- 
ness to  see  that  the  students  who  desire  it  have  it,  and 
that  the  opportunity  of  those  who  do  desire  it  is  augmented 
so  far  as  our  influence  will  go.  I  daresay  that  many  of 
us  have  looked  back  with  a  certain  regret,  and  a  certain 
feeling  of  shame,  to  the  medieval  passion  for  learning 
without  fee  and  without  reward — with  no  desire  to  make 
the  universities  stepping-stones  to  good  places  or  to 
successful  mercantile  or  industrial  undertakings — but  with 
an  ideal  which  made  thousands  of  students  from  every 
country  in  Europe  undergo  hardships  which  would  be  re- 
garded in  these  softer  days  as  absolutely  intolerable,  for 
the  sole  purpose  of  seeking,  and  it  might  be  finding,  the 
great  secret  of  knowledge.  We  despise,  and  we  perhaps 
rightly  despise,  their  methods.  We  know  that  they  were 
not  in  touch  with  the  actual  realities  of  the  world  in  which 
they  lived.  Yet,  after  all,  we  have  something  to  learn 
from  them  ;  and  if  we  in  these  days  could  imitate  their 
disinterested  passion  for  knowing  and  for  extending  the 
bounds  of  knowledge,  surely  we,  with  our  better  methods, 
and  our  clearer  appreciation  of  what  we  can  know  and 
what  we  cannot  know,  might  accomplish  things  as  yet 
undreamed  of.  Now,  what  did  they  do?  They  moved 
from  university  to  university,  from  Oxford  to  Paris,  from 
Paris  to  Padua,  from  country  to  country,  in  order  that  they 
might  sit  at  the  feet  of  some  great  master  of  learning, 
some  great  teacher  Who  might  lead  their  thoughts  into 
undreamed  of  paths.  I  hope  that  in  the  universities  of  the 
future  every  great  teacher  will  attract  to  himself  from 
other  universities  students  who  may  catch  his  spirit — young 
men  who  may  be  guided  by  him  in  the  paths  of  scientific 
fame ;  men  who  may  come  to  him  from  north  or  from  south  ; 
and  who,   whether  they  come  from   the  narrow  bounds  of 

NO.    1759,  VOL.  68] 


this  island  or  from  the  furthest  verge  of  the  Empire,  may 
feel  that  they  have  always  open  to  them  the  best  that 
the  Empire  can  afford,  and  that  within  the  Empire  they 
can  find  some  man  of  original  genius  and  great  teaching 
gifts  who  may  spread  the  light  of  knowledge  and  further 
the  cause  of  research. 

I  have  said  that  they  were  to  find  this — I  have  suggested, 
at  all  events,  that  they  should  find  this— within  the  limits 
of  the  Empire.  I  hope  that  in  putting  it  that  way  I  have 
not  spoken  any  treason  against  the  universality  of  learning 
or  the  cosmopolitan  character  of  science.  1  quite  agree 
that  the  discoveries  made  in  one  university  or  by  one  in- 
vestigator are  at  once  the  common  property  of  the  world  ; 
and  we  all  rejoice  that  it  is  so.  No  jealous  tariff's  stand 
between  the  free  communication  of  ideas.  And  surely  we 
may  be  happy  that  that  is  the  fact.  And  yet,  though  know- 
ledge is  cosmopolitan,  though  science  knows  no  country 
and  is  moved  by  no  passion — not  even  the  noblest  passion 
of  patriotism — still  I  do  think  that  in  the  methods  and 
machinery  of  imparting  knowledge,  as  there  always  has 
been  in  modern  times,  so  there  may  still  continue  to  be 
some  national  differentiation  in  the  character  of  our  uni- 
versities, something  in  our  great  centres  of  knowledge 
which  reflects  the  national  character  and  suits  the  individual 
feeling,  and  that  an  English-speaking  student  and  a  citizen 
of  the  Empire,  from  whatever  part  of  the  world  he  may 
hail,  ought  to  find  something  equally  suited  to  him  as  a 
student,  and  more  congenial  to  him  as  a  man,  in  some 
university  within  the  ample  bounds  of  the  Empire.  If  that 
be  our  ideal,  we  have  to  ask  ourselves  whether  we  have 
accomplished  it,  or  whether  we  are  in  process  of  accomplish- 
ing it.  I  am  afraid  it  is  too  clear  that  we  have  not  accom- 
plished it.  But  that  we  are  in  process  of-  accomplishing  it, 
and  that  we  can  accomplish  it — of  that  I  do  not  entertain 
the  smallest  doubt.  The  movement  which  has  begun  with 
the  inter-university  meeting,  of  which  this  is  the  culmin- 
ation, that  movement  is  not  destined  to  finish  with  this 
evening's  proceedings.  It  is  but  the  beginning  and  the 
seed  of  far  greater  things.  And  I  feel  confident  that,  if 
the,  representative  men  whom  I  see  here  gathered  together 
from  all  parts  of  the  world  should  by  good  fortune  meet 
a  few  years  hence  in  this  metropolis  of  the  Empire,  they 
will  be  able  to  say,  and  to  say  with  confidence,  that  the 
work  begun  to-night  has  not  been  unfruitful  ;  that  the 
machinery  for  interchanging  ideas  between  our  great 
academic  centres  has  worked  admirable  good,  not  merely 
for  the  individual  student,  and  not  merely  for  the  cause  of 
knowledge,  but  for  the  cause  of  Empire  itself.  And  while 
learning  ought  never  to  be  perverted  to  the  cause  of  faction, 
or  to  the  cause  of  separation  between  the  different  sections 
of  mankind,  yet  nevertheless  it  will  be  true  that  this  inter- 
communication of  the  highest  thoughts  between  the  leaders 
of  academic  training  in  every  portion  of  the  Empire  tQ 
which  we  belong  will  have  furthered  not  merely  sound 
learning,  but  sound  patriotism.  It  is  in  that  faith  that 
I  have  been  proud  to  share,  however  humbly,  the  work  on 
which  yo'i  are  engaged.  It  is  this,  I  think,  that  will  make 
memorable  in  academic  history  the  undertaking  which  my 
friend.  Sir  Gilbert  Parker,  more,  perhaps,  than  any  rnan  in 
this  room,  has  set  himself  to  accomplish  ;  and  it  is  in  the 
cause  of  education,  of  learning,  of  research,  of  science,  and 
of  Empire  that  I  now  ask  you  to  fill  your  glasses  and  drink 
to  the  toast  of  the  universities  of  the  King's  over-sea 
dominions. 


NOTES. 
It  is  proposed  to  change  the  name  of  the  Jenner  Institute 
of  Preventive  Medicine  to  the  Lister  Institute  of  Preventive 
Medicine.  A  memorandum  which  has  been  sent  by  the 
governing  body  to  the  members  of  the  institute  states  as 
one  reason  for  the  change  of  name  that  there  is  in  London 
a  commercial  firm  trading  under  the  name  of  "  The  Jenner 
Institute  for  Calf  Lymph,"  with  a  prior  legal  claim  to 
the  name  of  Jenner  Institute.  So  great  has  the  incon- 
venience become  on  account  of  the  confusion  between  the 
two  institutes,  that  the  governing  body  has  determined 
to  seek  the  sanction  of  their  members  and  of  the  Board  of 
Trade   to   change  the  name  of  the   institute   to   the   Lister 


July  i6,  1903] 


NATURE 


253 


Institute  of  Preventive  Medicine,  though  it  is  only  fair  to 
Lord  Lister  to  say  that  this  name  was  chosen  by  his 
colleagues  against  his  own  strong  personal  wish. 

At  a  meeting  of  the  Wilts  County  Council  last  week,  it 
was  decided  not  to  take  over  the  powers  and  duties  of  the 
Amesbury  Rural  District  Council  in  regard  to  the  alleged 
rights  of  way  to  Stonehenge.  Steps  are  being  taken  to 
ensure  that  the  question  of  right  of  way  shall  be  brought 
before  a  legal  tribunal  for  decision,  as  the  negotiations 
between  the  Government  and  the  landowner  for  the  purchase 
of  Stonehenge  have  come  to  an  end. 

The  Times  correspondent  at  Cape  Town  reports  that  on 
July  9  a  slight  earthquake  was  felt  there  at  11.37  a-m., 
followed  by  a  second  shock  at  12.6  a.m.,  the  latter  being 
the  heaviest  known  at  Cape  Town  for  twenty  years.  No 
damage  was  caused. 

It  is  proposed  to  hold  an  International  Exhibition  at 
Manchester  in  1905.  At  a  meeting  recently  held  in  that 
city,  a  committee  was  appointed  to  take  such  steps  as  they 
consider  necessary  to  ascertain  the  views  of  those  likely 
to  be  interested  in  such  a  project. 

In  reply  to  a  question  asked  in  the  House  of  Commons 
on  July  8,  Mr.  Balfour  stated  that  the  King  had  expressed 
the  wish  that  the  Celtic  gold  ornaments  declared  by  the 
judgment  in  the  Court  of  Chancery  to  be  treasure  trove,  and 
therefore  the  property  of  the  Crown,  should  be  presented  as 
a  free  gift  to  the  treasurer  of  the  Irish  Academy.  The 
ornaments  will  therefore  be  taken  from  the  British  Museum 
and  sent  to  Ireland. 

The  whaler  Terra  Nova  has  been  bought  by  the  Admiralty 
to  be  sent  to  the  relief  of  the  Discovery  in  the  Antarctic. 
The  Terra  Nova  left  St.  John's  for  the  Tay  on  July  9,  and 
is  to  be  fitted  out,  by  instructions  of  the  Admiralty,  by  the 
Dundee  Shipbuilders'  Company,  who  constructed  the 
Discovery. 

A  Paris  correspondent  writes  :— Last  week  a  visit  was 
paid  to  the  Moisson  Aerodrome  by  the  scientific  committee 
of  the  Aero  Club,  when  the  Lebaudy  balloon  made  a 
successful  performance,  controlled  by  M.  Juchmfes  and  two 
assistants.  During  about  twenty  minutes  the  balloon 
travelled  at  an  altitude  of  about  300  metres,  and  travelled  in 
different  directions  for  about  a  kilometre,  in  spite  of  a 
wind  blowing  at  a  measured  rate  of  6  to  7  metres  in  a 
second.  The  influence  of  the  motion  of  the  air  was  per- 
ceptible only  by  a  great  diminution  of  this  velocity  and 
large  vibrations  testifying  to  the  effort  exerted. 

Among  the  subjects  of  resolutions  adopted  in  general 
conference  of  the  International  Fire  Prevention  Congress, 
held  in  London  last  week,  the  following  are  of  interest  :— 
that  in  all  reports  dealing  with  questions  of  fire-resistance 
and  tests,  the  metric  system  of  measurement,  weight,  and 
temperature  shall  be  adopted,  as  well  as  any  local  system  ; 
that  there  should  be  established  testing  stations  for  fire- 
resisting  materials,  and  a  universally  recognised  method 
of  testing  adopted;  that  courses  of  study  should  be  pro- 
vided in  universities,  technical  colleges  and  schools,  for  the 
instruction  of  engineering  and  architectural  students  in  the 
fire-resistance  of  building  materials  and  the  methods  of 
construction  as  based  on  investigation  ;  that  having  regard 
to  the  neglect  of  precautions  against  damage  caused  by 
lightning,  the  subject  should  have  the  serious  consideration 
of  the  Government  and  local  authorities,  the  technical  pro- 
fessions, and  the  fire  service. 

Mr.  H.  C.  Richmond,  of  Southport,  appreciating  the 
highly  interesting  work  of  Jeremiah  Horrox,  is  endeavour- 
ing to  have  erected  to  his  memory  some  suitable  memorial 
NO.    1759.   VOL.  68] 


in  Southport.  Doubtless  Mr.  Richmond  feels  that  the 
forthcoming  meeting  of  the  British  Association  in  that 
town  will  awaken  some  scientific  interest,  and  make  easier 
the  task  to  which  he  has  applied  himself.  We  can  wish 
him  all  success  in  his  praiseworthy  effort  to  keep  alive  the 
memory  of  one  whose  genius  has  been  the  admiration  of 
successive  generations,  and  whose  early  death  lent  a 
pathetic  interest  to  his  work.  Already  a  suitable  tablet  to 
the  memory  of  Horrox  exists  in  the  Church  of  S.  Michael 
in  Liverpool,  a  window  and  memorial  chapel  commemorate 
his  scientific  zeal  in  the  church  at  Hoole,  and  on  the  walls 
of  Westminster  Abbey  there  is  other  acknowledgment.  Is 
another  tablet  precisely  the  form  which  the  memorial  should 
take?  It  would  be  just  as  fitting,  and  productive  of  more 
lasting  benefit  to  the  community,  to  found  a  Horrox 
scholarship  for  astronomy  in  the  new  University  of  Liver- 
pool. 

Dr.  E.  C.  Hovey  gives  reasons  in  Science  why  the  now 
celebrated  volcano  on  the  island  of  Martinique  should  be 
called  by  the  French  name  Mont  Pel6,  and  not  the  Angli- 
cised Mount  Pelee,  in  which  there  is  little  suggestion  of 
the  true  pronunciation  of  the  name. 

Mr.  W.4LTER  Rosenhain  has  sent  a  reprint  of  a  paper 
read  before  the  Optical  Society  of  London  on  June  15,  on 
some  properties  of  glass.  It  deals  with  the  crystallisation 
of  glass  due  to  heating,  the  effect  of  light  on  the  colour 
of  glass,  the  chemical  instability  of  many  of  the  most 
desirable  optical  glasses,  and  the  thermal  properties  of 
glass,  with  especial  reference  to  production  of  internal 
strains. 

M.  F.  Worms  de  Romilly,  whose  funeral  took  place  on 
May  3.  has  bequeathed  to  the  French  Physical  Society  a 
sum  of  150,000  francs,  together  with  his  library  and  the 
whole  of  his  apparatus.  His  telescope,  the  silvered  glass 
mirror  of  which  was  made  by  L6on  Foucault,  is  either 
to  remain  the  property  of  the  society  or  to  be  given  to  the 
National  Observatory. 

The  electrophorus  is  such  a  convenient  apparatus  for 
producing  electricity  for  class  experiments  that  the  un- 
satisfactory explanations  of. its  action  given  in  many  text- 
books are  to  be  regretted.  Dr.  Otto  Geschoser,  in  the 
Beitrage  of  the  Oels  Gymnasium,  describes  simple  experi- 
ments tending  to  show  that  the  action  of  the  electrophorus  is 
to  be  attributed  to  "  electromotive  force  of  contact  "  between 
the  resin  disc  and  the  metal  plate,  and  that,  so  far  from 
these  acting  as  the  plates  of  a  condenser,  the  efficiency  of 
the  apparatus  depends  on  the  perfection  of  the  contact 
between  them.  A  modified  form  of  electrophorus,  in  which 
the  contact  is  rtiade  between  silvered  glass  as  a  dielectric 
and  copper  as  a  conductor,  is  described. 

The  Bulletin. of  the  French  Physical  Society  announces 
the  opening  of  the  new  Laboratoire  d'Essais  du  Con- 
servatoire des  Arts  et  Metiers.  This  laboratory  has  been 
founded  with  the  assistance  of  considerable  endowments 
from  the  Chamber  of  Commerce,  for  the  purpose  of  under- 
taking measurements  and  determinations  for  commercial 
purposes.  It  consists  of  five  sections,  namely,  physics, 
metals,  building  materials,  machines,  and  vegetable  pro- 
ducts. M.  Perot  is  director  of  the  laboratory,  and  M. 
Raveau  head  of  the  physical  department.  Among  other 
objects  of  the  laboratory  may  be  mentioned  the  testing  of 
thermometers,  and  the  standardisation  of  weights  and 
measures  where  great  precision  is  not  required. 

In  the  Proceedings  of  the  Royal  Philosophical  Society  of 
Glasgow,  Mr.  R.  F.  Muirhfead  discusses  a  generalisation 
of  Lord  Kelvin's  statement  of  the  formula  for  direct  refrac- 


254 


NATURE 


[July  i6,  1903 


tion  through  a  *hin  lens  depending  on  the  introduction  of 
the  term  "divergence."  Mr.  Muirhead  defines  the  diver- 
gence of  a  pencil  of  rays  with  regard  to  a  refracting  surface 
as  the  reciprocal  of  the  effective  distance  {i.e.  actual 
distance -T- refractive  index)  of  the  surface  from  the  apex 
of  the  pencil,  and  the  divergivity  of  the  surface  as  the 
divergence  it  produces  on  a  pencil  of  rays  originally  parallel. 
Lord  Kelvin's  rule  that  "  divergence  after  refraction  equals 
divergence  before  refraction  plus  divergivity  "  then  applies 
to  refractions  at  single  surfaces,  and  not  merely  to  thin 
lenses  in  air. 

Several  articles  on  the  subject  of  aerial  navigation  have 
lately  reached  us.  Early  in  the  year  M.  W.  de  Fdnvlelle 
discussed  the  general  problem  in  the  Revue  des  deux 
Mondes,  with  especial  reference  to  the  Bradsky  disaster 
of  October,  1902,  and  urged  the  desirability  of  not  abandon- 
ing ordinary  balloon  experiments  in  favour  of  attempts 
with  motor-driven  balloons.  In  Cosmos  for  May  23,  Lieut. - 
Colonel  G.  Espitalier  gave  an  account  of  the  new  German 
balloon  station  at  Renickendorf  West,  the  installation  of 
which  includes  a  hangar  50  metres  long,  25  metres  wide, 
and  30-5  metres  high.  Finally,  we  have  before  us  a  paper 
by  Mr.  W.  Rickmer  Rickmers,  entitled  "  Die  Beherrschung 
der  Luft  "  (Vienna),  in  which  the  author  condemns  as 
contrary  to  natural  laws  the  attempts  made  to  navigate 
the  air  by  mechanically  propelled  balloons. 

Prof.  J.  Hann  presented  to  the  Vienna  Academy  of 
Sciences  on  April  2  a  treatise  on  the  air-currents  at  the 
summit  of  the  Santis  (2504  metres)  and  their  yearly  period. 
The  investigation  is  based  upon  the  anemometrical  observ- 
ations for  fifteen  years,  and  the  author  has  calculated  the 
values  of  the  four  wind  components  for  each  month,  and 
separat-ely  for  three  five-yearly  periods.  It  was  satisfactory 
to  find  a  considerable  agreement  of  the  yearly  period  of  the 
components  in  each  of  the  three  lustra.  The  northerly 
cojnponent  attains  its  greatest  value  in  January  and 
February,  and  its  smallest  value  in  July  and  August.  The 
easterly  component  has  nearly  the  same  yearly  period  as 
the  northerly,  but  the  maximum  in  winter  is  more  pro- 
nounced, and  the  minimum  is  from  June  to  September. 
The  contrast  between  the  winter  and  summer  half-year  is 
very  marked.  The  southerly  component  has  a  still  more 
marked  yearly  range,  with  a  maximum  in  October  and 
November,  and  a  minimum  in  June.  The  yearly  period  of 
the  westerly  component  is  less  regular,  but  there  is  a 
decided  maximum  in  July  and  August,  and  a  similar 
minimum  in  April  and  especially  in  May.  Among  other 
interesting  problems  the  author  also  endeavours  to  trace 
the  relations  between  this  yearly  variati9n  of  the  wind 
components  and  the  distribution  of  air-pressure  at  sea- 
level.  These  are,  on  the  whole,  well  marked,  so  that  the 
distribution  of  pressure  at  a  height  of  a  mile  and  a  half 
cannot  differ  much  from  that  at  the  sea-level.  The  S.-N. 
component  reaches  its  smallest  value  in  May  and  its  greatest 
in  October ;  the  W.-E.  component  has  also  its  minimum 
in  May,  but  its  maximum  in  July  and  August,  ihe  re- 
sultant is  W.  29°  S.,  and  varies  but  little  during  the  year. 

Dr.  J.  W.  KiME,  in  an  article  contributed  to  the  Scientific 
American  of  June  20,  gives  details  of  some  experiments  that 
show  that  sunlight  will  penetrate  in  a  comparatively  short 
time  through  a  considerable  thickness  of  flesh.  He  bound 
together  a  small  negative  and  a  gelatino-bromide  plate  of 
the  ordinary  kind  (that  is,  not  specially  sensitised  for  colour) 
and  put  the  combination  between  the  teeth  and  the  cheek 
of  the  subject,  taking  suitable  precautions  that  no  light 
should  enter  at  the  mouth.  The  cheek  was  then  exposed 
to  direct  sunshine  in  February  for  forty  seconds,  and  in 
NO.    1759,  VOL.  68] 


every  case  it  proved  that  the  image  was  developable.  Re- 
productions of  the  results  of  five  experiments  are  shown, 
each  with  a  different  person.  One  man  had  a  thick,  short 
black  beard,  and  this  lessened  the  exposure  effect  some- 
what. Another  was  a  negro,  with  a  thick,  dark  cheek ; 
here  the  diminution  in  the  light  transmitted  was  still  more 
marked.  No  steps  were  taken  to  interfere  with  the  circula- 
tion of  the  blood,  and  Dr.  Kime  considers  that  his  experi- 
ments show  that  it  is  not  necessary,  as  has  been  stated,  to 
compress  the  parts  to  free  them  from  blood  as  far  as  possible 
when  light  is  used  as  a  surgical  agent.  Dr.  Kime  also 
states  that  his  experiments  show  why  red  light  is  valuable 
in  the  treatment  of  small-pox.  "  They  prove  that  no 
chemical  light  of  any  consequence  reaches  the  patient  " 
when  red  curtains  are  fixed  over  the  windows,  &c.,  and  so 
irritation  is  prevented  and  subsequent  disfigurement 
lessened.  But  as  the  photographic  plates  used  were  not 
sensitive  to  red  light,  the  soundness  of  this  deduction  from 
the  experimental  results  may  be  doubted. 

It  is  stated  that  the  radium  rays  have  been  successfully 
applied  in  the  treatment  of  a  case  of  cancer  by  Prof. 
Gussenbauer,  of  Vienna.  The  tumour  completely  dis- 
appeared as  a  result  of  the  application,  radium  bromide 
being  made  use  of  as  a  source  of  the  rays.  The  early 
publication  of  these  details  in  the  public  Press  before  there 
has  been  time  to  test  the  method  effectually  is  much  to  be 
deprecated. 

Prof.  Finsen,  of  Copenhagen,  in  a  note  upon  the  light 
treatment  of  lupus  {Acad,  des  Sciences,  Paris,  June  22), 
points  out  that  it  is  necessary  to  employ  light  of  the  greatest 
intensity  in  order  to  obtain  penetration  of  the  tissues,  and 
states  that  his  results  have  been  much  better  since  employ- 
ing arc  lamps,  using  a  current  of  60-80  amperes,  than 
previously  with  40  ampere  lamps,  the  former  penetrating 
in  20-25  seconds  to  a  depth  which  formerly  occupied  4-5 
minutes. 

Drs.  Dutton  and  Todd,  of  the  Liverpool  Trypanosoma 
Expedition  to  Gambia,  have  just  returned  to  England. 
They  state  that  the  disease  occurs  frequently  both  in  natives 
and  Europeans,  and  that  it  is  distributed  from  the  sea  to 
the  Upper  Gambia.  Besides  the  human  disease,  there  is 
also  an  affection  of  the  horse  in  the  same  region,  caused 
by  a  trypanosoma,  and  resembling  somewhat  the  "  tse-tse  " 
fly  disease,  but  being  more  chronic.  This  is  in  all  probability 
a  disease  distinct  from  the  "  tse-tse  "  fly  disease.  A  mass 
of  material  has  been  brought  home  which  will  necessitate 
some  time  to  work  through. 

Mr.  B.  Timothy  sends  us  from  Waterford  an  abnormal 
corolla  formed  by  the  union  of  several  flowers,  found 
growing  on  the  apex  of  the  stem  of  a  foxglove,  and 
surrounding  the  stem  entirely.  A  botanist  to  whom  we 
submitted  the  specimen  remarks  in  reply  that  this  abnormal 
development  of  a  -foxglove  is  "  a  case  of  peloria,  that  is, 
a  change  or  revision  from  an  irregular  to  a  regular  con- 
dition of  the  flower ;  in  this  instance  there  is  an  additional 
abnormality,  since  the  pistil  has  proliferated,  i.e.  instead 
of  carpels  an  inner  flower  has  been  formed  which  bears 
stamens,  but  inside  the  carpels  again  have  produced  vegeta- 
tive structures,  the  bracts." 

A  FINE  sample  of  the  Okapi  {Ocapia  johnstoni)  has 
recently  been  acquired  by  the  Hon.  Walter  Rothschild  for 
his  collection  at  Tring.  The  modelling  has  been  entrusted 
to  Mr.  Rowland  Ward. 

In  vol.  Ixxiv.  part  iii.  of  the  Zeitschrift  ftir  wissenschaft- 
liche  Zoologie,  Mr.  R.  Weinberg  publishes  the  first  of  a 
series  of  articles  on  the  brains  of  fossil  vertebrates,  dealing 
in     this     case     with     the     small     Tertiary     perissodactyle 


i 


July  i6,  1903] 


NATURE 


255 


Anchilophus  desmaresti.  The  brain  of  this  mammal,  it 
appears,  although  essentially  primitive,  exhibits  all  the 
characteristic  ungulate  features,  with  a  marked  approxima- 
tion towards  the  modern  perissodactyle  type. 

To  the  June  number  of  the  Zoologist  Mr.  Lydekker 
contributes  a  note  on  the  probable  use  of  the  bilobed  canine 
tooth  of  the  giraffe  and  its  allies,  which  forms  the  outer- 
most of  the  four  pairs  of  lower  front  teeth.  It  has  been 
iliserved  that,  when  browsing,  a  giraffe  (unlike  a  deer  or 
111  antelope)  strips  the  leaves  from  the  branches  without 
biting  off  the  twigs,  and  it  is  inferred  that  the  complex 
structure  of  the  canine  is  designed  to  aid  in  this  "  comb- 
ing "  action. 

The  June  issue  of  the  Economic  Proceedings  of  the  Royal 
Dublin  Society  is  devoted  to  an  aiccbunt,  by  Mr.  G.  H. 
Carpenter,  of  injurious  insects  and  other  animals  observed 
in  Ireland  during  1902.  Special  interest  attaches  to  two 
excellent  illustrations,  one  showing  the  caterpillar  of  the 
ghost  swift  moth  (Hepialns  htimtili)  feeding  on  the  roots  of 
wheat,  and  the  other  the  injury  done  to  young  wheat  by 
the  maggot  of  the  wheat-bulb  fly  (Hylemyia  coarctata). 
Reference  is  made  to  the  new  fern-weevil  {Syagrius 
intrudens)  recently  described  by  Mr.  Waterhouse  on  the 
evidence  of  imported  specimens  found  in  the  fern-houses  at 
the  Royal  Botanic  Gardens,  Glasnevin. 

The  Cairo  Survey  Department  has  recently  published  a 
preliminary  description,  by  Messrs.  Andrews  and  Beadnell, 
of  the  remains  of  a  giant  land  tortoise  (Testudo  ammon) 
from  the  Eocene  of  the  Fayum  district.  The  especial 
interest  of  this  form  is  its  antiquity,  which  far  exceeds  that 
of  all  other  known  members  of  the  group.  Dr.  Andrews 
thinks  it  probable  that  T.  ammon  is  the  ancestral  form  of 
the  giant  tortoises  met  with  in  several  European  Tertiary 
horizons,  and  that  the  existing  African  T.  pardalis  may  be 
a  small  survivor  of  the  group,  to  which  the  Siwalik 
T.  atlas  and  T.  cautleyi,  and  the  existing  T.  sumeirei  (the 
well-known  giant  tortoise  of  Port  Louis)    may  also  pertain. 

In  the  current  number  of  the  Zeitschrift  fiir  physikalische 
Chemie  Prof.  F.  Kohlrausch  gives  a  summary  of  the  work 
which  he  has  carried  out  during  the  last  thirteen  years  on 
the  electrical  conductivity  of  saturated  solutions  of  slightly 
soluble  salts.  In  all  forty-one  such  salts  have  been  investi- 
gated, and  the  electrical  conductivities  determined  at 
different  temperatures.  The  data  are  to  be  used  for  the 
calculation  of  the  solubilities  of  the  various  salts,  and  the 
numbers,  which  must  be  of  considerable  value  to  the 
analytical  chemist,  are  to  appear  in  a  later  paper. 

The  results  of  a  careful  investigation  by  Dr.  Freundlich 
■on  the  precipitation  of  colloidal  solutions  by  electrolytes  are 
published  in  the  current  number  of  the  Zeitschrift  fjir 
physikalische  Chemie.  The  capacity  of  different  electrolytes 
for  precipitating  the  colloids  is  dependent,  in  a  large 
measure,  on  the  valency  of  the  ions,  this  capacity  increasing 
•with  increase  of  valency.  For  colloids  which  show  anodic 
convection  under  the  influence  of  an  electric  current,  the 
nature  of  the  anion  is  without  influence,  whilst  for  those 
which  exhibit  kathodic  convection  the  precipitation  is  in- 
dependent of  the  nature  of  the  cation. 

An  interesting  account  of  the  behaviour  of  chlorine  to- 
wards benzene  under  the  influence  of  various  catalytic 
agents  is  given  by  Mr.  Slator  in  the  Journal  of  the  Chemical 
Society.  With  iodine  chloride  as  catalytic  agent,  about 
70  per  cent,  of  the  reacting  chlorine  is  used  up  in  the  pro- 
duction of  chlorobenzene,  while  the  remaining  30  per  cent, 
•disappears    in    the    formation    of    the    addition    compound 


chloride  are  employed  as  catalysers,  the  whole  of  the  chlorine 
is  used  up  in  the  substitution  reaction.  On  the  other  hand, 
when  chlorine  interacts  with  benzene  under  the  influence 
of  light,  addition  only  takes  place. 

For  many  years  past  it  has  been  the  practice  of  the  Iron 
and  Steel  Institute  to  republish  from  time  to  time  rare  and 
interesting  papers  relating  to  the  history  and  manufacture 
of  iron  and  steel.  With  the  permission  of  the  council  of 
the  British  Association,  the  institute  has  now  added  to 
the  series  the  report  presented  by  Bunsen  and  Playfair 
to  the  British  Association  at  Cambridge  in  1845,  on  "  The 
Gases  Evolved  from  Iron  Furnaces,  with  Reference  to  the 
Theory  of  the  Smelting  of  Iron."  This  research  has  long 
been  looked  upon  as  a  model  of  the  application  of  the 
methods  of  scientific  investigation  to  the  elucidation  of 
industrial  problems. 

The  additions  to  the  Zoological  Society's  Gardens  during 
the  past  week  include  a  Macaque  Monkey  {Macacus  cyno- 
mblgus)  from  India,  presented  by  Miss  Gayner  Rowland  ; 
two  Bristly  Ground  Squirrels  {Xerus  capensis)  from  South 
Africa,  presented  by  Mr.  H.  J.  Palmer ;  a  Ruddy  Ground 
Squirrel  {Xerus  rutilus)  from  Burao,  East  Africa,  presented 
by  Mr.  Bennett  Burleigh ;  a  Brazilian  Tapir  {Tapirus 
americanus),  a  Red  Brocket  {Cariacus  rufus)  from  ManAos, 
Brazil,  presented  by  Mr.  Charles  Booth;  a  Grand  Galago 
(Galago  crassicaudata)  from  East  Africa,  presented  by 
Captain  C.  Mylton  Thornycroft ;  three  Fat-tailed  Desert 
Mice  {Pachyuromys  dupresi)  from  Egypt,  presented  by  Dr. 
H.  P.  Keatinge ;  an  Undulated  Grass  Parrakeet  {Melop- 
sittacus  undulatus)  from  Australia,  a  Goldfinch  {Carduelis 
elegans),  European ;  a  Red-bellied  Waxbill  {Estrelda  rubi- 
ventris)  from  West  Africa,  a  Yellow-bellied  Liothrix  {Lio- 
thrix  luteus)  from  India,  presented  by  Mrs.  Halsey  Ralph 
Ricardo ;  a  Punjaub  Sheep  {Ovis  cycloceros)  from  North- 
west India,  two  White-necked  Cranes  {Anthropoides  leuca- 
chen)  from  Japan,  four  Demoiselle  Cranes  (Anthropoides 
virgo)  from  North  Africa,  purchased  ;  a  Burrhel  Sheep  {Ovis 
burrhel),  a  Sambur  Deer  {Cervus  aristotelis),  born  in  the 
Gardens. 


OUR  ASTRONOMICAL  COLUMN. 

Comet  1903  c. — A  new  ephemeris,  calculated  from  new 
elements  by  Herr  M.  Ebell,  is  given  in  Kiel  Circular  No. 
62.  It  extends  to  a  later  date  than  the  one  previously 
published  by  M.  Fayet,  and  also  varies  slightly  from  that 
one.  The  following  data  are  given  for  the  four  last  dates 
included  in  the  new  ephemeris  : — 


Ephemeris  12/4.  {M.T.  Berlin). 


\o%  A        Brightness 


July  17 

..  18  41  II 

..   +62 

2-2    .. 

•     94324 

..  14-6 

M  19 

-17     7  44     . 

..    +67 

35-1  - 

•     9-4553     • 

..  14-2 

„  21    . 

..  15  22    3     . 

..   -t-68 

36-0  .. 

.     9-4906     . 

..  131 

»  23 

••  13  59    5     • 

..    +66 

17-8  .. 

•     95327     • 

..  117 

The  following  observations  of  this  comet  are  recorded 
in  No.  3882  of  the  Astronomische  Nachrichten. 

Dr.  Meyermann,  using  the  Kreutz  micrometer  on  a  6-inch 
comet-seeker,  and  Prof.  Ambronn,  with  the  Repsold  helio- 
meter,  record  that  on  June  23  the  comet  was  2'  in  diameter 
and  had  a  faint  tail,  whilst  for  June  24  the  latter  observer 
records  that  in  difficult  "  seeing  "  a  faint  tail  extending 
towards  the  south  was  seen. 

Prof.  Hartwig,  using  the  Bamberg  heliometer,  records 
that  on  June  23  the  nucleus  was  between  the  tenth  and 
eleventh  magnitudes,  and  the  tail  was  of  the  divided  form, 
having  a  mean  position  angle  of  250°,  whilst  the  coma  was 
about  lo'  in  diameter. 

Prof.  Millosevich,  observing  at  Rome  with  a  39cm. 
equatorial  and  a  filar  micrometer  on  June  23,   recorded  a 


^  ,  .  95   magnitude   nucleus,    and   a  very   short   tail,   which   ex- 

benzene   hexachloride.     When    tm    tetrachloride    and    ferric      tended  in  a  S.S.W.  direction. 

NO.    1759,  VOL.  68] 


256 


NATURE 


[July  16,  1903 


Search-ephemeris  for  Comet  1896  V.  (Giacobini). — A 
further  instalment  of  the  ephemeris  of  this  comet  is  pub- 
lished in  the  Astronomische  Nachrichten,  No.  3881,  by  Herr 
M.  Ebell. 

The  following  is  an  extract  from   the  ephemeris,   which 
takes  June  22-5.1903  as  the  time  of  perihelion  passage  : — 
Ephemeris  \2h.  (M.T.  Berlin.) 
1903  a  6  log  f  log  A 

h.    m.    s.  o        / 

..   I    59   36  ...    +17   33-9  ...  0-1697     •■  0-1065  • 

..  2  20  51  ...  +18  i6-6  ...  0-1749  •••  00970  . 
..  2  40  51    ..  +18  41-6  ...  0-1814  •••  0-0874  • 

+  18  49-1  ...  0-1889  ■••  0-0776  . 

+  18  39-7  ...  0-1975  •••  0-0676  . 

+  18  14-0  ...  0-2068  ...  0*057 


July    16 

.,      24 

Aug.     I 

9 

M  17 

,,  25 

Sept.    2  , 
,,      10 


,.  2  59  22 
..  3  16  7 
••  3  30  50 
•  3  43  15 


+  17  33-2  ...  0-2168  ...  0-0468 


Bright- 
ness. 
•  2-55 
.  2-60 
.  2-64 
.  2-67 
2-69 
.    2-70 


2-70 

3  53  10  ...  +16  38-3  ...  0-2272  ...  0-0364  ...  270 

The  continuation  of  this  ephemeris  indicates  that,  after 
the  last-mentioned  date,  the  comet  will  slowly  decrease  in 
brightness. 

The  Limits  of  Unaided  Vision. — Lick  Observatory 
Bulletin  No.  38  gives  an  account  of  some  interesting  observ- 
ations made  by  Mr.  Heber  D.  Curtis,  at  Prof.  Newcomb's 
suggestion,  on  the  inferior  limit  of  magnitude  obtainable 
in  naked-eye  observations. 

A  preliminary  examination  of  previous  naked-eye  cata- 
logues showed  that  the  mean  magnitude  of  the  faintest  stars 
included  in  Ptolemy's  Almagest  was  5-38  on  the  scale  of 
the  Harvard  Photometric  Durchmusterung,  whilst  Houzeau 
in  his  "  Uranom^trie  Gdn6rale  "  stated  that  stars  of  the 
sixth  magnitude  were  constantly  seen  in  a  clear  atmo- 
sphere, and  those  of  magnitude  67  could  be  seen  at  in- 
tervals; the  latter  value  corresponds  to  640  on  the  Harvard 
scale.  Gould,  in  the  introduction  to  the  "  Uranometria 
Argentina,"  states  that  6-5  was  the  average  limit  at 
Cordoba,  but  on  exceptionally  clear  nights  the  seventh 
magnitude  was  possible.  These  two  values  are  respectively 
equivalent  to  6- 16  and  671  on  the  Harvard  scale. 

In  his  own  observations  Mr.  Curtis  used  two  large 
blackened  discs  to  screen  off  the  diffused  sky-light,  these 
two  discs  being  attached  to  the  12-inch  telescope  at  a 
distance  of  178  inches  from  each  other,  and  the  front  one 
pierced  by  "a  circular  hole  half  an  inch  in  diameter,  the  rear 
one  by  a  quarter-inch  hole.  By  this  arrangement  he  was 
able,  on  a  night  when  a  6-53  magnitude  star  could  be 
seen  without  using  the  discs,  to  see  the  following  stars  in 
the    regions    about    T    Virginis    and    T    Ursae    Majoris    re- 


spectively : 
Bonn  DM 
number 
3219 

3459 

3463 
1413 
1415 

1457 


Declination       Magnitude 


-  4  40   .. 

-  5  23  .. 
-  5  37  .. 
+  60  18  .. 
+  60    13    .. 


7-31  HP^ 
8-3     H- 


+  59  30  ...  8-2     H 


Seen  quite  easily. 
Seen  with  considerable 

difficulty. 
Seen  without  difficulty. 
Seen  with  difficulty. 
Glimpsed  at  intervals  ; 

very  doubtful. 
Seen. 


_  Mr.  Curtis  found  that  the  screening  off  of  the  diffused 
light  was  even  of  more  importance  than  knowing  exactly 
where  to  look  for  the  object. 

AN  ETHNOGRAPHICAL  EXPEDITION  TO 
BRITISH  NEW  GUINEA. 
'pHERE  are  few  areas  of  equal  extent  that  present  so 
many  interesting  sociological  and  cultural  problems 
as  British  New  Guinea.  It  is  necessary  these  should  be 
studied  on  the  spot,  and  that,  too,  with  as  little  delay  as 
possible,  for,  even  there,  the  remorseless  activity  of  the 
white  man  is  rapidly  making  itself  felt. 

We  know  there  are  various  cultural  provinces  in  British 
New  Guinea  which,  in  certain  respects,  are  markedly 
distinct  from  each  other ;  for  example,  we  recognise  dis- 
tricts that  may,  for  the  present,  be  conveniently  distin- 
guished by  the  geographical  terms  of  Western,  Fly  River, 
Papuan  Gulf,  Central,  South-Eastern,  and  North  Coast,  and 
some  of  these  districts  are  capable  of  further  subdivision. 
In  most  cases  it  is  possible  to  tell  within  comparatively 
narrow  limits  the  provenance  of  a  decorated  object  by  its 

1  HP  =  Harvard  Photometric  Durchmusterung. 

2  H     =  Hagen's  "  Atlas  Stellarum  Variabilium." 


NO.    1759,  VOL.  68] 


form,  technique,  and  the  motive  of  its  ornamentation. 
Although  these  general  facts  are  well  known  to  ethno- 
logical experts,  there  is  still  lacking  an  immense  amount 
of  detailed  information  of  even  these  relatively  superficial 
data  that  can  be  acquired  only  in  the  field.  It  is  one  thing 
to  know  what  an  object  is  and  where  it  comes  from,  but 
it  is  much  more  important  to  understand  the  meaning  of 
its  form  and  decoration,  and  arm-chair  musings,  or  even 
comparative  study  in  museums,  will  be  of  little  avail  in 
this  inquiry ;  on  the  contrary,  they  are  liable  to  lead  one 
astray. 

It  is  becoming  more  and  more  recognised  that  the  religion 
of  primitive  peoples  is  manifested  in  their  arts  and  crafts, 
and  that  it  is  itself  a  reflex  of  their  social  condition.  A 
student  begins  by  being  interested  in  patterns,  is  led  into 
a  study  of  comparative  religion,  and  ends  in  sociology. 
In  British  New  Guinea  these  several  subjects  have  a  peculiar 
interest.  The  decorative  art  is  rich,  varied,  and  distinc- 
tive. Concerning  the  religion  very  little  is  known ;  we 
are  aware  that  true  totemism  occurs  in  the  west,  and  it 
is  probable  that  all  stages,  from  animal  reverence,  through 
a  hero-cult  to  an  actual  hierarchy  of  gods  can  be  traced 
from  the  Netherlands  boundary  to  the  bight  of  the  Papuan 
Gulf.  The  recognition  of  personal  powers  superior  to  man 
seems  to  be  lacking  in  the  Central  District,  and  in  the  South- 
east District  totemism  again  appears,  and  there  is,  or  has 
been,  a  regard  for  the  frigate  bird,  which  in  any  case  is 
probably  not  now  totemic,  but  of  the  significance  of  this 
probable  cult  of  the  frigate  bird  we  have  at  present  not 
a  particle  of  evidence.  As  to  sociology,  we  have  indications 
that  British  New  Guinea  possesses  many  varied  and 
interesting  aspects,  and  there  is  every  reason  to  suspect 
a  gradation  in  social  structure  will  eventually  be  revealed 
that  will  illustrate  some  important  phases  of  social 
evolution. 

These  are  but  one  or  two  of  the  many  promising  fields 
of  inquiry  that  British  New  Guinea  affords  to  the  ethno- 
logist. At  present  we  have  but  enough  knowledge  to 
appreciate  the  fact  that  there  are  these  unsolved  problems 
— the  information  being  merely  sufficient  to  emphasise  our 
ignorance.  It  was  his  appreciation  of  this  fact  that  led 
Major  W.  Cooke  Daniels  to  organise  an  expedition  to 
British  New  Guinea  which  will  leave  this  country  in 
August. 

Major  W.  Cooke  Daniels  served  in  the  United  States 
Army  during  the  Cuban  campaign  as  Adjutant-General  of 
Division.  He  has  travelled  extensively  in  British  Guiana 
and  elsevvhere,  and  has  consequently  had  much  experience 
of  travel  and  of  organisation.  He  proposes  to  make  observ- 
ations in  experimental  psychology,  and  will  undertake 
ethnological  investigations.  Dr.  C.  G.  Seligmann,  of  St. 
Thomas's  Hospital,  was  a  member  of  the  recent  Cambridge 
Anthropological  Expedition  to  New  Guinea  and  Sarawak, 
and  consequently  has  had  considerable  experience  in 
anthropological  field  work.  As  the  representative  of  the 
Cancer  Commission  on  the  expedition,  he  will  investigate 
the  question  of  the  prevalence  and  incidence  of  tumours, 
especially  those  of  a  malignant  type.  He  has  care  of  the 
health  of  the  expedition,  and  will  help  in  the  ethnological 
inquiries. 

Dr.  W.  Mersh  Strong,  of  Trinity  College,  Cambridge, 
wijl  be  responsible  for  the  geographical  and  geological 
observations,  and  will  undertake  pathological  and  medical 
research  as  opportunity  offers. 

Preparations  have  been  made  for  the  taking  of  a  very 
large  number  of  photographs,  including  kinematograph 
records  ;  this  department  is  in  charge  of  Mr.  A.  H.  Dunning. 

Major  Daniels  is  sending  to  Australia  for  the  expedi- 
tion's use  a  schooner  yacht  fitted  with  auxiliary  power;  a 
sea-going  launch  is  being  taken  out  for  river  work.  The 
expedition  is  fitted  with  a  large  amount  of  scientific  equip- 
ment, so  that  all  departments  of  anthropological  research 
can  be  prosecuted.  The  majority  of  the  surveying  instru- 
ments have  been  lent  by  the  council  of  the  Royal  Geo- 
graphical Society.  The  Government  Grant  Committee  has 
shown  its  appreciation  of  the  expedition  by  giving  a  small 
grant,  and  the  Royal  Society  has  furthered  its  objects  in 
various  ways.  The  expedition  is  also  recognised  by  the 
Cancer  Commission. 

It  will  be  seen  that  the  Daniels  Ethnographical  Expedi- 
tion to  New  Guinea  is  thoroughly  equipped,  and  we  wish 
it  the  success  it  deserves. 


July  i6,  1903] 


NATURE 


257 


18600 
I  >  I  I 


OiV  A  PROBABLE  RELATIONSHIP  BETWEEN 
THE  SOLAR  PROMINENCES  AND  CORONAL 

T  N  a  previous  number  of  this  Journal  (Nature,  vol.  Ixvii. 
p.  569,  April  16)  an  account  was  given  of  the  results 
which  had  been  deduced  from  a  minute  investigation  of 
the  percentage  frequency  of  prominences  as  determined  from 
observations  made  by  Secchi  and  Tacchini  at  Rome,  and 
Ricco  and  Mascari  at  Catania  and  Palermo.  It  was  there 
shown  that  the  chief  centres  of  prominence  action,  that 
is,  the  zones  in  which  the  greatest  percentage  frequency 
of  prominences  occurred,  indicated  movements  in  helio- 
graphic  latitudes,  the  general  tendency  of  these  being  in 
a  direction  towards  the  solar  poles,  and  not  towards  the 
equator,  as  is  the  case  with  the  spots.  Attention  was 
also  directed  to  the  fact  that  these  centres  of  prominence 
activity  were  not  restricted  to  a  narrow  zone  like  the  spots, 
which  only  occur  between  the  latitudes  ±5°  and  ±35°,  but 
that  at  times  they 
were  numerous  in 
such  high  latitudes 
as  ±80°,  and  even 
higher. 

The  present 
article  contains  an 
account  of  the  re- 
sults of  a  general 
survey  that  has 
been  made  regard- 
ing the  connection 
between  the 

changes  of  position 
of  these  centres  of 
prominence  action 
and  the  various 
forms  of  the  corona 
as  observed  during 
total  eclipses. 

It  has  been  sug- 
gested, and  the  idea 
is  generally  ac- 
cepted, that  the 
various  forms  of  the 
solar  corona  are 
intimately  connec- 
ted with  the  varia- 
tion in  the  spotted 
area  of  the  sun's 
surface.  Thus, 
generally  speaking, 
at  about  the  epochs 
of  sun-spot  maxima, 
the  corona  is  appar- 
ently very  irregular 
in  shape,  there  be- 
ing little  or  none  of 
the  exquisite  tracery 
at  the  sun's  poles 
which  is  so  evident 
at  the  epochs  of 
sun-spot  minima, 
while  the  streamers 
are  less  confined  to 
mid-solar  latitudes 
and  the  region  near 
minima. 


on  the  positions  of  the  coronal  streamers,  the  three  different 
types  here  adopted  refer  in  the  main  to  the  positions  of 
these  streamers  in  relation  to  the  solar  equator  and  poles. 

In  the  first,  or  "  polar  "  group  as  it  has  here  been  called, 
since  streamers  are  found  near  the  solar  poles,  all  those 
coronas  are  included  which  seem  to  have  no  regular  form. 
The  typical  features  of  this  group  are  that  the  polar  rifts 
are  absent,  being  replaced  to  a  great  extent  by  streamers 
at,  or  very  close  to,  the  poles,  and  the  streamers  are 
numerous  in  nearly  all  solar  latitudes ;  also  there  is  no 
definite  equatorial  extension.  To  this  class  the  following 
coronas  belong,   i860,   1870,   1871,   1882,   1883,  and   1893. 

In  the  third,  or  "  equatorial  "  group,  since  the  streamers 
are  in  lower  latitudes,  and  consequently  more  equatorial, 
the  form  of  the  corona  is  very  regular.  The  polar  rifts 
have  a  great  spread  in  latitude  and  are  well  defined,  while 
the  large  streamers  are  restricted  to  the  regions  near  the 
equator ;   in  fact,   the  great  equatorial   extensions  are  best 


STREAMERS 

POLAR 


POLAR  , &^ 


(ei    MvAnc-) 

EQUATORIAL 

CM   WINOVANC^. 


18600 


1870-0 


1880-0 


1890-0 


1800-0 


:•  —Curves  showing  the  relationship  between  the  different  forms  of  the  corona,  the  positions  of  the  centres  of  action  of 
prominence  phenomena  and  the  general  sun-spot  curve.  The  continuous  and  broken  vertical  lines  indicate  the  epoch 
of  the  maxima  and  minima  respectively  of  the  last  mentioned  curve. 


the    equator    than    they    are   at    the 


The  facts  that  sun-spots  do  not  appear  nearer  the  poles 
than  latitudes  ±35°,  and  that  large  coronal  streamers  and 
prominent  rays  are  sometimes  visible  in  much  higher  lati- 
tudes than  these — in  fact  at  times  near  the  poles  of  the  sun, 
and  consequently  outside  the  regions  of  spot  activity — 
suggested  that  the  occurrence  of  prominences,  very  im- 
portant factors  in  the  mechanism  of  the  solar  atmosphere, 
might  be  closely  connected  with  them. 

In  the  present  general  inquiry,  the  forms  of  the  coronas 
that  have  been  observed  since  the  year  1857  have  been 
divided  into  three  main  types,  and  this  classification,  which 
is  not  new,  is  one  into  which  most  of  the  coronas,  with  the 
exception  of  two,  namely  1865  and  1885,  can  be  easily 
placed.     Since  the  forms  of  coronas  are  dependent  chiefly 

1  Abstract  of  a  paper  recently  communicated  to  the  Royal  Astronomical 
Society  by  Dr.  William  J.  S.  Lockyer. 


seen  in  this  type.  This  form  generally  takes  the  shape 
of  a  "  wind  vane,"  and  is  often  referred  to  as  such.  The 
coronas  which  come  into  this  category  are  those  of   1867, 

1868,  1878,  1889  January,  1889  December,  1900  and  1901. 
The  second   group  of  this   classification   may   be   termed 

the  "  intermediate  "  type,  as  the  streamers  are  about  half 
way  or  intermediate  between  the  poles  and  the  equator. 
In  this  group  the  polar  rifts  are  present,  but  they  are  not 
so  extensive  in  latitude  as  in  the  "  equatorial  "  class.  The 
coronal  streamers  also  approach  nearer  the  polar  regions 
than  in  the  "  equatorial  "  class,  but  not  so  close  as  in  the 
"  polar  "  group,  while  the  equatorial  extensions  are  not 
in  such  great  evidence.  Generally  speaking,  this  form  of 
corona  is  due  to  a  large  streamer  in  each  quadrant,  which 
gives  the  corona  the  appearance  of  a  square,  hence  the 
name  "square  corona,"  which  has  been  often  used. 
The   coronas    which    fall    under    this   heading    are    1858, 

1869,  1874,  1875,   1886,  1887,  1896,   1898.     It  may  be  stated 


NO.    1759,  VOL.   68] 


258 


NATURE 


[July  i6,  1903 


that  the  "  polar  "  and  "  equatorial  "  coronas  are  always 
followed  by  "  intermediate  "  types,  the  order  being  polar, 
intermediate,   equatorial,  intermediate,  polar,  &c.^ 

The  "  intermediate  "  type  may  sometimes  approach  m 
form  a  "  polar  "  or  an  "  equatorial  "  type,  accordmg  as 
the  epoch  of  the  occurrence  of  the  eclipse  occurs  nearer 
or  further  from  the  epochs  of  occurrence  of  polar  promin- 
ences. 

Further,  the  "  intermediate  "  type  precedmg  a      polar 
type  will  differ  to  some  extent  from  one  immediately  follow- 
ing a  "  polar  "  type,   because  the  latitudes  of  the  centres 
of  prominence  action  in  each  case  are  different,  as  can  be 
seen  from  the  accompanying  figure. 

Two  coronas  which  have  not  yet  been  classified  are  those 

of  1865  and  1885.     The  former  of  these  is  of  a  type  between 

the    "intermediate"    and    "equatorial,"    while    the    latter 

falls   between    the   "polar"    and    "intermediate"    groups. 

These   have   been    inserted 

on    the    dividing    lines    in 

Fig.  I.     In  classifying  the 

coronas     into     the     above 

groups,       I       have      been 

greatly     assisted    by     Mr. 

W.    H.   Wesley,    to   whom 

I  wish  to  express  my  best 

thanks. 

^he  first  natural  and 
crucial  test  to  apply,  in 
order  to  determine  whether 
there  was  a  connection  be- 
tween prominences  and 
the  different  forms  of  the 
corona,  was  to  inquire 
whether  the  coronal 
streamers  were  situated 
nearest  the  solar  poles,  at 
those  times  when  the 
prominences  were  most 
numerous  in  those  regions. 
The  comparison  for  this 
test  showed  that  the  only 
five  "  polar  "  coronas  re- 
corded since  the  year  1869, 
when  prominence  observ- 
ations were  compienced, 
occurred  at  those  epochs 
when  the  prominences 
attained  their  highest  lati- 
tudes. 

This  satisfactory  result 
indicated  a  very  probable 
cause  and  effect  between 
prominences  and  the 
coronal  streamers,  for  the 
region  considered  was 
quite  outside  the  zone  of 
the  spots,  and  therefore 
independent  of  them. 

It  was  next  found  that 
the  other  two  types  of 
coronas  were  closely 
associated  with  the  number 
and  latitudes  of  the  centres 
of  prominence  action. 
Thus  the  "  equatorial  " 
type  only  occurred  when  there  was  one  definite  centre  of 
prominence  action  in  each  hemisphere,  while  the  "  inter- 
mediate "  type  has  been  recorded  at  those  times  when  two 
centres  of  action  in  each  hemisphere  were  in  progress,  neither 
of  which  were  in  very  high  latitudes. 

The  accompanying  illustration  (Fig.  i)  shows  the  re- 
lationship between  the  sun-spot  curve  for  both  hemispheres 
together,  the  latitudes  of  the  centres  of  action  of  the  solar 
prominences  for  each  hemisphere,  explained  in  detail  in  a 
previous  number  of  this  Journal  (Nature,  vol.  Ixvii.  p.  569, 
April   16),   and  the  times  of  occurrence  of  all  the   eclipses 

1  It  may  be  here  remarked  that  the  "intermediate"  type  between  an 
"equatorial"  and  "  polar  "  type  has  only  once  (1869)  been  recorded  during 
the  period  here  under  investigation,  and  this  is  due  to  the  absence  of 
observed  eclipses  during  the  two  short  available  periods  since  thit  date, 
namely,  1879-81  and  1890-92. 


INTERMEDIATE 


EQUATORIAL 


Fig.  2. — Diagram  showing  by  radial 
lines  the  positions  of  the  centres  of 
prominence  action  and  their  relation 
to  the  chief  features  of  individual 
coronal  streamers  and  to  the  general 
form  of  the  corona.  The  positions  of 
the  sun-spot  zones  are  also  indicated. 


that  have  occurred  since  the  year  1857.  When  two  eclipses- 
of  a  similar  type  occur  in  the  same,  or  two  successive  years, 
they  have  been  inserted  either  one  above  the  other  or 
obliquely,  respectively,  to  avoid  overcrowding.  A  curve  is- 
also  drawn  through  the  different  types  showing  their  re^ 
lation  to  the  sun-spot  curve. 

Since  the  systematic  prominence  observations  only  com- 
menced in  the  year  1872,  the  dotted  portions  of  the  curves 
previous  to  that  date  are  intended  only  to  give  a  rough 
idea  of  the  variations  as  based  on  a  general  repetition  of 
the  observations  of  1872  to  1885. 

Fortunately  for  the  present  inquiry,  Respighi  made  some 
very  valuable  prominence  observations  during  the  years- 
1870,  1871,  and  1872,  which  are  sufficiently  numerous  to 
indicate  the  positions  of  the  centres  of  prominence  activity 
for  these  years.  These  showed  that  during  the  years  1870- 
and  1871  there  were  two  well-marked  prominence  zones  in 
each  hemisphere,  and  that  the  latitude  of  one  of  the  zones- 
was  very  high.  The  positions  of  these  zones  are  indicated 
in  the  accompanying  figure  by  the  small  dots  against  these 
years,  and  they  agree  well  with  the  suggested  curves  repre- 
senting the  probable  conditions  as  might  have  been  ex- 
pected   from  subsequent  observations. 

The  different  types  of  corona  are  plotted  in  three  different 
horizons  in  the  order  "polar,"  "intermediate,"  and" 
"  equatorial,"  and  the  symbols  adopted  for  each,  namely, 
small  circles  with  8  rays  for  the  first,  4  rays  for  the  second, 
and  2  rays  for  the  third,  are  inserted  at  the  epochs  of  their 
occurrence  according  to  the  general  time  scale  for  all  the 
curves.  The  continuous  and  broken  vertical  lines  denote 
the  epochs  of  the  sun-spot  maxima  and  minima,  as  deter- 
mined from  a  discussion  of  spots  recorded  on  both  hemi- 
spheres of  the  sun. 

At  the  first  glance  it  will  be  observed  that  the  three  types 
of  the  corona,  as  seen  from  the  curve  drawn  through  them, 
follow  the  sun-spot  curve  very  closely,  that  is,  that  at  about 
the  times  of  the  maxima  of  sun-spots,  the  "  polar  "  type 
is  present ;  at  the  minima,  the  "  equatorial  "  type  :  and  at 
the  intervals  between  these,  the  "  intermediate  "  type. 
Although  the  sun-spot  curve  thus  affords  a  means  of  pre- 
dicting in  a  general  manner  the  epochs  about  which  any 
of  these  types  will  occur,  such  a  small  restricted  zone  which* 
the  spots  occupy  excludes  the  idea  of  their  presence  being 
responsible  for  such  widely  distributed  coronal  phenomena. 

The  prominence  curve,  on  the  other  hand,  not  only  pro-^ 
vides  one  with  a  more  accurate  method  of  forecast,  but 
such  phenomena  can  account  for  the  general  changes  of 
position  and  form  of  the  coronal  streamers. 

By  examining  the  prominence  curves  in  relation  to  the 
three  different  types  of  coronas  from  the  year  1869,  this- 
connection  is  seen  to  be  very  close.  Thus,  during  the 
years  1870  and  187 1  there  were  two  centres  of  prominence 
action  in  each  hemisphere,  one  of  which  was  in  high  lati- 
tudes, and  the  coronas  for  that  period  were  of  the  "  polar  "" 
type.  From  the  year  1872  to  1877  there  were  two  centres- 
of  prominence  activity  in  each  hemisphere,  both  in  com- 
paratively low  latitudes,  and  the  two  eclipses  during  the 
period,  namely,  1874  and  1875,  were  of  the  "  intermediate  "' 
type.  The  next  eclipse,  1878,  occurred  when  only  one 
centre  of  action  was  in  existence,  and  the  form  of  the 
corona  was  of  the  "  equatorial  "  type. 

As  these  centres  of  prominence  action  reached  their 
extreme  polar  limits  (about  +80°),  and  a  new  centre  had' 
in  the  meanwhile  commenced  in  lower  latitudes  (±25°),  the- 
eclipses  of  1882  and  1883  were  of  the  "  polar  "  type. 

The  next  two  eclipses,  of  1886  and  1887,  which  were 
"intermediate,"  occurred  when  there  were  again  two 
centres  of  prominence  action  in  each  hemisphere,  but  none 
near  the  poles.  When  the  centres  became  single,  as  they 
did  in  the  years  1S89,  1890  and  189 1,  the  two  coronas 
observed  in  the  year  1889  were  of  the  "  equatorial  "  type. 
With  the  movement  of  these  centres  to  high  latitudes  in 
the  years  1892,  1893,  1894,  the  eclipse  of  1893  was  of  the- 
"  polar  "  type. 

The  two  eclipses  of  1896  and  1898,  which  were  "  inter- 
mediate "  in  type,  occurred  when  there  were  two  chief 
centres  of  prominence  action,  while  the  two  most  recent 
eclipses  of  1900  and  1901  were  good  examples  of  the- 
"  equatorial  "  type,  and  were  concurrent  with  only  one 
centre  of  prominence  activity  in  each  hemisphere. 

If  the  eclipses  observed  between  1856  and  1870  be  com- 
pared   with    the    dotted    prominence    curves    for    the    same- 


NO.    1759,   VOL,   68] 


July  i6,  1903] 


NA  TURE 


259 


period,  it  will  be  seen  that  a  similar  connection  seems  to 
exist  between  the  latitudes  of  the  centres  of  action  of  the 
prominences  and  the  three  types  of  coronas. 

The  investigation  seems  to  indicate  that  it  is  the  sum 
total  of  prominence  action  in  the  different  zones  which  pro- 
<luces  the  largest  coronal  streamers,  and  not  any  particular 
prominence  at  any  particular  moment ;  it  is  for  this  reason 
ihat  the  form  of  the  corona  is  not  a  fleeting  phenomenon 
changing  every  minute  or  hour,  but  one  lasting  over  several 
months,  and  sometimes  as  much  as  a  year  or  more.  That 
the  general  form  of  the  corona  does  undergo  comparatively 
slow  changes  is  borne  out,  to  a  great  extent,  by  the  simi- 
Jarity  of  coronas  which  are  observed  at  eclipses  which  occur 
tlose  together,  such  as  those  in  1900,  1901,  the  two  eclipses 
jn  1889,  &c. 

It  is  of  great  interest  briefly  to  note  the  connection 
between  the  centres  of  prominence  action  when  either  two 
or  one  of  them  exist  in  each  hemisphere.  In  the  first  place 
-a  well-defined  large  coronal  streamer  apparently  origin- 
ates, as  many  photographs  indicate,  not  from  disturbance 
at  the  centre  of  its  base,  but  near  the  two  ends.  Such  a 
streamer  is  generally  made  up  of  groups  of  incurving 
structure,  termed  previously  "  synclinal  "  groups,  and  this 
structure  is,  in  many  cases,  very  distinct.  When  there  are 
tiL'o  centres  of  prominence  action  in  one  hemisphere,  the 
coronal  disturbances  resulting  from  each  trend  towards  each 
other,  and  constitute  a  large  streamer  with  an.  apparent 
^'  arch  "  formation.  If  the  two  centres  of  prominence 
action  exist  in  comparatively  mid-latitudes,  one  large 
streamer  is  formed  in  each  quadrant,  and  the  form  of  the 
corona  is  of  the  "  intermediate  "  or  "  square  "  type. 

When  one  of  the  centres  is  near  the  region  of  the  poles 
and  the  other  in  comparatively  low  latitudes,  the  tendency 
Is  still  for  the  two  disturbed  coronal  regions  to  trend  to- 
wards each  other,  but  they  constitute  either  a  large  streamer 
of  an  "  arch  "  formation  nearer  the  solar  poles  with  a  very 
extended  base,  or  two  separate  streamers  which  combined 
have  a  fish-tail  appearance. 

With  one  centre  of  action  of  prominences  in  each  hemi- 
sphere, the  resulting  coronal  disturbances  in  both  hemi- 
spheres curve  towards  the  solar  equator,  and  form 
apparently  a  large  equatorial  streamer;  the  "equatorial" 
type  of  corona  is  here  formed. 

The  accompanying  sketches  (Fig.  2)  illustrate  in  dia- 
grammatic form  the  general  relationships  between  the  lati- 
tudes of  the  spot  zones,  the  latitudes  of  the  centres  of  action 
of  the  prominences,  and  the  suggested  resulting  positions 
and  origin  of  structure  of  the  coronal  streamers  for  each 
of  the  three  types  of  coronas  here  discussed.  It  will  be 
noticed  that  in  the  case  of  the  "  polar  "  and  "  inter- 
mediate "  types,  when  the  sun-spots  are  numerous,  the 
zones  in  which  they  occur  have  apparently  little  connection 
with  the  coronal  streamers.  When  the  latitudes  of  the 
spot  zones  do  approximate  more  nearly  to  the  bases  of  the 
coronal  streamers,  as  in  the  "  equatorial  "  type,  and  might 
be  considered  as  being  the  origin  of  their  existence,  the 
spots  at  these  epochs  are  near  a  minimum,  that  is,  are  very 
few  and  small  in  size,  and  have  the  least  power  of  action. 
William  J.  S.  Lockyer. 


SOME   PRESENT   AIMS   AND   PROSPECTS    OF 
MATHEMATICAL    RESEARCH."^ 

TT  may  be  doubted  on  the  whole  whether  any  completely 
scientific  and  permanent  dividing  lines  for  the  classifi- 

ation  of  modern  original  work  of  pure  and  applied  mathe- 
matics can  be  drawn. 

The  nearest  approach  is  perhaps  an  arrangement  accord- 
ing to  motive.  Thus  a  first  class  may  be  constituted  of 
those  investigations  which  aim  at  discovering  and  establish- 
ing the  foundations  of  the  subject,  and  obtaining  rigorous 
proofs  of  theorems  already  known ;  such  work  as  that 
which  Peano  and  Russell  are  doing  in  their  symbolic  nota- 
tion for  the  general  principles  of  mathematics,  or  Fieri  and 
\'eronese  for  the  axioms  of  geometry,  or  Picard  for  the 
existence  theorems  of  differential  equations,  or  Vall^e- 
Poussin  for  the  differentiation  of  definite  integrals. 

1  From  an  address  by  Mr.  E.  T.  Whittaker  on  "  Some  Present  Aims  and 
Prospects  of  Mathematical  Research,"  delivered  before  the  University 
College  Mathematical  Society  on  June  25.  | 


NO.    1759,   VOL.    68] 


Although  the  primary  aim  of  such  papers  is  that  of  im 
parting  a  strict  logical  rigour  to  the  theory  discussed,  yet 
the  most  surprising  and  unexpected  new  results  are  con- 
stantly arising  in  them ;  as  an  instance,  I  may  mention 
Fano's  discovery  of  a  space  which  consists  only  of  15  points, 
and  which  satisfies  all  the  conditions  for  an  ordinary  pro- 
jective space  except  the  condition  that  each  part  is  to  be 
distinct  from  its  harmonic  conjugate ;  or  the  remarkable 
result  that  a  projective  geometry  of  two  dimensions  cannot 
be  obtained  without  the  supposition  that  the  two- 
dimensional  space  is  contained  in  a  three-dimensional  space ; 
or  the  well-known  theory  of  Fourier  series  and  integrals 
which  can  represent  different  analytic  functions  in  different 
parts  of  their  domain  of  existence.  It  is  a  notable  fact  that 
this  type  of  research  seems  peculiarly  congenial  to  the  mind 
of  the  Latin  races.  Undoubtedly  much  work  of  the  kind 
has  been  done  in  Germany  during  the  nineteenth  century, 
but  the  honour  of  its  foundation  must  be  assigned  to 
Cauchy,  and  its  home  has  always  been  in  France  and  Italy. 
In  this  country  it  has  never  thoroughly  taken  root,  perhaps 
because,  as  someone  said,  the  Englishman  cannot  dis- 
tinguish between  a  proof  and  an  appeal  to  the  jury.  In 
America,  however,  a  considerable  amount  of  attention  is 
now  given  to  the  subject  by  such  writers  as  Moore,  Osgood, 
Bdcher,  and  Huntington. 

A  second  class  of  research  can  be  formed  from  those 
which  are  directly  provoked  by  some  observed  phenomenon 
of  nature,  researches  of  which  the  immortal  type  is  New- 
ton's discovery  that  if  the  planets  move  in  ellipses  with 
the  sun  in  one  focus,  it  must  be  because  they  are  attracted 
to  the  sun  with  a  force  which  varies  as  the  inverse  square 
of  the  distance. 

In  work  of  this  kind  our  country  has  always  borne  a 
distinguished  share ;  the  greatest  achievements  of  the 
English  school  of  mathematical  physicists  must  all  be 
included  in  it,  and  even  at  the  present  time  no  paper  excites 
so  much  interest  among  us  as  one  which  gives  a  mathe- 
matical explanation  of  the  Zeeman  effect  or  the  second  law 
of  thermodynamics. 

A  third  class  of  investigations  may  be  made  to  consist  of 
those  in  which  the  motive  is  not  in  some  external 
phenomenon,  but  in  what  may  be  called  the  internal  ex- 
pansive force  of  the  subject  itself,  the  inherent  capability 
of  extension,  which  is  latent  in  every  theorem  of  mathe- 
matics, the  desire  of  the  mathematician  who  has  solved  the 
quadratic  equation  to  solve  the  cubic  and  quartic,  and  then 
either  to  solve  the  quintic  or  to  show  that  it  cannot  be 
solved  by  radicals. 

This,  which  is  by  far  the  largest  of  the  three  classes, 
admits  of  several  subdivisions,  according  as  the  successful 
issue  of  the  work  is  due  mainly  to  the  author's  geometrical 
imagination,  as  in  the  writings  of  Cremona  and  Chasles, 
or  to  his  power  of  algebraical  analysis,  as  in  much  of  the 
work  of  Jacobi  and  Cayley,  or  to  his  having  brought  to 
bear  on  the  subject  a  novel  set  of  ideas,  as,  for  instance, 
in  Fuchs's  papers  on  linear  differential  equations,  or  to  what 
may  be  called  pure  constructive  intuition,  which  does  not 
depend  on  the  extension  and  generalisation  of  preceding 
results,  as  for  instance,  Euler's  expression  for  the  gamma- 
function  as  an  infinite  product,  or  his  solution  of  the  many 
types  of  differential  equations. 

The  second  of  these  subclasses,  namely,  that  in  which 
the  successful  management  of  highly  complicated  symbolic 
work  is  the  most  prominent  feature,  has  flourished  perhaps 
more  than  any  other  branch  of  non-physical  mathematics 
in  our  own  country. 

It  may  be  questioned  whether  this  is  not  in  part  a  con- 
sequence of  the  traditional  English  mode  of  training,  which 
includes  far  more  working  of  hard  examples  than  is 
customary  abroad,  and  thereby  gives  the  mathematician 
that  algebraical  power  which  comes  of  much  practice  :  but 
no  one  can  see  such  work  as  that  of  Cayley  or  Forsyth 
without  feeling  that  it  is  largely  due  to  an  inherent 
algebraic  power  with  which  our  distinguished  fellow- 
countrymen  have  been  endowed.  The  introduction  of  new 
algorithms  and  new  concepts  is,  on  the  other  hand,  a 
German  characteristic ;  a  notable  instance  is  furnished  by 
the  invariant-theory,  which,  after  its  first  development  by 
Cayley  and  Salmon  on  purely  algebraical  lines,  was  trans- 
formed by  Aronhold's  introduction  of  the  symbolic  nota- 
tion. The  Mengenlehre  of  Cantor,  the  Ausdehnungs- 
lehre  of  Grassmann,  numerative  geometry    and  the  theory 


26o 


NATURE 


[July  i6.  1903 


of  algebraic  numbers,  are  instances  of  subjects  the  inception 
of  which  we  owe  to  the  Germany  of  the  nineteenth  century. 

While,  as  we  have  already  remarked,  the  English  have 
shown  a  considerable  interest  in  some  branches  of  research, 
it  is  often  said,  and  I  think  with  truth,  that  our  record  in 
the  history  of  modern  mathematics  is  not  worthy  of  our 
place  among  the  nations.  It  is,  at  any  rate,  a  fact  that  a 
considerable  number  of  men  spend  the  greater  part  of  their 
student  life  in  the  special  study  of  mathematics,  and  after 
a  successful  college  career  are  appointed  to  teaching  posts 
which  leave  them  a  fair  amount  of  leisure  for  the  pursuit 
of  their  chosen  subject,  and  that,  nevertheless,  their  life 
is  barren  of  contributions  to  learning.  This  state  of  things, 
which  we  must  admit  to  be  much  more  general  in  this 
country  than  on  the  Continent,  is,  perhaps,  the  gravest 
feature  in  the  situation  at  present,  and  it  becomes  deeply 
interesting  to  attempt  to  trace  its  course. 

The  explanation  which  I  personally  favour  places  the 
origin  of  the  evil  back  in  student  days,  and  in  our  methods 
of  instruction.  The  most  casual  reader  of  text-books 
cannot  fail  to  be  struck  by  the  fact  that  English  text-books 
treat  their  subjects  in  much  greater  detail  than  is  customary 
on  the  Continent ;  innumerable  side-issues  are  raised,  trifles 
are  elaborated,  and  examples  are  multiplied  a  hundredfold. 
Moreover,  topics  which  have  now  become  comparatively 
unimportant,  or  even  positively  obsolete,  are  always  re- 
tained, and  each  text-book  differs  from  its  predecessor  only 
in  a  further  increase  of  prolixity. 

The  result  is  that  even  the  best  men  cannot,  in  a  student 
course  of  many  years,  wade  through  this  mass  of  material 
to  the  frontier  of  existing  knowledge,  and  the  unfortunate 
student  finds  his  college  career  over  and  his  teaching  life 
begun  before  he  has  gone  anything  like  far  enough  to  begin 
independent  research. 

I  can  scarcely  conceive  a  greater  benefit  to  the  study  of 
mathematics  in  this  country  than  a  series  of  short  text- 
books holding  closely  to  the  main  lines,  casting  away  the 
rubbish  and  the  trifles,  and  carrying  a  student  to  the 
furthest  boundary  of  learning  in  a  three  years'  university 
course. 

Although  the  evil  relates  chiefly  to  college  text-books,  it 
would  not  be  difficult  to  mention  branches  of  higher  learn- 
ing the  progress  of  which  has  been  arrested  for  a  long 
period  simply  by  the  publication  of  unreadable  accounts  of 
them. 

In  order  that  our  research  may  be  the  worthy  centre  of 
a  life-work,  it  is  needful  to  have  not  merely  the  equipment 
of  a  full  knowledge  of  the  past,  but  also  a  clear  and  well- 
defined  idea  as  to  which  are  to  be  considered  the  chief  and 
which  the  minor  objects  of  investigation.  For  the  next 
worse  thing  to  doing  no  research  at  all  is  to  spend  one's 
time  on  matters  that  are  of  very  little  consequence. 

This  point  is  all  the  more  important  because  there  is 
every  indication  that  we  are  now  at  a  critical  point  in  the 
history  of  mathematics,  and  that  the  twentieth  century  will 
see  progress  in  somewhat  different  directions  from  those 
which  characterised  the  last  half  of  the  nineteenth. 

Let  me  recall  the  fact  that,  from  the  time  of  Newton  to 
the  death  of  Cauchy  in  1857,  the  main  progress  of  mathe- 
matics was  in  the  realm  of  analysis — the  science  which  is 
based  on  Newton's  infinitesimal  calculus,  and  which  was 
enriched  by  all  the  greatest  masters,  Euler,  Lagrange, 
Laplace,  D'Alembert,  the  Bernouillis,  Taylor,  Legendre, 
Fourier,  Gauss,  Abel,  Jacobi,  and  Cauchy. 

The  latter  half  of  the  nineteenth  century  saw,  however, 
a  notable  change.  As  in  the  hands  of  these  giants  even  the 
inexhaustible  mine  of  analysis  seemed  to  be  worked  out, 
new  subjects  came  into  prominence,  such  as  invariants,  the 
theory  of  groups,  the  Mengenlehre,  analysis  situs, 
quaternions,  and  non-Euclidean  geometry ;  the  theory  of 
functions  developed  itself  on  lines  quite  foreign  to  the  older 
analysts,  and  the  demand  for  rigorous  proofs  led  many 
even  of  those  who  remained  in  the  domain  of  analysis,  as 
Du  Bois  Reymond  and  Pringsheim,  to  devote  themselves 
rather  to  a  careful  investigation  of  the  foundations  than 
to  an  extension  of  the  superstructure.  Now,  however,  we 
seem  to  be  on  the  threshold  of  a  change.  The  branches 
of  mathematics  the  introduction  of  which  we  owe  to  the  last 
generations  of  German  mathematicians  are  already  be- 
ginning to  show  signs  of  exhaustion — bv  which  I  mean 
that  further  work  in  such  a  subject  as  the  invariant-theorem 
along  the  present  lines  does  not  promise  to  yield  any  great 
NO.    1759.  VOL.   68] 


increase  of  mathematical  power ;  the  process  of  under- 
pinning the  edifice  has  now  been,  to  a  great  extent,  accom- 
plished, and  the  work  of  upbuilding  can  be  recommenced, 
while  the  interest  of  the  theory  of  functions  has  largely 
passed  over  into  topics  of  a  distinctly  analytical  character, 
such  as  the  theory  of  automorphic  functions,  the  theory  of 
expansions  convergent  within  a  given  region,  and  the  theory 
of  summable  series. 

All  the  indications  seem  to  point  to  the  conclusion  that 
pure  mathematics  is  in  the  process  of  its  natural  evolution 
returning  to  the  old  path,  and  that  a  new  phase  of  advance 
in  the  analysis  of  differential  equations  and  functions  is 
about  to  come  upon  us. 

But  though  the  same,  it  will  be  changed  ;  the  work  of 
the  last  fifty  years  has  given  rise  to  ideas  and  methods  the 
application  of  which  must  necessarily  extend  the  older 
subjects  in  altogether  new  directions,  and  perhaps  lead,  to 
an  era  worthy  to  be  compared  with  that  of  Euler  and 
Lagrange. 


UNIVERSITY  AND  EDUCATIONAL 
INTELLIGENCE. 
The  Joule  studentship,  founded  "  to  assist  research, 
especially  among  younger  men,  in  those  branches  of 
physical  science  more  immediately  connected  with  Joule's 
work,"  will  shortly  become  vacant  through  the  termination 
of  the  tenure  of  Dr.  Ulrich  Behn,  who  was  nominated  by 
the  K.  Akademie  der  Wissenschaften  of  Berlin  in  1901. 
On  this  occasion  the  nomination  of  a  student  rests  with 
the  president  and  council  of  the  Royal  Society,  who  will 
make  their  selection  in  October  next.  The  studentship  is 
of  the  value  of  100/.  in  all.  Information  may  be  obtained 
from  the  assistant  secretary  of  the  Royal  Society. 

We  regret  to  see  the  announcement  of  the  death  of  Sir 
Joshua  Fitch  at  the  age  of  seventy-nine.  The  country  has 
thus  lost  one  of  its  foremost  authorities  on  educational  theory 
and  practice.  Sir  Joshua  Fitch  was  for  thirty-one  years  con- 
nected with  the  Education  Department,  and  the  wide  and 
varied  experience  which  he  acquired  give  exceptional  weight 
to  his  views  on  educational  subjects,  expressed  in  many 
articles,  books  and  addresses.  Since  his  retirement  from 
official  life  in  1894,  he  has  taken  an  active  part  in  the 
formation  of  sound  public  opinion  upon  educational 
questions.  He  recognised  that  the  important  point  to 
bring  before  the  people  was  "  that  education  ought  to  be 
a  national  concern,  that  it  should  not  be  left  entirely  to 
local,  or  private,  or  irresponsible  initiative."  This  principle 
must  be  accepted  before  any  substantial  provision  will  be 
made  for  educational  progress.  Sir  Joshua  took  an  active 
part  in  the  reorganisation  of  the  University  of  London 
as  a  teaching  university,  and  throughout  his  career 
identified  himself  with  movements  which  had  for  their 
object  the  coordination  and  development  of  the  educational 
forces  of  the  country. 

Of  the  Education  Vote  of  11,249,806?.  agreed  to  by  Com- 
mittee of  the  House  of  Commons  last  Thursday,  only  half 
a  million  belongs  to  secondary  education.  In  the  course 
of  a  speech  made  in  introducing  the  vote.  Sir  William 
Anson  expressed  the  fear  that  the  traditional  educational 
work  was  being  destroyed,  and  was  not  being  replaced 
with  anything  of  a  really  substantial  character.  He  was 
especially  alarmed  at  the  condition  of  the  smaller  grammar 
schools.  "  In  these  schools  much  attention  is  now  being 
given  to  science,  with  results  that  are  not  altogether  satis- 
factory. The  classical  languages  are  almost  disregarded, 
and  history  and  geography  are  neglected."  Mr.  Balfour 
spoke  to  much  the  same  effect  in  the  speech  at  the  Allied 
Colonial  Universities  dinner  which  appears  in  another  part  of 
this  issue.  The  suggestion  is  that  science  is  not  such  a  good 
educational  instrument  as  the  study  of  dead  languages.  It 
does  not  need  much  consideration  to  see  that  these  con- 
clusions are  unsound.  For  centuries  our  grammar  schools 
have  been  training  grounds  for  teachers  of  Greek  and 
Latin,  and  it  would  be  strange  if  efficient  methods  had  not 
been  evolved.  Every  encouragement  has  been  given  to  the 
humanities  both  in  school  and  university,  and  the  masters 
who  have  controlled  the  curriculum  or  guided  the  studies 
have    been,    with    rare    exceptions,    men    distinguished    for 


July  i6,  1903] 


NATURE 


261 


their  attainments  in  classical  fields.  It  is  scarcely  too  much 
to  say  that  few  of  these  men  have  welcomed  the  introduc- 
tion of  science  into  the  school  curriculum.  But,  for  the 
sake  of  recognition  by  county  councils,  and  the  consequent 
grants,  science  has  been  given  a  place  in  grammar  schools 
as  a  paying  guest.  In  many  cases  the  headmasters  know 
nothing  of  science,  and  care  less ;  and  the  teachers  in  charge 
of  the  science  work  receive  little  encouragement  to  do  any- 
thing but  push  on  promising  pupils  to  scholarship  examin- 
ations. It  is,  of  course,  impossible  to  discover  the  educa- 
tional value  of  scientific  studies  under  these  conditions, 
when  no  provision  has  been  made  for  the  supply  of  qualified 
teachers,  and  while  the  idea  still  prevails  among  many 
masters  that  text-books  and  lectures  are  the  most  important 
means  of  imparting  scientific  knowledge.  It  would  be 
strange  if  the  results  of  such  teaching  were  satisfactory. 
If  Mr.  Balfour  and  Sir  William  Anson  will  examine  the 
matter  a  little  more  closely,  they  will  see  that  no  fair 
comparison  can  yet  be  made  between  the  merits  of  classical 
and  scientific  studies.  Everything  depends  upon  the  method 
by  which  the  subject  is  taught,  and  the  spirit  which  inspires 
the  teacher. 


SOCIETIES  AND  ACADEMIES. 
London. 

Royal  Society,  May  14. — "  The  '  Elasmometer,'  a  New 
Form  of  Interference  Apparatus  for  the  Determination  of 
the  Elasticity  of  Solid  Substances."  By  A.  E.  H.  Tutton, 
D.Sc,  F.R.S. 

The  apparatus  is  designed  to  measure  the  amount  of 
bending  suffered  by  a  thin  plate  of  the  substance  investi- 
gated, when  supported  near  its  ends  against  a  pair  of 
platinum-iridium  knife-edges,  under  a  known  weight 
applied  at  its  centre.  It  consists  of  an  elaborate  apparatus 
for  the  support  and  adjustment  of  the  plate  and  knife- 
edges  ;  a  measuring  microscope,  reading  in  two  rectangular 
directions  by  a  new  method  to  the  thousandth  of  a  millimetre, 
for  measuring  the  dimensions  of  the  plate  in  situ  ;  a  specially 
constructed  form  of  balance,  one  end  of  the  beam  of  which 
carries  an  agate  point,  through  which  a  pressure  is  applied 
under  the  centre  of  the  plate  equal  to  the  weight  in  a  pan 
suspended  from  the  other  end  ;  a  delicate  control  apparatus, 
which  only  permits  the  weight  to  operate  extremely  slowly  ; 
an  interference  apparatus,  of  which  the  two  reflecting  sur- 
faces concerned  in  the  interference  are  (i)  the  lower  surface 
of  a  colourless  glass  disc  supported  on  a  tripod  in  rigid 
connection  with  the  knife-edges,  and  (2)  the  upper  surface 
of  a  smaller  black  glass  disc  forming  the  top  of  a  counter- 
poised rocker,  arranged  to  move  with  the  centre  of  the 
plate  and  thus  to  transmit  its  motion.  The  amount  of 
diminution  in  the  thickness  of  the  air  film  between  the  two 
glass  surfaces,  consequent  on  the  bending  of  the  plate,  is 
given  by  the  number  of  interference  bands  which  pass  the 
centre  of  reference,  as  seen  in  the  micrometer  eye-piece  of 
the  observing  apparatus,  multiplied  by  half  the  wave-length 
of  the  G  or  F  hydrogen  light  which  is  employed.  The 
optical  apparatus  of  the  dilatometer  previously  exhibited  is 
utilised  for  the  transmission  of  the  hydrogen  light  to  the 
interference  apparatus,  and  as  observing  apparatus. 

June  18. — "  On  the  Discharge  of  Electricity  from  Hot 
Platinum."  By  Harold  A.  Wilson,  D.Sc,  B.A.,  Fellow 
of  Trinity  College,  Cambridge.  Communicated  by  C.  T.  R. 
Wilson,  F.R.S. 

This  paper  contains  an  account  of  a  series  of  experiments 
on  the  discharge  of  electricity  from  hot  platinum  wires. 
The  main  object  of  the  investigation  was  to  determine  the 
influence  exerted  by  the  nature  of  the  gas  in  which  the 
wire  is  immersed. 

It  was  found  that  the  presence  of  traces  of  hydrogen  in 
the  wire  enormously  increases  the  leak  of  negative  elec- 
tricity from  it.  By  taking  precautions  to  remove  hydrogen 
the  negative  leak  was  diminished  to  one  part  in  250,000 
of  its  usual  value.  The  presence  of  traces  of  phosphorus 
pentoxide  was  found  enormously  to  Increase  the  negative 
'  ak,  and  it  is  known  that  alkali  salts  have  a  similar  effect. 

he  results  obtained  lead  to  the  conclusion  that  the  negative 

ak  is  due  to  the  presence  of  traces  of  hydrogen,  or.  possibly 
other  substances,  in  the  wire. 


With  a  particular  wire  in  air,  the  small  negative  leak 
remaining  when  impurities  have  been  got  rid  of,  as  far 
as  possible,  only  falls  off  very  slowly  with  time,  and  its 
variation  with  the  pressure  of  the  air,  the  potential  differ- 
ence, and  the  temperature  can  be  measured. 

It  is  shown  that  the  variation  of  the  negative  leak  with 
the  air  pressure  and  potential  difference  is  due  to  the  ionisa- 
tion  of  the  air  by  collisions  of  the  negative  ions  leaving  the 
wire  with  the  air  molecules.  If  the  P.D.  used  is  too  small 
to  produce  ionisation  by  collisions,  the  leak  is  independent 
of  the  air  pressure. 

The  variation  of  the  negative  leak  with  the  temperature 
is  investigated,  and  a  formula  which  represents  it  is  deduced 
from  thermodynamical  considerations. 

The  negative  leak  in  hydrogen  at  various  pressures  is 
measured  and  found  to  increase  proportionally  to  the 
pressure  at  low  pressures.  It  is  shown  that  the  negative 
leak  depends  on  the  amount  of  hydrogen  occluded  by  the 
wire.  The  following  table  gives  the  negative  leaks  at 
1400°  C.  at  several  pressures  in  hydrogen 


Pressure. 

1330      m: 

0*II2     , 

00013  > 
O'O         ,, 


Current  per  sq.  centim. 

I'O  X  io~^  ampere. 
i'2xio-'       „ 
2 'OX  io~^       ,, 
1-2  xio"^"     ,, 


The  energy  required  for  the  production  of  a  gram 
molecular  weight  of  negative  ions  is  found  to  have  the 
following  values  : — 

(i)  Thoroughly  clean  wire  in  air  or 

vacuum  ... 155,000  calories. 

(2)  Cleaned  wire  in  air  or  vacuum  .  131,100       ,, 

(3)  Wire  in  Hj  at  00013  "im-      •••  120,000       ,, 

(4)  ..         ,,       0-II2      „         ...       85,900       ,, 

(5)  M        »  i33"o         „         ...       36,000       „ 

The  paper  also  contains  measurements  of  the  positive 
leak.  It  is  shown  that  there  is  no  positive  leak  appreciable 
on  a  galvanometer  from  a  clean  wire  in  a  vacuum.  In  air 
or  hydrogen  there  is  a  positive  leak,  which  increases  with 
the  gas  pressure,  and  which  is  probably  due  to  ionisation 
of  the  gas  molecules  in  contact  with  the  hot  platinum. 

It  is  probable  that  a  pure  platinum  wire  heated  in  a 
perfect  vacuum  would  not  discharge  any  electricity  at  all, 
either  positive  or  negative,  to  an  extent  appreciable  on  a 
galvanometer. 

"  Upon  the  Bactericidal  Action  of  some  Ultra-violet 
Radiations  as  Produced  by  the  Continuous-current  Arc." 
By  J.  E.  Barnard  and  H.  de  R.  Morgan.  Communicated 
by  Sir  Henry  Roscoe,  F.R.S. 

The  experiments  described  were  carried  out  with  the 
object  of  determining  the  effect  on  the  vitality  of  bacteria, 
as  the  result  of  exposure  to  the  arc  spectra  of  carbon  and 
of  various  metals. 

The  organisms  experimented  with  have  been  the  Bacillus 
coli  communis,  B.  prodigiosus,  B.  subtilis.  Micrococcus 
tetragenus,  Staphylococcus  aureus  and  Bacillus  tuberculosis. 

The  conclusion  arrived  at  is  that  the  bactericidal  action 
of  light  is  almost  entirely  due  to  the  action  of  those  radia- 
tions in  the  ultra-violet  region  of  the  spectrum  which  are 
included  between  the  wave-lengths  3287  and  2265.  It  is, 
therefore,  necessary  that  any  source  of  light  used  as  a 
bactericidal  agent  should  be  rich  in  these  rays. 

Royal  Meteorological  Society,  June  17.— Captain  D. 
Wilson-Barker,  president,  in  the  chair. — Dr.  W.  N,  Shaw, 
F.R.S.,  read  a  paper  on  the  meteorological  aspects  of  the 
storm  of  February  26-27.  Between  sunset  of  February  26 
and  noon  of  February  27,  the  British  Isles  were  visited  by 
a  storm  of  unusual  severity.  Its  most  impressive  charac- 
teristic was  the  amount  of  damage  done  to  trees  and  build- 
ings by  gales  from  the  south  or  south-west,  particularly  in 
the  neighbourhood  of  Dublin,  where  very  large  numbers  of 
trees  were  uprooted,  and  in  Lancashire.  Gales  or  strong 
winds  were  also  experienced  in  many  parts  of  the  British 
Isles.  Dr.  Shaw  exhibited  lantern  slides  showing  the  path 
of  the  barometric  minimum  and  the  area  over  which  the 
destruction  extended.  He  also  put  forward  some  general 
considerations  about  barometric  depressions,  and  storms, 
dealing  more  especially  with  the  distribution  of  winds  and 


NO.    1759,   VOL.   68] 


262 


NATURE 


[July  i6,  1903 


the  velocity  of  travel,  and  concluded  by  making  some  re- 
marks on  self-recording  instruments  and  their  management. 
— A  paper  by  Mr.  J.  Baxendell,  on  the  Dines-Baxendell 
anemograph  and  the  dial  pattern  non-oscillating  pressure- 
plate  anemometer,  was  read  by  the  secretary.  The  Dines 
pressure-tube  anemometer  is  now  the  accepted  standard 
instrument  for  recording  wind  movement,  but  it  does  not 
record  the  direction  of  the  wind.  Mr.  Baxendell  has 
endeavoured  to  overcome  this  drawback,  and  in  this  paper 
he  gives  a  description  of  the  combined  velocity  and  direc- 
tion anemometer  which  he  has  designed  for  the  Fernley 
Observatory  at  Southport.  In  addition,  he  has  designed 
a  non-oscillating  pressure-plate  for  showing  on  a  dial  the 
maximum  pressure  of  the  wind.  By  using  a  combined 
"  head  "  or  vane  for  the  Dines  anemometer,  Mr.  Baxendell 
has  been  able  to  arrange  for  the  new  instrument  to  record 
(i)  the  velocity,  (2)  the  direction,  and  (3)  the  maximum 
pressure  of  the  wind. 

Linnean  Society,  June  18.— Prof.  S.  H.  Vines,  F.R.S., 
president,  in  the  chair. — New  Chinese  plants,  by  Mr.  S.  T. 
Dunn.  In  this,  descriptions  of  more  than  seventy  new 
species  are  given,  founded  on  specimens  collected  chiefly  in 
Yunnan  by  Dr.  A.  Henry  and  Mr.  E.  H.  Wilson. — The 
germination  of  the  seeds  of  Davidia  involucrata,  by  Mr. 
W.  Botting  Hemsley,  F.R.S.  The  fruit  has  an  exceedingly 
hard,  bony  endocarp  or  "  stone,"  enclosing  usually  a  number 
of  seeds,  and  causing  wonder  how  they  can  free  themselves 
for  germination.  Under  the  influence  of  moisture,  a  portion 
of  the  back  of  each  cell  (carpel)  separates  and  falls  away  in 
the  form  of  a  valve  or  shutter,  revealing  a  portion  of  the 
seed.  The  radicle  soon  begins  to  grow,  and  in  due  time 
reaches  the  ground,  when  the  upper  part  of  the  plantlet 
frees  itself  and  commences  an  independent  existence. — • 
Rudimentary  horns  in  horses,  by  Dr.  G.  W.  Eustace.  Two 
thoroughbred  horses  showed  bilateral  osseous  prominences, 
casts  of  which  were  shown  ;  in  both  the  left  or  near  boss 
is  the  larger.  The  occurrence  of  these  is  extremely  rare, 
but  the  pedigree  of  all  known  instances  being  traced  back, 
it  is  found  that  they  are  all  descended  from  the  Darly 
Arabian,  bought  at  Aleppo,  and  shipped  to  England  in  1705  ; 
further,  all  are  descended  from  Eclipse.  The  only  refer- 
ence to  this  phenomenon  is  that  noted  by  Darwin,  "  Varia- 
tion of  Animals  and  Plants,"  vol.  i.  p.  52.  The  author 
shows  that  these  bosses  are  not  mere  exostoses  due  to  dis- 
ease, and  draws  the  conclusion  that  they  are  instances  of 
the  reappearance,  in  a  rudimentary  condition,  of  structures 
which  once  existed  in  a  functionally  perfect  condition. — 
Scottish  fresh-water  plankton,  part  i.,  by  Mr.  W.  West 
and  Prof.  G.  S.  West.  The  paper  deals  with  plankton- 
material  from  lochs  in  different  parts  of  Scotland  and  the 
Outer  Hebrides.  The  Scottish  plankton  is  found  to  differ 
considerably  from  that  of  the  western  part  of  continental 
Europe ;  it  is  remarkably  rich  in  Desmids,  which  are  of 
a  distinctly  western  type,  and  the  most  abundant  are  species 
of  Staurastrum.  The  scarcity  of  free-swimming  Proto- 
coccoideae  is  striking,  but  Diatoms  are  fairly  represented. 
A  noteworthy  feature  is  that  both  Diatoms  and  Desmids 
display  long  spines  or  processes ;  this  excessive  develop- 
ment is  ascribed  by  the  authors  to  the  assumption  of  a 
purely  free-swimming  habit. — On  the  anatomy  of  the  leaves 
of  British  grasses,  by  Mr.  L.  Lewton-Brain.  The  paper 
is  the  result  of  testing  the  classification  of  leaf-structure 
devised  by  Prof.  Marshall  Ward.  Four  main  types  are 
recognised  : — (i)  leaves  in  which  the  upper  surface  is  flat 
or  nearly  so ;  (2)  the  upper  surface  marked  by  distinct 
though  not  very  high  ribs ;  (3)  the  upper  surface  marked 
by  very  distinct  and  high  ribs ;  and  (4)  the  upper  surface 
reduced  to  a  mere  fold  in  an  almost  solid  leaf. 

Geological  Society,  June  24.— Sir  Archibald  Geikie, 
F.R.S.,  vice-president,  in  the  chair. — On  a  transported 
mass  of  Ampthill  Clay  in  the  Boulder-clay  at  Biggleswade 
(Bedfordshire),  by  Mr.  Henry  Home.  Under  10^  feet  of 
soil  and  Boulder-clay,  the  Ampthill  Clay  was  penetrated 
for  67  feet,  resting  on  Chalky  Boulder-clay,  fine  silty  clay, 
disturbed  Gault,  and  Lower  Greensand.  The  clay  is  litho- 
logically  identical  with  the  Ampthill  Clay  with  its  selenite- 
crystals,  and  contains  Ammonites  excavatus,  often  covered 
with  Serpula;,  but  no  abundant  examples  of  Ostrea  deltoidea. 
The  boulder   was  probably   an   outlier,    situated  in   Oxford 


Clay  at  a  level  high  enough  to  be  ploughed  into  by  the 
agent  which  form^  the  Glacial  Drift. — ^The  Rhaetic  and 
Lower  Lias  of  Sedbury  Cliff,  near  Chepstow,  by  Mr. 
Linsdall  Richardson.  The  chief  portion  of  the  cliff- 
section  described  has  a  direction  north-east  and  south-west ; 
the  dip  of  the  beds  does  not  exceed  3°  to  the  south-south- 
east.— Notes  on  the  lowest  beds  of  the  Lower  Lias  at  Sed- 
bury Cliff,  by  Mr.  Arthur  Vaughan.  The  two  chief  points  ' 
of  interest  of  this  section  are,  the  relation  of  the  basal 
conglomerate  to  the  Cotham  Marble  and  White  Lias  of 
neighbouring  districts,  and  the  examination  of  the  faunal 
sequence,  with  a  view  of  testing  the  absolute  value  of 
ammonite-zones.  A  diagram  is  given  showing  the  times 
of  appearance  and  disappearance,  the  abundance  or  rarity, 
of  several  fossils  within  and  below  the  zone  of  Ammonites 
psilonotus,  and  on  account  of  the  beginning  of  five  forms 
at  a  given  horizon  and  the  disappearance  of  several  forms 
immediately  below  it,  this  level  is  chosen  as  the  base  of 
the  zone  of  A.  psilonotus,  rather  than  the  point  of  appear- 
ance of  A.  planorbis,  4  feet  higher  up.  It  is  hoped  that  the 
construction  of  similar  diagrams  will  be  of  use  in  testing 
the  value  of  a  series  of  ammonite-ages  as  divisions  of 
relative  time. 

Dublin. 
Royal  Dublin  Society,  June  16.— Prox.  J.  M.  Purser  in 
the  chair. — Prof.  T,  Johnson  and  Miss  M.  C.  Knowles 
gave  an  account  of  the  contents  of  the  British  herbarium 
of  the  late  H.  C.  Levinge,  which  had  been  given  to  the 
National  Museum  in  Dublin.  The  collection  contains 
specimens  of  nearly  all  the  species  of  flowering  plants  and 
ferns  recorded  for  Ireland  ;  it  is  especially  rich  in  West- 
meath  plants,  and  supplies  many  additions  to  the  records 
of  Irish  topographical  botany.  Mr.  Levinge's  herbarium 
of  ferns,  British  and  foreign — 4000  sheets — had  been 
previously  given  to  the  museum. — Prof.  J.  A.  McClelland 
read  a  paper  on  ionisation  in  atmospheric  air.  This  paper 
deals  with  the  amount  of  ionisation  in  free  atmospheric 
air.  and  the  variations  of  the  ionisation  at  different  times. 
The  largest  values  have  been  obtained  after  several  hours' 
continuous  rain,  which  would  agree  with  the  known  radio- 
activity of  freshly  fallen  rain.  On  the  other  hand,  very 
small  values  of  the  ionisation  have  been  found  after  slight 
showers,  probably  because  the  ions  have  been  removed 
fiom  the  atmosphere  by  the  condensation  on  them  of  water 
vapour. — Dr.  Henry  H.  Dixon  showed  a  model  for  illus- 
trating the  part  played  by  the  mesophyll  cells  in  transpira- 
tion. The  model  consists  of  a  funnel  closed  above  by  two 
membranes,  between  which  is  a  lenticular  space  containing 
a  sugar  solution.  The  funnel  and  its  stem  are  filled  with 
water,  and,  when  set  in  an  upright  position,  are  supplied 
with  water  through  a  capillary  tube.  The  motion  of  water 
in  this  tube  is  made  apparent  by  microscopically  observing 
a  precipitate  suspended  in  it.  In  the  paper  the  working 
of  the  model  is  explained,  and  it  is  pointed  out  that  the 
tension  set  up  by  evaporation  from  the  surface  of  the  leaf- 
cells  is  transmitted,  through  the  solvent  in  them,  to  the 
water  in  the  conducting  tracts  of  the  plant,  while  at  the 
same  time  the  dissolved  substances  exert  an  osmotic  pressure 
and  keep  the  cells  turgid.  The  paper  also  contains  the 
description  of  an  experiment  by  which  the  solvent  of  osmotic 
cells  may  be  subjected  to  tension  while  at  the  same  time 
the  pressure  exerted  by  the  solute  is  apparent. — Prof.  A.  W. 
Conway  read  a  paper  on  a  new  foundation  for  electro- 
dynamics ;  a  modification  of  the  scheme  of  Helmholtz  was 
proposed  in  it,  the  scalar  and  vector  potentials  being  multi- 
plied by  a  factor  showing  Doppler  effect. — Mr.  J.  T. 
Jackson  described  a  new  method  of  producing  tension  in 
liquids  ;  how  ordinary  tap  water,  just  as  drawn  from  the 
city  supply  mains,  had  been  subjected  to  a  tension  of  381b. 
per  square  inch.  Advantage  was  taken  of  the  principle 
underlying  the  working  of  the  common  filter  pump,  Venturi 
water-meter,  spray  distributor,  &c.  The  water  was  forced 
through  a  glass  tube  constricted  at  one  point,  and  the 
pressure  at  the  constriction  was  estimated  to  fall  below  two 
and  a  half  atmospheres  negative. 

Royal  Irish  Academy,  June  22. — Prof.  R.  Atkinson,  presi- 
dent, in  the  chair. — On  the  synthesis  of  glycosides — some 
derivatives  of  arabinose,  by  Prof.  Hugh  Ryan  and  Mr. 
George  Ebrill.     Following  the  method  employed  by   Ryan 


NO.    1759.   VOL.   68] 


July  i6,  1903] 


NATURE 


263 


for  the  synthesis  of  glycosides  {Jour.  Chem.  Soc,  1899,  p. 
1054;  1901,  p.  704),  the  authors  have  obtained  from  the 
acetochloroarabinose  previously  prepared  by  Ryan  and 
Mills  {loc.  cit.)  methyl-arabinoside,  /3-naphthylarabinoside, 
o-cresyl-arabinoside,  and  carvacryl-arabinoside. — Report  on 
the  metamorphosed  sedimentary  and  igneous  rocks  of 
the  Ox  Mountain  range  in  Mayo  and  Sligo,  and  of  their 
being  probably  a  continuation  of  the  similar  rocks  to  the 
west  in  Mayo  and  Galway,  also  that  they  most  likely  ex- 
tf:nd  northwards  into  Donegal  and  Londonderry,  by  Mr. 
A.  McHenry.  Opinions  were  stated  as  to  the  probability 
that  the  igneous  rocks  were  contemporaneous  in  age  with 
the  granitic  and  associated  basic  rocks  of  Leinster ;  that  is, 
that  they  belong  probably  to  early  Devonian  time.  Also 
that  the  sediments  into  which  the  igneous  rocks  of  the 
west  and  north-west  intrude  are  mainly  of  Ordovician  age, 
with  occasionally  Upper  Silurian  sediments  included,  as  in 
the  case  of  the  Wenlock  quartzite  of  Croagh  Patrick  Moun- 
tain, south  of  Clew  Bay. — On  the  antipodal  relations  of  the 
eruptions  and  earthquakes  reported  as  having  occurred 
since  January,  1901,  by  Prof.  J.  P.  O'Reilly.  The  paper 
details  the  principal  earthquakes  and  eruptions  mentioned 
as  having  taken  place  since  the  commencement  of  1901, 
giving  the  essential  particulars  regarding  the  points  cited, 
as  also  the  antipodal  relations  in  each  case.  It  is  stated 
that  of  the  centres  of  eruption  mentioned,  between  91  and 
g2  per  cent,  lie  in  the  northern  hemisphere,  giving  rise, 
therefore,  to  antipodes  situated  in  the  southern  hemisphere, 
and  for  the  most  part  in  the  Pacific  and  South  Pacific,  in 
the  neighbourhood  of  New  Zealand,  in  the  Indian  Ocean 
and  the  island  groups  of  these  oceans,  that  is  to  say,  in 
parts  of  the  earth's  surface  usually  considered  as  being  in 
a  state  of  continued  immersion,  and  so  far  implying  a 
certain  connection  between  the  seats  of  activity  on  land 
and  their  antipodals  in  these  oceans. — To  obtain  the  cubic 
curve  having  three  given  conies  as  polar  conies,  by  Dr. 
J.  P.  Johnston.  It  was  shown  that  the  conditions  that 
the  three  conies  could  be  transformed  by  a  linear  substitu- 
tion, so  as  to  be  the  first  deriveds  of  a  ternary  cubic,  gave 
eight  independent  linear  equations  to  determine  the  nine 
constants  of  the  transformation.  A  method  was  then  given 
by  which  the  equation  of  the  cubic  could  be  at  once  written 
down  in  a  short  symmetrical  form.  The  constants  of  trans- 
formation were  seen  to  be  the  coordinates  of  the  points 
of  which  the  conies  were  the  polar  conies. — A  report  on  the 
Irish  Hepaticae,  by  Mr.  D.  McArdle,  forms  a  risumi  of 
all  papers  on  the  subject  since  1876.  170  species  and  63 
varieties  are  enumerated.  The  arrangement  is  the  same  as 
that  adopted  in  the  "  Cybele  Hibernica,"  of  which  it  is 
intended  to  form  part  ii.  A  table  of  districts  shows  at  a 
glance  the  rarity  or  frequency  of  each  plant. 

Paris. 
Academy  of  Sciences,  July  6. — M.  Mascart  in  the  chair. 
— The  secretary  announced  to  the  Academy  the  death  of 
Prof.  J.  W.  Gibbs,  correspondant  for  the  section  of 
mechanics.  (An  obituary  notice  appeared  in  Nature  of 
May  7,  p.  II.) — Study  of  the  flow  of  sheets  of  water,  by  M.  J. 
Boussinesq. — On  new  syntheses  effected  by  means  of 
molecules  containing  the  methylene  group  associated  with 
one  or  two  negative  radicles.  The  action  of  epichlorhydrin 
upon  the  ^odium  derivatives  of  acetone-dicarboxylic  esters, 
by  MM.  A.  Haller  and  F.  March.  The  lactone  obtained 
as  rhe  result  of  this  reaction  has  been  esterified  with  alcohol 
and  hydrochloric  acid.  The  ester  was  not  isolated,  since 
it  suffers  internal  condensation,  giving  rise  to  a  hydro- 
furfurane  derivative,  the  properties  and  reactions  of  which 
are  described. — The  action  of  human  serum  upon  the 
Trypanosomes  of  nagana,  caderas,  and  surra,  by  M,  A. 
Laveran.  Human  serum,  injected  into  animals  suffering 
from  nagana,  surra,  or  caderas,  causes  the  temporary  dis- 
appearance of  the  parasites  from  the  blood  of  the  animal. 
No  other  method  of  treatment  has  been  found  which  causes 
even  a  temporary  cure  of  these  diseases.  No  other  species 
of  animal  furnishes  a  serum  having  properties  analogous 
in  this  respect  to  human  serum,  with  the  exception  of  a 
slight  effect  noticed  in  the  serum  from  the  ape. — Remarks 
on  the  formation  of  pollen  in  the  Asclepiadeae,  by  M.  L. 
Quigrnard. — On  a  rapid  method  of  obtaining  a  plan  of  a 
country  by   means   of  photographs   taken   from   a   balloon, 


NO.    1759,  VOL.  68] 


by  M.  Laussedat.  Maps  taken  photographically  from 
balloons  have  hitherto  required  a  laborious  graphical  treat- 
ment to  reduce  them  to  a  plane ;  a  purely  optical  method 
of  treatment  is  now  described. — Experiments  on  the  resist- 
ance of  the  air,  by  M.  G.  Eiffel.  A  heavy  mass,  120  kilo- 
grammes, and  carrying  plates  which  could  be  varied  in 
shape  and  size,  as  well  as  means  of  recording  the  velocity 
and  air  pressure,  was  allowed  to  fall  freely.  The  formula 
usually  given  for  the  pressure  is  KSV^,  where  S  is  the 
surface,  V  the  velcity,  and  K  a  constant  o- 125kg.  As  a 
result  of  these  experiments,  it  was  found  that  K  increased, 
with  the  surface,  and  with  equal  surfaces,  increases  with 
the  perimeter  p,  such  that  K  =  0032 +  0022  p. — Secular 
variations  of  secondary  importance,  by  M.  Jean  Mascart. 
— On  the  lines  of  curvature  of  certain  surfaces,  by  M.  E. 
Blutel. — On  the  groups  of  Mathieu,  by  M.  de  Siguier. 
— On  the  fundamental  functions  of  Poincard  and  the 
method  of  Neumann  for  a  frontier  composed  of  curvilinear 
polygons,  by  M.  S.  Zaremba. — On  the  characteristics  of 
th'i  vowels,  the  vocal  scales,  and  their  intervals,  by  M. 
rabb6  Rousseiot. — On  a  species  of  oscillation  of  the 
chromatic  perception,  by  M.  C.  Malt^zos. — Consequences 
of  the  theory  of  nickel  steels,  by  M.  C.-E.  GMlllaume. 
The  theory  that  the  anomalous  behaviour  of  nickel  steels 
is  due  to  the  transformation  of  iron  from  the  o  to  the  7 
state,  and  inversely,  is  applied  to  the  explanation  of  ex- 
periments by  Howe,  Nagaoka  and  Honda,  and  Curie  with 
satisfactory  results. — On  the  diminution  of  the  potential  for 
any  spontaneous  change  in  a  medium  at  constant  tempera- 
ture and  pressure,  by  M.  Arifts. — The  action  of  iodine  on 
thin  pellicles  of  copper,  by  M.  HoulleviKue.  It  was  found 
as  a  result  of  these  experiments,  that  the  smallest  molecule 
of  copper  capable  of  reacting  chemically  with  the  vapour 
of  iodine  is  of  dimensions  of  the  order  of  40  ^/x.  Its  weight 
is  of  the  order  of  5x10-"  milligrams. — Simplification  of 
the  analysis  of  silicates  by  the  use  of  formic  acid,  by  M.  A. 
Lecldre.  After  opening  up  the  silicate  by  fusion  with  an 
appropriate  base,  the  use  of  formic  acid  in  the  place  of 
nitric  acid  is  recommended  in  the  subsequent  separation 
of  the  silica  and  titanium. — On  the  conditions  of  produc- 
tion and  stability  of  thiosulphuric  acid,  by  M.  J.  Aloy. 
Thiosulphuric  acid  can  be  produced  by  the  action  of  an 
alcoholic  solution  of  sulphur  dioxide  on  sulphur ;  the 
presence  of  alcohol  and  of  neutral  salts  increases  the 
stability  of  the  acid. — On  the  esterification  of  the  hydracids, 
by  M.  A.  Villiers. — On  dibromo-acetylene,  its  purification, 
cryoscopy,  and  analysis,  by  M.  P.  Lemoult.  By  the  action 
of  alcoholic  potash  upon  tribromoethylene,  and  fraction- 
ation in  the  complete  absence  of  oxygen,  pure  dibromo- 
acetylene  can  be  obtained.  The  formula  CBrfCBr  was 
established  by  analysis  and  cryoscopic  determinations  in 
acetic  acid  solution. — On  lactase,  by  MM.  Em.  Bourquelot 
and  H.  H^rissey.  Lactase  and  emulsin  are  probably  two 
distinct  ferments,  since  emulsin  without  lactase  can  be 
obtained  from  Aspergillus  niger  and  Polyporus  sulphureus, 
lactase  without  emulsin  from  kephir,  and  the  two  together 
in  several  species  of  almond. — The  action  of  sodium  on 
carbon  tetrachloride  and  chlorobenzene  :  formation  of 
triphenylmethane  and  hexaphenylethane,  by  M.  Jules 
Schmidlin. — The  preparation  of  primary  alcohols  by  means 
of  the  corresponding  acids,  by  MM.  L.  Bouveault  and  G. 
Blanc.  The  method  of  reduction  previously  described, 
sodium  in  boiling  alcohol,  has  been  extended  to  other  fatty 
acids.  Aromatic  acids  with  the  carboxyl  group  in  the  ring 
resist  the  reduction. — The  internal  ethylene  oxide  of 
)8-cyclohexanediol-i.2,  and  its  derivatives,  by  M.  L^on 
Brunei. — On  the  amount  of  acids  soluble  in  ether  in  wines, 
considered  as  a  means  of  differentiation,  by  M.  Ch.  Blarez. 
— The  heat  of  neutralisation  of  hydroferrocyanic  acid  ;  the 
heat  of  formation  of  its  compounds  with  ether  and  acetone, 
by  MM.  Chretien  and  Guinchant. — On  the  fatty  acids  of 
egg  lecithine,  by  M.  H.  Cousin.  It  is  shown  that  egg  leci- 
thine  contains,  besides  the  derivatives  of  stearic,  oleic,  and 
palmitic  acids  already  known,  a  derivative  of  linoleic  acid. 
— The  intravenous  injection  of  glycerol ;  the  estimation  of 
the  glycerol  in  the  blood  and  its  elimination  by  the  urine, 
by  M.  Maurice  Nicloux.  Glycerol  disappears  very  rapidly 
when  injected  into  the  blood,  and  appears  in  the  urine  in 
notable  quantity  very  soon  after  injection. — The  carbo- 
hydrates of  barley  and  their  transformation  in  the  course 


264 


NATURE 


[July  i6,  1903 


of  germination  as  carried  out  on  the  industrial  scale,  by 
M.  L.  Lindet. — Researches  on  the  constitution  and  struc- 
ture of  the  cardiac  fibres  in  the  lower  vertebrates,  by  M.  F. 
Marceau. — On  the  suprarenal  capsule  in  amphibia,  by 
M.  Ed.  Grynfeltt.— Experimental  pathogenetic  segment- 
ation in  the  eggs  of  Petromyzon  Planeri,  by  M.  E. 
Bataillon.— The  meriphyte  in  the  Cycadaceae,  by  M.  H. 
Matte.— On  two  Cephalppod  layers  of  the  Upper  Devonian 
in  the  Sahara,  by  M.  Emile  HauK-  These  fossil-bearing 
layers  present  remarkable  palaeontological  affinities  with 
the  layers  of  the  same  age  in  central  Germany. — On  the 
variations  of  the  Meuse  at  the  quaternary  epoch,  by  M. 
Paul  Bois. — On  the  retrogradation  of  starch,  by  M.  L. 
Maquenne. — On  an  oxidising  bacterium,  its  action  on 
alcohol  and  glycerol,  by  M.  R.  Sazerac.  There  exists  in 
qertain  wine  vinegars  an  oxidising  bacterium  which  differs 
both  in  its  appearance  and  cultures  from  the  sorbose 
bacterium,  and  which  is  capable  of  rapidly  oxidising 
glycerol  to  dioxyacetone.  Its  acetifying  power  is  very 
small. — On  the  production  of  glucose  under  the  influence 
of  asphyxia  by  the  tissues  of  Bomhyx  mori,  at  various 
phases  of  its  evolution,  by  M.  F.  Maignon.— On  the  pro- 
duction of  hydrogen  sulphide  by  extracts  of  organs  and 
albumenoid  materials  in  general,  by  MM.  J.  E.  Abelous 
and  H.  Ribaut. — Study  of  the  marine  circulation,  by  M.  J. 
Thoulet. 


New  South  Wales. 

Royal  Society,  May  6. — Prof.  Warren,  president,  in  the 
chair. — The  president  delivered  an  address  on  the  de- 
velopment and  progress  of  engineering  during  the  last 
twenty-one  years.  In  the  course  of  his  address  he  remarked 
that  the  wonderful  progress  during  that  time,  and  the 
great  activity  to-day  in  all  branches  of  science  and  engineer- 
ing, suggests  great  possibilities  in  the  future.  All  future 
progress  in  engineering  must  depend  upon  exact  knowledge 
and  scientific  thought  and  work.  Our  systems  of  primary, 
secondary,  technical,  and  professional  education  must  be 
carefully  reconsidered  in  order  to  bring  them  up  to  the 
needs  and  requirements  of  modern  civilisation.  The 
engineer  of  the  future  must  be  a  still  more  widely  trained 
and  better  educated  man  than  his  predecessor  of  to-day, 
so  that  he  may  be  better  able  to  solve  the  many  problems 
which  lie  before  him  in  the  future. 

Linnean  Society,  April  29. — Dr.  T.  Storie  Dixson,  presi- 
dent, in  the  chair. — Australian  fungi,  new  or  unrecorded. 
Decades  iii.-iv.,  by  Mr.  D.  McAlpine.  Of  the  fungi  here 
recorded,  fifteen  are  described  as  new  species,  fourteen 
genera  being  represented.  The  orchids,  which  are  gener- 
ally comparatively  free  from  fungi,  contribute  two,  one 
of  the  genera  (Amerosporium)  being  new  to  Australia. — 
Notes  on  Australian  Rhopalocera  :  LycEenidae.  Part  iii.,  by 
Mr.  G.  A.  Waterhouse.  This  part  deals  fully  with  the 
descriptive  portion  of  the  subject  and  with  the  nomencla- 
ture.— The  bacterial  origin  of  the  gums  of  the  Arabin 
group,  by  Dr.  R.  Greig  Smith. — On  some  new  or  un- 
recorded species  of  West  Australian  plants,  by  Mr.  W.  V. 
Fitzg^erald.  The  following  are  described  as  new  : — (i) 
Hensmania,  gen.  nov.,  founded  upon  Xerotes  turbinata, 
Endl.,  of  which  perfect  flowers  were  previously  unknown, 
and  of  which  Mr.  Bentham  did  not  see  specimens  in  fruit. 
(2)  Six  species  referable  to  the  genera  Leucopogon,  Cono- 
stylis,  Centrolepis,  Restio,  Hypolaena  and  Cyathochaste, 
and  four  to  Schoenus.  Two  species,  Anisacantha  (Bassia) 
longicuspis,  F.v.M.,  and  Stipa  Tuckeri,  F.v.M.,  are  now 
recorded  from  West  Australia  for  the  first  time.— The 
vegetation  of  New  England,  N.S.W.,  by  Fred.  Turner. 
The  New  England  district  lies  between  29°  and  31°  south 
lat.,  and  151°  20'  and  152°  20'  east  long.,  and  has  an 
average  elevation  of  about  3500  feet.  Its  flora  may  be 
described  as  intermediate  in  character  between  the  sub- 
tropical and  in  places  very  dense  and  luxuriant  vegetation 
of  the  coastal  strip  between  its  eastern  boundary  and  the 
sea  and  that  of  the  plains  to  the  west,  consisting  of  trees 
and  shrubs  of  a  more  dwarf  habit,  and  generally  with  less 
luxuriant  foliage,  except  near  water-courses.  The  census 
of  the  phanerogams  and  vascular  cryptogams  now  brought 
forward  yields  a  total  of  369  genera  and  708  species. 


NO.    1759,  VOL.    68] 


May  27. — Dr.  T.  Storie  Dixson,  president,  in  the 
chair. — Australian  Psyllidae,  part  iii.,  by  Mr.  W.  W. 
Fi'ogTKatt.  Sixteen  species  are  described  as  new, 
including  three  fine  gall-making  species  of  Trioza — two 
from  Tasmania,  and  the  third  from  Queensland,  which  is 
remarkable  for  its  curious,  open,  saucer-like  galls,  in  form 
approaching  those  of  some  of  the  gall-making  Coccids. — 
On  a  revision  of  the  Eucalypts  of  the  Rylstone  District, 
N.S.W.,  by  Mr.  R.  T.  Baker.  In  a  previous  paper  twenty- 
two  species  of  Eucalypts  were  enumerated.  As  the  result 
of  further  collecting  and  study  in  the  interval,  the  number 
of  species  now  recognised  has  been  increased  by  ten,  while 
some  of  the  earlier  determinations  have  been  reconsidered 
and  amended. — A  slime  bacterium  from  the  peach,  almond 
and  cedar  (Bad.  persicae,  n.sp.),  by  Dr.  R.  Greig  Smith. 
The  organism  produces  a  slime,  the  essential  carbohydrate 
of  which  readily  becomes  converted  to  an  insoluble  modifi- 
cation. The  carbohydrate  is  easily  hydrolysed  to  arabinose 
and  galactose,  the  latter  sugar  preponderating.  The  in- 
solubility of  the  gummy  constituent  when  heated  under 
pressure  shows  that  it  does  not  belong  to  the  arabin  group. 
The  soluble  gum  is  coagulated  by  the  acetates  of  lead, 
barium  hydrate,  milk  of  lime,  and  aluminium  hydrate. 
The  insoluble  modification  is  easily  dissolved  by  dilute  acids, 
but  not  by  dilute  alkali.  A  small  quantity  of  gum  behaving 
to  reagents  like  the  bacterial  gum  was  separated  from  the 
natural  gum  of  the  almond. 


CONTENTS.  PAGE 

The  University  in  the  Modern  State.     IV 241 

Formosa 243 

The  Basis  of  Plant-surgery 244 

Comets  and  their  Tails 245 

Our  Book  Shelf:— 

Cohen:     "Physical    Chemistry    for   Physicians    and 

Biologists" 245 

Sandys:  "Trapper  'Jim.'" — R.  L 245 

Christen  :    "  Das  Gesetz  der  Translation  des  Wassers  "  246 
Anstie  :  "  Colloquies  of  Common  People." — A.  E.  T.    246 

Buchanan  :"  A  Country  Reader.  II." 246 

Letters  to  the  Editor  : — 

Gases      Occluded       by       Radium       Bromide. — Sir 
William     Ramsay,      K.C.B.,      F.R.S.,     and 

Frederick  Soddy 246 

The     Extirpation     of    Culex    at     Ismailia. — Major 

Ronald  Ross,  F.R.S .246 

Another  White  Spot  on  Saturn. — W.    F.  Denning  .    247 
The  Thunderstorm  of  May  31.— Dr.  W.   N.  Shaw, 

F.R.S 247 

The    Lodge-Muirhead   System    of  Wireless    Tele- 
graphy.    {Illustrated.)     By  Maurice  Solomon      .    .    247 
The  Allied  Colonial  Universities  Conference.     By 

R.  T 250 

Notes 252 

Our  Astronomical  Column  : — 

Comet  1903^ 255 

Search-ephemeris  for  Comet  1896  V.  (Giacobini)  .    .    256 

The  Limits  of  Unaided  Vision 256 

An    Ethnographical    Expedition    to     British    Nevjr 

Guinea      256 

On    a    Probable    Relationship    between    the    Solar 
Prominences  and  Corona.     {With  Diagrams.)     By 

Dr.  William  J.  S.  Lockyer 257 

Some  Present  Aims  and  Prospects  of  Mathematical 

Research.     By  E.  T.  Whittaker 259 

University  and  Educational  Intelligence    ...    260 
Societies  and  Academies 261 


NATURE 


265 


THURSDAY,    JULY 


23.    1903- 


EXPERIMENTAL  MORPHOLOGY. 
U'illkurliche  Entwickelungsdnderungen   bei  Pflanten. 
Kin  Beitrag  zur  Physiologic  der  Entwickelung.     By 
Georg:  Klebs.     Pp.    iv  +  166.     (Jena :    G.    Fischer, 
1903.)     Price  4  marks. 
nPHIS  is  practically  a  continuation  of  Dr.  Klebs's  well- 
-L      known  work  "  Die  Bedingungen  der  Fortpflanz- 
ung  bei  einigen  Algen  und  Pilzen  "  (Jena,   1896),  but 
whereas  that  was  concerned  with  the  lower  organisms 
the  present  work  deals  with  phanerogams.  Both  works 
are    contributions    to    experimental    morphology,    the 
essential  feature  in  both  being  the  performance  of  a 
'  ies  of  experiments  skilfully  planned    so  as  to  dis- 
>er  the  nature  of  the  external  conditions  which  lead 
to    certain    definite    changes    of    form    or    function    in 
plants.     Englishmen  will  be  glad  to  see  that  to  Andrew 
Knight  is  given  the  honour  of  being  the  founder  of 
this  type  of  work;  then  follow  Hofmeister,  Vochting, 
Sachs,  Goebel,  Bonnier,  &c.,  nor  should  it  be  forgotten 
that  Klebs  himself  has  worked  steadily  and  with  bril- 
liant effect  on  this  line  since  18S9. 

Klebs's  aim  is  definitely  objective;  he  seeks  to  dis- 
cover facts,  without  regard  to  whether  the  changes 
arising  under  given  conditions  are  adaptive.  He  never- 
theless allows  himself  to  postulate  a  certain  mechanism 
in  the  organism  by  which  he  conceives  it  possible  that 
external  conditions  produce  their  effect.  His  discussion 
Is  interesting,  but  his  terminology  seems  to  us  open 
to  criticism,  nor  does  his  theory  strike  us  as  essential  to 
his  aim— the  foundation  of  causal  morphology  in  a 
purely  objective  sense.  He  takes,  as  an  instance,  the 
undifferentiated  cells  in  the  growing-point  of  a  plant, 
in  which  reside  the  possibility  of  developing  into  organs 
x;haracteristic  of  the  species.  The  physical  substratum 
in  which  this  potentiality  resides  he  calls  "  specific 
structure."  This  he  assumes  to  be  constant,  which 
implies  (we  imagine)  that  under  certain  definite  con- 
ditions it  always  develops  an  identical  form,  while  if  the 
conditions  are  different  the  form  will  be  different. 
Under  the  heading  "  conditions  "  he  distinguishes  ex- 
ternal and  internal.  He  retains  the  term  external  as 
being  already  in  common  use,  though  he  seems  to 
prefer  the  expression  "  directe  oder  unmittelbare 
aussere  Bedingungen. "  These  are  the  various  chemic, 
.thermic,  photic,  and  mechanical  influences  which  act 
on  the  organism  from  its  earliest  stages.    The  definition 

of  the  inner  conditions  is  as  follows  : 

"  Every  phenomenon  of  life  occurs  within  the 
organism;  it  is  a  consequence  of  the  internal  condi- 
tions ruhng  at  the  moment.  The  quality  and  quantity 
of  the  substances  present  in  the  cell,  the  various  kinds 
ot  terments,  the  physical  properties  of  the  protoplasm, 
c<  11-sap,  cell-wall,  &c.,  all  these  belong  to  the  internal 
conditions," 

and  are  *'  in  the  first  instance  supplied  to  the  individual 
b\   its  origin  from  a  previous  generation." 

He  also'  strongly  insists  on  the  internal  conditions 

being  completely  distinct  from  the  specific  structure. 

We  fail  to  see  that  a  real  distinction  between  internal 

and  external  conditions  is  made  good.     For  instance 

NO.    1760,  VOL.  68] 


a  naked  protoplast  placed  in  a  nutrient  fluid — a  solu- 
tion of  glycerin — is  subjected  to  new  external  condi- 
tions. But  a  vegetable  cell  treated  in  the  same  way 
takes  up  glycerin  into  its  cell-sap,  and  by  the  above 
definition  the  physical  properties  of  the  cell-sap  are  in- 
ternal conditions.  Yet  in  both  cases  the  change  con- 
sists in  exposing  protoplasm  to  a  certain  solution.  Nor 
again  can  we  clearly  distinguish  between  internal  con- 
ditions and  specific  potentiality.  In  a  mechanical 
theory  such  as  Klebs's  the  "  specific  structure  "  must 
depend  on  the  physical  properties  of  protoplasm,  yet 
these  last  named  are  said  to  be  part  of  the  internal 
conditions. 

All  that  Klebs  proves  by  his  experiments  is  that  a 
change  of  external  conditions  determines  a  change  in 
the  form  and  physiological  processes  of  the  organism. 
We  may  conclude  from  this  that  the  undeveloped  tissues 
are  under  the  rule  of  changing  conditions,  but  have  we 
a   right   to   draw   any   other   conclusion?     Klebs   has 
shown  that  Saprolegnia  grows  continuously  if  supplied 
with    good    culture-fluid,    but    that    it  at  once  forms 
zoosporangia  if  the  culture-fluid  is  replaced  by  pure 
water.     The  same  thing  happens  if  the  fungus  is  left 
to  itself  with  a  limited  supply  of  food,  i.e.  it  forms 
zoosporangia  when  the  nutriment  runs  short,  thus  by 
its  own  activity  it  makes  the  conditions  necessary  for 
zoospore    formation.      Or,    what    is    another   way    of 
putting  the  matter,  the  artificial  exchange  of  nutrient 
fluid  for  pure  water  induces  zoosporangium-formation 
because    it    is    an    imitati6n  of  the  natural  series  of 
changes   to   which   the  plant  is   subject.     Klebs   does 
not  pretend  to  say  how  pure  water  leads  to  zoospor- 
angia   being    formed;    he  shows  it  to  be  a  necessary 
condition,  but  the  causal  connection  is  absolutely  un- 
known.    It  possibly  always  will  be  so,  but  it  is  at  least 
possible  to  give  the  problem  its  proper  place  among 
cognate  questions,  i.e.  those  relating  to  reflexes.    These 
are  most  conveniently  studied  in  the  facts  of  movement, 
but  there  is  no  reason  for  excluding  the  facts  of  ex- 
perimental  morphology.     In   our  opinion,    the  purely 
objective  method  applied  to  reflexes  is  incomplete;  we 
differ  markedly  from  Klebs  in  thinking  it  impossible  to 
deal  fully  with  the  question  without  taking  adaptiveness 
into  account.     The  fact  that  a  stem  bends  upwards 
when   deflected   from   the  vertical,   depends   on   some 
strain  or  pressure  produced  in  the  protoplasm  by  such 
deflection.     We  call  this  a  stimulus,  but  only  because 
it  precedes  the  act  of  curving  and  by  endless  repetition 
is  associated  with   that  act.     What  was  originally  a 
physical  concomitant  of  a  certain  position  of  the  plant 
in  relation  to  the  vertical  comes  to  be  a  stimulus.     It 
may  be  said  that  the  primeval  plant  which  acquired 
geotropism  did  so  because  there  is  some  unknown  but 
necessary   connection   between   mechanical   strain   ap- 
plied to  protoplasm  and  the  act  of  curving  upwards. 
But  if  so  why  are  essentially  similar  plants  stimulated 
to  downward  curvature  by  a  like  strain  ?     Only  a  vague 
answer  can  be  made  from  the  objective  point  of  view. 
From  the  adaptive  point  of  view  there  is  no  difficulty ; 
any    curvature    may    become    associated     with    any 
physical  change  in  the  protoplasm,  upon  which  it  nor- 
mally and  continuously   follows.     The  importance  of 
natural  selection  is  here  obvious,  for  it  picks  out  the 

N 


266 


NATURE 


[July  23,  1903 


plants  which  have  the  capacity  of  association,  and 
which,  to  speak  metaphorically,  are  able  to  use 
changed  conditions  as  signals  for  serviceable  move- 
ments. Without  selection  we  cannot  conceive  the 
forging  of  the  chain  of  inherited  habit  which  binds 
plants  to  the  performance  of  adaptive  movements. 

It  is  true  that  we  cannot  say  in  what  the  association 
consists,  and  it  will  doubtless  be  said  that  our  point 
of  view  only  differs  from  that  of  Klebs  in  substituting 
"stimulus"  for  "conditions."  The  difference  is  es- 
sential, for  we  take  into  account  natural  selection  as  a 
universal  condition  under  which  all  organisms  subsist. 

We  must  be  content  to  differ  from  Dr.  Klebs,  who 
goes  so  far  as  to  say  (p.  162)  that  the  adaptation 
(Zweckmassigkeit)  of  organisms  is  in  no  way  (gar 
nicht)  a  scientific  problem.  We  are  none  the  less  ready 
to  welcome  his  researches,  of  which  we  proceed  to  give 
some  account. 

Among  the  results  obtained  by  Klebs  some  of  the 
most  interesting  are  the  experiments  in  which,  by  ap- 
propriate culture  conditions,  he  converts  an  inflor- 
escence into  an  ordinary  vegetative  shoot.  For  in- 
stance, by  making  a  cutting  of  the  flowering  shoot  of 
Veronica  chamaedrys  and  growing  the  plants  in  damp 
air,  he  converts  an  organ  of  limited  growth  into  one 
of  unlimited  growth,  with  leaves  differing  in  size, 
character  of  hair  and  phyllotaxy  from  those  of  the  in- 
florescence, and  resembling  the  ordinary  vegetative 
shoot. 

Another  interesting  series  of  observations  is  on 
Glechoma  hederacea,  which,  if  grown  in  a  greenhouse 
and  watered  with  nutritive  solution,  never  flowers, 
whereas  parts  of  the  same  individual  plant,  grown  in 
small  pots  in  summer  and  kept  cool  in  winter,  flower 
in  the  following  summer.  By  special  treatment  he  even 
compelled  flowers  to  appear  on  the  runners,  whereas 
normally  only  the  upright  shoots  bear  flowers.  Ajuga 
reptans  bears  runners  in  the  axils  of  its  rosette-leaves ; 
these  form  in  the  autumn  new  terminal  rosettes,  the 
central  shoots  of  which  flower  in  the  following  spring. 
This  is  the  normal  state  of  things,  but  Klebs  converted 
a  flowering  shoot  into  a  runner  by  darkness  and  damp 
heat,  and  also  produced  other  curious  anomalies  of  de- 
velopment. In  another  experiment  on  the  same  type 
he  introduced  a  runner  into  the  lower  end  of  a  cylinder 
of  water,  when  its  normally  horizontal  growth  was 
changed  and  it  grew  straight  up  until  it  reached  the 
air,  where  it  once  more  became  horizontal.  Klebs  de- 
votes a  section  of  his  book  to  a  discussion  of  the  facts 
of  regeneration  for  which  we  are  largely  indebted  to 
Vochting.  Klebs  points  out  that  we  do  not  even  know 
why  the  severance  of  a  part  from  its  parent  should  lead 
to  a  regenerative  outgrowth  of  roots  and  shoots ;  he 
goes  on  to  demonstrate  by  experiments  that  in  Salix 
vitellina  a  branch,  without  being  severed  from  its 
parent,  can  be  forced  to  make  roots  by  submerg- 
ence in  water.  He  uses  this  fact  as  an  argu- 
ment against  the  adaptive  explanation  of  the 
behaviour  of  cuttings.  It  proves,  of  course,  that 
some  of  the  phenomena  are  producible  without 
severance,  but  the  facts  of  severance  remain ;  two 
different  stimuli  may  produce  the  same  result,  as  in  the 
well-known  experiment  of  Pfetfer  in  which  the  root- 
NO.    1760,  VOL.   68] 


hairs  of  the  gemmae  of  Marchantia  develop  on  the 
physically  lower  side  and  also  on  the  side  in  contact 
with  a  solid  body. 

Another  section  of  the  book  deals  with  the  length  of 
life  of  plants  and  the  cognate  facts  on  resting  periods 
in  vegetable- growth.  He  shows  that  Parietaria  can  be 
kept  in  constant  flower  for  two  years.  That  in  annuals 
there  is  no  inherent  limit  to  their  development,  as  he 
proved  by  making  a  series  of  cuttings  of  the  growing 
shoots.  Again,  he  compelled  the  winter  buds  of  Gratiola 
to  germinate  (contrary  to  their  habit)  without  a  rest- 
ing period,  by  cultivating  the  plant  under  water  and 
placing  it  in  a  greenhouse  in  autumn.  These  may 
serve  as  examples  of  the  experimental  work  in  which 
Dr.  Klebs  is  engaged.  It  is  evidently  a  research  which 
tests  to  the  full  his  ingenuity  and  deterhiination,  and 
it  is  one  in  which  all  naturalists  will  wish  him  the 
success  he  deserves. 

The  book  concludes  with  a  section  on  "  Variation  and 
Mutation,"  which  will  be  useful  to  old-fashioned 
evolutionists  in  showing  the  trend  of  certain  younger 
schools  of  thought.  Francis  Darwin. 


NITROGEN  AND  ITS  COMPOUNDS. 
Der  Stickstoff  und  seine  wichtigsten  Verhindungen. 
By  Dr.  Leopold  Spiegel.  Pp.  xii  +  912.  (Braun- 
schweig :  Vieweg  und  Sohn,  1903.)  Price  20  marks. 
THE  large  and  ever-increasing  amount  of  work 
turned  out  by  research  chemists  in  all  branches 
and  departments  of  the  science,  and  the  dispersal  of 
the  results  of  investigations  throughout  a  sufficiently 
extended  array  of  publishing  media,  awaken  the  de- 
mand for  some  means  by  which  the  wealth  of  newly- 
acquired  knowledge  may  be  made  easily  accessible  ;  and 
the  editor  or  author  who  undertakes  the  very  tedious 
but  important  task  of  collecting  from  the  different 
sources  and  arranging  in  a  summarised  form  all,  or 
even  the  most  important,  facts  which  have  been  estab- 
lished, performs  a  service  to  his  science  for  which  he 
does  not  always  receive  due  credit.  j 

The  importance  of  the  compounds  of  nitrogen  for  | 
the  study  of  valency  and  the  formation  of  complex 
compounds,  the  important  position  which  they  occupy 
in  investigations  into  the  laws  of  stereochemistry, 
and,  in  the  case  of  the  carbon  compounds,  the  deter- 
mining influence  of  the  nitrogen  atom  on  the  character 
of  the  molecule,  have  led  the  author  to  the  compilation 
of  a  volume  which  brings  together  all  the  most  im- 
portant known  facts  with  regard  to  the  chemical  and 
physicochemical  relationships  of  this  element  and  its 
compounds.  No  separation  is  made  of  the  organic 
from  the  inorganic  compounds,  but  the  latter  are 
treated  much  more  fully  than  the  former.  With  re- 
gard to  the  organic  compounds  of  nitrogen,  the  author 
has  wisely  refrained  from  a  duplication  of  "  Beilstein," 
and  has  contented  himself  with  pointing  out  the  more 
important  characteristics,  and  with  giving  in  tabular 
form  the  chief  representatives  of  the  different  groups. 

The  whole  matter  is  arranged  under  the  following 
headings  : — the  element,  halogen  compounds  of 
nitrogen,  oxygen  compounds  of  nitrogen,  sulphur 
compounds     of     nitrogen,     hydrogen     compounds     of 


July  23,  1903] 


NATURE 


267 


j  nitrogen,    metal    nitrides,    phosphorus    compounds    of 

'  nitrogen,     arsenic     nitride,     carbon     compounds     of 

nitrogen,  silicon  nitride,  titanium  compounds  of 
nitrogen,  zirconium  nitride,  boron  compounds  of 
nitrogen,  nitrogen  in  closed  rings,  alkaloids,  protein 
substances,  analytical  methods,  addenda. 

The  treatment  of  the  element  and  its  important  in- 
organic compounds,  e.g.  nitric  acid  and  ammonia, 
seems  very  satisfactory,  although,  for  instance,  the 
action  of  hypobromite  on  ammonium  chloride  might 
well  have  been  included  in  the  list  of  methods  of  pre- 
paring nitrogen,  instead  of  merely  being  referred  to 
incidentally  in  another  connection. 

Apparently  no  attempt  has  been  made  to  sift  critic- 
ally the  large  accumulation  of  material  at  the  author's 
disposal,  and  the  book  therefore  assumes  the  character 
of  a  dictionary.  Nevertheless,  several  cases  are  to 
b3  found  where  a  more  connected  treatment  is  given 
to  the  subject,  as,  e.g.  in  the  description  of  the  steps 
by  which  the  formation  of  nitric  acid  in  the  soil  was 
traced  to  a  specific  ferment,  or  in  the  account  of  the 
application  of  Werner's  theories  to  the  constitution  of 
the  metal  ammonia  compounds.  Such  accounts,  al- 
though written  in  briefest  outline,  serve  to  direct  atten- 

^  tion  to  points  of  importance  in  theoretical  chemistry. 

\  The  account  of  the  diazo-compounds  one  could  wish 

fuller,  and  some  reference  might  have  been  expected 
to  Goldschmidt's  important  work  on  the  dynamics  of 
the  diazo-  and  azo-compounds.  In  mentioning  the 
transformation  of  ammonium  thiocyanate  (the  melt- 
ing point  of  which  is  149°,  not  159")  into  thio-urea, 
also,  the  work  of  Waddell  might  have  been  referred  to. 
Further,  in  the  analytical  portion  of  the  book,  although 
various  methods  are  given  for  the  estimation  of 
nitrogen  in  organic  compounds,  no  mention  is  made 
of  the  Frankland-Armstrong  modification  of  Dumas 's 
method,  although  it  is  probably  the  most  convenient 
and  accurate  method  of  estimation. 

In  compiling  the  book,  the  chemical  literature  up  to 
1900  has  been  taken  into  account ;  and  in  an  appendix 
additions  and  corrections  are  given  bringing  the  work 
up  to  1902.  In  spite  of  some  omissions,  the  book  will 
be  readily  welcomed  as  an  important  addition  to  the 
works  of  reference  in  chemistry,  and  the  author  de- 
serves the  thanks  of  his  fellow-workers  for  the  trouble 
he  has  taken  in  the  compilation.  A.  F. 


FROSPECTl^G. 

La  Prospection  des  Mines  et  leur  Mise  en  valeur.  By 
Maurice  Lecomte-Denis.  Pp.  xv  +  551,  with  320 
figures.     (Paris  :  Schleicher,   1903.) 

WHEN  an  author  is  fortunate  enough  to  have 
such  a  godfather  for  his  book  as  M.  Haton  de 
la  Goupilliere,  it  may  be  taken  for  granted  that  the 
work  contains  much  useful  matter.  The  book  is  in- 
tended not  so  much  for  the  old-time  prospector,  armed 
with  pick,  shovel,  and  pan,  who  wanders  about  in 
search  of  gold,  as  for  the  scientific  mining  engineer 
called  upon  to  report  upon  a  mineral  deposit  already 
discovered,  and  possibly  already  worked  on  a  small 
scale.     M.  Lecomte-Denis  tells  the  novice  how  to  set 

NO.  1760,  VOL  r^si 


about  his  work,  and  how  to  draw  up  his  report  to  his 
employers,  and  he  points  out  useful  precautions  to  be 
observed  in  purchasing  mines  and  minerals.  The 
motto  for  the  chapter  upon  "  salting,"  "  Defiance  est 
mere  de  siireU,"  is  well  chosen;  many  of  the  common 
tricks  of  fraudulent  mine-vendors  are  exposed  by  the 
author,  who  most  wisely  advises  the  inspecting  en- 
gineer to  err  on  the  side  of  scepticism  when  making 
his  examinations. 

Next  come  two  purely  geological  chapters  upon  the 
distinctive  characters  of  the  igneous  and  of  the 
sedimentary  rocks.  It  is  doubtful  whether  it  is  wise 
to  burden  a  book  upon  prospecting  with  more  than 
three  hundred  figures  of  fossils.  M.  Lecomte-Denis 
points  out,  however,  that  the  traveller  cannot  carry  a 
geological  library  with  him,  and  that  it  will  probably 
be  a  convenience  to  him  to  possess  a  little  palaeonto- 
logical  information  for  immediate  reference  on  the 
spot. 

Six  chapters  are  devoted  to  the  study  of  the  modes 
of  occurrence  of  the  most  important  useful  minerals, 
viz.,  coal,  petroleum,  bitumen,  and  the  ores  of  iron, 
copper,  zinc,  and  lead.  Many  useful  commercial  data 
are  appended.  Similar  information  concerning  phos- 
phates, bauxite,  and  the  ores  of  tin,  mercury,  &c.,  is 
promised  in  a  later  edition. 

When  a  mineral  deposit  has  been  found,  it  is  usually 
necessary  to  investigate  its  commercial  value  by  cer- 
tain preliminary  workings.  The  manner  of  carrying 
these  out  and  of  making  deductions  from  the  results 
obtained  is  treated  in  a  long  and  useful  chapter.  The 
author  speaks  wisely  with  regard  to  writing  reports 
when  he  bids  the  engineer  weigh  his  words  very  care- 
fully, for  extracts  may  be  made,  and  words  may  be 
twisted,  so  as  to  convey  a  meaning  very  different  from 
that  which  was  intended.  The  greatest  prudence  is 
necessary  on  the  part  of  inspecting  engineers  with 
the  object  of  not  raismg  his  employer's  hopes  too 
high,  nor,  on  the  other  hand,  by  an  unnecessarily 
pessimistic  tone,  of  preventing  him  from  embarking 
upon  an  undertaking  which  may  have  many  chances 
of  success.  What  is  required  is  complete  frankness; 
let  the  capitalist  know  the  grounds  upon  which  the 
engineer  bases  his  opinions.  If  the  former  is  in  doubt, 
he  can  then  go  to  a  consulting  mining  engineer  and 
say,  "  Supposing  these  data  to  be  true,  what  is  your 
advice?  " 

The  inspecting  engineer  should  certainly  make  him- 
self acquainted  with  the  mining  laws  of  the  country 
in  which  the  property  upon  which  he  is  reporting  is 
situated ;  and  the  brief  remarks  of  M.  Lecomte-Denis 
upon  foreign  mining  jurisprudence  may  serve  as  a 
first  step  in  the  study.  On  the  other  hand,  more 
space  is  devoted  to  an  exposition  of  the  mining  laws 
of  France  than  seems  to  be  necessary. 

The  tables  at  the  end  of  the  book  are  similar  to 
those  found  in  the  usual  miners'  pocket-books.  Some 
palpable  errors  show  that  sufficient  care  was  not 
taken  in  preparing  them  for  the  press,  and  conse- 
quently the  reader  may  feel  a  little  sceptical  about 
their  trustworthiness.  On  the  whole  the  book  is  likely 
I  to  prove  useful  to  the  mining  engineer,  for  it  deals  with 
I  matters  which  are  usually  considered  somewhat  out- 
side the  scope  of  the  ordinary  text-books. 


268 


NATURE 


[July 


190: 


OUR  BOOK  SHELF. 
The  Revival  of  Phrenology.  The  Mental  Functions 
of  the  Brain.  By  Bernard  Hollander,  M.D.,  &c. 
Pp. xviii  +  512  ;  illustrated.  (London:  Grant  Richards. 
1901,)  Price  2U.  net. 
According  to  Dr.  Hollander,  the  connection  between 
■mind  and  brain  has  long  been  waiting  for  a  discoverer, 
and  he  is  determined  that  it  shall  wait  no  longer.  "  The 
ipresent  work  aims  at  clearing  up  the  mystery  of  the 
fundamental  psychical  functions  and  their  localisation  in 
the  brain.  It  is  the  first  work  on  the  subject  since  the 
dawn  of  modern  scientific  research."  We  expect  that 
an  author  who  claims  to  clear  up  a  mystery  and  to  write 
the  first  work  on  a  subject  since  the  dawn  of  scientific 
research  should  at  least  be  acquainted  with  the  present 
position  of  the  science  with  which  he  deals,  but  we  do 
not  find  that  Dr.  Hollander  has  satisfied  this  preliminary 
requirement.  The  very  title  of  his  book  indicates  that 
he  is  not  before,  but  behind  the  age.  Mental  phenomena 
are  not  functions  of  the  brain  in  the  modern  medical 
meaning  of  the  term  "function,"  and  if  by  "the  funda- 
mental psychical  functions"  Dr.  Hollander  means  the 
primary  divisions  of  mind  as  recognised  in  modern 
psychology,  then  we  cannot  find  evidence  in  his  book 
that  he  knows  what  they  are.  "  Most  men,"  he  says, 
"'regard  mind  as  though  the  term  were  equivalent  to 
intellect  and  did  not  include  the  feelings  and  funda- 
mental impulses."  "The  great  majority  hold  mind  to 
be  equivalent  to  intellect."  We  do  not  know  whether  by 
"most  men"  and  "the  great  majority"  Dr.  Hollander 
means  the  majority  of  the  whole  population,  or  of  the 
whole  male  population,  or  of  neurologists,  or  of  psycho- 
logists. If  he  means  either  of  the  two  former,  he  is 
probably  wrong.  If  he  means  either  of  the  two  latter,  he 
is  certainly  wrong  ;  so  wrong  that  it  is  difficult  to  believe 
that  he  has  opened  a  book  on  psychology  that  has  been 
published  within  the  last  half-century.  When  a  writer 
presumes  to  lecture  the  whole  world  of  psychologists  in 
the  tone  of  the  Supreme  Being  addressing  a  group  of 
blackbeetles,  he  should  at  least  make  himself  acquainted 
with  the  rudiments  of  their  terminology.  He- would 
then  avoid  speaking  of  "faculties"  as  "forces."  He 
-would  not  say  that  "satisfaction,  discontent,  desire,  fear, 
anger  .  .  .  &c.,  are  so  many  states  of  our  internal 
organisation  which  .  .  .  exist  .  .  .  without  conscious- 
ness .  .  .  being  necessary." 

"The  data  amassed  by  the  author,"  Dr.  Hollander 
modestly  asserts,  "are  so  considerable  as  to  open  up 
quite  a  new  field  for  research."  These  data  consist  of 
more  than  800  cases,  which  are  alleged  to  illustrate  the 
connection  between  some  special  brain-area  and  some 
special  phase  of  mind.  The  first  group  are  "  cases  of 
melancholia  due  to  injury  to  the  central  parietal  area." 
A  number  of  cases  of  injury  to  the  parietal  region  are 
adduced,  but  in  many  of  them  there  is  little  or  no 
evidence  of  melancholia.  Whenever,  in  the  reports,  the 
word  depression  is  used.  Dr.  Hollander  accepts  it  as  the 
equivalent  of  melancholia,  though  it  is  quite  obvious  that 
in  many  cases  it  means  hebetude,  stupor  or  coma. 
Melancholia  is  attributed  to  blows  on  the  parietal  region 
that  were  inflicted  four  years,  five  years,  six  years,  four- 
teen years,  seventeen  years  before  the  patient  came 
under  treatment.  Of  the  innumerable  multitudes  of 
cases  of  lesion  of  the  parietal  region  without  any  sign  of 
melancholia  resulting,  not  a  word  is  said.  This  is  not 
scientific  investigation;  it  is  special  pleading.  Dr. 
Hollander  pleads  that  in  view  of  the  important  bearing 
of  his  facts  upon  the  entire  development  of  medical 
science,  on  the  study  and  treatment  of  lunacy,  on  the 
education  of  the  young,  &c.,  the  evidence  and  statements 
may  be  received  willingly  and  in  fair  spirit,  however 
critical.  We  have  endeavoured  to  comply  with  his 
request.  We  have  weighed  his  evidence,  and  it  seems 
to  be  of  the  same  value  as  his  statements. 

NO.    1760,  VOL.  68] 


St.  Kilda  and  its  Birds.  By  J,  Wiglesworth.  Pp. 
69;  illustrated.  (Liverpool:  C.  Tinling  and  Co., 
1903-) 
On  his  return  from  an  ornithological  trip  to  the  St. 
Kilda  group  last  summer,  Dr.  Wiglesworth  delivered 
before  the  Liverpool  Biological  Society  a  lecture  on 
these  islands  and  their  inhabitants — human  and  other- 
wise. This  lecture  has  been  published  in  the  volume 
before  us,  and  although  the  author  has  little  or  nothing 
absolutely  new  to  tell,  he  has  undoubtedly  succeeded 
in  producing  a  very  interesting  w^ork,  which  ought  to 
be  invaluable  to  all  future  tourists  in  these  islands. 
Although  the  extension  of  the  breeding  range  of  the 
fulmar-petrel  to  the  Shetlands  has  deprived  St.  Kilda 
of  one  of  its  claims  to  preeminence,  yet  it  possesses 
an  absolutely  peculiar  form  of  wren  as  well  as  two 
mice  of  its  own,  while  it  is  also  one  of  the  chief  breed- 
ing-places of  the  fork-tailed  petrel.  Moreover,  its 
breeding-list  of  other  sea-birds  is  comparatively  large, 
so  that  the  island  possesses  especial  interest  for  the 
ornithologist  and  egg-collector.  Unfortunately,  the 
latter  individual  has  of  late  years  made  himself  some- 
what too  conspicuous,  and  "  when  it  comes  to  dealers 
giving  unlimited  orders  for  fork-tailed  petrels'  eggs 
at  prices  which  set  the  whole  male  population  of  the 
island  on  the  alert  to  dig  out  every  petrel-burrow  they 
can  possibly  come  across,  one  cannot  but  feel  consider- 
able anxiety  as  to  the  future  of  this  interesting 
species."  High  prices  are  likewise  paid  for  the  eggs 
•of  the  St.  Kilda  wren,  of  which  large  numbers  are 
exported.  It  would  therefore  seem  that  the  island 
stands  in  urgent  need  of  the  special  attention  of  those 
interested  in  bird  preservation.  One  of  the  features 
of  St.  Kilda  is  the  number  of  species  of  petrels  by 
which  it  is  inhabited,  while  not  less  noteworthy  are 
the  hordes  of  puffins  which  swarm  over  its  grassy 
slopes,  and  tenant  almost  every  available  nook 
amongst  the  rocks  and  boulders. 

But  it  is  not  only  for  its  birds  and  mice  that  the 
St  Kilda  group  has  a  special  claim  on  the  interest  of 
the  naturalist.  One  of  the  islets,  Soa,  or  Soay,  is 
remarkable  as  being  the  only  locality  in  Great  Britain 
where  sheep  exist  in  a  wild  condition.  It  appears 
that  in  the  latter  part  of  the  eighteenth  century  the 
owner  of  St.  Kilda  laid  claim  to  one  out  of  every 
seven  sheep  born  in  the  main  island.  These  sheep 
were  carried  to  Soa,  where,  in  the  absence  of  anyone 
to  look  after  them,  they  ran  completely  wild.  And 
by  this  accident  has  been  preserved  to  our  own  time 
the  very  small  and  peculiar  breed  of  sheep  which  was 
probably  once  common  to  St.  Kilda  and  most  of  the 
western  islands,  but  has  everywhere,  except  in  Soa, 
been  modified  by  the  introduction  of  other  breeds. 
Most  of  these  sheep  are  light  brown  in  colour,  although 
a  few  are  almost  black,  and  others  nearly  white. 
They  are  so  wild  and  shy  that  they  cannot  be 
approached  within  100  yards,  except  by  careful  stalk- 
ing, while  their  activity  and  speed  are  such  that  they 
cannot  be  hunted  down  by  the  dogs  of  the  islanders. 
A  ewe  of  this  sheep,  as  well  as  the  skull  of  a  ram,  are 
exhibited  in  the  Natural  History  Museum.  R.  L. 
The  Principal  Species  of  Wood.     By  C.  H.  Snow,  C.E., 

Sc.D.    Pp.  xi  +  203.    (New  York  :  Wiley  and  Sons; 

London  :   Chapman  and  Hall,   Ltd.,   1903.)       Price 

15s.  net. 
In  producing  this  work  the  author  has  evidently  spared 
himself  no  pains  to  collect  a  vast  amount  of  statistics 
concerning  the  genera  and  species  with  which  he  deals. 
The  work  is  also  profusely  illustrated  by  plates,  and 
these,  along  with  the  general  equipment  of  the  laook, 
reflect  credit  on  artist  and  publishers.  Tabulated 
statements  concerning  the  different  species  are  given, 
and  contain  data  such  as  modulus  of  elasticity  and 
rupture  of  wood,  as  well  as  notes  on  its  various  struc- 


July  23,  1903] 


NA  TURE 


269 


tural  qualities  and  representative  uses.       These  will 
prove  of  value  to  both  expert  and  amateur. 

From  its  title  one  might  be  led  to  suppose  that  the 
book  was  an  addition  to  the  literature  of  strict  forest 
botany,  but  the  preface  states  that  "  It  is  intended  for 
those  who  are  not  foresters  or  botanists,  but  who  use 
woods  or  desire  a  knowledge  of  their  distinguishing 
properties."  The  preface  further  states  that  "  Although 
great  care  has  been  taken  to  check  each  fact,  errors  no 
doubt  exist,  although  it  is  not  believed  that  there  are 
important  ones."  \Ve  cannot  entirely  agree  with  the 
author  in  this.  For  example,  in  the  introduction  we 
are  told  that  a  true  wood  fibre  originates  from  several 
cells,  "  a  resin  duct  is  a  cell  structure  or  a  fibre,"  "  a 
vessel  is  a  short  wide  tube  joined  vertically  end  to  end 
with  others  of  its  kind." 

Inaccuracy  and  vagueness  of  expression  are  to  be 
found  elsewhere  in  the  book.  For  instance,  "Euro- 
peans regard  the  Ash  for  ornamental  purposes,  but 
Americans  value  it  for  wood  "  is  an  error  that  may 
perhaps  be  excused  in  an  American  writer,  but  why 
should  the  leaves  of  Eucalyptus  be  described  thus? — 
"  Those  of  young  blue  gums  are  bright  blue,  oval  and 
stalkless,  while  leaves  of  older  trees  have  stems  (sic), 
are  dark  green  and  sickle-shaped." 

Attention  is  further  directed  in  the  preface  to  the  fact 
that  "  Allusions  to  trees,  historical  and  other  references, 
aside  from  those  directly  regarding  woods,  are  made 
for  completeness  and  in  order  to  mark,  distinguish,  or 
separate  the  species."  The  author  fails  to  realise  this 
object.  The  distinguishing  characters  given  are  far 
too  vague  and  general  to  be  of  any  practical  value. 

On  the  whole  the  book  contains  much  useful  informa- 
tion and  statistics  regarding  the  various  species  of 
wood,  both  broad-leaved  and  coniferous.  It  would 
have  been  much  better,  however,  had  the  author  con- 
fined himself  to  the  treatment  of  this  aspect  of  the  sub- 
ject alone,  leaving  6ut  all  botanical  and  other  technical 
matter. 
Lehrbuch     der     Mikrophoto  graphic.       By     Dr.     Carl 

Kaiserling.        Pp.      viii  +  179.        (Berlin  :      Gustav 

Schmidt,  n.d.)  Price  4  marks. 
Although  there  are  several  well-known  treatises  on 
this  subject,  it  is  doubtful  whether  any  exceed  in 
thoroughness  the  one  now  under  notice.  The  essential 
conditions  for  the  production  of  photomicrographs  of 
the  highest  class  are  carefully  described,  and  each  part 
of  the  process  is  treated  fully. 

There  is  no  more  important  point  than  the  illumin- 
ation of  the  object  itself,  and  both  the  source  of  light 
and  its  colour  should  be  selected  to  bring  out  the 
desired  points  in  the  resulting  photographs. 

This  part  of  the  subject  is  generally  treated  all  too 
briefly,  but  in  the  present  instance  its  importance  is 
evidently  recognised.  The  various  ways  of  making 
light  filters  and  their  use  with  coloured  preparations 
are  described.  The  method  of  arriving  at  the  proper 
filter  to  use  with  a  given  preparation  is  stated  to  be 
by  determining  the  absorption  spectrum  of  the  dye 
used  for  staining,  by  aid  of  a  hand  spectroscope,  and 
then  adapting  the  light  filter  to  give  the  result  desired. 
This  is  undoubtedly  the  only  scientific  method  of  using 
colour  screens  in  photomicrography,  and  one  which 
we  have  adopted  with  success  for  some  time  past. 

The  various  types  of  apparatus  by  the  leading 
makers  are  fully  described,  prominence  being 
naturally  given  to  continental  firms.  Instructions  as 
to  :he  use  of  substage  apparatus,  methods  of  centring, 
choice  of  objectives,  and  the  combination  of  micro- 
scope and  camera  are  included,  while  it  is  satis-. 
factory  to  note  that  no  space  is  unnecessarily  wasted 
over  purely  photographic  processes.  Altogether  the 
book  may  be  recommended  to  photomicrographers  as 
one  of  the  best  yet  published.  J.  E.  B. 

NO.   1760,  VOL.  68] 


LETTERS    TO    THE    EDITOR. 

[The  Editor  does  not  hold  himself  responsible  for  opinions 
expressed  by  his  correspondents.  Neither  can  he  undertake 
to  return,  or  to  correspond  ivnh  the  writers  of,  rejected 
manuscripts  intended  for  this  or  any  other  part  of  Nature. 
No  notice  is  taken  of  anonymous  communications.] 

The  Source  of  Radium  Energy. 

The  novel  and  unforeseen  property  of  radium  of  pro- 
ducing energy,  which  purely  kinetic  theories,  in  opposition 
to  the  notion  of  inherent  force  as  a  transcendental  element, 
do  not  seem  able  to  explain,  is  perhaps  destined  to  give 
a  fresh  impetus  to  discussion  from  the  two  distinct  points 
of  view.  It  is  meanwhile  to  be  noted  with  regard  to  this, 
that  the  notion  of  force  acting  at  a  distance  from  point 
to  point,  being  equal  and  reciprocal  between  the  various 
material  points,  does  not  appear  to  be  any  better  met  by 
the  manifestation  of  the  unfailing  energy  of  radium  than 
the  simple  movements  of  the  kinetic  theory.  This  re- 
mark justifies  attention  being  directed  to  a  view  of  the 
natural  physical  forces  presented  by  the  present  writer  more 
than  ten  years  ago  (see  Lagrange's  "  Study  of  the  System 
of  Physical  Forces,"  forming  vol.  xlviii.  of  the  Memoirs 
of  the  Royal  Academy  of  Sciences  of  Belgium).  It  is  there 
shown  that  forces  exist  of  such  a  nature  that  static  equil- 
ibrium is  impossible,  on  the  impact  of  bodies  of  different 
composition,  at  their  surfaces  of  contact.  They  are  forces 
making  a  body,  after  the  example  of  radium,  emit  rays 
unceasingly  without  apparent  loss  of  substance.  A .  force 
of  repulsion  is  referred  to  here,  emanating  from  the  surface, 
and  not  from  the  centre  of  the  mass  of  atoms,  acting  on 
opposed  surfaces,  and  the  varying  intensity  of  which  is 
nothing  else  than  what  is  known  to  science  as  absolute 
temperature.  That  repulsive  force,  acting  in  the  inverse 
ratio  of  the  volume  of  matter  (or  of  the  cube  of  the  dis- 
tance), just  as  Newtonian  gravitation  acts  in  the  inverse 
ratio  of  the  surface  (or  as  the  square  of  the  distance),  takes 
its  immediate  development,  and  to  some  extent  visible 
shape,  in  Mariotte's  law  of  the  relation  of  pressure  to 
volume  in  gases.  The  memoir  establishes  the  existence  of 
a  continuous  interatomic  medium  of  transcendental  quali- 
ties not  yet  understood,  conveying  the  effect  of  a  force 
acting  at  the  surface  of  atoms,  and  the  real  seat  of 
luminous  and  electromagnetic  wave  motion,  according  to 
the  views  to  which  clearly  Lord  Kelvin  has  of  late  returned. 
The  view  now  presented  is  entirely  deduced  from  analysis 
of  the  actual  facts,  worked  out  at  length,  and  justified  by 
the  memoir,  and  new  so  far  as  the  case  of  the  impossibility 
of  an  equilibrium  due  to  the  surface  force  of  repulsion, 
which  gives  rise  to  an  exhaustless  emission  of  energy. 
The  reflecting  attention  of  physicists  may  therefore  be 
legitimately  directed  to  the  subject,  because  it  seem» 
certain  that  the  new  properties  which  radium  manifests 
are  not  explainable  by  the  kinetic  hypothesis,  but,  on  the 
contrary,  are  of  a  nature  henceforward  to  modify  consider- 
ably the  speculations  of  modern  physics. 

Brussels,  July  14.  Ch.  Lagrange. 


A  New  Case  of  Phosphorescence  induced  by  Radiumi 
Bromide. 

It  is  known  that  salt  (NaCl)  at  a  temperature  of  200°  C. 
is  phosphorescent  {vide  Phipson  on  "  Phosphorescence," 
p.  20) ;  during  a  course  of  experiments  in  June  last  I  found 
that  radium  bromide  induces  phosphorescence  at  ordinary 
temperatures.  The  following  is  a  convenient  way  of 
observing  the  phenomenon.  Fill  a  wooden  match-box  with 
table  salt  removed  from  the  inner  portion  of  a  block  ;  press 
the  radium  bromide  tube  into  the  yielding  mass  and  just 
barely  cover  it  with  the  substance.  If  it  be  now  put  on  one 
side  for  a  few  hours,  say  into  one  of  the  compartments  of 
a  chest  of  drawers,  on  opening  the  box  in  the  dark  all 
round  the  tube  will  be  found  to  phosphoresce  with  a  white 
light,  but,  unlike  zinc  blende  and  barium  platinocyanide,. 
the  salt  continues  visibly  to  phosphoresce  after  removal  of 
the  radium  bromide.  The  portions  of  salt  round  the  tube 
are  turned  of  a  faint  buff  or  ochrey  tint.  The  image  of 
the  visible  portion  round  and  where  the  radium  broniide 
tube  has  lain  is  impressed  on  a  photographic  plate  in  thirty 


270 


NATURE 


[July  23,   1903 


minutes,  but  only  very  faintly  in  two  or  three  minutes.  I 
have  tried  samples  of  salt  from  several  localities  with  the 
same  results.  William   Ackroyd. 


Tables  of  Four-figure  Logarithms. 
I  AM  much  interested  by  the  short  letter,  contributed  by 
Prof.  Perry  to  Nature  of  July  2  (p.  199),  on  the  subject 
of  four-figure  logarithms,  especially  as  I  have  myself  offered 
a  solution  of  the  difficulty  which  Mr.  Harrison  has  essayed 
to  remedy.  If,  instead  of  using  Bottomley's  differences 
for  the  upper  part  of  the  tables,  viz.  from  1000  to  1799,  we 
resort  to  the  usual  tabular  differences  found  in  any  ordinary 
logarithmic  tables,  such  as  Chambers's,  we  get  an  even 
greater  accuracy  than  does  Mr.  Harrison.  The  tables  are 
naturally  weakest  when  we  have  a  "  9  "  for  the  fourth 
figure  of  the  number  the  logarithm  of  which  is  required. 
Taking  this  as  a  test,  between  1000  and  1799  the  accuracy 
of  the  three  methods  may  be  expressed  thus  : — 

Per  cent. 

Bottomley's  differences 375 

Ditto,  Harrison's  extension       ...         ...         ...     58-5 

Ordinary  tabular  differences     76 

Tabular  differences  would  be  required  corresponding  to 
logarithmic  differences  of  43  to  24  inclusive,  i.e.  twenty 
small  columns  of  differences.  It  may  be  objected  that  it 
would  be  unwieldy  in  use  to  change  from  one  method  of 
procedure  to  another,  but  I  think  it  will  be  found,  also, 
that  Mr.  Harrison's  tables  are  not  so  easy  to  use  as  the 
unmodified  ones.  The  tabular  differences  might,  indeed, 
b^  printed  down  the  side  of  Bottomley's  table  without  dis- 
turbing the  usual  differences,  and  only  be  used  when  the 
iDest  possible  accuracy  is  desired. 

One  of  the  best  solutions  of  the  difficulty  has  been 
suggested  to  me  by  Prof.  Perry  himself,  viz.  divide  the 
number,  less  than  2000,  the  logarithm  of  which  is  wanted, 
by  2,  and  add  together  the  logarithms  of  quotient  and 
divisor.  The  approximation  to  the  true  logarithm  of  the 
number  is  very  good. 

I  cannot  agree  that  chemists,  in  any  case,  should  use 
four-figure  logarithms,  seeing  that  they  habitually  return 
four  figures  as  significant.  I  hope,  before  long,  to  be  able 
to  show  that  practicable  five-figure  tables  can  be  constructed 
to  which  the  reproach  of  "  size  "  will  be  inapplicable. 

July  3.  M.   White  Stevens. 


.  Prof.  Perry  in  Nature  of  July  2  (p.  198)  gives  an  illus- 
tration of  a  method  whereby  the  logarithms  of  the  numbers 
from  1000  to  2000  may  be  got  from  a  four-place  logarithm 
table  with  an  error  of,  at  most,  one  unit  in  the  last  place. 

It  is,  however,  somewhat  difficult  to  see  what  advantage 
this  arrangement  has  over  the  one  where  the  logarithms 
of  the  numbers  1000  to  2000  are  given  (again)  after  999 
in  extenso  without  proportional  parts. 

By  this  latter  system  the  tables  are  certainly  increased 
in  size  by  another  double  page,  but,  on  the  other  hand, 
there  is  a  decided  disadvantage  in  using  the  relatively  large 
proportional  parts  for  the  numbers  1000  to  2000.  If  the 
addition  of  the  proportional  parts  is  done  on  paper,  time  will 
be  lost ;  if  the  addition  is  done  mentally,  mistakes  may 
•easily  occur.  C.  E.  F. 

Edinburgh,  July  4. 


In  mathematical  tables  the  last  figure  in  any  tabulated 
number  or  difference  must  be  liable  to  an  error  +i.  When 
a  number  is  extracted  from  the  tables  by  aid  of  a  tabulated 
•difference,  the  result  is  subject  to  a  duplication  of  error, 
that  is,  to  an  error  +1.  It  will  be  found  on  examination 
that  in  some  of  the  early  numbers  of  the  ordinary  four- 
figure  log  tables  the  error  is  often  double  this  amount. 
Mr.  Harrison's  alteration  remedies  this  mistake,  and  makes 
the  maximum  error  uniform  throughout.  The  scheme  pro- 
posed by  Mr.  Stevens  can  do  no  more  than  this,  and  would 
he  more  clumsy.  The  figures  given  by  him  apparently 
refer  to  averages,  and  are  irrelevant. 

If  the  proposal  of  C.E.F.  were  adopted,  the  first  portion 
of  the  table  would  have  double  the  accuracy  of  the  re- 
mainder ;  the  result  of  any  general  calculation  would  depend 

NO.   1760,  VOL.  68] 


on  the  accuracy  of  the  latter,  and  little,  if  anything,  would 
be  gained  in  return  for  the  fact  that  the  space  occupied 
by  the  tables  would  be  doubled.  John  Perry. 


A  Multiple  Lightning  Flash. 

I  have  had  the  privilege  of  examining  the  print  of  the 
lightning  flash  taken  by  Mr.  C.  H.  Hawkins,  of  Croydon, 
and  referred  to  in  Nature  (July  16,  p.  247)  by  Dr.  W.  N. 
Shaw. 

The  main  flash  consists  really  of  three  flashes,  the  several 
paths  of  which  are  not  quite  coincident.  If  a  moving 
camera  had  been  employed  (I  assume  the  camera  in  this 
case  was  fixed),  then  I  think  the  three  flashes  would  have 
been  easily  distinguished.  The  flash  on  the  right  is 
evidently  a  ramification  of  the  main  stream.  Except  for 
the  above,  the  photograph  shows  no  other  special  features. 
William  J.  S.  Lockyer. 

Solar  Physics  Observatory,  July  17. 


The  Lyrids,  1903. 

The  return  of  the  Lyrids  this  year  was  well  observed 
here.  Watching  was  begun  on  April  15,  and  continued 
until  April  24,  the  series  being  broken  only  once,  namely 
on  April  20,  when  the  sky  was  overcast.  The  weather  was 
very  favourable,  the  heavens  on  most  nights  being  beauti- 
fully clear.  Eighty-four  meteors  were  registered,  of  which 
twenty  were  Lyrids. 

The  chief  points  with  regard  to  the  Lyrids  brought  out 
by  the  observations  are  : — 

(1)  The  display  was  of  moderate  strength. 

(2)  The  maximum  occurred  on  April  21  and  22,  probably 
more  precisely  at  midnight  on  the  latter  date. 

(3)  The  decrease  in  activity  was  more  rapid  than  the  rise 
to  maximum. 

(4)  The  radiant  on  the  nights  of  April  21-22  was  at 
27i^°+33°  (12  paths). 

(5)  The  colours  of  the  Lyrids  were  almost  wholly  of  two 
shades,  white  and  a  peculiar  yellowish,  dirty-looking  green. 

(6)  The  meteors  were  swift,  their  average  angular  velocity 
being  20°  a  second,  not  taking  into  account  those  which 
appeared  close  to  the  radiant.  The  real  speed  of  a  Lyrid 
fireball  recorded  on  April  22  by  Prof.  Herschel  at  Slough 
and  the  writer  at  Leicester  has  been  computed  to  have  been 
39  miles  per  second. 

(7)  Only  the  very  brightest  Lyrids  left  streaks. 

The  first  meteor  of  the  shower  was  observed  on  April  17. 
There  was  a  remarkable  break  on  April  19,  when  not  a 
single  Lyrid  was  seen  in  a  watch  lasting  three  hours, 
though  the  seeing  was  excellent. 

Minor  Showers. 

Besides  the  Lyrids,  radiants  were  found  for  the  chief 
active  showers  as  under  : — 

Rftdiant-point  Duration  No.  of  Remarks 

„  „  meteors 

330  +35  •••  March  2g-ApriI  24  ...  4  ...  Slowish;  radiant  -svell -defined. 
2(6  —26  ...         April  11-24  •••  5  •••  Rather  swift,  bright,  long.     Ex- 

hibited great  variety  of  colour. 
236^  +  5x4...  April  19  ...  4  ...  Short;     rather    swift.      Radiant 

sharply  defined. 
256^  +  37  ...         April  19-22         ...  6  ...  Swift.       Maximum    April   22    (5 
meteors). 

The  shower  from  2i6°-26°  is  very  interesting,  inasmuch 
as  nothing  seems  to  have  been  seen  of  it  previous  to  1900, 
in  which  year  it  was  very  active  at.  the  Lyrid  epoch  from 
2i8°-3i°.  It  appears,  therefore,  to  furnish  quite  a  strong 
display  at  this  period. 

A  recent  writer  has  calculated  that  the  maximum  of  the 
Lyrid  shower  would  fall  this  year  at  April  19,  loh.  30m. 
My  observations  entirely  negative  this  conclusion,  for  that 
night  was  marked  by  the  complete  absence  of  Lyrids, 
though  the  seeing  conditions  were  extremely  favourable. 
The  time  of  maximum  actually  found  was  in  accordance 
with  that  which  had  previously  been  inferred.  Since  in 
the  last  few  years  the  maximum  has  taken  place  on  the 
20-21,  it  was  to  be  expected  that,  after  the  omission  of 
leap  year  in  1900,  the  epoch  would  be  thrown  one  day 
later.  Alphonso  King. 

Leicester,  July  11. 


July  23.  1903] 


NATURE 


27 


THE    WILD  HORSE.' 

IN  the  time  of  Pallas  and  Pennant,  as  in  the  days 
of  Oppian  and  Pliny,  it  was  commonly  believed 
that  true  wild  horses  were  to  be  met  with,  not  only  in 
Central  Asia,  but  also  in  Europe  and  Africa.  But 
ere  the  middle  of  the  nineteenth  century  was  reached, 
naturalists  were  beginning  to  question  the  existence  of 
genuine  wild  horses ;  and  somewhat  later,  the  con- 
clusion was  arrived  at  that  the  horse  had  long  "  ceased 
to  exist  in  a  state  of  nature."  * 

This  view  had  barely  been  accepted  by  zoologists 
when  it  was  announced  from  St.  Petersburg  that  a 
true  wild  horse  had  at  last  been  discovered  in  Central 
Asia  by  the  celebrated  Russian  traveller,  Przewalsky. 

An  account  of  this  horse  was  communicated  by 
Poliakoff,  in  1881,  to  the  Imperial  Russian  Geo- 
graphical Society.'  The  material  at  Poliakoff's  dis- 
posal being  limited,  zoologists  were  not 
at  once  disposed  to  admit  that  Przewal- 
sky's  horse,  as  it  came  to  be  called, 
deserved  to  rank  as  a  distinct  species. 
Some  believed  the  new  horse  had  no 
more  claim  for  a  place  amongst  wild 
forms  than  the  mustangs  of  the  western 
prairies  or  the  brumbies  of  the  Austra- 
lian bush ;  while  others  asserted  it  was 
merely  a  hybrid  between  the  Kiang 
{Eqtius  hemionus)  and  a  Mongolian  or 
other  eastern  pony. 

Even  after  the  brothers  Grijimailo,  in 
i8go,'  added  somewhat  to  Poliakoff's 
original  description  from  material  (four 
skins  and  a  skeleton)  brought  from  the 
Dzungaria  desert,  naturalists  were  still 
sceptical.  The  greatest  English 
authority  on  the  structure  and  classifi- 
cation of  the  Equidae  during  the  latter 
part  of  the  nineteenth  century  was  th( 
late  Sir  William  Flower.  Writing  in 
1891,  Flower  says: — "Much  interest, 
not  yet  thoroughly  satisfied,  has  been 
excited  among  zoologists  "  by  Polia- 
koff's announcement,  but,  he  added. 
"  Until  more  specimens  are  obtained,  ii 
is  difficult  to  form  a  definite  opinion  a-^ 
to  the  validity  of  the  species,  or  to  resisi 
the  suspicion  that  it  may  not  be  an 
accidental  hybrid  between  the  Kiani; 
and  the  horse."  * 

Since  Flower  expressed  this  opinion 
quite  a  number  of  specimens  illustrating 
the  form  and  structure  of  Przewalsky  "> 
horse  at  various  ages  have  been  added 
to  the  St.  Petersburg  Zoological  Museum,  and  in  1902 
Mr.  Hagenbeck,  of  Hamburg  (commissioned  by  His 
Grace  the  Duke  of  Bedford)  imported  from  Mongolia 
between  twenty  and  thirty  living  Przewalsky  "  colts.  ■ 
Though  about  half  of  these  colts  found  their  way  to 
England,  and  though  Dr.  W.  Salensky,  director  of 
tha  Zoological  Museum  of  St.  Petersburg,  published 
last  year  an  elaborate  monograph*  on  Przewalsky 's 
horse,  English  zoologists  are  not  yet  satisfied  that  we 
have  in  this  member  of  the  horse  family  a  true  and 
valid  species. 

So  far  as  I  can  gather,  it  is  generally  believed  in 

1  The  Wild  Horse  {^Eguus przewahkii,  Poliakoff).  By  Prof.  J.  C.  Ewart, 
F.R.S.     Read  before  the  Royal  Society  of  Edinburgh,  June  15. 

■^  Bell's  "  British  Quadrupeds.  " 

3  A  translation  of  Poliakoff's  paper  will  be  found  in  the  Anna's  and 
.^tagaztne  of  Natural  History,  1881.  See  also  Tegetmeier  and  Suther- 
land's "  Horses,  Asses  and  Zebras." 

•*  See  Proceedings  of  the  Roy.  Geog.  Soc,  April,  1891. 

'  Flower,  "  The  Horse,"  pp.  78,  70. 

"  "  Wissenschaftliche  Resultate  der  von  N.  M.  Przewal-ki  nach  Central 
Asien."  Zool.  Theil  :  Band  i. ,  Mammalia;  Abth.  a,  Ungulata.  (St. 
Petersburg,  1902.) 

NO.    1760,   VOL.  68] 


England  that  Przewalsky 's  horse  is  a  hybrid — a  cross 
between  a  pony  and  a  Kiang.  Beddard,  however, 
admits  it  may  be  a  distinct  type.  He  says  : — "  This 
animal  has  been  believed  to  be  a  mule  between  the 
wild  ass  and  a  feral  horse ;  but  if  a  distinct  form-r- 
and probability  seems  to  urge  that  view — it  is  interest- 
ing as  breaking  down  the  distinctions  between  horses 
and  asses."  ^ 

It  must  be  admitted  that  in  its  mane  and  tail 
Przewalsky 's  horse  is  strongly  suggestive  of  a  hybrid, 
but  in  the  short  mane  and  mule-like  tail  we  may  very 
well  have  a  persistence  of  ancestral  characters — in  the 
wild  asses  and  zebras  the  mane  is  always  short,  and 
they  never  have  long  persistent  hairs  at  the  proximal 
end  of  the  tail. 

Though  a  superficial  exa!mination  may  lead  one  to 
think  with  Flower  that  Przewalsky 's  horse  is  an  acci- 
dental hybrid,   a  .careful   study  of  the  soft  parts  and 


Kiang  pony  Hybrid,  <et.  two  days. 


Adderhy. 


skeleton  inevitably  leads  to  quite  a  different  conclusion. 
Though  failing  to  understand  why  so  many  zoo- 
logists persisted  in  considering  the  horse  of  the  Great 
Gobi  Desert  to  be  a  mule,  I  decided  to  breed  a  number 
of  Kiang-horse  hybrids.^ 

With  the  help 'of  Lord  Arthur  Cecil,  I  succeeded 
early  in  1902  in  securing  a  male  wild  Asiatic  ass  and 
a  couple  of  Mongolian  pony  mares — one  a  yellow-dun, 
the  other  a  chestnut.  "Jacob,"  the  wild  ass,  was 
mated  with  the  dun  Mongol  mare,  with  a  brownish- 
yellow  Exmoor  pony,  and  with  a  bay  Shetland-Welsh 
pony.  The  chestnut  Mongol  pony  was  put  to  a  light 
grey  Connemara  stallion.  Of  the  four  mares  referred 
to,  three  have  already  (June)  foaled,  viz.  the  Exmoor 
and  the  two  Mongolian  ponies.  The  Exmoor  having 
foaled  first,  her  hybrid  may  be  first  considered. 

1  Beddard,  "  Mammalia,"  p.  240.     (Macmillan,  1902.) 

2  Sir  William  Flower,  the  late  president  of  the  London  Zoological  Society, 
having  more  than  hinted  in  1891  that  Przewalsky's  horse  was  a  mule,  one 
would  have  thought  an  effort  would  have  been  made  fcrthwith  to  test  this 
view  in  the  Society's  Garden. 


272 


NATURE 


[July 


1903 


It  may  be  mentioned  that  the  Exmoor  pony  had,  in 
1900,  and  again  in  1901,  a  zebra  hybrid,  the  sire  being 
the  Burchell  zebra  "  Matopo,"  used  in  my  telegony 
experiments.  In  the  case  of  her  Kiang  hybrid  the 
period  of  gestation  was  335  days  (one  day  short  of 
what  is  regarded  as  the  normal  time),  but  she  carried 
her  1900  zebra  hybrid  357  days,  three  weeks  beyond  the 
normal  time.  The  Exmoor-zebra  hybrids  are  as  nearly 
as  possible  intermediate  between  a  zebra  and  a  pony ; 
the  Kiang  hybrid,  on  the  other  hand,  might  almost 
pass  for  a  pure-bred  wild  ass.^  In  zebra  hybrids  the 
ground  colour  has  invariably  been  darker  than  in  the 
zebra  parent ;  but  the  Kiang  hybrid  is  decidedly  lighter 
in  colour  than  her  wild  sire,  while  in  make  she 
strongly  suggests  an  Onager — the  wild  ass  so  often 
associated  with  the  Runn  of  Cutch.  Alike  in  make 
and  colour,  the  Kiang  hybrid  differs  from  a  young 
Przewalsky  foal.^ 

I  have  never  seen  a  new-born  wild  horse,  but  if  one 
may  judge  from  the  conformation  of  the  hocks,  from 
the  coarse  legs,   big  joints,   and   large  heads  of  the 


withers   until 


Sire  of  Hybrid. 


yearlings — from  their  close  resemblance  to  dwarf  cart- 
horse foals — it  may  be  assumed  they  are  neither 
characterised  by  unusual  agility  nor  fleetness.  The 
Kiang  hybrid,  on  the  other  hand,  looks  as  if  built 
for  speed,  and  almost  from  the  moment  of  its  birth 
it  has,  by  its  energy  and  vivacity,  been  a  source  of 
considerable  anxiety  to  its  by  no  means  placid  Exmoor 
dam.  When  four  days  old  it  walked  more  than  twenty 
miles ;  on  the  fifth  day,  instead  of  resting,  it  was 
unusually  active,  as  if  anxious  to  make  up  for  the 
forced  idleness  of  the  previous  evening.  In  the  hybrid 
the  joints  are  small,  and  the  legs  are  long  and  slender 
and  covered  with  short  closeTlying  hair.  In  the  wild 
horse  the  joints  are  large,  and  the  "  bone  "  is  round 
as  in  heavy  horses. 

As  to  its  colour,  it  may  be  especially  mentioned  that 

1  The  wild  parent  is  generally  prepotent  over  the  tame — in  Mendelian 
terms  the  Kiang  proved  dominant,  the  Exmoor  pony  recessive. 

2  For  a  .skin  of  a  very  young  Przewalsky  foal  I  am  indebted  to  Mr.  Carl 
Hagenbeck,  of  Hamburg. 


the  hybrid  has.  more  white  around  the  eyes  than  the 
w'xXA  horse,  but  is  of  a  darker  tint  along  the  back  and 
sides  and  over  the  hind  quarters.  Too  much  import- 
ance, however,  should  not  be  attached  to  differences  in 
colour,  for,  though  the  two  hybrid  foals  which  have 
already  arrived  closely  agree  in  their  coloration,  sub- 
sequent foals  may  differ  considerably,  and  it  is  well 
known  that  young  wild  horses  from 'the  western  por- 
tions of  the  Great  Altai  Mountains  differ  in  tint  from 
those  found  further  east. 

Of  more  importance  than  the  coat-colour  is  the 
nature  of  the  hair.  A  Przewalsky  foal  has  a  woolly  coat 
not  unlike  that  of  an  Iceland  foal.  In  the  hvbrid,  the 
hair  IS  short  and  fine,  and  onlv  slightly  wavy  over  the 
hmd  quarters.  It  thus  differs  but  little  from  a 
thoroughbred  or  Arab  foal. 

The  mane  and  tail  of  the  hybrid  are  exactly  what 
one  would  expect  in  a  mule;  the  dorsal  band,  75mm. 
wide  over  the  croup  in  the  sire,  has  in  the  hybrid  a 
nearly  uniform  width  of  12mm.  from  its  origin  at  the 
t  loses  itself  half-way  down  the  tail. 
The  tail,  which  differs  but  little  from 
that  of  a  pony  foal,  is  of  a  lighter 
brown  colour  than  the  short  upright 
mane,  while  the  dorsal  band  is  of  a 
reddish-brown  hue.  In  the  wild 
horse  the  dorsal  band  is  sometimes 
very  narrow  (under  5mm.)  and  in- 
distinct. In  the  Kiang  sire  there  are 
pale  but  quite  distinct  stripes  above 
and  below  the  hocks,  and  small  faint 
spots  over  the  hind  quarters — vestiges, 
apparently,  of  ancestral  markings ; 
but  in  the  hybrid  there  are  neither  in- 
dications of  stripes  across  the  hocks 
or  withers,  nor  spots  on  the  quarters.^ 
In  having  no  indications  of  bars  on 
the  legs  or  faint  stripes  across  the 
shoulders,  the  hybrid  differs  from 
Przewalsky  colts ;  it  also  differs  in 
having  a  longer  flank  feather,  and  in 
the  facial  whorl  being  well  below  the 
level  of  the  eyes.  As  in  the  Kiang 
and  wild  horse,  the  under  surface  of 
the  body  and  the  inner  aspect  of  the 
limbs  are  nearly  white. 

In  the  hybrid  the  front  chestnuts 
(wrist  callosities)  are  smooth  and  just 
above  the  level  of  the  skin,  but  in- 
stead of  being  roughly  pear-shaped  as 
in  the  Kiang,  they  are  somewhat 
shield-shaped,  as  in  the  Onager,  In 
the  wild  horse  the  front  chestnuts  are 
elongated. 
In  the  Exmoor  dam  the  hind  chestnuts  (hock  callosi- 
ties) are  27mm.  in  length  and  lomm.  wide.  In  the 
sire  there  is  a  minute  callosity  inside  the  right  hock. 
In  the  hybrid  the  hind  chestnuts  are  completely  absent. 
In  the  absence  of  hock  callosities  the  hybrid  differs 
from  the  wild  horse,  in  which  they  are  relatively  longer 
than  in  Clydesdales,  Shires,  and  other  heavy  breeds 
of  horses.  In  the  hybrid,  as  in  the  sire  and  dam,  there 
are  smooth,  rounded  fetlock  callosities  (ergots)  on 
both  fore  and  hind  limbs. 

In  the  wild  horse  the  Koof  is  highly  specialised,  the 
"  heels  "  being  bent  inwards  (contracted)  to  take  a 
vice-like  grip  of  the  frog.  In  the  hybrid  the  hoof 
closely  resembles  that  of  the  pony  dam ;  it  is  shorter 
than  in  the  Kiang,  and  less  contracted  at  the  "  heels  " 
than  in  the  wild  horse. 

The  Kiang  hybrid  further  differs  from  a  young  wild 

1  The  complete  absence  of  stripes  in  the  Kiang  hybrid  is  all  the  more 
interesting,  seeing  that  the  dam's  previous  foals  were  zebra  hybrids. 
Evidently  the  Kiang  hybrid  lends  no  support  to  the  telegony  doctrine. 


uin-lVihnot. 


NO.    1760,  VOL.   68] 


July  23,  1903] 


NATURE 


273 


horse  in  the  lips  and  muzzle,  the  nostrils  and  ears,  and 
in  the  form  of  the  head. 

The  wild  horse  has  a  coarse,  heavy  head,  with  the 
lower  lip  (as  is  often  the  case  in  large-headed  horses 
and  in  Arabs  with  large  hock  callosities)  projecting 
beyond  the  upper.  The  nostrils  in  their  outline  re- 
semble those  of  the  domestic  horse,  while  the  long 
pointed  ears  generally  project  obliquely  outwards,  as 
in  many  heavy  horses  and  in  the  Melbourne  strain  of 
thoroughbreds.  Further,  in  the  wild  horse  the  fore- 
head is  convex  from  above  downwards,  as  well  as  from 
side  to  side — hence  Przewalsky's  horse  is  sometimes 
said  to  be  ram-headed.  In  the  hybrid  the  muzzle  is 
fine  as  in  Arabs,  the  lower  lip  is  decidedly  shorter 
than  the  prominent  upper  lip,  the  nostrils  are  narrow 
as  in  the  Kiang,  and  even  at  birth  the  forehead  was 
less  rounded  than  is  commonly  the  case  in  ordinary 
foals.  The  ears  of  the  hybrid,  though  relatively 
shorter  and  narrower  than  in  the  Kiang,  have,  as  in 
the  Kiang,  incurved  dark-tinted  tips,  and  they  are 
usually  carried  erect  or  slightly  inclined  towards  the 
middle  line.  In  the  wild  horse  the 
croup  is  nearly  straight,  and  the  tail  is 
set  on  high  up,  as  in  many  desert 
Arabs.  In  the  hybrid  the  croup  slopes 
as  in  the  Kiang  and  in  many  ponies, 
with  the  result  that  the  root  of  the  tail 
is  on  a  decidedly  lower  level  than  the 
highest  part  of  the  hind  quarters. 
Further,  in  the  young  wild  horses  1 
have  seen  the  heels  (points  of  the 
hocks)  almost  touch  each  other,  as  in 
many  Clydesdales,  and  the  hocks  are 
distinctly  bent.  In  the  hybrid  the 
hocks  are  as  straight  as  in  well-bred 
foals,  and  the  heels  are  kept  well  apart 
in  walking. 

Another  difference  of  considerable 
importance  is  that  while  the  wild 
horse  neighs,  the  hybrid  makes  a 
peculiar  barking  sound,  remotely  sug- 
gestive of  the  rasping  call  of  the 
Kiang. 

The  dun  Mongol  pony's  hybrid 
arrived  five  weeks  before  its  time,  and, 
though  perfect  in  every  way,  was 
short-lived.  Only  in  one  respect  did 
this  hybrid  differ  from  the  one  already 
described.  In  the  Exmoor  hybrid  the 
hock  callosities  are  entirely  absent ; 
in  the  Mongol  hybrid  the  right  hock 
callosity  is  completely  wanting,  but  the 
left  one  is  represented  by  a  small, 
slightly  hardened  patch  of  skin 
sparsely  covered  with  short  white 
hair.*  In  zebra  hybrids  out  of  cross-bred  mares  ihe 
hock  callosities  are  usually  fairly  large,  while  in 
hybrids  out  of  well-bred  (*'  Celtic  ")  pony  mares  the 
hock  callosities  are  invariably  absent.  The  Exmoor 
pony,  though  not  so  pure  as  the  Hebridean  and  other 
ponies  without  callosities,  has  undoubtedly  a  strong 
dash  of  true  pony  blood ;  the  Mongol  pony  is  as 
certainly  saturated  with  what,  for  want  of  a  better 
term,  may  be  called  cart-horse  blood.  As  I  expected, 
there  were  no  hock  callosities  present  in  the  Exmoor 
hybrid.  In  the  Mongol  hybrid  there  was  less  evidence 
of  hock  callosities  than  I  expected. 

From  what  has  been  said  it  follows  that  a  Kiang- 
horse  hybrid  differs  from  Przewalsky's  horse  (i)  in 
having    at    the    most    the    merest    vestiges    of    hock 

i  The  presence  of  hair  in  the  imperfectly-formed  hock  callosity  of  the 
Mongol  hybrid,  together  with  the  presence  of  hair  rudiments  in  the  deve- 
loping hock  callosity  of  the  common  horse,  certainly  lends  very  httle 
support  to  the  view  held  by  some  zoologists  that  the  chestnuts  of  the  horse 
.-ire  vestiges  of  glands. 


callosities;  (2)  in  not  neighing  like  a  horse;  (3)  ir> 
having  finer  limbs  and  joints  and  less  specialised  hoofs  %. 
(4)  in  the  form  of  the  head,  in  the  lips,  muzzle,  and 
ears;  (5)  in  the  dorsal  band;  and  (6)  in  the  absence, 
even  at  birth,  of  any  suggestion  of  shoulder-stripes- 
and  of  bars  on  the  legs. 

While  most  of  the  zoologists  who  hesitated  to  regard 
Przewalsky's  horse  as  representing  a  distinct  and 
primitive  type  favoured  the  view  that  it  was  a  mule, 
some  asserted  that  it  in  no  way  essentially  differed 
from  an  ordinary  horse.  The  colts  brought  from 
Central  Asia,  they  said,  were  the  offspring  of  escaped 
Mongol  ponies.  Others  affirmed  that  they  failed  Xx> 
discover  any  difference  between  the  young  wild  horses 
in  the  London  Zoological  Gardens  and  Iceland  ponies 
of  a  like  age.  To  test  the  first  of  these  assertions,  I, 
as  already  mentioned,  mated  the  chestnut  Mongol 
pony  with  a  young  Connemara  stallion ;  to  test  the 
second,  I  purchased  last  autumn  a  recently-imported 
yellow-dun  Iceland  mare  in  foal  to  an  Iceland  stallion. 
I  As  I  anticipated,  the  chestnut  Mongol  mare  produced 


E.  Dar^vin-Wilinot. 

I'K;.    ;.  — I'.xinoDr  pony  .iiul  liur  Hylnid  foal,  (ft.  9  days. 

a  foal  the  image  of  herself.  This  foal,  it  is  hardly 
necessary  to  say,  decidedly  differs  from  the  Przewalsky 
colts  recently  imported  from  Central  Asia  by  Mr. 
Hagenbeck,  and  it  as  decidedly  differs  from  the  Kiang 
hybrids  described  above. 

The  Iceland  foal,  notwithstanding  the  upright  mane 
and  the  woolly  coat,  for  a  time  of  a  nearly  uniform 
white  colour,  could  never  be  mistaken  for  a  wild  horse, 
and  the  older  it  gets  the  differences  will  become 
accentuated. 

If  Przewalsky's  horse  is  neither  a  Kiang-pony  mule 
nor  a  feral  Mongolian  pony,  and  if,  moreover,  it  is. 
fertile  (and  its  fertility  can  hardly  be  questioned),  1 
fail  to  see  how  we  can  escape  from  the  conclusion  that 
it  is  as  deserving  as,  say,  the  Kiang  to  be  regarded 
as  a  distinct  species.  Granting  Przewalsky's  horse  is 
a  true  wild  horse,  the  question  arises  :  In  what  way, 
if  any,  is  it  related  to  our  domestic  horses?  It  is  stilt 
too  soon  to  answer  this  question ;  but  I  venture  to 
think  that  should  we,  by  and  by,   arrive  at  the  con- 


NO.   1760,  VOL.  68] 


274 


NATURE 


[July  23,  1903 


elusion  that  our  domestic  horses  have  had  a  multiple 
origin — have  sprung  from  at  least  two  perfectly  distinct 
sources — we  shall  probably  subsequently  come  to  the 
further  conclusion  that  our  big-headed,  big-jointed 
horses,  with  well-marked  chestnuts  on  the  hind  legs, 
are  more  intimately  related  to  the  wild  horse  than  the 
small-headed,  slender-limbed  varieties  without  chest- 
nuts on  the  hind  legs ;  that,  in  fact,  the  heavy  horses, 
whether  found  in  Europe,  Asia,  or  Africa,  and  Prze- 
walsky's  horse  have  sprung  from  the  same  ancestors. 


HIGHER  TECHNICAL  EDUCATION  IN 
GREAT  BRITAIN  AND  GERMANY.^ 
T  T  .M.  Consul  at  Stuttgart,  Dr.  Frederick  Rose, 
-*^  has  rendered  excellent  service  to  the  cause  of 
technical  education  by  the  admirable  reports  which 
he  has  from  time  to  time  sent  to  the  Foreign  Office; 
but  no  previous  report  of  his  presents  such  a  clear 
view  of  the  extent  of  the  provisions  for  technical 
education  in  Germany  and  of  the  nature  of  the 
services  which  the  technical  high  schools  render  to 
the  nation  as  does  the  one  recently, published  by  the 
Foreign  Office. 

Dr.  Rose  is  not  a  mere  blind  enthusiast  for  educa- 
tion, unable  to  see  the  ether  factors  which  have  made 
for  the  commercial  progress  of  Germany.  On  the 
contrary,  he  gives  due  weight  to  the  system  of  pro- 
tection, the  orderly  habits  inculcated  by  the  universal 
system  of  military  service,  and  other  matters  which 
contribute  in  this  direction  ;  but  after  doing  this  he  is 
still  compelled  to  recognise  the  great  part  played  by  the 
German  technical  high  schools  in  the  industrial 
development  of  the  nation. 

The  object  of  this  article  is  to  compare  the  condition 
of  technical  education  in  the  United  Kingdom  with 
the  condition  in  the  country  with  which  Dr.  Rose 
deals ;  unfortunately,  the  comparison  is  one  calcu- 
lated to_  give  Englishmen  little  satisfaction. 

In  this  country  we  have  a  fairly  large  number  of 
technical  institutions  with  many  thousands  of  students  ; 
indeed,  in  numbers  only,  it  is  probable  that  we  should 
compare  not  unfavourably  with  our  German  cousins. 
But  when  we  look  more  closely  into  the  statistics  we 
find  that  in  most  of  these  institutions  the  majority  of 
the  students  are  attending  evening  classes  only,  and 
that  of  this  majority  a  very  large  number  are  en- 
gaged in  work  of  an  exceedingly  elementary  character. 
If  one  considers  the  day  students  and  restricts  oneself 
to  those  who  are  above  the  very  low  minimum  age  of 
fifteen,  it  Is  found  that,  counting  not  merely  the 
technical  institutions,  but  also  the  universities  and 
university  colleges,  the  total  number  of  day  students 
for  the  United  Kingdom  amounted  in  190 1  to  less 
than  4000.  The  corresponding  total  for  the  German 
Empire  was.  In  1902,  nearly  15,000. 

These  figures,  as  they  stand,  are  sufficient  to  show 
how  very  backward  we  are  in  this  country  in  the 
matter  of  higher  technical  education ;  but,  when  we 
bring  into  the  comparison  the  ages  and  previous 
education  of  the  students  of  the  two  countries,  we 
see  that  the  above  figures  by  no  means  adequately 
show  how  far  we  are  behind  the  foreigner  in  the  matter 
of  training.  For  it  must  be  remembered  that,  with 
very  few  exceptions,  all  students  In  German  technical 
high  schools  commence  their  studies  when  they  are 
not  less  than  eighteen  years  of  age,  and  after  passing 

'  "  Report  on  the  German  Technical  High  Schools."  By  Dr  F.  Rose, 
H.M.  Consul,  Stuttgart.  (No.  591,  Miscellaneous  Series  of  Diplomatic 
and  Consular  Reports.) 

Since  this  article  was  written,  Lord  Rosebery's  letter  has  appeared,  fore- 
shadowing the  es'ablishment  of  a  technical  high  school  approximately  on 
the  Berlin  scale  in  London.  But  the  writer  lets  the  article  stand  ;  for  one 
such  institution  will  scarcely  suffice  for  the  ultimate  needs  of  the  metropoli; 
alone.  It  may  be  hoped,  however,  that  similar  developments  will  occur  in 
our  other  great  centres  of  population. 


NO.    1760,   VOL.   68] 


with  credit  a  nine  years'  course  of  Instruction  in 
secojidary  schools.  We  may  estimate  that  of  the  4000 
students  over  fifteen  in  institutions  in  the  United 
Kingdom  providing  technical  education  in  the  day- 
time, at  least  1400 — probably  considerably  more — were 
under  eighteen ;  this  reduces  us  to  2600  students  to 
compare  with  the  15,000  of  Germany. 

Nor  Is  this  all ;  for,  while  the  majority  of  the  German 
students  pursue  their  course  of  study  for  at  least  three 
years,  and  In  many  cases  for  four.  In  this  country 
only  a  very  small  proportion  proceed  beyond  two 
years;  thus  It  was  found  that  in  1901  there  were  about 
400  third  or  fourth  year  students  taking  complete  day 
courses  In  engineering  in  the  whole  United  Kingdom ; 
at  the  same  time  there  were  in  the  Berlin  Technical 
High  School  alone  more  third  and  fourth  year  students 
of  engineering  than  in  all  the  universities  and  colleges 
of  the  United  Kingdom  put  together ;  moreover,  none 
of  these  German  students  were  under  twenty,  while 
our  figures  could  only  be  obtained  by  counting  every 
student  of  this  standing  over  seventeen. 

To  what  must  we  attribute  our  great  Inferiority  in 
this  respect?  In  the  first  place  to  the  condition  of 
secondary  education  in  this  country ;  secondly,  to  the 
fact  that  German  and  American  manufacturers  believe 
In  technical  education,  while  many  of  their  competitors 
in  this  country  are  still  bUnd  to  its  advantages ;  and 
thirdly  to  the  fact  that,  while  our  Government  con- 
tributes with  liberality  to  elementary  education,  it  is 
exceedingly  parsimonious  in  its  dealings  with  higher 
education. 

First,  then,  let  us  look  at  the  question  of  secondary 
education.  Dr.  Rose's  report  gives  an  adequate  Idea 
of  the  splendid  character  of  the  preliminary  training 
w^hlch  young  Germans  receive  before  they  enter  the 
technical  high  schools  or  other  higher  institutions  in 
Germany.  The  secondary  schools  to  which  he  refers 
are  accessible  to  children  of  Intelligence  all  over  the 
Empire;  they  are  carefully  graded  so  as  to  overlap  one 
another  as  little  as  possible,  and  every  inducement  is 
given  to  parents  to  allow  their  children  to  pursue  a 
complete  course  of  study.  The  leaving  certificates  of 
these  schools  confer  upon  children  the  right  of  entry 
to  the  universities  and  technical  high  schools,  while 
they  also  form  a  starting  point  for  those  who  wish  to 
enter  the  more  important  branches  of  the  State  service, 
and  confer  the  right  to  escape  part  of  the  compulsory 
military  training.  We  may  hope  that  In  this  country 
the  new  education  authorities  will  improve  our 
secondary  education.  Is  it  too  much  to  expect  that 
the  Government  may  issue  a  leaving  certificate  con- 
ferring similar  privileges  to  the  German  one,  and 
taking  the  place  of  the  medley  of  university  local, 
Board  of  Education,  Army,  Navy,  and  Civil  Service 
examinations,  and  many  others,  which  now  hang  like 
mill-stones  round  the  necks  of  the  teachers  in  secondary 
schools. 

The  problem  how  to  make  British  manufacturers 
believe  In  technical  education  Is  one  which  is  slowly 
solving  itself,  and  within  the  recollection  of  the  present 
writer  an  improvement  in  this  direction  has  taken 
place.  That  the  improvement  has  not  been  more  rapid 
is  partly  due  to  the  fact  that  In  this  country  the  irn- 
perfectly  trained  student  has  been  over-confident  in  his 
own  powers  to  an  extent  only  explicable  by  consider- 
ing the  shortness  and  Imperfection  of  his  training. 
The  half-educated,  college-trained  youth  has  thus  often 
become  a  laughing-stock  in  the  shops ;  he  has  given 
his  opinions  freely,  and  they  have  not  infrequently  been 
wrong. 

In  some  of  the  best  technical  Institutions  we  are 
altering  all  this ;  our  students  are  made  to  understand 
that  the  preliminary  training  they  receive  is  only  a 
preliminary  training,  enabling  them  to  acquire  more 
complete  knowledge  later,   but  not  entitling  them  to 


July  23,  1903] 


NA  TURE 


275 


become  critics.  Our  manufacturers,  on  the  other 
hand,  are  learning  to  value  young  men  who  have  had 
a  sound  training,  and  it  is  becoming  less  and  less 
difficult  each  year  to  find  suitable  places  for  students 
of  this  kind,  even  though  many  of  the  students  are 
prolonging  their  training  longer  than  was  the  case 
some  years  ago,  though  still  for  a  far  shorter  period 
in  most  cases  than  is  the  case  with  the  German 
students. 

In  estimating  the  amount  of  assistance  which  the 
State  gives  to  higher  technical  education  in  this  country 
we  are  confronted  with  a  serious  difficulty,  for  the  in- 
stitutions in  which  such  education  is  given  are  seldom 
concerned  with  this  work  only.  The  technical  institu- 
tions spend  much  of  their  energy  and  financial  re- 
sources on  elementary  work  in  evening  classes,  while 
in  some  cases  they  also  include  preparatory  day  de- 
partments, which  are  simply  secondary  schools  of  a 
modern  type.  In  the  university  colleges  which  provide 
higher  technical  education,  such  work  represents,  as 
a  rule,  only  a  small  fraction  of  their  activity. 

It  is,  however,  quite  certain  that  comparatively  little 
of  the  grants  made  to  technical  institutions  and  uni- 
versity colleges  can  be  considered  as  given  specifically 
for  higher  technical  education.  Indeed,  in  so  far  as  the 
former  are  concerned,  the  present  policy  of  the  Board 
of  Education  is  to  give  high  grants  for  secondary 
schools  and  elementary  evening  classes  with  numerous 
pupils,  and  but  little  aid  to  the  day  classes  for  adults, 
which  form  the  most  important  part  of  the  work  of 
the  best  technical  colleges. 

The  Scottish  Education  Department,  on  the  contrary, 
has  recently  altered  this  for  Scotland  by  selecting  the 
institutions  at  Glasgow,  Edinburgh,  and  Dundee,  and 
putting  them  in  a  position  of  great  liberty  to  develop 
their  higher  work,  while  promising  to  give  aid,  not 
so  much  for  thousands  of  students  doing  elementary 
work  as  for  the  high  quality  of  the  advanced  work 
done  by  a  smaller  number  of  persons.  May  we  not 
hope  that  in  England  the  authorities  will  soon  adopt 
a  similar  policy? 

As  to  Germany,  Dr.  Rose's  report  mentions  the 
following  facts.  The  Prussian  State  gave  to  the  Berlin 
Technical  High  School  alone,  in  1871,  an  annual  sub- 
vention of  851  li.;  this  grant  has  been  gradually  in- 
creased until,  in  1899,  it  amounted  to  33,675?.,  while 
in  the  same  year  the  total  grant  to  the  three  Prussian 
technical  high  schools  reached  the  sum  of  65,350^, 
being  more  than  half  the  total  revenues  of  these  in- 
stitutions. But  besides  these  amounts,  sums  are  in- 
dependently voted  by  the  Prussian  Ministry  of  Finance 
towards  meeting  extraordinary  expenses  incurred  for 
new  buildings,  machinery,  apparatus,  &c.  If  these 
sums  be  taken  into  consideration,  we  reach  the  grand 
total  of  121,348?.  a  year.  It  must  be  remembered  that 
these  figures  relate  not  to  the  whole  of  Germany,  but 
simply  to  the  kingdom  of  Prussia,  with  an  industrial 
population  many  times  less  than  that  for  which  we 
have  to  provide  leaders  in  the  United  Kingdom. 

One  of  the  tables  in  Dr.  Rose's  report  shows  in  a 
remarkable  way  the  great  progress  which  has  been 
made  in  the  matter  of  higher  education  in  Germany 
since  the  Franco-Prussian  War.  For  the  attendance 
of  students  at  the  German  universities,  technical, 
agricultural,  and  veterinary  high  schools,  &c.,  has 
increased  from  17,761  in  1870  to  46,520  in  iqoo;  or 
to  state  the  matter  in  another  way,  there  were  in  such 
institutions  in  1870  about  nine  students  for  every 
10.000  male  inhabitants  of  Germany,  while  in  1900 
there  were  nearly  seventeen  students' for  every  10,000 
male  inhabitants.  The  rate  of  increase  has  been  much 
more  rapid  in  the  technical  high  schools,  though  the 
universities  also  have  made  progress ;  the  actual  figures 
given  by  Dr.  Rose  are  :— for  the  universities,  13,674 
students  in  1870,  and  32,834  in  1900;  for  the  technical 

NO.    1760,  VOL.  68] 


high  schools,  2928  in  1870,  and  10,412  in  1900,  irre- 
spective in  each  instance  of  students  in  agricultural 
and  mining  high  schools  and  other  higher  institutions. 
We  see,  then,  that  the  attendance  at  the  technical 
high  schools  has  increased  nearly  fourfold  during  the 
thirty  years,  while  in  the  same  period  the  university 
students  have  become  only  about  two  and  a  half  times 
as  numerous. 

An  important  point  in  Dr.  Rose's  report  is  that  in 
Germany  the  technical  high  schools  are  independent 
of  universities,  although  in  some  of  the  largest  towns, 
such  as  Berlin  and  Munich,  universities  and  technical 
high  schools  both  flourish,  existing  side  by  side,  and 
in  some  cases  appareiltly  overlapping,  but  not  really 
so  doing,  since  the  object  of  the  two  institutions  is 
not  the  same.  The  university  students  may  be  sup- 
posed to  ^eek  knowledge  mainly  for  its  own  sake, 
while  students  in  technical  high  schools  propose  to 
put  their  knowledge  to  commercial  uses. 

There  is  no  doubt  that  this  separation  of  technical 
work  from  the  control  of  the  university  professors  has 
been  a  good  thing  for  both  classes  of  institutions, 
which  are  now  recognised  as  of  equal  standing  in 
Germany  by  the  action  of  the  Emperor,  as  King  of 
Prussia,  followed  shortly  after  by  the  King  of 
Wiirttemburg,  whereby  the  technical  high  schools 
have  the  right  of  conferring  the  degree  of  doctor  of 
engineering,  thus  putting  them  on  a  par  with  the 
universities  in  this  respect.  This  action  was  taken 
notwithstanding  the  strong  opposition  of  the  Prussian 
universities,  and  the  Emperor  at  the  same  time 
admitted  the  principals  of  the  Prussian  technical  high 
schools  to  the  Prussian  House  of  Lords,  and  bestowed 
upon  each  of  them  the  title  of  "  His  Magnificence." 

Perhaps  the  most  important  lesson  to  be  learnt  from 
Dr.  Rose's  report  is  the  need  for  the  strengthening 
of  the  best  technical  institutions  in  England  which 
provide  for  the  training  in  day  classes  of  our  industrial 
leaders. 

The  report  shows  that  in  Germany  higher  technical 
education  is  concentrated  in  a  limited  number  of  in- 
stitutions, and  these  the  State  makes  thoroughly 
efficient.  The  result  is  the  gathering  into  a  single 
institution  of  such  a  large  number  of  students  that 
it  is  possible  to  provide  for  them  buildings,  equipment, 
and  teaching  staff  on  a  scale  far  in  advance  of  any- 
thing found  here.  Thus  the  teaching  staff  of  the 
three  Prussian  technical  high  schools  numbered  in 
1899  "O  i^ss  than  554,  being  one  teacher  for  each  nine 
students  in  attendance.  This  liberal  staffing  enables 
the  German  teachers  to  specialise,  greatly  to  the 
advantage  of  the  country,  the  students,  and  the 
teachers  themselves.  In  Germany  a  man  is  not — as 
is  the  rule  here — expected  to  deal  with  the  whole  range 
of  such  enormously  wide  subjects  as,  e.g.  electrical 
engineering.  One  teacher  has  a  thorough  knowledge 
of  central  station  equipment,  another  of  telephony,  a 
third  of  electro-motors,  a  fourth  of  electro-plating,  and 
so  on. 

It  is  evident,  then,  that,  if  we  wish  our  higher 
technical  training  to  be  as  good  as  that  of  the  Germans, 
we  must  concentrate  our  students.  But  this  has  been 
ditTicult,  because  our  technical  education  has  been  so 
largely  in  the  hands  of  local  authorities ;  these  bodies 
are  naturally  anxious  to  give  the  highest  form  of 
training  for  many  industries  within  their  own  limits, 
but  they  are  not.  as  a  rule,  willing  to  expend  the  very 
large  sums  needed  to  make  this  possible;  nor  would 
such  an  expenditure  be  wise.  We  have,  therefore, 
in  the  United  Kingdom  a  comparatively  large  number 
of  institutions  each  attempting — for  the  most  part  in- 
efficiently— to  do  the  highest  work  in  many  branches 
of  technology. 

If  imperial  patriotism  would  but  outweigh  local 
partiality,  the  sums  already  available  might  go  further 


276 


NATURE 


[July  23,  1903 


than  they  do  at  present  to  provide  better  training  for 
our  industrial  leaders.  In  London  one  may  hope  that 
this  may  be  effected  by  inducing  certain  institutions 
to  specialise  in  given  directions.  To  take  a  case  in 
point,  the  buildings,  equipment,  and  numerical  size 
of  the  staff  of  the  Central  Technical  College  might  be 
equal  to  dealing  satisfactorily  with  one  branch  of 
engineering  or  of  applied  chemistry.  At  present  the 
college  undertakes  nearly  all  branches,  and  does  it 
remarkably  well,  considering  the  difficulties  under 
which  it  labours.  If  all  the  teaching  staff  for  higher 
work  in  London  were  amalgamated,  it  would  still 
be  inferior  in  quantity — and,  probably,  in  quality  for 
specialised  work — to  that  at  Berlin ;  but  it  would  not 
be,  as  is  at  present  the  case  in  the  more  or  less  isolated 
institutions,  far  too  small  for  the  work  it  is  trying 
to  do. 

In  the  provinces  the  problem  is  more  difficult,  but 
not  insoluble,  if  we  are  all  more  anxious  for  the  good 
of  the  nation  than  for  the  glory  of  our  own  town  or 
institution.  Elementary  technical  education  is  needed 
in  all  the  towns,  but  technical  colleges  are  wanted  in 
a  few  great  cities  only ;  and  even  in  these  populous 
centres  every  important  branch  of  technology  cannot 
be  taught  with  efficiency,  because,  for  a  long  time, 
there  will  be  too  few  students  to  warrant  adequate 
expenditure.  Why  should  Sheffield  and  Leeds,  e.g. 
both  attempt  the  highest  work  in  metallurgy  and 
mining?  Might  not  Sheffield  send,  say,  its  mining 
teachers  and  students  to  Leeds  for  higher  work,  and 
Leeds  return  the  compliment  by  helping  to  develop 
the  highest  possible  training  in,  say,  metallurgy  at 
Sheffield  ? 

The  case  mentioned  is  only  one  instance  of  a  prin- 
ciple which  the  Government  ought  to  seek  to  establish 
generally,  and  to  induce  local  authorities  to  adopt  by 
offers  of  suitable  grants  in  aid  of  what  is  really  a 
pressing  national  need,  viz.  the  development  and  im- 
provement of  our  higher  technical  training.  Each  of 
the  great  cities  might  be  made  a  centre  for  the  highest 
training  for  one  or  more  of  our  national  industries, 
and  the  neighbouring  cities  should  be  willing  to  act 
as  feeders  to  it  in  respect  of  this  higher  work. 

Unless  some  such  policy  be  adopted,  there  seems  but 
little  chance  that  we  shall  ever  be  able  to  offer  a  train- 
ing equal  to  that  available  in  Germany.  For  it  would 
require  enormous  and  wholly  unnecessary  expenditure 
to  develop  into  a  first-class  technical  high  school  deal- 
ing with  many  branches  of  technology,  every  technical 
institution  and  university  college  which  is  at  present 
attempting  to  give  some  form  of  higher  technical 
training. 

Above  all,  let  us  note  that  both  in  Germany  and 
America  the  flourishing  technical  colleges  are  not,  as 
a  rule,  under  the  control  of  the  universities,  but  exist 
side  by  side  with  them  as  co-equal  organisations  with 
different  aims.  To  subordinate  higher  technical 
education  to  ordinary  academic  control  would  be  to 
make  a  mistake  which  our  German  and  American 
cousins  have  carefully  avoided.  Technical  institu- 
tions might,  however,  very  well  become  constituent 
parts  of  a  university,  provided,  as  has,  e.g.  been 
arranged  at  Sheffield,  that  they  retain  a  sufficient 
measure  of  self-government.  The  scheme  of  Prof. 
Riedler,  which  Dr.  Rose  quotes  with  approval,  would 
be  a  very  good  basis  upon  which  to  make  a  division 
between  the  work  of  our  technical  institutions  and 
university  colleges  which  exist  in  the  same  area,  and, 
to  some  extent,  overlap  one  another. 

The  university  college  might  embrace,  as  Riedler 
proposes  for  the  universities  of  Germany,  the  faculties 
of  law,  theology,  medicine,  philosophy,  languages, 
history,  State  science,  art,  mathematics,  and  natural 
science ;  while  the  technical  Institutions  would  on  his 
plan    embrace  the   faculties   of  engineering,   mining, 

NO.    1760,  VOL.  68] 


forestry,    agriculture,    military    science,    and    applied 
chemistry. 

Finally,  it  may  be  well  to  quote  the  words  in  which 
Dr.  Rose  summarises  the  results  of  his  extensive 
inquiries  : — "  The  technical  high  schools  cannot  boast 
of  the  proud  traditions  of  the  old  universities,  nor  are- 
their  buildings  and  institutions  regarded  with  those 
feelings  of  gratitude  and  reverence  which  a  long  and 
honourable  career  in  the  service  of  humanity  naturally 
inspires;  but  in  default  of  this  they  can  point  to  an 
almost  perfect  organisation  and  equipment  for  modern, 
requirements,  and  to  a  development  within  the  last 
forty  years  almost  unparalleled  in  the  annals  of 
educational  history."  May  a  similar  statement  be 
possible  ere  long  in  regard  to  our  own  higher  technical 
institutions !  J.  Wertheimer. 


A 


THE  TENTH  "EROS"  CIRCULAR.' 
S  an  example  of  needless  duplication,  fifty  observ- 
atories agreed  to  observe  the  planet  Eros  during 
its  opposition  in  1900,  but  so  far  as  known,  only  two- 
or  three  have  made  the  reductions  needed  to  render 
their  observations  of  any  value."  So  wrote  Prof.  E.  C. 
Pickering  in  April,  in  his  "  Plan  for  the  Endow- 
ment of  Astronomical  Research  ";  and  he  is  not  alone 
in  asking,  directly  or  indirectly,  when  we  may  expect 
to  have  the  result  of  all  the  work  done  at  the  opposition 
of  1900-1.  The  tenth  Eros  circular,  dated  June  i,  ap- 
pears at  the  right  moment  as  a  provisional  reply.  It 
gives  the  results  of  equatorial  observations  at  twelve 
observatories,  all  compared  with  the  ephemeris ;  and 
two  splendid  series  of  photographic  observations  made 
at  Bordeaux  and  Paris,  completely  reduced  so  as  to 
show  not  only  the  comparison  of  the  planet's  place  with 
the  ephemeris,  but  a  series  of  places  for  individual  stars 
such  as  has  never  been  given  before.  If  these  two 
observatories  had  done  nothing  else  in  the  two  years 
elapsed  since  the  plates  were  taken,  they  might  be  con- 
gratulated on  a  fine  piece  of  work.  Other  results  will 
doubtless  follow  now  that  these  are  in  print  to  act  as 
an  incentive,  and  we  need  have  no  fears  for  the  ultimate 
result. 

It  is,  however,  well  to  remember  that  the  opposition 
of  Eros  came  upon  us  at  a  time  when  our  hands  were 
already  more  than  full  with  the  ordinary  work  of  the 
astrographic  catalogue.  It  was  an  embarrassing  choice 
whether  to  put  aside  the  catalogue  measures  for  a  time^ 
to  finish  them  before  undertaking  the  Eros  work, 
or  to  try  to  do  both  simultaneously.  The  various  ob- 
servatories have  selected  one  or  other  of  these  alterna- 
tives according  to  the  stage  which  the  catalogue  work 
had  reached.  At  Bordeaux  and  Paris  a  leisurely  pro- 
gramme  has  been  adopted  for  this  work;  the  French 
Government  has  supplied  ample  means,  but  the  vote  has 
been  spread  over  twenty-five  years,  and  the  work  will 
be  extended  over  the  same  period.  It  would  have  been 
ridiculous  to  defer  the  measurement  of  the  Eros  plates 
for  any  period  of  this  kind,  and  we  imagine  the  cata- 
logue work  has  been  put  aside  In  order  to  measure  the 
Eros  plates.  At  Oxford,  to  take  a  different  case,  the 
catalogue  work  has  been  pushed  forward  rapidly  so  as 
to  make  the  best  use  of  the  small  sum  available,  and  is 
on  the  point  of  completion.  The  Eros  work  can  then  be 
taken  up  without  undue  delay.  At  other  observatories 
some  compromise  has  doubtless  been  adopted  between 
these  extreme  courses.  So  long  as  the  work  goes  for- 
ward on  the  lines  of  least  resistance  there  is  no  par- 
ticular need  to  be  anxious ;  and  we  welcome  the  appear- 
ance of  the  tenth  circular  as  an  outward  and  visible 
sign  of  the  vitality  of  this  research,  which  some  were 
beginning  to  accuse  of  hibernation. 

1  Conference  Astrophotographique  Internationale  de  Juillet  1900.  Circa- 
laire  No.  10.     Pp.  318   •    Paris,  1903.) 


July  23,  1903] 


NATURE 


277 


The  results  already  published  tempt  one  sorely  to 
estimate  a  provisional  parallax.  Indeed  there  is  no 
need  to  resist  the  temptation  if  one  keeps  the  results  to 
oneself,  and  avoids  multiplying  provisional  results  in 
print  which  only  make  confusion.  An  excellent  ex- 
ample of  reticence  has  already  been  set.  This  much 
may  be  said  from  experience ;  if  anyone  indulges  him- 
self by  studying  the  results  in  the  tenth  circular,  he  will 
find  no  reason  to  be  dissatisfied  with  the  accuracy  of 
the  work. 

The  circular  concludes  with  loo  pages  of  tables  for 
facilitating  the  photographic  reductions.  Such  tables 
may  be  thrown  into  an  endless  variety  of  forms 
according  to  individual  taste ;  and  the  differences  be- 
tween any  two  particular  arrangements  are  not  of  much 
importance  compared  with  the  great  advantage  of 
having  the  tables  published.  The  thanks  of  everyone 
who  measures  photographs  are  due  to  M.  Loewy  for  his 
tables  in  the  tenth  circular.  H.   H.  Turner. 


NOTES. 
When  it  was  announced,  a  few  months  ago,  that  Prof, 
von  Neumayer,  the  distinguished  meteorologist,  was  about 
to  retire,  on  account  of  advanced  age  and  ill-health,  from 
his  post  of  director  of  the  German  Naval  Observatory  at 
Hamburg,  which  was  under  his  control  for  a  considerable 
number  of  years,  the  rumour  quickly  gained  currency  in 
usually  well-informed  circles  that  his  successor  would  not 
be  a  man  of  science  but  a  naval  officer.  This  rumour  was 
discredited  at  the  time  by  many  people,  but  it  proves  to 
have  been  quite  correct,  for  during  the  Kaiser's  recent  visit 
to  Hamburg  for  the  purpose  of  unveiling  a  statue  to  the 
Emperor  William  I.,  he  summoned  Captain  Herz,  of  the 
Imperial  Navy,  to  his  presence,  and  informed  him  that  he 
had  been  appointed  to  the  vacant  post  with  the  rank  of  a 
Rear-Admiral.  As  the  work  of  the  observatory  is  neces- 
sarily so  largely  scientific,  it  may  at  first  sight  seem  strange 
that  a  man,  who,  no  matter  how  able  he  may  be,  is  not  a 
man  of  science,  should  be  placed  at  its  head.  A  similar 
arrangement,  however,  has  been  made  in  several  other 
cases  in  recent  years — as,  for  instance,  in  the  construction 
department  of  the  Navy,  which  until  quite  recently  was 
under  the  supervision  of  scientific  engineers,  but  is  now  in 
the  hands  of  naval  officers — and  the  explanation  given  is 
that  a  man  of  science  in  such  a  position  is  so  overburdened 
with  administrative  work — for  which,  very  possibly,  he  is 
not  well  fitted— that  he  has  little  or  no  time  for  scientific 
investigation.  The  naval  authorities  have,  therefore, 
decided  to  utilise  their  investigators  wholly  for  scientific 
purposes,  and  to  place  the  work  of  organisation  and 
administration  into  the  hands  of  a  naval  officer  who  is  a 
man  of  practical  affairs. 

A  BUST  of  the  late  Sir  William  Flower,  F.R.S.,  will  be 
formally  presented  to  the  trustees  of  the  British  Museum 
by  the  "  Flower  Memorial  Committee  "  on  Saturday  next, 
July  25.  The  ceremony  will  take  place  in  the  central  hall 
of  the  Natural  History  Museum  at  1.15  p.m.  The  bust  will 
be  unveiled  by  the  Archbishop  of  Canterbury  as  the  repre- 
sentative of  the  trustees  of  the  museum. 

Prof.  W.  J.  McGee  has  been  elected  chairman,  and  Dr. 
J.  H.  McCormick  secretary,  of  the  committee  of  arrange- 
ments for  the  eighth  International  Geographical  Congress 
to  be  held  at  Washington,  D.C.,  in  September  of  next  year. 

A  FEW  weeks  ago  we  recorded  the  unveiling  of  a  monu- 
ment of  Pasteur  at  Chartres.     We  learn  from  the   British 
Medical  Journal  that  on  July  12  another  monument  was  un- 
veiled in  the  commune  of  Marnes-la-Coquette  in  the  presence 
NO.    1760,  VOL.  68] 


of  many  well-known  men  of  science.  It  was  in  the  district 
of  Marnes-la-Coquette  that  Pasteur  established  his  labor- 
atory for  the  study  of  hydrophobia,  and  it  was  there  that 
he  died. 

The  seventy-first  annual  meeting  of  the  British  Medical 
Association  will  be  held  at  Swansea  on  July  28-31,  under 
the  presidency  of  Dr.  T.  D.  Griffiths.  After  the  delivery 
of  the  presidential  address  on  July  28,  the  Stewart  prize 
will  be  presented  to  Dr.  F.  W.  Mott,  F.R.S.  Dr.  F.  T. 
Roberts  will  deliver  an  address  in  medicine,  and  Prof.  A.  W. 
Mayo  Robson  an  address  in  surgery.  The  scientific  work 
of  the  meeting  will  be  conducted  in  eleven  sections — 
medicine,  surgery,  obstetrics  and  gynaecology,  State 
medicine,  psychology,  pathology,  ophthalmology,  diseases  of 
children,  laryngology,  tropical  diseases ;  Navy,  Army,  and 
ambulance. 

The  Wilts  Archaeological  Society  held  a  meeting  at 
Stonehenge  on  Friday  last,  and  the  Rev.  E.  H.  Goddard 
gave  an  account  of  the  raising  of  the  leaning  stone.  Mr. 
Story  Maskelyne,  in  thanking  Sir  Edmund  Antrobus  for 
his  invitation  to  visit  Stonehenge,  said  that,  by  raising  the 
leaning  stone,  the  biggest  stone  of  its  kind  in  England, 
one  of  the  most  important  pieces  of  archaeological  work  he 
had  known  had  been  accomplished.  People  might  quarrel 
about  barbed-wire  fences  and  rights  of  way,  but  in  his 
opinion  the  greatest  public  right  in  Stonehenge  was  the 
pieservation  of  the  monument,  and  that  the  present  owner 
was  doing  to  the  best  of  his  abilities. 

The  long  excursion  of  the  Geologists'  Association  will  be 
made  from  July  28  to  August  4.  The  head-quarters  will  be 
at  Berwick-on-Tweed,  and  in  the  course  of  the  week  the 
coast  at  Scremerston,  Burnmouth,  Eyemouth,  and  St.  Abb's 
Head,  and  the  country  inland  along  the  Whiteadder,  the 
Eildon  Hills  and  Melrose,  and  a  portion  of  the  Cheviot  Hills 
will  be  visited.  Silurian,  Old  Red  Sandstone,  Lower 
Carboniferous,  various  igneous  rocks  and  glacial  drifts  will 
be  examined  under  the  direction  of  Mr.  J.  G.  Goodchild, 
with  Mr.  R.  S.  Herries  as  excursion  secretary. 

The  death  is  announced  of  Mr.  J.  Peter  Lesley,  who  from 
1872  to  1878  was  professor  of  geology  and  Dean  of  the 
Faculty  of  Science  in  the  University  of  Pennsylvania,  and 
was  recognised  in  America  as  one  of  the  most  competent 
experts  on  coal  and  iron  mining.  From  an  obituary  notice 
in  Science  (July  3)  we  learn  that  he  was  born  in  Phila- 
delphia on  September  17,  1819,  and  after  graduating  at  the 
university  in  1838,  served  on  the  first  geological  survey  of 
the  State,  when  he  paid  especial  attention  to  the  coal- 
deposits.  On  the  abrupt  termination  of  the  survey  in  1841 
he  passed  through  a  course  of  theology,  was  licensed  to 
preach  in  1844,  and  was  for  some  years  pastor  of  a  Con- 
gregational church  at  Milton,  Mass.  His  views,  however, 
underwent  some  changes,  and  returning  to  Philadelphia 
he  again  took  up  geological  work,  making  elaborate  surveys 
of  several  coal  and  iron  fields  in  different  States.  For 
twenty-seven  years  he  was  secretary  and  librarian  of  the 
American  Philosophical  Society,  part  of  the  time  holding 
the  geological  professorship  in  Pennsylvania,  and  in  1874 
taking  charge  also  of  the  second  geological  survey  of  the 
State.  This  last  post  he  retained  until  1893,  when  he  retired 
to  Milton.     He  died  on  June  i. 

A  SEVERE  earthquake  was  felt  throughout  the  island  of 
St.  Vincent  on  the  morning  of  July  21. 

We  have  received  the  official  Protokoll  of  the  third  meet- 
ing of  the  International  "  Commission  "  for  Scientific 
Aeronautics,  which  was  held  in  Berlin  on  May  20-25,  1902. 


278 


NA  TURE 


[July 


1903 


The  meeting  was  attended  not  only  by  the  members  of  the 
"commission,"  but  also  by  a  large  number  of  delegates 
from  various  countries  interested  in  aeronautical  investi- 
gation. A  report  of  the  proceedings  has  already  appeared 
in  this  Journal  (vol.  Ixvii.  p.  137,  December  11,  1902). 
The  opening  address  by  Prof.  Hergesell,  president  of  the 
commission,  gives  a  very  lucid  summary  of  the  work 
already  attempted  in  the  investigation  of  the  upper  atmo- 
sphere by  international  cooperation,  and  of  the  general 
results  achieved. 

The  scientific  balloon  ascents  on  June  4  were  made  in 
broad  northerly  air-current,  which  covered  nearly  the  whole 
of  Europe.  At  Itteville  (Paris)  the  balloon  rose  to  12,840 
metres;  the  temperature  at  10,490  metres  was  —  52^6  C.  ; 
at  starting  9°.3.  At  Zurich,  an  altitude  of  15,750  metres 
was  reached,  minimum  temperature,  —  66°-5  ;  at  starting, 
io°-2.  At  Berlin,  a 'temperature  of  —  53°-o  was  recorded  at 
11,500  metres;  at  starting,  io°-2.  At  Vienna,  -43°-7  was 
registered  at  9500  metres;  temperature  at  starting,  i5°-8. 
At  Pavlovsk,  a  kite  rose  to  4430  metres  in  the  afternoon  of 
June  3,  temperature  —  ii°-6;  on  the  ground,  23°o.  A 
balloon  sent  up  from  Bath  rose  to  about  14,000  metres  ;  it 
descended  in  the  sea,  and  the  record  is  not  published. 

During  the  past  week  thunderstorms  have  been  prevalent 
in  various  parts  of  the  United  Kingdom.  In  the  early 
morning  of  Saturday  last,  a  sharp  storm  occurred  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  London,  and  rainfall  exceeding  one  inch 
and  a  half  was  measured  ;  another  storm  occurred  in  the 
afternoon  of  that  day,  and  further  heavy  rainfall  occurred 
in  parts  of  the  metropolis.  On  Sunday  severe  storms  were 
experienced  in  the  southern  counties ;  in  parts  of  those 
districts  the  roads  were  under  water  for  some  time,  and 
much  damage  was  done  to  crops.  The  barometer  read- 
ings were,  for  several  days,  generally  low  and  uniform 
over  the  whole  country,  and  although  the  weather  has 
seemed  to  be  "close,"  the  thermometer  has  been  low  for 
the  season,  the  day  readings  being  at  times  as  much  as 
10°  below  the  average. 

Dr.  D.  K.  Morris,  writing  in  the  June  number  of  the 
University  of  Birmingham  Engineering  Journal,  gives  an 
interesting  description  of  the  power  transmission  installa- 
tion from  St.  Maurice  to  Lausanne.  The  installation  is 
for  the  transmission  of  5000  h.p.  over  a  distance  of  35 
miles,  and  the  chief  interest  in  the  scheme  lies  in  the  fact 
that  high  tension  direct  currents  are  used  in  place  of 
alternating  or  three-phase  currents.  The  choice  of  this 
system  has  enabled  a  much  greater  simplicity  in  switching 
gear  to  be  attained  without  any  loss  in  efficiency,  which  is 
stated  to  be  as  high  as  94  per  cent.  The  system  is  a 
constant  current  one,  150  amperes  at  all  loads,  the  voltage 
varying  with  the  power  transmitted,  and  reaching  a 
maximum  of  22,300  volts.  The  generators  at  the  St. 
Maurice  power  station  are  designed  to  generate  150  amperes 
at  about  2000  volts,  and  are  connected  in  series,  more 
machines  being  put  in  circuit  as  the  load  rises.  The  high 
voltage  involves  very  special  precautions  in  the  insulation 
not  only  of  the  machine  windings,  but  also  of  the  machines 
themselves.  The  windings  are  very  carefully  insulated  in 
the  ordinary  way,  and,  in  addition,  all  the  active  parts  of 
the  armature  are  separated  from  the  support  by  micanite 
insulation  ;  the  machines  are  insulated  from  earth  by  heavy 
porcelain  insulators  in  which  the  lower  ends  of  the  found- 
ation bolts  rest.  The  journal  contains  several  other  in- 
teresting contributions  from  the  pens  of  students  and  others, 
and  affords  ample  evidence  of  the  flourishing  condition  of 
the  engineering  school  at  the  university. 

NO.    1760,   VOL.   68] 


An  interesting  and  rare  case  of  infection  of  the  mouth 
and  subcutaneous  tissues  by  a  parasitic  nematode  worm  is 
recorded  by  Mr.  Whittles  {Lancet,  May  23).  The  patient 
had  never  been  out  of  England,  and  the  source  of  infection 
was  surmised  to  be  a  pet  Pomeranian  dog.  In  a  tropical 
disease  affecting  the  skin,  known  as  "  craw-craw,"  a 
nematode  has  been  described  by  Mr.  O'Neil  (possibly  Filaria 
perstans),  and  the  bilharzia  may  cause  papillomatous 
growths. 

An  interesting  and  exhaustive  report  has  been  issued  by 
the  Worcestershire  County  Council  upon  the  bacterial  treat- 
ment of  sewage  by  different  methods,  the  analytical  details 
being  supplied  by  the  county  analyst,  Mr.  Cecil  Duncan. 
Thp  conclusion  arrived  at  is  that  the  best  method  for  the 
treatment  of  domestic  sewage  is  a  closed  septic  tank  with 
bacterial  beds  filled  with  coke,  which  was  found  to  be  better 
than  coal,  brick  or  stone,  two  bacterial  beds  being  provided 
to  be  used  alternately  to  avoid  ponding.  As  regards  fish- 
tests  of  effluents,  it  is  remarked  that  the  Salmonidse  require 
a  larger  quantity  of  oxygen  than  the  Cyprinidae.  Mr. 
Duncan  gives  details  of  the  methods  of  analysis  used,  and 
suggests  several  modifications  of  those  usually  employed. 
For  preparing  ammonia-free  water  for  analytical  processes 
he  has  found  that  boiling  ordinary  distilled  water  with 
bromine-water  (1200C.C.  and  three  drops)  for  a  few  minutes 
is  a  rapid  and  trustworthy  expedient. 

The  first  edition  of  the  Kew  hand-list  of  the  Coniferae 
has  been  exhausted  for  some  time,  and  the  authorities  have 
published  a  new  edition,  which  brings  up  to  date  the 
catalogue  of  species  now  in  cultivation  in  the  gardens.  The 
revision  has  been  undertaken  by  Dr.  Masters,  who  was 
also  responsible  for  the  first  edition.  There  is  a  consider- 
able increase  in  the  number  of  varieties,  but  only  a  very 
slight  addition  of  fresh  species. 

The  necessity  for  adopting  a  uniform  system  of  nomen- 
clature in  botany  is  sufficiently  obvious,  but  at  present  this 
desirable  condition  has  not  been  attained.  In  the  presi- 
dential address  delivered  before  the  Linnean  Society  of  New 
South  Wales,  Mr.  J.  H.  Maiden  presents  a  good  summary 
of  the  codes  which  have  been  drawn  up  with  this  object,  and 
enumerates  the  chief  difficulties  which  confront  the 
systematist. 

Instances  of  the  disappearance  of  uncommon  or  interest- 
ing plants  in  the  neighbourhood  of  towns  are  unfortunately 
only  too  frequent,  so  that  the  gift  of  a  small  but  par- 
ticularly rich  piece  of  land,  presented  by  Mr.  Willett  to  the 
Ashmolean  Natural  History  Society  of  Oxfordshire,  will 
appeal  to  all  naturalists.  The  donor  desired  to  perpetuate 
the  name  of  his  famous  fellow-collegian,  and  suggested 
that  the  area  should  be  known  as  the  "  Ruskin  Plot."  The 
unique  character  of  the  vegetation  is  due  to  the  presence 
of  oolite  overlying  the  clay,  and  these  provide  the  situation 
required  by  a  number  of  orchids  and  sedges.  Mr.  G.  C. 
Druce,  who  selected  the  spot,  describes  in  a  small  pamphlet 
the  interesting  plants  which  are  collected  together. 

Writing  in  the  Lombardy  Rendiconti,  Prof.  A. 
Martinazzoli  urges  the  desirability  of  initiating  anthropo- 
logical observations  in  the  Italian  elementary  and  other 
schools.  In  view  of  the  fact  that  hitherto  nothing  had 
been  done  in  that  direction,  it  is  to  be  regarded  as  an 
indication  of  progress  that  during  the  last  year  about  six 
anthropometric  laboratories  were  fitted  up  in  Italy,  but  it 
will  be  a  long  time  before,  from  this  small  beginning, 
results  are  reached  comparable  with  those  achieved  in  the 
United  States. 


July  23,  1903] 


NATURE 


279 


The  June  number  of  Biometrika  contains  an  interesting 
contribution  to  the  discussion  on  Mendel's  theory  of  in- 
heritance by  Prof.  Weldon,  in  which  further  difficulties  are 
put  forward  against  the  acceptance  of  the  laws  as  inter- 
preted and  amended  by  Mr.  Bateson.  Mr.  Darbishire 
gives,  in  the  same  number,  his  third  record  of  the  hybrids 
between  waltzing  mice  and  albinos,  and  Mr.  Woods  an 
account  of  his  experiments  in  breeding  rabbits  as  bearing 
upon  the  principles  of  the  same  theory.  Among  other 
interesting  papers  there  will  be  found  what  appear  to  be 
preliminary  attempts  on  the  part  of  Mr.  Geoffrey  Smith  to 
determine  the  mass  relations  of  nucleus  and  cytoplasm  in 
Actinosphcerium,  and  of  Dr.  Warren  to  determine  the 
relationship  between  the  size  of  the  cell  and  the  size  of  the 
body  in  Daphnia.  Further  work  in  this  very  interesting 
but  difficult  field  of  research  is  much  needed. 

The  North  American  representatives  of  the  widely  spread 
group  of  diminutive  ants,  known  as  Leptothorax,  are  re- 
vised by  Mr.  W.  M.  Wheeler  in  the  Proceedings  of  the 
Philadelphia  Academy  (pp.  215  et  seq).  The  small  size 
and  concealed  position  of  the  colonies  of  these  ants  (which 
in  general  contain  only  from  25  to  50  individuals)  account 
to  a  great  extent  for  our  imperfect  knowledge  of  the 
group. 

In  the  June  number  of  the  American  Naturalist  Prof.  B. 
Dean  records  partial  and  complete  albinism,  as  well  as 
polychromatism,  in  the  hag-fishes.  Since  one  species  of 
the  group  is  thus  proved  to  possess  a  definite  type  of 
coloration,  it  is  inferred  that  myxinoids,  as  a  whole,  can 
scarcely  differ  in  this  respect  from  true  fishes,  in  which 
deep-sea  forms  are  uniformly  coloured,  while  shallow  water 
types  are  variegated.  Hence  follows  the  further  inference 
that  the  few  existing  forms  are  survivors  of  a  once  numerous 
tribe.  Later  on  in  the  same  issue  Mr.  C.  J.  Herrick 
discusses  the  sense-organs  in  the  skin  of  fishes,  and  con- 
cludes that  those  species  which  possess  terminal  nerve-buds 
in  the  lateral  line  system  of  the  outer  skin  detect  and  taste 
their  food  by  means  of  these  organs,  while  those  which 
lack  these  structures  in  the  skin  have  the  sense  of  taste 
confined  to  the  mouth. 

An  extremely  suggestive  and  interesting  paper  by  Dr. 
Lewkowitsch,  dealing  with  problems  in  the  fat  industry, 
appears  in  the  Journal  of  the  Society  of  Chemical  Industry^ 
vol.  xxii.  No.  10.  The  author  is  of  the  opinion  that  a 
fresh  wave  of  inventive  activity  is  approaching  in  the 
various  branches  of  the  fat  industry,  and  in  his  paper  points 
out  a  series  of  problems  which  await  solution  at  the  present 
moment.  Industries  having  for  their  object  the  refining 
of  fats  and  oils,  industries  in  which  the  glycerides  undergo 
a  chemical  change  but  are  not  saponified,  and  those  indus- 
tries based  on  the  saponification  of  fats  and  oils,  are  all 
dealt  with  in  the  paper. 

The  additions  to  the  Zoological  Society's  Gardens  during 
the  past  week  include  a  Sooty  Mangabey  (Cercocebus 
fuliginosus),  a  Black  Hornbill  (Sphagolobus  atratus)  from 
West  Africa,  presented  by  Mr.  T.  Wright;  two  Arabian 
Gazelles  {Gazella  arabica)  from  Sheik  Osman,  Arabia,  pre- 
sented by  Messrs.  Wheatley  and  Glossop,  R.N.  ;  a  Brazilian 
Tapir  (Tapirus  americanus)  from  South  America,  an 
Amazonian  Manatee  {Manatus  inunguis)  from  the  River 
Amazon,  presented  by  Mr.  Charles  Booth  ;  a  Grey  Squirrel 
{Sciurus  cinereus)  from  North  America,  presented  by  the 
Lady  Kintore ;  a  Campbell's  Monkey  (Cercopithecus  camp- 
belli)  from  West  Africa,  a  White  Stork  {Ciconia  alba), 
European,  deposited. 


OUR  ASTRONOMICAL   COLUMN. 


Bright  Spots  on  Saturn. — Mr.  W.  F.  Denning  sends  us 
the  following  approximate  times  of  transit  of  two  bright 
spots  across  the  central  meridian  of  Saturn,  and  the  times 
of  rising  and  southing  of  the  planet  during  the  next  fort- 
night : — 


1903 

Spot  "A" 

Spot"B" 

Saturn 
Rises 

Saturn 
Souths 

h.    m. 

h.    m. 

h.    m. 

h.     m. 

July  25 

•     10  37 

— 

..85- 

12   25 

„     26 

— 

14    18 

..81. 

12    21 

.,     27 

••     13  47 

..       10  43 

■  ■     7  57 

12    17 

„     28 

..     10  12 

— 

■•     7  53 

12    13 

„     29 

— 

••       13  53 

•     7  49 

12      8 

»     30       . 

..     13  22 

10  18 

••     7  45 

12      4 

»     31 

••       9  47 

— 

..      7  41 

12      0 

Aug.   I 

..       13  28 

..     7  36       . 

.         II    56 

)>       2 

■•     12  57 

9  53 

..     7  32 

II    52 

M         3 

9  22 

..     7  28       . 

II  47 

>>       4 

— 

••       13     3 

..     7  24 

II  43 

..       5       • 

••     ^^  32 

9  28 

..     7  20       . 

II  39 

„      6       . 

..       857 

..     7  16       . 

II  35 

»       7 

12  38 

..     7   12 

II  31 

„       8       . 

;.■  12  7 

9     3 

..78. 

II  26 

„     10      . 

— 

12  13 

..70. 

II   18 

NO.    1760,   VOL.    68] 


The  spots  are  separated  by  about  three  hours  (=108°)  oi 
longitude,  and  are  conspicuous  objects  when  the  planet  is 
well  defined. 

Spectroscopic  Observations  of  Nova  Geminorum. — 
Photographs  obtained  in  April  by  Prof.  Perrine,  using  the 
Crossley  reflector,  show  that,  despite  its  reddish  colour, 
the  light  from  Nova  Geminorum  was  rich  in  actinic  rays. 
They  do  not  show  any  trace  of  nebulosity  around  the  star 
such  as  was  obtained  in  the  case  of  Nova  Persei. 

Spectrograms  obtained  with  the  small  slitless  spectro- 
scope attached  to  the  Crossley  reflector,  show  that  in  the 
region  photographed — Hfi  to  A.  335 — the  spectrum  somewhat 
resembles  that  obtained  by  Messrs.  Wright  and  Campbell 
for  Nova  Persei  in  April,  1901,  and  consists  of  bright  lines 
and  bands  superposed  on  a  continuous  spectrum  ;  these  lines 
are  almost  all  accounted  for  by  the  hydrogen  lines  in  that 
region.  He  and  HC,  as  well  as  the  lines  at  X  339  and 
A  346,  were  the  strongest  lines  in  Nova  Persei,  but  they 
are  very  weak  in  the  recent  Nova,  whereas  H/3  and  H5  are 
strong  in  the  latter  but  very  weak  in  the  former  spectrum  ; 
the  chief  nebular  line,  \  501,  which  was  conspicuous  in 
the  spectrum  of  Nova  Persei,  is  not  shown  in  these  spectro- 
grams of  Nova  Geminorum.  These  differences  may  be  due 
to  the  difl'erent  stages  of  development  of  the  two  stars. 

A  comparison  of  two  spectrograms  obtained  on  April  2 
and  8  respectively,  show  a  considerable  alteration  in  the 
six  days  interval,  particularly  in  the  ultra-violet  region, 
where  the  continuous  spectrum  became  weaker  and  the 
bands  at  X\  350,  374  and  384  consequently  appeared 
stronger ;  \  339  and  \  346  also  appeared  to  have  developed. 
H/3  appeared  weaker,  and  there  was  a  faint  condensation 
in  the  region  of  X  501.  This  condensation  appeared  as  a 
fairly  well-marked  line  on  a  later  photograph  obtained  on 
May  II.  Visual  observations  showed  a  strong  Ha  line 
and  a  condensation  in  the  region  about  D,  and  D„. 

An  ordinary  photograph  exposed  on  April  22,  23  and  24 
for  6h.  29m.  showed  no  trace  of  nebulosity  around  the 
Nova. 

Reproductions  of  these  region  photographs  and  spectro- 
grams, and  a  detailed  account  of  the  visual  and  photo- 
graphic observations  of  Profs.  Reese  and  Curtis  accompany 
Prof.  Aitken's  article  in  Lick  Bulletin,  No.  37. 

Measurement  of  the  Intensity  of  Feeble  Illuminations. 
— M.  Touchet,  of  Paris,  has  devised  an  apparatus  for 
measuring  the  intensities  of  such  feeble  illuminations  as 
the  Zodiacal  Light  and  the  Gegenschein.  It  is  similar  in 
appearance  to  a  theodolite,  but  has  a  flame  of  constant 
illuminating  power  so  arranged  as  to  illuminate  the  field 
through  a  variable  slit.  This  slit  may  be  opened  and 
closed,  like  the  slit  of  an  ordinary  spectroscope,  by  a  screw 
having  a  divided  head,  so  that  the  intensity  of  the  field 
illumination  may  be  instantly  made  equal  to  that  of  the 
light  it  is  desired  to  measure,  and  readings,  which  are 
reducible  to  a  standard,  thus  obtained  {Bulletin  de  la 
SociHi  Astronomique  de  France,  July). 


28o 


NATURE 


[July  23,  1903 


The  German  Royal  Naval  Observatory. — The  twenty- 
fifth  annual  volume  (1902)  of  the  publications  of  this 
observatory,  entitled  "  Aus  dem  Archiv  *der  Deutschen  See- 
warte, "  contains  descriptive  papers  on  "The  Regulation 
of  Marine  Compasses,"  "A  New  Free-horizon  Astro- 
nomical Base  Line,"  "  The  Definitive  Determination  of  the 
Path  of  the  Comet  Swift  (1899.I),"  and  "The  Results  of 
Sextant  Tests  made  at  the  Observatory. 

In  addition  to  the  introduction,  Dr.  Neumayer,  the 
director,  contributes  an  article  on  "  A  New  Method  of  Fore- 
casting the  Meteorological  Conditions  of  the  North  Atlantic 
Ocean,"  and  a  novel  chart,  indicating  all  the  meteorological 
conditions  obtaining  in  the  North  Atlantic  area  during 
March,  1902,  accompanies  the  volume. 


RECENT  ADVANCES  IN  STEREOCHEMISTRY.^ 
TN  the  year  1803,  just  a  century  ago,  John  Dalton  de- 
-"-  livered  a  series  of  scientific  lectures  in  the  Royal  In- 
stitution during  the  course  of  which  he  doubtless  laid 
before  his  audience  a  theory  which  he  had  recently  devised 
for  the  purpose  of  connecting  together  the  vast  number  of 
isolated  chemical  facts  known  at  the  commencement  of  the 
nineteenth  century.  This  theory,  of  which  the  centenary 
is  being  celebrated  during  the  present  month  by  the  Man- 
chester Literary  and  Philosophical  Society,  is  known  as 
the  atomic  theory,  and  was  destined  to  form  the  foundation 
upon  which  the  whole  superstructure  of  modern  chemistry 
has  been  built.  For  our  present  purpose  Dalton 's  theory 
may  be  briefly  stated  in  the  form  of  the  following  two 
principles  : — (i)  Every  element  is  made  up  of  homogeneous 
atoms  of  which  the  mass  is  constant ;  (2)  chemical  com- 
pounds are  formed  by  the  union  of  atoms  of  the  various 
elements  in  simple  numerical  proportions.  In  accordance 
with  Dalton 's  hypothesis,  chemical  substances  may  be 
mentally  pictured  by  imagining  the  atoms  as  small  spheres 
which  have  the  power  of  aggregating  themselves  together 
under  suitable  conditions  to  form  complexes  or  "  mole- 
cules " ;  thus,  taking  two  similar  spheres  representing 
hydrogen  atoms,  in  conjunction  with  a  sphere  of  a  different 
kind,  representative  of  an  atom  of  oxygen,  a  chemical  re- 
presentation can  be  given  of  the  compound  water,  the 
molecule  of  which  is  composed  of  two  atoms  of  hydrogen 
and  one  of  oxygen.  The  original  atomic  theory  offers  no 
explanation  of  the  observed  fact  that  the  atoms  combine 
together  in  different  proportions ;  this  deficiency  was 
remedied  by  the  doctrine  of  valency  enunciated  by  the  late 
Sir  Edward  Frankland  in  1852.  Frankland  supposed  that 
the  atoms  of  certain  elements,  such  as  hydrogen  and 
chlorine,  are  unable  to  combine  with  more  than  one  atom 
of  any  other  element ;  these  elements  are  termed  mono- 
valent. Other  atoms,  such  as  those  of  barium  and  zinc, 
can  become  directly  attached  to  at  most  two  other  atoms ; 
these  are  the  divalent  elements.  Tri-,  tetra-,  penta-,  hexa-, 
hepta-  and  octa-valent  elements'  can  be  similarly  dis- 
tinguished, the  valency  of  hydrogen  being  taken  as  unity, 
in  order  to  measure  and  define  the  saturation-capacity  or 
the  atom-fixing  power  of  the  atoms  of  the  other  elements. 
It  will  be  clear  that  for  rough  diagrammatic  purposes  we 
may  provide  the  spheres  representing  the  atoms  with  as 
many  wooden  pegs  as  the  element  itself  exhibits  units  of 
valency ;  compound  molecules  can  then  be  represented  by 
fitting  the  atoms  together  by  means  of  the  pegs  represent- 
ing the  number  of  valency-units  possessed  by  the  various 
constituent  atoms.  By  so  doing  a  great  advance  is  made 
upon  the  atomic  theory  of  Dalton 's  time,  and  a  mental 
picture  is  obtained  of  the  way  in  which  the  atoms  are  con- 
nected together  within  the  molecule  itself. 

During  the  early  part  of  the  nineteenth  century  it  became 
evident,  principally  from  the  work  of  Liebig  and  Wohler 
in  Germany,  and  of  Faraday  at  the  Royal  Institution,  that 
substances  exist  which  possess  totally  different  properties, 
but  nevertheless  have  the  same  molecular  composition  ;  as 
this  became  slowly  realised,  the  atomic  theory  was  naturally 
called  upon  to  furnish  some  adequate  explanation.  In  view 
of  the  proven  identity  of  molecular  composition,  the  re- 
quired explanation  could  only  be  sought  for  in  differences 

1  A  discourse  delivered  at  the  Royal  Institution  on  May  i  by  Proi 
William  J.  Pope,  F.R.S. 


in  the  atomic  arrangement  within  the  molecules  of  the 
several  substances.  That  such  differences  can  be  success- 
fully illustrated  by  the  aid  of  the  atomic  models  will  br 
seen  on  considering  some  specific  case.  Ordinary  ethyl, 
alcohol  and  methyl  ether  differ  greatly  from  each  other — 
the  first  is  a  liquid,  whilst  the  second  is  a  gas  at  ordinary 
temperatures— but  possess  the  same  molecular  composition, 
the  molecule  in  each  case  consisting  of  two  atoms  of  carbon, 
six  of  hydrogen  and  one  of  oxygen.  These  two  substances 
have  to  be  represented  on  the  assumption  that  hydrogen 
is  monovalent,  carbon  tetravalent,  and  oxygen  divalent. 
By  joining  wooden  spheres  together  in  the  order  shown  in 
the  figures — in  which  the  valencies  of  the  component  atoms 
are  carefully  respected — diagrammatic  representations  are 
obtained  which  illustrate  io  the  chemist  the  differences  exist- 
ing between  ethyl  alcohol  and  methyl  ether. 


H    H 


H 


NO.    1760,  VOL.   68] 


H— C— C-OH  H— C-O— C-H 

II  II 

H   H  H  H 

Ethyl  Alcohol.  Methyl  Ether. 

Substances  related  to  each  other  in  this  way  are  said  to  be 
isomeric ;  they  have  the  same  molecular  composition,  but 
different  molecular  constitutions.  The  step  in  advance- 
which  is  involved  in  thus  writing  molecular  constitutions  or 
in  constructing  molecular  models  was  taken  by  Kekul6  ins 
1858. 

Two  great  stages  in  the  development  of  chemical  theory 
have  now  been  indicated.  First,  that  contributed  by 
Dalton,  who  regarded  constancy  of  molecular  composition 
as  characteristic  of  a  chemical  substance ;  secondly,  that 
further  stage,  attained  as  a  result  of  the  labours  of  Liebig, 
Wohler,  Faraday,  Frankland  and  Kekul6,  which  involved 
the  introductipn  of  the  idea  that  the  chemical  individuality 
of  a  substance  is  dependent  upon  its  molecular  constitution, 
as  well  as  upon  its  molecular  composition.  A  third  great, 
development  in  the  atomic  theory  had  yet  to  take  place. 

Whilst  the  theoretical  views  which  culminated  in  Kekul6's- 
constitutional  formulae  were  at  first  found  sufficient  to  ex- 
plain numerous  observed  cases  of  isomerism,  instances  soon- 
began  to  accumulate  of  substances  which  exist  in  so  many 
isomeric  forms  that  the  Kekuld  method  of  representation, 
is  incapable  of  accounting  for  them  all.  At  an  early  date 
Pasteur  showed  clearly  that  substances  exist  which  have 
the  same  molecular  composition  and  the  same  molecular- 
constitution,  but  which  nevertheless  differ  in  important 
lespects.  A  crisis  was  ultimately  reached  when,  in  1870,, 
Wislicenus  demonstrated  the  existence  of  three  isomeric 
lactic  acids,  all  having  the  molecular  composition  C3H5O3.. 
and  the  molecular  constitution 


CH, 


OH 
I 
-C— COOH 


H 


and  contended  that  he  had  amply  proved  the  insufficiency, 
of  Kekul^'s  method  of  writing  constitutional  formulae. 

The  step  needed  to  rid  the  atomic  theory  of  these  apparent 
anomalies  was  indicated  by  van  't  Hoff  and  Le  Bel  in  iSjd  ; 
they  pointed  out  that  the  weakness  of  the  Kekul^  method 
lies  in  the  tacit  assumption  that  the  molecule  is  spread  out 
upon  a  plane  surface,  and  that  by  throwing  this  assump- 
tion aside  and  taking  a  rational  view  of  the  way  in  which 
the  molecule  is  extended  in  space,  all  difficulties  immedi- 
ately vanish.  The  considerations  put  forward  by  van  't 
Hoff  and  Le  Bel  form  the  basis  of  the  subject  now  known 
as  stereochemistry,  the  branch  of  science  which  deals  with 
the  manner  in  which  the  atoms  are  distributed  within  the 
molecule  in  three-dimensional  space  ;  they  deal,  in  the  first 
place,  with  the  arrangement  of  the  constituent  atoms  in 
the  simple  organic  compound,  methane,  the  molecule  of 
which  has  the  composition  CH^,  or  consists  of  one  carbon 
atom  and  four  hydrogen  atoms.  The  Kekul6  constitutionar 
formula  pictures  the  component  atoms  of  the  methane  mole- 
cule as  if  joined  together  in  one  plane  (Fig.  i),  whilst: 
according  to  the  new  view,  the  four  hydrogen  atoms  are 
imagined   situated   at   the   four   apices  of  a   regular  tetra-r 


July  23,  1903] 


NATURE 


281 


4ieclron  of  which  the  carbon  atom  occupies  the  centre  (Fig. 
a).  This  is  conveniently  illustrated  with  the  aid  of  a  few 
-ardboard  models. 


To  illustrate  this  we  may  refer  to  a  somewhat  complicated 
substance,  termed  tetrahydroquinaldine,  which  has  the 
following  constitution  : — 

H         Hj 

I  I 

C         C 


H-C 


-C       C 

c 

I 

H 


CH2 


CH3 


Consider  now  the  result  of  repricing  three  of  the  four 
lydrogen  atoms  present  in  the  mwhane  molecule  by  three 
itTerent  groups  of  atoms,  the  three  groups  CH,,  OH,  and 
t  OjH  for  example.  One  of  the  most  striking  results 
■which  has  accrued  from  the  chemical  investigation  of  the 
past  century  has  been  the  demonstration  of  the  remarkable 
rigidity  with  which  the  atoms  are  held  together  in  the 
molecule  ;  it  might  therefore  be  anticipated  that  by  actually 
making  all  the  isomerides  having  the  constitution  indicated 
-above,  some  means  would  be  afforded  of  judging  whether 
the  van  't  Hoff-Le  Bel  or  the  Kekul^  view  forms  the  closest 
approximation  to  truth.  Kekul^'s  constitutional  formulae 
indicate  the  existence  of  two  isomeric  compounds  of  the 
following  types  : — 

H        OH  HO         H 

\^  \/ 

C  and  C 


and  the  molecule  of  which  contains  an  asymmetric  carbon 
atom,  that,  namely,  which  is  printed  in  heavy  type.     Three 


CH, 


COOH 


CH3        COOH, 


•whilst  on  the  van  't  Hoff-Le  Bel  view,  two  isomerides  of 
the  nature  illustrated  by  Figs.  3  and  4  are  indicated ; 
although  in  each  case  two  isomerides  would  be  obtainable, 
•the  examination  of  the  two  kinds  of  figure  reveals  very 
-essential  differences.  The  solid-figure  isomerides  differ  only 
in  that  the  one  is  the  image  in  a  mirror  of  the  other — 
<they  are  related  in  the  same  kind  of  way  as  a  right 
and  a  left  hand  glove.     The  differences  observable  between 

two  molecules  thus  related  should  con- 
•sequently  not  be  differences  of  an  ordinary 
•chemical  nature,  but  differences  involving 

merely  a  kind  of  chemical,   physical  and 

mechanical     right-     and     left-handedness. 

The   two   Kekul6   constitutional   formulae, 

on  the  other  hand,  would  indicate — if  they 
indicate  anything — that  the  substances  to 

which  they  refer  differ  in  the  more  gross 

way  in  which  ordinary  chemical  iso- 
merides differ   in   chemical,    physical   and 

mechanical   respect.       That   carbon   atom 

Avhich  was  present  in  the  original  methane  I 

molecule    is,     in    these    new    compounds, 

-now  attached  to  four  different  atomic  groups,   and  such  a 

carbon    atom    is    termed    an    "  asymmetric  "    carbon    atom. 

It   is  in   the  case  of  substances  containing  an   asymmetric 

;  arbon  atom  that  a  lack  of  agreement  is  observed  between 
the  facts  and  the  kind  of  isomerism  indicated  by  the  Kekul^ 


CHi. 


Fig.  6. 


Fig. 


iormulae,  and  in  these  cases,  also,  the  species  of  isomerism 
indicated  by  the  solid  models  exhibited  is  found  to  corre- 
■epond  closely  with  the  facts. 

NO.    1760,  VOL.  68] 


different  isomeric  forms  of  this  substance  exist,  and  are  quite 
indistinguishable  by  any  of  the  ordinary  methods  of  chemical 
or  physical  identification  ;  one  of  these  is  a  loose  kind  of 
compound  of  the  other  two,  and  may  therefore  be  dis- 
regarded for  the  moment.  The  remaining  two  have  the 
same  melting  point,  the  same  boiling  point,  and  correspond 
exactly  in  all  ordinary  properties ;  they  yield,  however, 
series  of  derivatives  which  differ  in  the  same  sort  of  way 
that  a  right-hand  and  a  left-hand  glove  differ.  Here,  for 
instance,   is  a  diagram  showing  the  shapes  of  the  crystals 

Fig.  7.  Fig.  S. 

of  the  salts  which  these  two  substances  form  with  hydro- 
chloric acid  (Figs.  5  and  6)  ;  the  crystals  obtained  from  the 
one  base  are  the  mirror-images  of  those  prepared  from  the 
other.  Any  figure  which  possesses  handedness  of  the  kind 
exhibited  by  these  two  crystal  figures  is  termed  "  enantio- 
morphous,"  and  two  figures  which  are  related  to  each  other 
as  these  figures  are  related  are  said  to  be  "  enantio- 
morphously  related."  A  hand  is  thus  enantiomorphous, 
and  a  right  and  a  left  hand  are  enantiomorphously  related, 
the  one  being  the  mirror-image  of  the  other.  Here,  for 
example,  is  a  photograph  showing  a  right  hand  and  a  left 
hand  side  by  side  (Fig.  7) ;  the  pair  of  hands  is  exactly 
reproduced  in  the  next  photograph  (Fig.  8),  which  shows 
a  right  hand  side  by  side  with  the  photograph  of  its  reflec- 
tion in  a  mirror.  Just  the  same  enantiomorphous  relation- 
ship as  that  existing  between  the  right  and  the  left  hand, 
exists  between  the  molecular  pictures  of  the  two  lactic  acids 
discovered  by  Wislicenus,  and  shown  in  Figs.  3  and  4. 

Reference  may  now  be  made  to  the  existence  of  other 
differences  of  an  enantiomorphous  character  between  sub- 
stances which  possess  enantiomorphously  related  structures. 
Early  in  the  last  century  the  French  physicists  Arago  and 
Biot  showed  that  a  number  of  substances  have  the  power 
of  deflecting  the  plane  of  polarisation  of  a  plane-polarised 


Fig. 


282 


NATURE 


[July  23,  1903 


beam  of  light  thrown  through  their  solutions.  Such  sub- 
stances are  said  to  be  optically  active,  and  since  the  deflec- 
tion of  the  plane  of  polarisation  may  be  either  towards  the 
right  or  towards  the  left,  the  exhibition  of  optical  activity 
constitutes  an  enantiomorphous  property ;  optically  active 
substances  are  conveniently  classified  as  dextro-  and  laevo- 
rotatory.  Van  't  Hoff  and  Le  Bel  declared  that  the  mole- 
cules of  all  naturally  occurring  substances  which  exhibit 
optical  activity  when  in  the  fluid  state  contain  asymmetric 
carbon  atoms.  All  substances  the  molecules  of  which  con- 
tain an  asymmetric  carbon  atom  must  possess  enantio- 
morphous molecular  configurations — similar  to  those 
assigned  to  the  two  lactic  acids — because  they  exhibit 
properties  of  an  enantiomorphous  character.  A  very 
beautiful  experiment  which  the  late  Sir  George  Gabriel 
Stokes  devised  may  be  so  modified  as  to  serve  for  the 
demonstration  of  optical  activity.  Stokes's  experi- 
ment consists  in  passing  a  plane  polarised  beam  of 
light  through  a  tall  cylinder  containing  water  which 
has  been  rendered  very  slightly  turbid  by  the  addition 
of  a  little  alcoholic  solution  of  resin ;  a  spectrum 
is  then  seen  spread  out  in  the  column  of  liquid,  and  spread 
out  in  a  way  which  is  not  enantiomorphous,  the  water 
possessing  no  optical  activity.  The  modification  of  Stokes's 
experiment  consists  in  replacing  the  non-enantiomorphous 
water  by  some  enantiomorphous  liquid — conveniently  by  a 
70  per  cent,  aqueous  solution  of  the  dextrorotatory  cane- 
sugar,  or  by  a  50  per  cent,  solution  of  the  laevorotatory 
fruit-sugar ;  on  making  this  change  it  is  seen  that  instead 
of  the  spectrum  lying  in  the  cylinder  vertically,  and  there- 
fore non-enantiomorphously,  it  winds  spirally  or  corkscrew- 
wise  round  and  round  the  column  of  the  enantiomorphous 
liquid.  The  two  spirals  or  helices  are  clearly  enantio- 
morphous, and  the  two  liquids  of  opposite  optical  activity 
give  rise  in  this  experiment  to  oppositely  wound  spirals — 
to  spirals  which  are  related  to  each  other  like  the  right- 
and  left-handed  corkscrews  shown  in  the  lantern  slide.  The 
opposite  sign  of  the  rotatory  power  exhibited  by  the  cane- 
sugar  and  fruit-sugar  solutions  is  more  clearly  shown  by 
turning  the  polarising  prism  in  its  mount,  when  the  two 
spirals  turn  in  opposite  directions. 

Although  cases  of  optical  activity  are  very  frequently  met 
with  among  chemical  substances  of  animal  or  vegetable 
origin,  it  must  be  noted  that  no  purely  laboratory  product 
or  substance  prepared  without  the  use  of  enantiomorphous 
operations  or  materials  is,  in  the  ordinary  way,  optically 
active.  The  reason  of  this  needs  but  little  seeking,  if  the 
solid  tetrahedron  models  are  once  more  consulted.  Start- 
ing with  a  non-enantiomorphous  substance  is  equivalent  to 
starting  with  a  methane  derivative  of  the  constitution 
X        X 


and  replacing  one  of  the  two  X  groups  by  a  fourth  group  Q 
so  as  to  obtain  a  compound  containing  an  asymmetric  carbon 
atom.  Obviously,  unless  some  power  of  selection  of 
an  enantiomorphous  nature  is  exercised  in  replacing  X  by 
Q,  the  doctrine  of  chance  will  ensure  the  one  X  group  being 
replaced  the  sam.e  number  of  times  as  the  other  in  an 
enormous  number  of  tiny  molecules.  Thus  there  will  result 
just  the  same  amount  of  the  right-handed  optically  active 
substance  as  of  its  left-handed  isomeride.  When  an  optically 
active  substance  is  prepared  in  the  laboratory,  it  is  there- 
fore obtained  as  a  mixture  of  two  enantiomorphously  re- 
lated isomerides ;  such  a  mixture  is  said  to  be  compensated, 
because  the  right-handedness  of  the  one  component  is  just 
counterbalanced  by  the  left-handedriess  of  the  isomeric 
constituent.  These  compensated  substances  are  represented 
by  the  third  lactic  acid  and  by  the  third  tetrahydroquin- 
aldine  previously  referred  to,  but  not  further  discussed. 

Since  one  of  the  great  problems  with  which  chemistry 
is  grappling  involves  the  synthetic  preparation  of  naturally 
occurring  optically  active  substances,  it  is  of  the  utmost 
importance  that  the  chemist  should  be  in  possession  of 
working  methods  for  resolving  these  compensated  mixtures 
into  their  optically  active  components.  All  the  kinds  of 
methods  applicable  to  such  resolutions  necessarily  involve 
the  introduction  of  enantiomorphism — either  of  method  or 


NO.    1760,  VOL.  68] 


of  material.  Three  types  of  methods  were  introduced  by 
Pasteur,  namely,  (i)  spontaneous  resolution  by  crystallisa- 
tion ;  (2)  resolution  by  combination  with  optically  active 
substances ;  and  (3)  resolution  by  the  action  of  living 
organisms. 

The  first  method  depends  upon  the  fact  that  on  crystal- 
lising a  compensated  substance  it  sometimes  deposits  crystals 
of  the  dextro-  and  of  the  laevo-isomeride  side  by  side,  and 
of  such  size  that  they  can  be  mechanically  sorted.  The 
enantiomorphous  factor  determining  the  separation  in  this 
kind  of  method  is  obviously  the  enantiomorphous  intelli- 
gence which  has  the  power  of  discriminating  between  right- 
and  left-handedness.  This  sort  of  method  is  unfortunately 
but  rarely  applicable,  owing  to  the  fact  that  two  enantio- 
morphously related  substances  usually  crystallise  together 
in  the  form  of  a  loose  chemical  compound. 

The  second  kind  of  Pasteur  method  is  applicable  to  the 
resolution  of  compensated  acids  and  bases,  and  depends 
upon  the  following  considerations.  On  combining  a  com- 
pensated basic  substance,  viz.  a  mixture  of  rf-B  and  Z-B 
with  an  optically  active  acid — say  with  d-A — a  mixture  of 
two  salts,  namely  d-B,  d-A  and  i-B,  d-A,  will  be  obtained. 
These  salts,  however,  are  not  enantiomorphously  related,  as 
will  be  realised  on  substituting  for  illustrative  purposes  a  hand 
for  the  base  and  a  glove  for  the  acid  ;  the  combination  d-B, 
d-A  will  then  be  represented  by  a  right-hand  in  a  right- 
handed  glove,  whilst  the  combination  Z-B,  d-A  will  corre- 
spond to  a  left  hand  in  a  right-handed  glove.  The  struggles 
of  the  left  hand  with  the  right-handed  glove  will  not  be 
a  factor  in  determining  the  behaviour  of  the  appropriately 
assorted  right  hand  and  right-handed  glove.  So,  also,  the 
properties  of  the  substance  d-B,  d-A — its  solubility,  melting 
point,  &c. — will  be  conditioned  by  an  enantiomorphous  re- 
lationship of  quite  a  different  order  from  that  determining 
the  corresponding  properties  of  the  salt  Z-B,  d-A  ;  the  solu- 
bilities, being  determined  by  different  factors,  will  naturally 
also  differ,  and  the  two  salts  will  therefore  be  separable 
by  crystallisation.  The  first  resolution  of  a  compensated 
base  was  effected  in  1885  by  Ladenburg,  and  consisted  in 
resolving  the  synthetic  alkaloid  coniine  into  its  optically 
active  components— one  of  which  proved  to  be  identical 
with  the  alkaloid  contained  in  the  juice  of  the  hemlock — 
by  crystallising  it  with  dextrotartaric  acid.  Since  this  time 
the  methods  of  resolving  compensated  bases  have  been 
materially  improved  by  the  application  of  optically  active 
acids  derived  from  camphor  for  use  in  place  of  the  dextro- 
tartaric acid,  and  an  experiment  in  illustration  can  now 
be  shown  on  the  lecture  table. 

On  adding  a  solution  of  ammonium  dextrobromocamphor- 
sulphonate  to  a  solution  of  compensated  tetrahydro-/3- 
naphthylamine  hydrochloride,  a  white  crystalline  precipitate 
of  dextrotetrahydro-^-naphthylamine  dextrobromocamphor- 
sulphonate — the  salt  d-B,  d-A — is  thrown  down,  whilst  the 
Isevotetrahydro-^-naphthylamine  remains  in  solution  as 
its  hydrochloride.  The  resolution  in  this,  and  in  many 
other  cases,  can  be  very  rapidly  effected,  and  bv  still  further 
applying  the  optically  active  sulphonic  acids  derived  from 
camphor  a  considerable  extension  of  the  original  van  't  Hoff- 
Le  Bel  theory  has  become  possible.  These  workers  traced  all 
cases  of  optical  activity  to  the  presence  of  an  asymmetric 
carbon  atom,  and  deduced  from  their  work  the  conclusion 
that  the  environment  of  the  carbon  atom  in  methane  is  a 
tetrahedral  one.  It  is  true  that  all  the  optically  active  sub- 
stances which  have  yet  been  obtained  from  natural  sources 
owe  their  optical  activity  to  the  presence  of  an  asymmetric 
carbon  atom,  but  it  is  important  to  note  that  by  applying 
the  second  Pasteur  method  to  the  investigation  of  synthetic 
materials,  substances  owing  their  optical  activity  to  the 
presence  of  asymmetric  atoms  of  elements  other  than  those 
of  carbon  can  be  prepared.  Thus,  ammonium  iodide  has 
the  molecular  composition  NH^I,  and,  like  methane,  con- 
tains in  its  molecule  four  hydrogen  atoms  which  are  re- 
placeable by  other  atoms  or  groups  of  atoms  ;  on  replacing 
these  hydrogen  atoms  by  the  four  groups  of  atoms  or  radicles, 
methyl,  allyl,  benzyl  and  phenyl,  a  substance  is  obtained 
which  is  conveniently  named  methylallylbenzylphenyl- 
ammonium  iodide,  and  has  the  following  constitution  :— 

C3H/  I  '\C,H, 
I 


July  23,  1903] 


NATURE 


283 


On  replacing  the  iodine  atom  in  this  molecule  by  an  opti- 
cally active  group  of  atoms,  viz.  by  the  dextrobromocamphor- 
sulphonic  residue,  two  salts  are  obtained,  each  of  which 
contains  an  optically  active  basic  part  and  an  optically 
active  acidic  part ;  these  are  salts  of  the  kinds  d-B,  d-A 
and  i-B,  d-A,  and  can  be  separated  by  crystallisation  from 
a  convenient  solvent,  and,  after  separation  has  been  effected, 
each  salt  may  be  reconverted  into  the  iodide.  These  re- 
generated iodides  are  found  to  be  optically  active  in  solu- 
tion, and  the  conclusion  is  consequently  drawn  that  optical 
activity  is  an  attribute  of  the  asymmetric  pentavalent 
nitrogen  atom  as  well  as  of  the  asymmetric  tetravalent 
carbon  atom.  The  optical  activity  of  this  substituted 
ammonium  compound  indicates  that  its  molecule  has  an 
enantiomorphous  configuration,  and  is  extended  in  three- 
dimensional  space ;  the  exact  nature  of  this  configuration 
is  not  yet  known,  inasmuch  as  a  space  arrangement  of  five 
groups  is  concerned,  but  the  environment  of  the  nitrogen 
atom  in  ammonium  salts  is  clearly  not  a  simple  tetrahedral 
one.  Just  as  enantiomorphism  has  been  proved  to  be  an 
attribute  of  the  asymmetric  nitrogen  atom,  we  have  also 
demonstrated  that  asymmetric  tetravalent  atoms  of  sulphur, 
selenium  and  tin  give  rise  to  optical  activity ;  optically 
active  substances  having  the  constitutions  shown  below 
have  been  prepared,  and  we  are  thus  well  on  the  way  to- 
wards obtaining  a  complete  stereochemical  scheme  em- 
bracing all  the  elements  : — 


CH, 


CoHg 


CfiHg 


CH, 


CH3         C2H6 


Se 


Sn 


CI       CH,.COOH  CI      CH5.COOH 


C3H7 


It  has  been  mentioned  that  optically  active  substances 
occur  as  such,  rather  than  in  the  compensated  form,  in 
many  animal  and  vegetable  products,  and  also  that  when 
a  substance  containing  an  asymmetric  carbon  atom  is  pre- 
pared synthetically  in  the  laboratory,  it  is  of  necessity 
obtained  in  the  compensated  form,  or  as  a  mixture  in  equal 
proportion  of  the  dextro-  and  the  laevo-isomerides.  Taken 
together,  these  two  facts  have  a  very  interesting  bearing 
upon  our  speculations  as  to  the  origin  of  animal  and  vege- 
table life.  Optically  active  substances  have  been  isolated 
as  products  of  the  vital  activity  of  all  forms  of  animal  or 
vegetable  life  which  have  been  properly  examined,  but  in 
spite  of  this  they  are  never  obtained  directly  as  laboratory 
products ;  some  enantiomorphous  influence  has  always  to 
be  employed  in  their  synthetic  preparation,  just  as  Pasteur 
applied  enantiomorphism,  either  of  method  or  of  material, 
to  the  resolution  of  compensated  substances.  It  was  very 
strenuously  argued  by  Prof.  Japp,  in  his  presidential 
address  to  the  Chemical  Section  of  the  British  .\ssociation 
in  1898,  that  no  matter  how  successful  we  may  be  in  re- 
ducing the  problems  relating  to  vital  processes  to  mere 
questions  of  physics  and  chemistry,  a  residuum  will  always 
evade  explanation  by  such  means  ;  this  residuum  will  involve 
the  discussion  of  the  way  in  which  the  first  enantiomorphous 
substance  was  resolved  into  its  optically  active  components. 
This  question  involves  the  introduction  of  an  enantio- 
morphous agency  at  some  period  during  the  evolutionary 
development  of  living  matter.  In  attributing  difficulty  to 
the  solution  of  this  residuary  problem,  Dr.  Japp  implies 
that  the  enantiomorphous  agency,  the  cooperation  of  which 
is  essential,  must  be  an  intelligent  agency.  Let  us  ask 
ourselves  whether  the  enantiomorphous  agency  premised  is 
necessarilv  other  than  one  acting  fortuitously.  The 
assumption  of  a  fortuitously  enantiomorphous  agency  is 
certainlv  all  that  need  be  made  to  explain  the  building  up 
of  many  enantiomorphous  systems.  The  dead  universe 
itself,  as  we  know  it,  is  enantiomorphous,  but  this  fact  has 
never  been  regarded  as  a  valid  argument  against  the 
current  hypothesis  as  to  the  cosmic  origin  of  our  planet. 
Some  degree  of  obscurity  is,  however,  introduced  into  the 
discussion  of  the  primitive  origin  of  the  optically  active 
substances  now  produced  by  animals  and  plants  by  the 
probability  that  ages  of  evolution  have  transformed  the 
primeval  optically  active  substance  into  multitudes  of  other 
and  more  complex  products — have,  in  fact,  accentuated  the 
enantiomorphism  to  such  an  extent  that  physiological 
chemistry  is  now  almost  entirely  the  chemistry  of  enantio- 

NO.    1760,   VOL.    68] 


morphous  substances.  If  in  any  particular  case,  however, 
we  can  show  that  an  optically  active  substance  can  be 
locally  accumulated  by  the  aid  of  some  enantiomorphous 
agency  acting  purely  fortuitously,  it  will  be  clear  that  the 
formation  of  the  first  optically  active  substance  was  not 
necessarily  the  work  of  an  intelligent  enantiomorphous 
agency.  Such  a  species  of  separation  of  an  optically  active 
substance  from  a  compensated  one  can  be  readily  brought 
about  in  the  laboratory.  Pasteur  showed  that  on  crystal- 
lising the  sodium  ammonium  salt  of  compensated  tartaric 
acid  (racemic  acid)  at  ordinary  temperature,  large  crystals 
separate,  each  of  which  consists  of  the  salt  of  one  or  other 
of  the  d-  and  i-tartaric  acids,  the  separation  being  brought 
about  by  the  first  of  the  Pasteur  methods.  If  one  of  these 
crystals  be  selected  casually,  without  the  exercise  of  any 
selective  intelligence,  and  used  as  a  nucleus  for  inducing 
the  crystallisation  of  further  large  quantities  of  the  original 
solution,  it  will  cause  the  separation  of  salt  of  its  own  kind, 
and  ultimately  a  large  quantity  of  salt  of  one  of  the  optically 
active  tartaric  acids  can  be  accumulated  as  a  result  of  the 
introduction  of  an  enantiomorphous  agency  such  as  might 
act  fortuitously  in  a  non-living  universe.  The  probability 
of  such  a  fortuitous  agency  arising  would  naturally  be  far 
greater  in  a  living  universe. 

Again,  suppose  that  at  its  origin  life  were  carried  on 
non-enantiomorphously,  and  that  it  involved  the  consump- 
tion and  the  production  only  of  non-enantiomorphous  sub- 
stances and  of  compensated  mixtures  ;  it  may  well  be  fore- 
seen that  a  stage  in  development  might  arise  when  each 
individual,  in  view  of  the  increasing  complexity  of  his 
vital  processes,  would  have  to  decide  to  use  only  the  one 
enantiomorphous  component  of  his  compensated  food,  and 
so  evade  an  otherwise  necessary  duplication  of  his  digestive 
apparatus.  Acting  unintelligently  or  fortuitously,  one-half 
of  the  individuals  would  become  dextro-beings,  whilst  the 
other  half  would  become  laevo-individuals ;  the  succeeding 
generations  would  thus  be  of  two  enantiomorphously  re- 
lated configurations.  It  is,  however,  very  difficult  to  believe 
that  the  natural  selective  operations  which  have  been  instru- 
mental in  conducting  living  organisms  to  their  present 
stage  of  development  would  allow  the  perpetuation  of  this 
state  of  affairs  for  any  considerable  period  ;  some  fortuitous 
enantiomorphous  occurrence  would  temporarily  give  the 
one  configuration  the  advantage  over  the  other,  an  advan- 
tage which  would  be  quickly  accentuated  and  would  involve 
the  permanent  disappearance  of  the  weaker  configuration. 

The  kind  of  difficulties  involved  in  the  existence,  side  by 
side,  of  dextro-  and  L-evo-individuals  such  as  these  may 
be  shown  by  a  simple  illustration.  There  is  no  reason  con- 
nected with  human  enantiomorphism  why  vehicular  traffic 
should  be  forced  to  keep  to  one  side  of  the  road  rather  than 
to  the  other ;  as,  however,  the  conditions  of  civilised  life 
have  gradually  become  more  complex,  economic  reasons 
have  arisen  causing  us  to  make  an  enantiomorphous  selec- 
tion, and  in  this  country  we  arbitrarily  force  the  traffic  to 
keep  to  the  left ;  other  countries  also  make  an  arbitrary 
and  sometimes  a  different  selection.  Even  if,  when  legisla- 
tion on  this  matter  first  became  necessary,  the  population 
had  been  equally  and  obstinately  divided  upon  the  question 
of  the  rule  of  the  road,  we  cannot  doubt  that  by  this  time 
the  question  would  have  been  satisfactorily  and  finally 
settled  by  the  extermination  of  one  or  other  of  the  enantio- 
morphously inclined  parties  without  the  cooperation  of  any 
intelligent  enantiomorphous  agency. 

I  mentioned  that  Pasteur  gave  a  third  method  for  the 
resolution  of  compensated  substances,  a  method  depending 
upon  the  selection  exercised  by  living  organisms  upon  the 
enantiomorphously  related  components  of  the  mixture.  He 
found,  for  instance,  on  allowing  the  mould  Penicillium 
glaucum  to  grow  in  a  solution  containing  compensated 
tartaric  acid,  that  the  mould  used  the  d-tartaric  acid  as  a 
food-stuff,  and  rejected  the  laevo-isomeride,  which  latter 
could  ultimately  be  separated  from  the  solution.  The  kind 
of  method  thus  indicated  has  been  applied  with  success  in 
a  great  number  of  cases,  and  is,  in  the  end,  merely  a  special 
application  of  Pasteur's  second  method.  During  recent 
years  a  considerable  change  has  taken  place  in  our  views 
upon  the  action  of  the  lower  organisms  upon  their  food- 
stuffs. It  was  formerly  supposed,  for  example,  that  the 
fermentation  of  sugar  by  an  ordinary  beer  yeast  is  a  part 


284 


NA  TURE 


[July  23,  1903 


of  the  vital  process  of  the  organism  itself — that  the  sugar 
taken  in  as  food  by  the  organism  is  finally  thrown  out  in 
the  form  of  carbon  dioxide  and  alcohol ;  it  is  now  clear, 
however,  that  the  formation  of  these  two  products  is  in 
no  way  a  vital  process.  By  triturating  yeast  with  powdered 
quartz,  so  as  to  shatter  the  cell  walls,  and  expressing  the 
pulp  thus  produced,  Buchner  has  succeeded  in  obtaining  a 
solution  which,  when  mixed  with  sugar  solution,  converts 
the  sugar  into  carbon  dioxide  and  alcohol.  The  ferment- 
ation is  therefore  not  a  vital  phenomenon,  but  is  a  chemical 
action  induced  by  some  non-living  substance  contained  in 
the  expressed  juice  of  the  yeast  cells.  This  substance — 
zymase — has  been  isolated  in  the  solid  state,  and  belongs 
to  the  class  of  substances  known  as  unorganised  ferments 
or  enzymes.  Although  many  enzymes  are  known,  each 
active  in  inducing  the  occurrence  of  some  particular  chemical 
change  or  changes,  nothing  is  as  yet  known  as  to  their 
molecular  constitutions ;  ages  of  evolution  have  given  such 
complexity  to  these  substances  that  a  century  or  less  of 
chemical  investigation  has  contributed  practically  nothing 
towards  elucidating  their  nature. 

During  the  investigation  of  cases  of  animal  and  vegetable 
vital  activity,  great  numbers  of  instances  of  the  action 
of  enzymes  have  been  found,  the  function  of  the  enzyme 
being  to  bring  about  the  molecular  degradation  and,  in 
certain  cases,  the  molecular  complication,  of  more  or  less 
complex  ipaterials  used  or  produced  in  the  organism.  As 
an  example  of  molecular  degradation  due  primarily  to 
enzymic  action,  the  action  of  zymase  on  grape-sugar — 
d-glucose — may  be  quoted.  In  aqueous  solution,  one  mole- 
cule of  grape-sugar  becomes  directly  converted  into  two 
molecules  of  alcohol  and  two  molecules  of  carbon  dioxide, 
in  accordance  with  the  equation 

C.Hi,0,  =  2CjH,0+2CO„ 

by  the  enzyme  zymase.  The  enzyme  itself  suffers  no 
permanent  change  as  a  result  of  exercising  the  power  of 
causing  this  chemical  reaction  to  take  place,  so  that  a 
comparatively  minute  quantity  of  the  enzyme,  acting  for 
a  more  or  less  prolonged  period,  is  able  to  convert  an  un- 
limited quantity  of  grape-sugar  into  alcohol  and  carbon 
dioxide.  The  power  which  the  enzyme  possesses  of  inducing 
the  occurrence  of  some  chemical  reaction  which  otherwise 
does  not  take  place  is  not  peculiar  to  enzymes  ;  many  sub- 
stances, which  are  all  classed  together  as  the  so-called 
catalytic  agents,  are  known  to  exercise  the  same  sort  of 
influence  in  assisting  a  chemical  reaction  to  occur.  Thus 
the  action  of  finely  divided  platinum  in  causing  certain 
inflammable  gases  to  ignite  in  air  at  the  ordinary  tempera- 
ture is  a  catalytic  action.  The  particular  function  exer- 
cised by  enzymes  in  animal  or  vegetable  life  consists  in 
bringing  about  chemical  change,  quietly  and  continuously, 
without  necessitating  the  application  of  any  violent  chemical 
effects  such  as  we  are  in  the  habit  of  using  in  the  labor- 
atory. Although  they  proceed  so  quietly,  the  chemical 
changes  thus  effected  are,  in  certain  cases,  changes  which 
we  have  not  yet  succeeded  in  carrying  out  without  the 
assistance  of  an  enzyme ;  in  the  conversion  of  sugar  into 
alcohol  and  carbon  dioxide,  zymase  is  performing  a  re- 
action which  has  never  yet  been  brought  about  by  the  use 
of  the  ordinary  laboratory  methods. 

Without  quoting  more  specific  instances,  it  may  be  gener- 
ally stated  that  most  of  the  cases  of  enzymic  action  hitherto 
investigated  are  cases  in  which  a  large  molecular  complex 
is  degraded  or  broken  down  into  substances  of  lower  mole- 
cular weight.  But  it  is  important  to  note  that  the  organism 
is  also  the  seat  of  processes  which  result  in  the  building 
up  of  very  complex  molecules  from  simpler  ones,  such,  for 
instance,  as  the  formation  of  starch  from  carbon  dioxide 
and  water.  A  specific  case  in  which  enzymic  action  leads 
to  the  production  of  a  complex  substance  from  simpler  ones 
•  has  been  recently  worked  out  by  Fischer  and  Armstrong, 
who  show  that  the  enzyme,  lactase,  converts  the  sugar 
galactose,  C^^^O^^,  into  a  new  sugar,  isolactose,  CijHjaOji, 
of  nearly  twice  the  molecular  weight  of  the  former." 

All  the  enzymes  with  which  we  are  acquainted  appear  to 
be  enantiomorphous  bodies ;  they  are,  perhaps,  substances 
lo  which  no  definite  molecular  composition  can  ever  be 
assigned,  inasmuch  as  they  may  be  systems  consisting  of  a 
number  of  different  true  chemical  compounds,  the  system  be- 

NO.     1760,  VOL.    68] 


ing  one  which  becomes  endowed  with  extraordinary  chemical! 
activity  when  placed  in  a  suitable  environment.  The  enan- 
tiomorphism  of  the  enzyme  has  been  repeatedly  demon- 
strated during  the  course  of  Emil  Fischer's  remarkable- 
synthetic  work  on  the  sugars.  Fischer  succeeded  in  pre- 
paring fruit-sugar  or  fructose  by  purely  synthetical  methods- 
as  a  mixture  of  the  dextro-  and  the  laevo-isomerides  ;  in  order 
to_  isolate  the  previously  unknown  /-fructose,  he  applied  the 
third  Pasteur  method  in  that  he  cultivated  a  yeast  in  the 
solution  of  the  compensated  fructose.  The  yeast  enzyme 
—presumably  zymase — has  arrived  at  its  present  stage  of 
development  by  passing  through  countless  generations,  all! 
of  which  have  been  fed  upon  sugars  of  the  dextro-configura- 
tion,  these  being  the  only  ones  occurring  in  Nature.  In 
Fischer's  experiment  the  enzyme  therefore  readily  devoured 
the  d-fructose,  but  refused  to  touch  the  Z-fructose,  which 
had  never  before  been  presented  to  it.  The  Z-fructose  was, 
of  course,  subsequently  isolated  from  the  solution.  The- 
need  for  compatibility  between  the  enzyme  and  the  material 
upon  which  it  has  to  act  is  very  clearly  illustrated  by 
considering  the  effect  of  yeast  upon  a  number  of  optically 
active  and  isomeric  sugars.  In  the  table  (Fig.  9)  are  given- 
the  constitutions  of  a  number  of  sugars  of  the  composition- 
C6Hj20e,  the  configurations  of  the  three  or  four  asymmetric 
carbon  atoms  present  in  the  molecule  being  indicated  hj 
writing  the  hydrogen  atoms  on  the  right  or  the  left  of  the 
figure,  as  the  case  may  be ;  the  right  or  left  hands  indicate 
which  asymmetric  carbon  atoms  are  of  similar,  and  which 
of  opposed,  configurations. 


CMO 
M-t-OM 

Ho-e-M 

»» 

c/fo 
Ko-e-Jt 

MO-'c-M 
Jf-'C-OM 

r»L 

'eo 

MO-'e.-M 

/t-C-CM 

A  n 

M  -e  -ojt 

m» 

H  e-oM 

Ctt^Jt 

CM^OM 

CM^O^ 

d-Glucose 


d-Mannose 


CMO 

eMO 

M-C-M 

x&» 

»o.c-ff 

a  L 

Zymase 

m  -c-  M 

t*  c 

MO-C-JI 

trc    /.M 

the 

MO~e-M 

rwt. 

MO  -e-M 

at.    jr«i 

yeast 

M-e-o/f 

I»  K 

jt~e-ojt 

».«   Xtt 

enzyme 

ejicA 

c\eji 

d-Galactose  d-Talose 

Fig.  9. 

The  beer  yeast  ferments  d-glucose,  d-mannose  and  d-fruc- 
tose,  each  of  which  contains  in  the  molecule  a  set  of  three 
asymmetric  carbon  atoms  of  similar  configuration,  with 
about  equal  readiness ;  d-galactose  is,  however,  only  fer- 
mented ■  with  difficulty — in  the  set  of  three  asymmetric 
carbon  atoms  referred  to,  it  contains  one  differing  in  con- 
figuration from  the  corresponding  one  in  the  three  easily 
fermentable  sugars.  d-Talose,  in  which  two  of  the  three 
asymmetric  carbon  atoms  differ  in  configuration  from  the 
corresponding  carbon  atoms  in  d-fructose,  is  quite  un- 
affected by  the  yeast.  It  is  just  as  if  the  enzyme  were 
provided  with  three  hands,  in  the  order  right,  right,  left, 
to  enable  it  to  grip  the  sugar  molecule  and  commence 
tearing  it  to  pieces ;  with  these  three  hands  it  grips  the 
corresponding  hands — also  of  the  configuration  and  order, 
right,  right,  left,  of  the  first  three  sugars.  The  enzyme 
can,  however,  only  grip  the  d-galactose  molecule  by  two 
hands,  and  so  obtains  a  less  firm  hold.  Owing  to  the 
greater  incompatibility  between  the  zymase  and  the  d-talose, 
the  former  obtains  too  feeble  a  hold  on  the  latter  to  enable 
it  to  make  a  successful  assault,  and  the  sugar  therefore 
remains  unfermented. 

The  fact  that  the  chemical  reactions  of  animal  and  vege- 
table physiology  consist,  in  the  main,  of  the  production  or 
destruction  of  optically  active  substances  through  the  agency 
of  enantiomorphous  enzymes  is  one  of  enormous  import- 
ance. The  complex  substances  concerned,  such  as  starches,, 
albumins  and  food-stuffs  generally,  occur  in  Nature  in  but 


July  23,  1903] 


NATURE 


285 


one  of  the  enantiomorphously  related  configurations ;  all 
'the  albumins  are  IzEvo-rotatory,  all  the  starches  and  sugars 
are  derived  from  dextro-glucose.  Since  Fischer's  work 
teaches  us  that  none  of  the  sugars  derived  from  Isevo- 
glucose  are  fermentable  by  yeast,  it  would  seem  to  follow 
as  a  legitimate  conclusion  that,  whilst  d-glucose  is  a 
valuable  food-stuff,  we  should  be  incapable  of  digesting  its 
■enantiomorphously  related  isomeride,  J-glucose.  Humanity 
is  therefore  composed  of  dextro-men  and  dextro-women. 
And  just  as  we  ourselves  would  probably  starve  if  provided 
with  nothing  but  food  enantiomorphously  related  to  that 
to  which  we  are  accustomed,  so,  if  our  enantiomorphously 
related  isomerides,  the  laevo-men,  were  to  come  among  us 
now,  at  a  time  when  we  have  not  yet  succeeded  in  preparing 
synthetically  the  more  important  food-stuffs,  we  should  be 
unable  to  provide  them  with  the  food  necessary  to  keep 
them  alive. 


CHLORINE    SMELTING,     WITH 
ELECTROLYSIS. 

A  PAPER  on  chlorine  smelting  with  electrolysis  was 
■^  read  by  Mr.  Swinburne  at  the  first  meeting  of  the 
Faraday  Society  ;  as  the  process  described  in  the  paper  is 
of  considerable  interest,  and  may  one  day  be  of  great  im- 
portance, we  give  a  brief  abstract  of  the  paper  below. 

The  process  is  one  for  the  treatment  of  complex  sulphide 
ores,  such,  for  example,  as  the  Broken  Hill  slimes,  and  is 
■divided  into  three  stages  as  follows  : — (i)  the  treatment  of 
the  ores  with  hot  chlorinfe,  whereby  the  metals  are  all 
obtained  as  chlorides ;  (2)  the  treatment  of  the  mixed 
chlorides  by  substitution  until  finally  all  the  chlorine  is 
combined  with  zinc ;  and  (3)  the  electrolysis  of  the  zinc 
chloride  to  extract  the  zinc  and  recover  the  chlorine.  The 
first  stage  of  the  process  is  carried  out  by  blowing  hot 
chlorine  into  the  crushed  ore  in  a  "transformer";  the 
essential  feature  is  to  avoid  the  formation  of  chloride  of 
«ulphur. 

This  involves  a  careful  regulation  of  temperature  and  of 
the  rate  of  feed  of  the  ore ;  the  temperature  can  be 
easily  regulated  by  the  rate  of  feed  of  the  ore  and  chlorine 
as  the  reaction  evolves  a  great  deal  of  heat,  and  the  trans- 
former is  entirely  self-heating.  Advantage  can  be  taken 
of  the  composition  of  the  ore,  as  some  of  the  metals  have  a 
greater  heat  of  reaction  than  others;  if  necessary,  a  mixture 
of  ores  of  different  compositions  can  be  made  so  as  to  give 
a  satisfactory  working  material.  The  sulphur  is  set  free 
and  condensed.  At  the  end  of  a  charge  the  ore  feed  is 
stopped,  and  the  excess  of  sulphides  converted  to  chlorides, 
after  which  the  fused  chlorides  are  drawn  off  and  dissolved  ; 
the  gangue  having  been  separated  by  filtration,  the  second 
part  of  the  process  begins.  This  naturally  depends  on  the 
composition  of  the  ore ;  lead,  silver,  and  gold  are  separated 
with  the  gangue,  and  after  drying  are  fused  first  with  lead, 
which  e.xtracts  the  silver  and  gold,  and  then  with  zinc, 
which  gives  lead  and  zinc  chloride,  the  former  practically 
pure.  The  filtrate  is  treated  with  spongy  copper  to  separate 
lead  and  silver,  and  then  with  zinc  to  take  out  the  copper. 
Iron,  manganese,  and  zinc  chlorides  are  left;  the  iron  is 
chlorinated  up  to  the  ferric  state,  and  precipitated  as  ferric 
hydrate  by  zinc  oxide,  and  further  chlorination  in  presence 
of  the  zinc  oxide  throws  down  the  manganese  as  peroxide. 
There  is  thus  left  only  zinc  chloride  in  solution,  and  this 
is  evaporated  down  and  fused.  To  it  is  added  the  fused 
chloride  from  the  lead  substitution,  and  the  whole  is 
electrolysed  in  vats  made  of  iron  lined  with  fire-brick.  The 
heating  is  internal ;  the  current  and  the  chloride  soaking 
into  and  solidifying  in  the  fire-brick  gives  really  a  vat  with 
zinc  chloride  walls.  Vats  taking  3000  amperes  have  been 
in  use,  but  these  are  small,  and  10,000  ampere  vats  are  to 
bo  tried  ;  the  pressure  required  is  less  than  four  volts.  The 
result  of  the  process  is  pure  zinc  and  chlorine  ready  for 
chlorination  of  fresh  ore. 

It  will  be  seen  that  the  chief  merits  of  the  process  are 
its  comprehensiveness,  its  cyclical  nature,  and  the  fact  that 
it  turns  out  pure  metals.  Obviously  it  is  suited,  with  only 
•flight  modifications,  for  the  treatment  of  a  great  variety 
t  ores.  The  chlorine  simply  goes  round  and  round  ;  apart 
rom  leakage,  which,  as  Mr.  Swinburne  says,  if  it  would 
■how  on  the  balance  sheet  would  make  the  works  uninhabit- 

NO.    1760,  VOL.  68] 


able,  chlorine  can  only  be  lost  as  chloride  of  sulphur  (a 
source  of  loss  the  inventors  claim  to  have  overcome),  and 
a?  oxychlorides  formed  in  the  iron  separation  and  in 
evaporation  of  the  zinc  chloride,  neither  of  great  import- 
ance if  care  be  taken.  The  works  therefore  simply  take  in 
ore  and  electrical  energy  and  turn  out  metals,  sulphur,  and 
gangue.  Mr.  Swinburne  enters  at  some  length  into  the 
question  of  cost,  but  space  does  not  permit  of  our  follow- 
ing him  here  ;  we  have  said  enough  to  indicate  the  interest- 
ing character  of  the  paper,  to  which  those  more  specially 
interested  mav  be  referred  for  further  details. 

M.   S. 


T//E  ROYAL  INSTITUTE  OF  PUBLIC 
HEALTH. 
HTHE  annual  congress  of  the  Royal  Institute  of  Public 
■*■  Health  was  held  at  Liverpool,  July  15-21,  under  the 
presidency  of  the  Earl  of  Derby.  The  sections  met  in  the 
various  departments  of  the  University  College,  and  were 
thus  closely  associated  and  readily  accessible.  The  proceed- 
ings were  opened  by  an  interesting  address  from  the  Earl 
of  Derby,  in  which  he  directed  attention  to  the  considerable 
progress  in  sanitation  that  had  been  made  by  many  ancient 
civilisations.  The  Harben  medals  for  1901  and  1902  were 
then  presented  to  Sir  Charles  Cameron  and  Prof.  W.  R. 
Smith. 

A  combined  conference  of  the  preventive  medicine  and 
municipal  hygiene  sections  discussed  the  subject  of  tuber- 
culosis, and  Dr.  Nathan  Raw  read  a  paper  upon  "  The 
Prevention  of  Consumption  in  Large  Cities,"  in  which  he 
expressed  the  opinion  that  consumption  is  frequently  con- 
veyed to  children  by  milk  from  tuberculous  cows,  though 
patients  in  the  advanced  stage  are  the  greater  source  of 
danger  to  the  community.  He  suggested  as  means  for 
controlling  the  disease  (i)  the  establishment  of  a  central 
office  where  consumptives  might  seek  advice  ;  (2)  the  erection 
of  a  municipal  sanatorium  which,  for  Liverpool,  should 
contain  100  beds,  and  be  within  the  reach  of  any  needy 
citizen  ;  and  (3)  the  foundation  of  a  hospital  for  the  poor 
for  at  least  100  incurable  cases.  Several  other  papers  deal- 
ing with  tuberculosis  were  also  contributed ;  one,  by  Mr. 
McLauchlan  Young,  who  summarised  the  experiments  per- 
formed by  Prof.  Hamilton  and  himself  upon  the  com- 
municability  of  bovine  tuberculosis  to  man,  and  expressed 
the  opinion  that  there  could  be  little  doubt  that  human 
tubercle  can  be  readily  inoculated  upon  bovines ;  another,  by 
Drs.  Dean  and  Todd,  upon  the  communicability  of  human 
tuberculosis  to  the  pig,  in  which  the  six  animals  experi- 
mented upon  were  all  infected  with  the  human  bacillus. 
Thus  there  is  already  an  accumulation  of  evidence  against 
the  view  expressed  by  Koch  at  the  Tuberculosis  Congress 
of  1901,  that  bovine  tuberculosis  is  probably  not  com- 
municable to  man. 

In  the  section  of  bacteriology  and  comparative  pathology, 
the  president.  Prof.  Boyce,  F.R.S.,  in  his  opening  address 
directed  attention  to  the  connection  between  abstract  re- 
search and  the  good  of  the  community,  instancing  the  value 
of  bacteriological  research  to  practical  medicine,  to  the 
farmer,  to  the  water  engineer,  and  to  the  oyster  merchant. 
A  paper  by  Dr.  Savage  upon  "  A  Uniform  Method  of  Pro- 
cedure for  the  Bacterioscopic  Examination  of  Water," 
evoked  an  interesting  discussion.  He  considered  the  subject 
under  four  headings  : — (i)  the  methods  of  collection  and 
transmission  of  the  samples  ;  (2)  the  data  which  it  is  desir- 
able to  ascertain  ;  (3)  the  processes  and  procedures  of  the 
examination  ;  and  (4)  the  significance  to  be  attached  to  the 
results  obtained.  It  was  ultimately  resolved  to  form  a 
committee  to  consider  whether  it  might  not  be  possible  to 
systematise  the  methods,  &c.,  to  be  used  for  the  bacterio- 
logical examination  of  water. 

Another  important  discussion,  upon  "  the  nature  and  sig- 
nificance of  the  pseudo-diphtheria  bacillus,"  was  opened  by 
Dr.  Cobbett,  who  expressed  the  opinion  that  this  organism 
has  nothing  whatever  to  do  with  the  true  diphtheria  bacillus. 
Prof.  Hewlett  stated  that  he  was  not  yet  convinced  that  the 
two  organisms  had  no  connection,  and  directed  attention  to 
several  points  of  similarity  between  the  two.  Several 
medical  officers  of  health  held  that,  whether  the  two 
organisms  had  any  connection  or  no,  the  pseudo-bacillus 
sometimes    produced    a    diphtheritic    condition.       It    is    im- 


286 


NATURE 


[July  23,  1903 


possible  to  summarise  the  number  of  important  papers  that 
were  read  upon  the  housing  question,  child-study,  port 
sanitation,  and  other  subjects.  Dr.  Hope,  the  local  secre- 
tary, is  to  be  congratulated  upon  the  arrangements  made, 
and  it  is  hardly  necessary  to  add  that  Liverpool  extended 
a    hearty    welcome    to    the    delegates    and    members    of    the 


congress. 


R.  T.   Hewlett. 


UNIVERSITY    AND    EDUCATIONAL 
INTELLIGENCE. 

A  REPORT  on  the  scheme  for  the  establishment,  in  London, 
of  an  institute  for  advanced  technological  instruction  and 
research,  recently  put  forward  by  Lord  Rosebery,  was  pre- 
sented to  the  London  County  Council  on  Tuesday.  It  will 
be  remembered  that  the  offer  was  made  of  land,  buildings, 
and  equipment  required  for  such  an  institution  to  the  value 
of  500,000/.,  with  the  promise  to  secure  other  funds  for  both 
capital  outlay  and  maintenance,  provided  that  the  council 
would  express,  in  general  terms,  its  willingness  to  con- 
tribute, when  the  buildings  were  equipped  and  ready  to  be 
opened,  a  sum  of  20,000/.  a  year  towards  the  maintenance 
of  the  educational  work.  In  referring  to  these  proposals 
in  our  issue  of  July  2  (p.  203),  we  pointed  out  the  import- 
ance of  coordinating  the  work  of  such  an  institute  with 
that  of  the  University  of  London,  and  expressed  the  opinion 
that  the  development  of  both  was  a  national  concern,  and 
ought  not  to  depend  upon  the  contributions  of  the  County 
Council.  We  are  glad  to  see  that  the  committee  of  the 
council  appointed  to  consider  the  scheme  regard  substantial 
assistance  from  the  State  as  an  essential  condition  of  sup- 
port, and  think  the  council  should  not  lend  any  encourage- 
ment to  the  idea  that  the  whole  of  the  cost  of  maintenance 
could  be  provided  from  London  sources.  The  following 
recommendations  of  the  committee  were  adopted  by  the 
council  at  Tuesday's  meeting  : — (a)  That  the  council  ex- 
presses its  high  appreciation  of  the  important  pro- 
posal contained  in  Lord  Rosebery 's  letter,  and  would 
cordially  welcome  the  establishment  of  further  provision 
in  London  for  advanced  technological  teaching  and  re- 
search, (b)  That  the  council,  in  response  to  the  request 
contained  in  Lord  Rosebery 's  letter,  places  on  record 
its  opinion  that,  when  the  land,  buildings,  and  equip- 
ment for  the  proposed  additional  technological  teaching  and 
research  are  provided  to  a  value  of  not  less  than  500,000/., 
the  council  will  be  well  advised  to  contribute,  out  of  the 
moneys  annually  placed  at  its  disposal  under  the  Local 
Taxation  (Customs  and  Excise)  Act  of  1890,  a  sum  not 
exceeding  20,000/.  per  annum  towards  such  part  of  the 
work  as  falls  within  the  statutory  definition  of  technical 
education,  subject  to  the  following  conditions  : — (i)  That  a 
scheme  be  prepared  to  the  satisfaction  of  the  council  for 
the  constitution  of  the  governing  body  and  the  adequate 
representation  of  the  council  thereon ;  (2)  that  financial 
arrangements  adequate  to  the  whole  maintenance  of  the 
proposed  work  are  made  to  the  satisfaction  of  the  council ; 
{3)  that,  in  view  of  the  national  scope  and  utility  of  the 
proposed  work,  substantial  contributions  towards  main- 
tenance be  made  from  funds  of  a  national  character ;  (4) 
that  due  provision  be  made  in  the  scheme  to  prevent  over- 
lapping and  secure  coordination  of  the  work  already  carried 
on  by  the  university  colleges,  polytechnics,  and  other  science 
and  technological  institutions,  and  the  proper  connection 
of  the  whole  with  the  university  ;  (5)  that  a  sufficient  number 
of  scholarships,  including  free  places,  be  placed  at  the  dis- 
posal of  the  council ;  (6)  that  it  be  considered  whether  other 
counties  and  boroughs  should  not  be  invited  to  contribute 
towards  the  maintenance,  receiving  in  return  the  right  to 
send  their  picked  scholars  for  instruction  under  the  proposed 
scheme. 

The  Board  of  Education  have  issued  new  regulations  for 
the  instruction  and  training  of  pupil  teachers  and  students 
in  training  colleges.  In  a  preface  by  Mr.  Morant  it  is 
stated  that  the  "  regulations  are  intended  to  secure  for  the 
pupil  teacher  a  more  complete  and  continuous  education, 
and  to  make  the  period  of  service  in  an  elementary  school 
a  time  of  probation  and  training  rather  than  of  too  early 
practice  in  teaching."  Pupil  teachers  admitted  on  and 
after  August    i,    1904,    must   not   be  under   sixteen   years  of 

NO.    1760,   VOL.   68] 


age,  except  in  rural  districts,  where  the  limit  will  be 
fifteen.  After  August  i,  1905,  pupil  teachers  will  not  be 
permitted  to  serve  in  a  public  elementary  school  more  than 
half  the  time  the  school  is  open,  and  they  will  be  required 
to  receive  half-time  instruction  in  an  approved  pupil  teacher 
centre  throughout  their  engagement.  The  Board  of  Educa- 
tion desires  to  encourage  plans  for  educating  pupil  teachers 
with  other  scholars,  and  urges  local  educational  authorities 
to  arrange,  by  means  of  an  adequate  scholarship  system  or 
otherwise,  that  all  the  best  candidates  for  pupil  teacherships, 
whether  boys  or  girls,  should  receive  a  sound  general 
education  in  a  secondary  school,  with  schoolfellows  intended 
for  other  careers,  before  they  commence  service  in  any 
capacity  in  an  elementary  school.  There  is  already  in 
existence  a  number  of  well-equipped  and  well-staffed  pupil 
teacher  centres,  the  best  of  which  have  more  than  fulfilled 
the  purpose  for  which  they  were  originally  recognised  by 
the  Board.  The  new  regulations  should  assist  in  develop- 
ing corporate  school  life  in  such  centres,  and  also  in  im- 
proving other  less  satisfactory  central  classes ;  they  mark 
a  very  decided  step  in  advance,  and  show  an  exact  appreci- 
ation of  the  shortcomings  of  the  pupil  teacher  system  as 
it  has  existed  until  now. 

A  SCHEME  whereby  pupils  in  schools  in  different  parts  of 
the  Empire  may  be  put  in  communication  with  one  another, 
with  the  view  of  exchanging  observations,  specimens  and 
ideas,  has  been  drawn  up  by  the  League  of  the  Empire, 
and  promises  to  be  of  great  educational  value.  The  com- 
mittee recommends  that  linked-schools  and  members  should 
first  exchange  maps  of  their  respective  districts,  and  where 
possible,  photographs  or  drawings  of  their  houses,  of  the 
school  house,  grounds  and  surroundings.  It  is  suggested 
that  nature  calendars  should  be  kept,  essays  written  on 
common  trees  or  other  plants,  and  notes  made  on  the  habits 
of  birds  or  other  animals,  or  on  industrial  processes  or 
natural  products  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  schools — all 
with  the  view  of  exchanging  them  with  schools  in  other 
parts.  Personal  observations  are  to  be  insisted  upon,  so 
that  the  descriptions  will  be  twice  blessed — those  who  make 
the  observations  by  exercising  the  best  of  their  faculties, 
and  those  who  receive  the  results  by  gaining  knowledge 
of  natural  conditions  beyond  their  individual  view. 
Specimens  are  also  to  be  exchanged  for  school  museums. 
Already  there  are  nearly  two  thousand  members  in  corre- 
spondence all  over  the  Empire  exchanging  specimens  and 
letters,  and  the  number  will  doubtless  be  greatly  increased. 
Particulars  of  the  scheme  may  be  obtained  from  Mrs.  Ord 
Marshall,  hon.  secretary  of  the  central  committee,  11  Dart- 
mouth Street,  Victoria  Street,   London,  S.W. 

To  prevent  misunderstanding,  Mr.  C.  McDermid,  secre- 
tary of  the  Bessemer  Memorial  Fund,  has  issued  a  letter 
in  which  the  relationship  between  the  scheme  for  the 
Bessemer  memorial  and  that  put  forward  by  Lord  Rosebery 
is  described.  The  persons  responsible  in  each  case  have 
been  in  close  consultation  throughout,  but  the  two  schemes 
will  continue  for  the  present  to  be  directed  separately, 
though  they  will  be  controlled  by  joint  trustees.  For  the 
purposes  of  the  advanced  metallurgical  training  and 
specialised  research  works  which  are  to  form  the  Bessemer 
memorial,  it  is  proposed  that  London  shall  be  regarded  as 
the  centre  for  the  metallurgy  of  copper,  silver,  gold,  &c., 
Sheffield  as  the  centre  for  steel,  and  Birmingham^  as  the 
centre  for  cast  and  wrought  iron  and  alloys.  It  is  intended 
that  the  post-graduate  scholarships  shall,  in  part,  be  inter- 
national. It  is  hoped  that  the  committee  will  be  able  to 
submit   the  complete   scheme   in   October. 

Dr.  W.  Schlich,  principal  professor  of  forestry  in  the 
Royal  Indian  Engineering  College,  Coopers  Hill,  has  been 
appointed  honorary  professor  of  forestry  at  the  Royal  Agri- 
cultural College,  Cirencester.  Mr.  McClellan,  jun.,  who 
was  recently  appointed  professor  of  forestry  and  estates 
management  at  the  college,  has,  during  the  past  four 
months,  been  gaining  experience  of  continental  forestry, 
and  with  Dr.  Schlich  has  made  a  six  weeks'  tour  through 
specially  interesting  forest  districts  in  Germany. 

Mr.  H.  W.  Richards  has  been  appointed  principal  of  the 
Brixton  Technical  Institute  of  the  London  Technical  Educa- 
tion Board.  The  Board  has  made  the  following  appoint- 
ments    in     connection     with     the     Paddington     Technical 


July  23,  1903] 


NATURE 


287 


Institute  : — Head  of  the  chemical  department,  Dr.  H. 
Reynolds;  head  of  the  physical  department,  Mr.  J.  H. 
\'incent. 

The  following  research  fellowships  and  scholarships  have 
been  awarded  by  the  executive  committee  of  the  Carnegie 
Trust  for  the  universities  of  Scotland.  Research  Fellow- 
ships.—Chemical  :  Dr.  C.  E.  Fawaitt,  Dr.  J.  C.  Irvine, 
Mr.  W.  Maitland.  Biological  :  Dr.  J.  Cameron. 
Historical  :  Dr.  D.  Mackenzie.  Research  Scholarships. — 
Physical  :  Mr.  J.  H.  MacLagan  Wedderburn,  Mr.  H.  W. 
Malcolm,  Mr.  J.  R.  Milne,  Mr.  T.  B.  Morley.  Chemical: 
Mr.  J.  Knox,  Mr.  J.  Johnston,  Mr.  F.  J.  Wilson.  Bio- 
logical :  Mr.  S.  F.  Ashbv,  Dr.  R.  T.  Leiper,  Mr.  H.  J. 
Watt. 


SOCIETIES  AND  ACADEMIES. 

London. 

Royal  Society,  May  28.  — "  Researches  on  Tetanus." 
By  Prof.  Hans  Meyer  and  Dr.  F.  Ransom. 

The  experiments  were  in  the  first  place  made  with  the 
object  of  finding  an  explanation  for  local  tetanus.  One  of 
the  earliest  and  most  striking  symptoms  of  tetanus  in  man 
is,  as  its  popular  name  implies,  stiffness  of  the  masseter 
muscles  (lockjaw) ;  this  is  the  case  wherever  the  infected 
wound  may  be  situated.  In  certain  animals,  however,  as 
cats,  dogs,  and  rabbits,  when  tetanus  toxin  is  injected 
subcutaneously  into  a  limb,  the  first  symptom  is  a  rigidity 
of  the  muscles  of  the  injected  member  ;  this  is  known  as 
local  tetanus.  Afterwards,  if  enough  toxin  has  been  given, 
the  rigidity  becomes  general.  An  experimental  explanation 
of  this  condition  has  hitherto  been  wanting. 

The  authors  believe  that  their  experiments  prove  con- 
clusively that  the  course  of  events  in  experimental  tetanus 
is  as  follows  : — The  toxin  is  taken  up  from  the  point  of 
injection  by  the  motor  nerves  (probably  their  naked  end- 
ings). Passing  along  these  it  reaches  first  the  correspond- 
ing motor  centres  in  the  spinal  cord  and  excites  there  an 
over-irritability,  so  that  the  discharges  which  normally 
give  rise  to  muscular  tone  become  abnormally  strong,  and 
produce  in  the  muscles  of  the  injected  limb  the  condition 
known  as  tetanic  rigidity.  The  toxin  also  passes  from 
the  point  of  injection  into  the  lymphatics  and  thence  into 
the  blood.'  P'rom  the  blood-lymph  stream,  if  enough  has 
been  given,  other  motor  nerve  ends  take  up  toxin,  and 
general  muscular  rigidity  ensues. 

The  authors  show  experimentally  that  the  toxin  only 
reaches  the  nervous  centres  by  way  of  the  motor  nerves, 
and  further,  that  the  movement  of  the  toxin  in  the  nervous 
system  does  not  take  place  in  the  lymphatics,  but  in  the 
protoplasm  of  the  nerves.  Tetanus  toxin  never  reaches 
the  spinal  centres  along  the  sensory  nerves,  but,  if  it  is 
injected  into  a  posterior  root,  sensory  disttirbance  is  the 
result. 

The  greater  part  of  what  is  known  as  the  period  of 
incubation,  that  is,  the  interval  which  elapses  between  the 
injection  of  toxin  and  the  first  symptom  of  intoxication, 
is  the  expression  of  the  time  occupied  in  the  conveyance 
of  the  toxine  from  the  periphery  along  the  motor  nerves 
to  the  susceptible  centres. 

Relying  upon  the  results  of  their  experiments,  the  authors 
are  of  opinion  that  the  tetanus  of  warm-blooded  animals 
consists  of  two  processes,  separated  from  each  other  both 
in  time  and  space.  Of  these  the  one  is  primary,  a  motor 
intoxication,  local  muscular  rigidity  ;  the  other,  secondary, 
is  a  local  sensory  intoxication,  a  diffused  reflex  tetanus 
starting  from  the  intoxicated  neuron. 

Repeated  experiments  showed  that,  when  tetanus  toxin 
was  introduced  direct  into  a  motor  nerve,  antitoxin,  though 
present  in  large  quantities  in  the  blood,  was  unable  to 
prevent  the  outbreak  of  the  disease,  or  even  to  hinder  a 
fatal  result.  This  was  the  case  both  when  large  doses  of 
antitoxin  were  given  before  and  after  the  toxin,  as  well 
as  when  an  actively  immunised  animal  was  emploved.  The 
experimenters  therefore  conclude  that  injected  antitoxin 
does  not  reach  the  substance  of  the  nerve  fibrils  and  centres, 

1  Ransom,  Hoppe  Seyler's  Zeitschrift  f  physiol.  Cheiiiie,  Band  xxix 
and  xxxi. 


NO.    1760,  VOL.  68] 


and  that  even  with  highly  immunised  animals  the  neurons 
remain  free  from  antitoxin.  As  regards  the  serum  treat- 
ment of  tetanus,  it  is  clear  that  in  these  circumstances 
any  toxin  which  is  already  in  the  motor  nerves,  though 
not  yet  in  spinal  centres,  will  not  be  neutralised  by  anti- 
toxin, whether  injected  under  the  skin  or  direct  into  the 
blood.  An  attack  corresponding  to  the  amount  of  toxin 
absorbed  by  the  nerves  will  break  out  and  run  its  course 
in  spite  of  antitoxin.  On  the  other  hand,  any  toxin  in 
the  blood  or  lymph  will  be  rendered  harmless  by  an  injection 
of  antitoxin,  and  so  a  further  intoxication  will  be  prevented. 

The  authors  have  further  made  successful  attempts  to 
prevent  the  access  of  tetanus  toxin  along  the  motor  nerve 
to  the  susceptible  centres  by  injecting  antitoxin  into  the 
nerve  substance  (ischiadicus),  so,  as  it  were,  blocking  the 
passage  of  the  toxin. 

Just  before  this  paper  was  read,  a  case  occurred  at 
Marburg  of  a  man  who  received  an  injury  of  the  hand 
from  the  breaking  of  a  flask  of  tetanus  toxin.  Antitoxin 
in  large  quantity  was  injected  under  the  skin  a  quarter  of 
an  hour  after  the  injury  ;  nevertheless,  after  eight  days,  a 
local  tetanus  of  the  arm  broke  out.  This  was  treated  by 
injection  of  antitoxin  into  the  nerve  trunks  of  the  affected 
limb,  and  the  patient  recovered.  The  occurrence  of  a  local 
tetanus  in  spite  of  the  large  quantities  of  antitoxin,  and 
the  satisfactory  result  which  followed,  and  perhaps  was  due 
to  the  injection  of  antitoxin  into  the  motor  nerves  of  the 
affected  limb,  show  that  the  conveyance  of  the  poison  from 
periphery  to  centre  takes  place  in  men,  as  in  animals,  along 
the  motor  nerve,  and  affords,  further,  a  valuable  hint  for 
the  treatment  of  tetanus. 

The  full  report  of  these  experiments  appears  in  Archiv 
fiir  experimentelle  Pathologie  und  Pharmakologie,  Band 
xlix. 

June  II. — "  Observations  on  the  Physiology  of  the 
Cerebral  Cortex  of  the  Anthropoid  Apes."  By  Dr.  A.  S.  F. 
Griinbaum  and  Prof.  C.  S.  Sherringrton,  F.R.S. 

June  18. — "  Cyanogenesis  in  Plants.  Part  iii.  Phaseo- 
lunatin  ;  the  Cyanogenetic  Glucoside  of  Phaseolus  lunatus." 
By  Wyndham  R.  Dunstan,  M.A.,  F.R.S.,  Director  of  the 
Imperial  Institute,  South  Kensington,  and  T.  A.  Henryi 
D.Sc.  Lond. 

The  poisonous  seeds  produced  by  partial  cultivation  in 
Mauritius  of  the  plant  Phaseolus  lunatus  have  been  ex- 
amined and  found  to  contain  a  cyanogenetic  glucoside  of 
the  formula  C,(,H,jOjN,  to  which  the  name  Phaseolunatin 
has  been  given.  The  glucoside  crystallises  in  colourless 
needles,  and  when  acted  upon  by  the  enzyme  emulsin,  which 
is  also  present  in  the  seeds,  or  by  warm  dilute  acids,  it  is 
hydrolysed  into  dextrose,  acetone,  and  hydrocyanic  acid. 

C,„H„0,N-f-H,0-C.H.,0,+CH,.C0.CH3-t-HCN. 

Alkalis  convert  the  glucoside  into  phaseolunatinic  acid 
(C,„H,gO,),  and  this,  by  the  further  action  of  hot  dilute 
acids,  is  hydrolysed  into  dextrose  and  a-hydroxyisobutyric 
acid.  Phaseolunatin  is  therefore  the  dextrose  ether  of 
acetone cyanhydrin  (CHj)^  :  C(CN).0.CjH.,05. 

The  seeds  produced  by  Phaseolus  lunatus  vary  in  toxicity 
and  in  the  colour  of  their  seed-coats,  depending  upon  the 
care  bestowed  on  the  cultivation  of  the  plant.  In  Mauritius, 
where  the  plant  is  grown  for  use  as  a  green  manure,  the 
seeds  furnish,  when  moistened  with  water,  from  0041  to 
0088  per  cent,  of  prussic  acid,  and  possess  dark  brown 
or  purple  seed-coats;  in  India  the  seeds,  which  are  imported 
into  this  country  under  the  name  of  "  Rangoon  "  or 
"  Paigya  "  beans,  and  are  used  for  the  manufacture  of  cattle 
foods,  are  pink  with  purple  spots,  and  yield  only  0004  per 
cent,  of  this  acid,  whilst  the  large,  white  Lima  or  dufiin 
beans,  produced  by  long-continued  cultivation  of  the  plant, 
yield  no  prussic  acid,  although  they  still  contain  the  enzyme 
emulsin. 

It  is  suggested  that  if  hydrocyanic  acid  or  its  precursors 
— the  cyanogenetic  glucosides — in  plants,  may  be  regarded 
as  formative  materials  utilised  for  the  synthesis  of  proteids, 
then  the  absence  of  such  glucosides  from  the  cultivated 
seeds  of  Phaseolus  lunatus,  and  from  those  of  the  cultivated 
almond,  may  be  the  result  of  more  active  metabolism 
induced  by  improved  conditions  of  growth,  so  that  no 
supplies  of  the  glucoside  are  available  for  storage  as  reserve 
material  in  the  seeds. 


NATURE 


[July  23,  1903 


Faraday  Society,  June  30. — Mr.  J.  Swinburne,  vice- 
president,  in  the  chair. — Mr.  W.  C.  Dampier  Whetham, 
F.R.S.,  gave  an  abstract  of  his  paper  on  the  present  posi- 
tion of  the  theory  of  electrolysis.  The  fact  that  the  products 
of  electrolysis  appear  at  the  electrodes  only  led  to  the 
Grotthus  chain  hypothesis.  Faraday's  laws  suggest 
opposite  convective  streams  of  anions  and  cations.  Hittorf's 
observations  on  the  unequal  concentration  of  the  solution 
lead  to  the  conception  either  of  complex  ions,  dragging 
along  salt  or  solvent,  or  else  unequal  velocities  of  the  ions 
the  ratio  of  which  can  be  measured.  Kohlrausch's  measure- 
ments of  the  resistance  of  electrolytes  enable  the  absolute 
velocities  to  be  measured.  The  fact  that  electric  conduc- 
tion in  solutions  obeys  Ohm's  law  shows  that  the  E.M.F. 
is  merely  directive,  and  that  the  ions  have  migratory 
freedom.  The  fact  that  ionic  mobilities  only  vary  slowly 
with  dilution,  while  the  conductivity  of  a  dilute  solution 
is  proportional  to  the  first  power  and  not  the  cube  of  the 
concentration,  shows  that  the  ions  must  be  free  of  the 
solute  molecules — not  necessarily  of  those  of  the  solvent. 
The  osmotic  properties  of  electrolytes  lead  to  the  same  con- 
clusion. A  short  consideration  of  conduction  in  non-aqueous 
solution  and  in  fused  salts  completes  the  paper. — Mr. 
Swinburne  gave  a  short  account  of  his  paper  on  chlorine 
smelting,  with  electrolysis,  an  abstract  of  which  we  print 
elsewhere  (p.  285). — A  paper  by  Dr.  R.  A.  Lehfeldt,  on 
the  total  and  free  energy  of  the  lead  accumulator,  was  taken 
as  read,  and  the  discussion  adjourned  until  the  next  meet- 
ing.— Dr.  Perkin  exhibited  and  explained  several  novel 
pieces  of  electrolytic  apparatus  devised  by  him  for  laboratory 
work. 

Paris. 
Academy  of  Sciences,  July  13. — M.  Mascart  in  the  chair 
— On  the  stability  of  a  particular  mode  of  flow  of  a  sheet 
of  water  of  infiltration,  by  M.  J.  Boussinesq. — On  the 
torsional  movements  of  the  eye  during  the  rotation  of  the 
head,  by  M.  Yves  Delagre. — Remarks  by  M.  Alfred  Picard 
on  the  third  volume  of  his  "  Rapport  g6n6ral  sur  1 'Exposi- 
tion universelle  de  1900." — On  the  deformation  of  surfaces, 
by  M.  M.  Servant. — On  the  measurement  of  coefficients 
of  self-induction  by  means  of  the  telephone,  by  M.  R. 
Dong^ier.  A  special  telephone  invented  by  M.  Mercadier 
was  used  in  this  work.  It  only  reinforces  sounds  of  a 
determined  period,  and  remains  insensible  to  the  harmonics 
caused  by  capacity  or  by  magnetic  substances  in  the  core 
of  the  bobbin.  Measurements  of  self-induction  of  the  order 
of  10-^  Henry  were  made  with  an  accuracy  of  one-half 
per  cent. — A  combination  of  ferric  sulphate  with  sulphuric 
acid,  by  M.  A.  Recoura.  A  ferrisulphuric  acid  has  been 
isolated,  possessing  an  analogous  composition  to  the 
chromosulphuric  acid  previously  described  ;  unlike  the  latter, 
however,  it  is  immediately  decomposed  by  water. — On  the 
action  of  carbon  monoxide  upon  iron  and  its  oxides,  by 
M.  Georges  Charpy.  Ferric  oxide,  heated  in  a  current  of 
carbon  monoxide,  is  completely  reduced  to  metallic  iron, 
containing  carbon,  at  all  temperatures  between  200°  and 
1200°,  the  velocity  of  reduction  increasing  with  the  tempera- 
ture. Metallic  iron  takes  up  carbon  at  all  temperatures 
between  560°  and  1190°  C,  the  metal  remaining 
free  from  deposited  carbon  at  temperatures  above 
750°  C. — On  the  so-called  colloidal  silver,  by  M. 
Hanriot.  The  conclusion  is  drawn  that  the  albu- 
minoid material  in  collargol,  the  oxide  of  iron  in  the 
preparation  of  C.  Lea,  and  the  silica  in  the  silicargol  are 
not  to  be  regarded  as  impurities,  but  as  integral  portions 
of  the  molecule,  not  only  because  it  is  impossible  to  separate 
them  without  destroying  the  colloidal  silver,  but  also 
because  these  bodies  have  then  lost  their  characteristic 
properties. — The  action  of  hypophosphorous  acid  on  diethyl- 
ketone  and  on  acetophenone,  by  M.  C.  Marie.  Acids  con- 
taining phosphorus  have  been  obtained  analogous  in  com- 
position with  acids  derived  from  other  ketones;  the  oxida- 
tion products  are  also  similar.— On  the  chloride  of  phenyl- 
propargylidene,  C.Hs.CfC.CH.Cl,,  by  MM.  Ernest  Charon 
and  Edgar  Dugroujon.  Phenylpropargylic  aldehyde  was 
treated  with  phosphorus  pentachloride,  and  the  chloride 
separated  by  fractional  distillation.  Its  stability  is  greater 
than  that  of  cinnamylidene  chloride.  The  addition  products 
with  chlorine  and  bromine  were  isolated,  and  also  proved  I 
ro  be  very  stable  towards  air  and  water.— The  preparation  of  | 
NO.    1760,  VOL.  68] 


the  secondary  amides,  by  M.  J.  Tarbouriech.  Two 
methods  were  used,  the  action  of  the  acid  on  the  correspond- 
ing nitrite,  and  the  action  of  the  acid  chloride  upon  the 
primary  amide ;  the  latter  gave  better  yields.  The  proper- 
ties of  dibutyramide,  diisobutyramide,  divaleramide,  and 
diisovaleramide  are  described. — The  action  of  ammonium 
persulphate  upon  metallic  oxides,  by  MM.  A.  Seyewetx 
and  P.  Trawritx. — The  action  of  bromine  upon  pinene  in 
the  presence  of  water,  by  MM.  P.  Genvresse  and 
P.  Faivre. — The  influence  of  the  nervous  system  on  the 
ontogenesis  of  the  limbs,  by  M.  P.  Wintrebert.  From  the 
experiments  described  the  conclusion  is  drawn  that  the 
nervous  system  is  not  necessary  in  the  production  of  the 
limb,  neither  for  its  growth,  general  morphogeny,  nor  for 
its  differentiation. — The  geographical  distribution  of  the 
Coleoptera  (Bostrychides)  with  respect  to  the  food  require- 
ments of  these  insects,  by  M.  P.  Lesne.— On  a  lactic 
diastase  capable  of  hydrolysing  salol,  by  MM.  A.  Miele 
and  V.  Willem.  The  authors  regard  the  existence  in  milk 
of  a  ferment  capable  of  hydrolysing  salol  as  doubtful. — On 
the   modifications   in  respiration  due   to  age,    with  especial 

reference   to   the   guinea-pig,    by   M.    Leopold   Mayer On 

the  variation  of  Bornetina  Corium  according  to  the  nature 
of  the  medium,  by  MM.  L.  Mangin  and  P.  Viala.— The 
influence  of  common  salt  on  the  transpiration  and  absorp- 
tion of  water  in  plants,  by  M.  H.  Ricdme. — On  a  bud  graft 
on  the  lilac,  by  M.  Lucien  Daniel. — The  presence  of 
cordierite  in  the  eruptive  products  from  Mont  Pel6e  and 
Mont  Soufriere  at  St.  Vincent,  by  M.  A.  Lacroix. — The 
origin  of  the  folds  in  the  Pyrenees,  by  M.  Joseph  Roussel. 
— Experimental  researches  on  dreams.  The  relation 
between  the  depth  of  sleep  and  the  nature  of  the  dreams, 
by  M.  N.  Vaschide.  In  light  sleep  the  dreams  have 
reference  to  things  which  occurred  immediately  preceding 
sleep,  but  in  profound  sleep  the  dreams  have  no  reference 
to  recent  events. 


CONTENTS.  PAGE 

Experimental    Morphology.     By    Francis    Darwin, 

„F-R-S 265 

Nitrogen  and  its  Compounds.     By  A.  F 266 

Prospecting .  267 

Our  Book  Shelf:— 

Hollander:     "The    Revival     of     Phrenology.     The 

Mental  Functions  of  the  Brain  " 268 

Wiglesworth:  "St.  Kilda  and  its  Birds."- R.  L.     .    268 

Snow  :   "  The  Principal  Species  of  Wood  " 268 

Kaiserling:    "  Lehrbuch   der    Mikrophotographie  "— 

J.   E.  B 269 

Letters  to  the  Editor  :— 

The  Source  of  Radium   Energy.  — Ch.  Lagrange  .    .    269 
A  New  Case  of  Phosphorescence  induced  by  Radium 

Bromide. — William  Ackroyd 269 

Tables     of    Four-figure     Logarithms.— M.      White 
Stevens;     C.     E.     F.  ;     Prof.     John     Perry, 

F.  R.S 270 

A  Multiple  Lightning  Flash.— Dr.    William  J.    S. 

Lockyer 270 

The  Lyrids,  1903. — Alphonso  King 270 

The  Wild  Horse.  ^.Illustrated.)   By  Prof.  J.  C.  Ewart, 

F-R-S 271 

Higher  Technical  Education  in  Great  Britain  and 

Germany.     By  Prof  J.  Wertheimer 274 

The    Tenth    "Eros"    Circular.     By    Prof.    H.    H. 

Turner,  F.R.S 276 

Notes 277 

Our  Astronomical  Column  : — 

Bright  Spots  on  Saturn 279 

Spectroscopic  Observations  of  Nova  Geminorum  .    .    279 
Measurement  of  the  Intensity  of  Feeble  Illuminations    279 

The  German  Royal  Naval  Observatory 280 

Recent      Advances      in      Stereochemistry.     {With 

Diagrams.)  By  Prof.  William  J.  Pope,  F.R.S.  .  .  280 
Chlorine  Smelting  with  Electrolysis.  By  M.  S.  .  .  285 
The  Royal    Institute  of  Public    Health.     By   Prof 

R.  T.  Hewlett      285 

University  and  Educational  Intelligence    .....    286 
Societies  and  Academies 287 


NATURE 


289 


THURSDAY,    JULY   30,    1903. 


A    MODERN    PHYSICIST. 
Scientific   Papers   of   Lord   Rayleign.       Vols,    ii.,    iii. 
[901.     Pp.   xiv  +  598;   xii  +  596;   xiv  + 


and  iv.,    1881- 

604.     (Cambridge  :  University  Press.) 

TO  review  these  volumes  in  an  ordinary  sense  is 
an  impossible  task.  Fortunately  it  is  quite  un- 
necessary. Lord  Rayleigh's  work  in  its  many  phases 
is  so  well  known  that  a  brief  notification  of  the  fact 
that  his  papers  have  been  collected  and  published  by 
the  Cambridge  University  Press  is  almost  all  that  is 
called  for.  Every  physicist  will  realise  that  his 
library  is  incomplete  without  these  four  splendid 
volumes,  the  first  of  which  has  already  been  noticed, 
and  that  he  will  find  in  their  pages  the  details  of  many 
of  the  most  striking  advances  in  his  subject  during 
the  past  twenty  years. 

Lord  Rayleigh  succeeded  Maxwell  as  professor  of 
physics  at  Cambridge  in  1879.  The  first  volume  under 
notice  opens  with  his  classical  work  in  the  Cavendish 
Laboratory  on  the  electric  units ;  the  latter  pages  of 
vol.  iv.  deal  with  his  experimental  verification  of 
Boyle's  law  for  pressures  down  to  the  hundredth  of  a 
millimetre.  A  list  of  the  papers — 272  in  number  in 
the  four  volumes — would  cover  the  whole  range  of 
physics,  and  each  contains  a  contribution  of  real  value 
to  natural  knowledge. 

During  his  tenure  of  the  Cambridge  chair.  Lord 
Rayleigh  undertook  the  determination  of  the  three 
fundamental  units  of  electrical  science,  the  ohm,  the 
ampere,  and  the  volt, 

"  It  is  generally  felt,"  he  writes  in  the  first  paper 
{Proc.  Roy.  Soc,  1881),  "  that  considerable  uncertainty 
still  attaches  to  the  real  value  of  the  ohm  or  British 
Association  unit  of  resistance.  The  ohm  was  con- 
structed to  represent  10'  C.G.S.  units  of  resistance, 
but  according  to  Kohlrausch  it  is  nearly  2  per  cent, 
too  great,  and  according  to  Rowland  nearly  i  per 
cent,  too  small." 

The  ohm,  {hanks  to  the  work  of  Lord  Rayleigh 
and  those  who  have  followed  in  his  steps,  is  now  known 
to  some  few  parts  in  ten  thousand. 

It  is  much  the  same  with  the  ampere  and  the  volt ; 
more  recent  work  has  shown  that  possibly  some  small 
change  is  required  in  the  numbers  given  by  Lord 
Rayleigh  to  represent  the  electrochemical  equivalent 
of  silver  and  the  electromotive  force  of  a  Clark  cell, 
but  the  change  will  be  very  small.  His  work  made  the 
Clark  cell  a  practical  standard,  and  every  electrician 
now  knows  its  value.  The  H  form  of  cell  is  first  de- 
scribed on  p.  315  of  the  second  volume  of  the  papers. 

But  this  series  of  papers  did  not  exhaust  his  experi- 
mental work  at  Cambridge  ;  the  researches  on  the  value 
of  the  ohm  would  have  been  incomplete  without  the 
determination  of  the  specific  resistance  of  mercury 
(Article  81)  by  Mrs.  Sidgwick  and  himself.  The  ex- 
periments on  the  rotation  of  the  plane  of  polarisation 
of  light  in  a  magnetic  field  were  planned  at  first  in 
the  hope  of  utilising  the  results  in  the  measurement 
of  an  electric  current,  and  though  this  hope  was  not 
realised,  they  remain  as  the  standard  determination 
NO.    1761,  VOL.  68] 


of  Verdet's  constant.  A  second  paper  on  the  Clark 
cell  is  dated  1886. 

A  short  paper  (No.  92)  from  the  Philosophical 
Magazine,  vol.  xiv.,  1882,  will  serve  as  an  example  of 
Lord  Rayleigh's  work  as  a  critic.  It  is  a  comparison 
of  the  methods  for  the  determination  of  resistances  in 
absolute  measure,  and  affords  a  most  valuable  risumi 
of  the  methods  employed. 

Resistance  being  on  the  electromagnetic  system  of 
the  dimensions  of  a  velocity,  the  measurement  of  a 
length  and  a  time  are  necessary;  the  principal  length 
involved  is  nearly  always  the  mean  radius  of  a  coil, 
and  the  presumption  is  in  favour  of  the  method  which 
involves  only  a  single  linear  measurement. 

The  paper  exhibits  in  a  marked  degree  Lord  Ray- 
leigh's great  capacity  for  seeing  distinctly  the  essential 
point  of  an  experiment  or  a  measurement,  and  keeping 
that  clearly  in  view  throughout.  This,  indeed,  is  the 
distinguishing  feature  of  his  experimental  work,  a 
main  factor  in  his  success.  Those  who  knew  the 
Cavendish  Laboratory  when  the  electrical  measure- 
ments were  going  on,  or  have  since  visited  the  labora- 
tory at  Terling,  from  which  no  less  important  work  is 
continually  being  published,  have  sometimes  been  sur- 
prised at  the  makeshift  character  of  much  of  the 
apparatus.  Contrivances  of  wood  and  wire  and  wax 
do  duty  where  most  men  would  use  apparatus  elabor- 
ated with  a  quite  unnecessary  care;  but  in  Lord  Ray- 
leigh's case,  while  the  essential  instrument  on  which 
the  accuracy  of  the  result  really  depends  is  as  perfect 
as  the  skill  of  the  workman  can  make  it,  and,  in 
addition,  has  been  thought  out  in  all  its  details  so 
as  to  fit  it  best  for  the  purpose  immediately  in  view, 
for  the  rest  the  arrangement  which  comes  first  to 
hand  is  utilised  without  regard  to  appearances. 

In  addition  to  the  fundamental  measurements 
already  referred  to,  the  Cambridge  years  were  marked 
by  a  series  of  optical  papers  of  great  value.  Among 
these  may  be  mentioned  the  article  on  optics  for  the 
ninth  edition  of  the  "  Encyclopaedia  Britannica,"  in 
which  the  theory  of  the  resolving  power  of  an  optical 
instrument  is  given  in  a  simple  manner. 

The  papers  already  mentioned  are  contained  in  vol. 
ii.  of  the  collected  works.  Those  in  vol.  iii.,  written 
after  Lord  Rayleigh  had  resigned  the  Cambridge 
chair,  differ  somewhat  in  character,  but  are  no  less 
interesting.  The  article  on  the  wave  theory  of  light 
from  the  "  Encyclopaedia  Britannica,"  and' the  papers 
0  1  the  relative  densities  of  hydrogen  and  oxygen,  and 
the  composition  of  water.  Articles  146,  153,  187,  are 
perhaps  the  most  important. 

Attention  may  also  be  directed  to  a  series  of  papers 
on  capillary  questions,  while  Article  191,  on  the  physics 
of  media  that  are  composed  of  free  and  perfectly  elastic 
molecules  in  a  state  of  motion,  has  a  special  interest. 
Waterston  had  communicated  to  the  Royal  Society  in 
1845  a  paper  with  the  above  title,  which  remained  un- 
published until  1892,  when  Lord  Rayleigh's  attention 
was  directed  to  it,  and  the  paper  was  printed  in  the  Phil. 
Trans,  with  an  introduction  by  himself.  Waterston 
was  the  first  to  introduce  into  the  kinetic  theory  the 
notion  that  heat  and  temperature  are  to  be  measured 
b/  the  kinetic  energy  of  the  moving  particles.     From 

O 


290 


NATURE 


[July  30,  1903 


this  he  deduces  the  law  of  Dalton  and  Gay  Lussac, 
and  he  further  establishes,  though  in  an  incomplete 
manner,  the  law  that  in  mixed  gases  the  mean  kinetic 
energy  is  the  same  for  the  different  sets  of  molecules 
present,  from  which  Avogadro's  law  and  Graham's 
law  of  diffusion  follow  at  once.  The  memoir  also 
contains  the  first  calculation  of  molecular  velocity,  and 
points  out  the  relation  of  this  velocity  to  the  velocity 
of  sound. 

The  papers  on  the  relative  densities  of  hydrogen 
and  oxygen  find  a  fitting  sequel  in  some  of  the  earlier 
papers  of  the  fourth  volume,  the  first  of  which  is  on 
the  density  of  nitrogen,  Article   197.     This  begins  : — 

"  I  am  much  puzzled  by  some  recent  results  as  to 
the  density  of  nitrogen,  and  shall  be  obliged  if  any  of 
your  chemical  readers  "^ — the  article  is  a  letter  to  this 
Journal,  Nature,  vol.  xlvi.  pp.  512,  513,  1892 — "  can 
offer  suggestions  as  to  the  cause.  According  to  two 
methods  of  preparation  I  obtain  quite  distinct  'values. 
The  relative  difference,  amounting  to  about  i/iooo 
part  1  is  small  in  itself,  but  it  lies  entirely  outside  the 
errors  of  experiment,  and  can  only  be  attributed  to 
a  variation  in  the  character  of  the  gas." 

And  the  paper  concludes  : — 

''  Is  it  possible  that  the  difference  is  independent 
of  impurity,  the  nitrogen  being  to  some  extent  in  a 
different  (dissociated)  state?  " 

The  matter  is  again  referred  to  in  the  Royal  Society 
paper.  No.  201,  on  the  density  of  the  principal  gases, 
published  in  the  Proceedings  of  1893,  and  in  detail 
in  Article  210.  On  an  anomaly  encountered  in  deter- 
minations of  the  density  of  nitrogen  gas  {Proc.  Roy. 
Soc,  1894),  when  it  appeared  that  while  the  weight  of 
nitrogen  derived  from  the  air  required  to  fill  a  certain 
globe  under  standard  conditions  was  2.3102  grammes, 
when  the  nitrogen  was  obtained  as  a  chemical  product 
from  other  sources  than  the  air  the  weight  was  2.2990 
grammes,  a  difference  of  11  milligrammes,  or  one- 
half  per  cent.  The  question  was  answered  satisfac- 
torily by  the  paper  which  appears  as  No.  214,  "  Argon, 
a  New  Constituent  of  the  Atmosphere,"  by  Lord  Ray- 
leigh,  Sec.R.S.,  and  Prof.  William  Ramsay,  F.R.S. 
{Phil.  Trans.,  clxxxvi.,  A,  1895),  and  an  interesting 
account  of  the  discovery  is  contained  in  the  Royal 
Institution  lecture  on  argon,  which  forms  Article  215. 

The  Phil.  Trans,  paper  contains  the  account  of  the 
means  used  to  separate  from  the  nitrogen  of  the  air 
the  new  dense  gas  the  presence  of  which  Lord  Ray- 
leigh  had  discovered,  as  a  residual,  by  the  accuracy  of 
his  weighings. 

A  number  of  further  papers  dealing  with  argon  and 
some  of  the  other  new  gases  are  contained  in  this 
volume.  One  of  the  latest  is  on  the  verification  of 
Boyle's  law  for  low  pressures.  There  is  also  much 
valuable  optical  work,  specially,  perhaps,  Article  198, 
on  the  intensity  of  light  reflected  from  water  and 
mercury  at  nearly  perpendicular  incidence,  and  many 
important  investigations  of  a  mathematical  character 
on  the  electromagnetic  theory  of  light.  Among  these 
may  be  noted  Article  227,  on  the  passage  of  waves 
through  apertures  in  plane  screens,  and  Article  230, 
on  the  incidence  of  aerial  and  electric  waves  on  small 
obstacles. 

1  The  differen  e  ultimately  found  was  1/200. 

NO.   1761,  VOL.  68] 


Perhaps  enough  has  been  written  to  convey  to 
readers  who  are  not  professed  students  of  physics  the 
width  of  range  and  the  power  of  Lord  Rayleigh's 
work,  and  to  unite  them  with  those  who  look  to  him 
as  their  leader  and  master  in  thanking  him  for  collect- 
ing his  papers  in  these  four  volumes,  and  rendering 
them  accessible  to  all. 

It  is  almost  needless  to  add  that  the  University  Press 
has  done  its  part  admirably,  and  fully  deserves  the 
thanks  of  students  of  nature  for  its  share  in  the 
work. 

Within  a  few  years  the  Cambridge  Press  has  pub- 
lished the  collected  works  of  Adams,  Cayley,  Maxwell, 
Stokes,  Tait,  Kelvin,  Reynolds,  and  Rayleigh,  men 
whose  names  will  ever  make  the  Cambridge  school 
of  mathematics  and  physics  of  the  last  half  of  the 
nineteenth  century  famous  in  the  history  of  science. 


MICRO-ORGANISMS  IN  THE  ARTS  AND 
MANUFACTURES. 

Technical  Mycology  :  the  Utilisation  of  Micro- 
organisms in  the  Arts  and  Manufactures.  By  Dr. 
Lafar.  Translated  by  C.  T.  C.  Salter.  Vol.  ii. 
Eumycetic  Fermentation,  Part  i.  Pp.  viii+189. 
(London  :  C.  Griffin  and  Co.,  Ltd.,  1903.) 

THE  first  volume  of  Mr.  Salter's  translation  of  Dr. 
Lafar 's  "  Technical  Mycology,"  which  made  its 
appearance  some  four  or  five  years  ago,  opened  up 
to  the  general  reader  a  very  wide  and  interesting  field, 
the  utilisation  of  micro-organisms  in  the  arts  and 
manufactures.  This  volume  dealt  with  schizomycetic 
fermentation,  and  to  the  uninitiated  who  had  not 
looked  into  the  scheme  of  the  whole  work,  it  appeared 
as  though  almost  the  last  word  must  have  been  said 
on  fungi  and  fermentation. 

The  first  part  of  the  second  volume,  the  advent  of 
which  has  been  eagerly  awaited,  has  now  come  to 
hand,  and  we  may  say  at  once  that  in  many  ways  it 
is  equal  to  the  first  volume  and  that,  not  only  have 
we  the  results  of  the  author's  own  experience  and 
observations,  but  a  rdsumd  of  the  results  of  others  well 
brought  up  to  date.  This  volume  deals .  with  the 
eumycetic  fermentation  and  opens  with  a  series  of 
chapters  on  the  rudiments  of  the  general  morphology 
and  physiology  of  the  Eumycetes,  chapters  of  as  great 
interest  to  the  general  biologist  as  to  the  bacteriologist 
and  fungologist.  A  short  description  of  the  structure 
of  the  Eumycetes  is  given,  the  method  of  spore  form- 
ation, the  development  of  the  mycelium  from  the  spore, 
the  gemmating  mycelium,  and  the  various  methods  of 
reproduction — fructification  by  sporangia,  zygospores, 
conidia,  or  by  the  formation  of  oidia  and  gemmae 
without  the  intervention  of  conidiophores.  The 
author  refers  the  reader  for  more  detailed  accounts 
of  structure  and  function  to  the  early  text-books  pro- 
vided by  Zopf,  De  Bary,  and  Brefeld,  but  supplements 
these  works  by  carefully  written  chapters  on  certain 
parts  of  the  subject  on  which  much  work  has  been 
done  since  the  appearance  of  these  text-books.  He 
describes  the  researches  which  have  been  carried  out 
on  the  celluloses,  chitin,  hemicelluloses,  and  other 
carbohydrates  of  which  these  fungi  are  composed,  dis- 


July  30,  1903] 


NATURE 


291 


"  cusses    the    position    of    their    colouring    matter    and 

'i  ascribes  the  waterproof  character  of  certain  cell  mem- 

i  branes   to   the  deposition   of   excreted   fatty   or  waxy 

jl  substances,  pointing-  out  that  this  waterproof  character 

I  is  of  importance  biologically, 

F     "  since  it  prevents  the  penetration  of  toxic  substances 
I      from  the  surrounding  aqueous  medium,   and  thereby 
also  opposes  the  attempts  of  the  mycologist  to  kill  such 
fungi  by  means  of  aqueous  toxic  solutions." 

A  chapter  is  devoted  to  the  mineral  nutrient  matter 
milised  by  the  Eumycetes,  the  author  indicating  that 
\  certain  substances  which  are  not  absolutely  neces- 
f  sary  for  the  nutrition  of  these  organisms  may  still,  as 
'%  in  the  case  of  nickel,  cobalt,  and  manganese,  like  iron, 
\  exert  a  stimulative  action  on  the  growth  of  fungi. 
Sulphur,  selenium,  and  silicon  may  also  be  found  in 
the  protoplasm  of  these  fungi,  but  phosphorus  appears 
to  be  a  most  important  element  in  their  composition, 
and,  although  arsenic  does  not  take  the  place  of  the 
phosphorus  in  the  Eumycetes,  certain  of  these  or- 
ganisms appear  to  have  the  power  of  converting 
arsenious  acid  into  volatile  compounds  having  an 
odour  of  garlic.  These  organisms  have,  therefore, 
been  used  for  the  purpose  of  indicating  the  presence 
of  arsenic  in  cases  where,  by  the  ordinary  Marsh's 
tests,  only  a  doubtful  reaction  has  been  obtained. 
The  influence  of  light  on  the  development  of  the 
Eumycetes  is  discussed,  and  it  appears  that  although 
strong  light  interferes  with  their  development, 
moderate  illumination  interferes  very  little  with  their 
activity.  Chemotropism  is  discussed  somewhat  frag- 
mentarily;  this  remark  applies  also  to  the  diastatic 
enzymes  and  the  enzymes  capable  of  decomposing  fat ; 
the  enzymes  of  yeast,  however,  are  described  more 
fully  in  the  later  part  of  the  work. 

The  special  part  of  the  book  consists  of  two  sections, 
one  devoted  to  the  fermentation  set  up  by  Zygo- 
mycetes, the  other  to  a  preliminary  consideration  of 
yeast-fermentation.  The  first  of  these  sections  is 
interesting  to  the  technologist  from  the  fact  that 
it  deals  with  Calmette's  Amylomyces  Rouxii  or  Mucor 
Rotixii,  derived  from  the  Chinese  yeast-balls  used  in 
the  preparation  of  rice  spirit.  This  produces  a 
powerful  diastatic  enzyme  which  first  produces  glu- 
cose, and  this,  in  the  absence  of  oxygen,  is  converted 
by  yeast  ferment  into  alcohol.  For  a  full  account 
of  the  Amylomyces  process  the  reader  may  be  referred 
the  description  of  the  use  of  the  Mucoreas  in  the 
lit  industry. 

I  he  latter  half  of  part  i.  of  vol.  ii.  is  devoted  entirely 
yeasts,  especially  the  forms,  structure,  and  chemical 
.  imposition  of  the  yeast-cell,  and  anyone  who  studies 
this  will  be  amply  repaid  by  obtaining  a  knowledge 
<f  the  principles  and  mechanism  of  fermentation  such 
can   be  obtained  elsewhere  only  by   the   study   of 
ilky  treatises,  though  now  and  again  one  is  a  little 
disappointed  that  the  author  has  not  elaborated   his 
descriptions  somewhat  more  fully,  this  remark  apply- 
ing specially  to  the  chapter  on   the  chemistry  of  the 
yeast-cell.     The  sketch  given  is  so  interesting  that  one 

Ijwould    have    welcomed    a    somewhat    more    detailed 
iiccou'nt  of  this  part  of  the  work. 
I    After    reading    this    work    one    feels    the    truth    of 
Hansen's  statement  that  none  of  the  text-books  and 


manuals  giving  a  summary  of  larger  or  smaller 
sections  of  technical  microbiology  has  treated  the 
subject  of  this  extensive  field  from  so  comprehensive 
a  point  of  view  as  that  of  Dr.  Lafar.  In  preparing 
the  work,  the  author  has  exhibited  not  only  many 
sided  discernment  and  enthusiasm  for  his  task,  but 
also  great  courage  and  endurance.  Certainly,  this 
part  of  the  second  volume 

"  will  be  welcomed  not  only  by  those  for  whom  it  is 
primarily  intended,  viz.,  technical  chemists,  chemists 
dealing  with  food  stuffs,  fermentation  and  agricul- 
ture, pharmacists,  and  agriculturists,  but  many 
another  worker  will  derive  benefit  from  its  pages  for 
his  lectures  and  researches." 

We  can  cordially  recommend  this  section  of  Dr. 
Lafar 's  work  as  an  excellent  supplement  to  the  first 
volume,  which  has  already  been  reviewed  in  our 
columns. 

We  are  glad  to  learn  that  the  translators  have  made 
arrangements  with  the  German  publishers  to  obtain 
advance  proofs  of  the  German  work  in  order  that  the 
concluding  sections  may  appear  as  soon  as  possible. 
This  portion  of  the  work  fully  maintains  the  interest 
aroused  by  the  first  volume,  and  the  translators  are 
to  be  congratulated  on  the  fact  that  they  have  been 
able  to  give  so  accurately  not  only  the  substance,  but 
the  spirit  of  the  German  work. 

G.  Sims  Woodhead. 


VISUAL   PURPLE. 
Abhandlungen   eur   Physiologie   der   Gesichtsempfind-- 
ungen.     By  J.  von  Kries.     Heft,  i.,   1897,  pp.  vi4- 
198;    Heft,    ii.,    1902,    pp.    197.     (Leipzig:    johann 
Ambrosius  Barth.) 

THIS  is  a  collection  of  papers  reprinted  from  the 
Zeitschrift  fiir  Psychologic  und  Physiologie 
der  Sinnesorgane.  The  papers  are  the  work  of  voa 
Kries  and  his  school,  and  deal  chiefly  with  visual 
purple  and  its  functions.  They  give  an  account  of  one 
of  the  most  important  of  recent  advances  in  our  know- 
ledge of  the  physiology  of  sensation. 

The  discovery  of  visual  purple  in  1876  aroused  great 
hopes,  which  seemed  to  be  frustrated  when  it  was 
found  that  the  substance  was  absent  from  the  fovea, 
the  place  of  most  distinct  vision,  and  physiologists 
soon  settled  down  to  the  view  that  a  substance  absent 
from  this  situation  could  have  little  to  do  with  the 
production  of  visual  sensations. 

In  the  early  days,  however,  Kiihne  suggested  that 
the  great  instability  of  visual  purple  made  it  probable 
that  it  was  a  substance  for  the  perception  of  feeble 
light,  and  Parinaud  in  France  later  advanced  the  same 
idea.  It  has  been  reserved  for  von  Kries  to  develop 
fully  Kiihne 's  idea. 

According  to  von  Kries,  visual  purple  is  a  substance 
which  supplies  the  retinal  basis  for  vision  at  low 
luminosities,  and  the  accumulation  of  this  substance 
is  accountable  for  the  great  increase  in  sensitiveness 
of  the  dark-adapted  eye — a  thousand-fold  increase 
according  to  some  computations. 

The  change  in  the  relative  brightness  of  different 
colours  with  varying  illumination,  first  pointed  out  by 
Purkinje,    finds    a    ready    explanation    on    this    view. 


292 


NATURE 


[July  lo,  1903 


Hering  had  shown  that  this  phenomenon  is  a  function 
of  the  condition  of  dark-adaptation  produced  by  feeble 
illumination  rather  than  a  function  of  the  feeble 
illumination  itself,  and  von  Kries  shows  that  the 
changes  of  relative  brightness  are  readily  explicable  if 
we  suppose  that,  as  the  eye  becomes  more  and  more 
dark-adapted,  there  comes  into  play  a  new  factor  which 
has  no  influence,  or  no  appreciable  influence,  at 
ordinary  luminosities.  Speaking  roughly,  the  blue 
end  of  the  spectrum  becomes  relatively  brighter,  and 
it  is  this  end  of  the  spectrum  which  has  the  greater 
action  on  visual  purple. 

In  pronounced  dark-adaptation  the  spectrum  is  seen 
as  a  colourless  band  of  light,  and  the  curve  of  lumin- 
osity of  the  spectrum  in  this  condition  shows  a  close 
correspondence  with  the  curve  representing  the  degree 
of  action  of  different  parts  of  the  spectrum  on  visual 
purple.  The  spectrum  is  shortened  at  the  red  end;  it 
is  brightest  in  the  green,  and  the  diminution  of  bright- 
ness towards  each  end  is  much  more  gradual  on  the 
Jblue  than  on  the  red  side  of  the  maximum. 

Visual  purple  also  furnishes  an  explanation  of  an 
anomaly  of  colour  vision  which  has  long  puzzled 
physiologists.  A  colour-equation  which  is  good  for 
one  luminosity  is  not  good  for  all  luminosities,  and 
von  Kries  shows  that  the  mixed  light  which  becomes 
relatively  brighter  at  low  luminosities  is  that  which 
has  the  greater  action  on  visual  purple. 

The  absence  of  visual  purple  from  the  jovea  centralis 
provides  a  ready  method  of  putting  the  theory  to  the 
test.  If  dark-adaptation  with  its  influence  on  colour-' 
-brightness  and  colour-equations  be  due  to  visual 
purple,  the  fovea  should  not  share  in  the  increased 
sensitiveness  of  the  dark-adapted  eye,  nor  should  this 
-region  show  any  change  in  colour-brightness  or  in 
colour  matches  in  different  conditions  of  adaptation. 

There  seems  to  be  no  doubt  that  the  fovea  responds 
in  favour  of  the  theory.  There  is  some  difference  of 
■opinion  as  to  whether  this  region  fails  entirely  to  show 
alteration  of  sensitiveness,  but  it  is  generally  agreed 
that  any  increase  which  occurs  is  insignificant  com- 
pared with  that  of  the  surrounding  region  of  the  retina. 
Very  careful  observations  by  Nagel  and  others  seem 
also  to  show  conclusively  that  Purkinje's  phenomenon 
-and  the  alteration  of  colour-matches  are  absent  if  the 
stimulation  of  the  retina  be  strictly  limited  to  the 
foveal  region.  The  features  of  colour  vision  which 
.are  believed  to  depend  on  visual  purple  are  absent  just 
when,  according  to  the  theory,  they  should  be  absent. 

One  of  the  most  interesting  developments  of  the 
theory  is  that  in  which  the  condition  of  total  colour- 
blindness is  regarded  as  vision  dependent  chiefly,  or 
exclusively,  on  the  visual  purple  of  the  rods.  Hering 
was  the  first  to  show  that  the  curve  of  luminosity  of 
the  spectrum  in  most  cases  of  total  colour-blindness 
corresponds  with  great  exactness  to  the  curve  of 
luminosity  of  the  normal  dark-adapted  eye,  and  von 
Kries  shows  that  there  are  other  points  of  close  re- 
semblance between  the  two  conditions. 

If  visual  purple  be  the  basis  of  monochromatic 
vision,  there  ought  to  be  a  central  blind  spot,  and  in 
several  cases  which  have  been  examined  from  this 
point  of  view  by  quite  independent  observers,  this  has 
been  found  to  be  the  case.  Again,  the  behaviour  of 
NO.   1 76 1,  VOL.  68] 


the  fovea  is  in  favour  of  the  theory.  The  evidence 
here,  however,  is  not  unanimous.  Hess  has  failed  to 
demonstrate  the  existence  of  a  central  scotoma  in 
several  cases,  but  our  knowledge  of  the  exact  distribu- 
tion of  rods  and  cones  in'fhe  human  fovea  is  based  on 
very  few  examinations,  and  it  is  possible  that  there 
are  wide  individual  variations,  and  that  in  some  people 
a.i  area  devoid  of  rods  may  be  absent,  or  so  small  that 
it  is  impossible  to  demonstrate  its  presence.  The 
diffusion  of  visual  purple  into  the  rod-free  area  is  also 
possible  in  some  cases,  but  it  seems  more  probable, 
from  a  study  of  the  evidence  as  a  whole,  that  there  are 
two  kinds  of  total  colour-blindness,  and  that  in  only 
one  of  these  is  it  probable  that  visual  purple  is  the  only 
sensitive  substance  in  the  retina. 

Several  of  the  papers  in  the  "  Abhandlungen  "  deal 
with  the  recurrent  image,  or  "  ghost  "  of  Bidwell, 
which  is  believed  by  von  Kries  to  be  a  "  visual  purple  " 
phenomenon.  This  part  of  von  Kries 's  work  has  been 
much  attacked,  and  recent  work  seems  to  show  that 
the  recurrent  image  is  a  much  more  complex  pheno- 
menon than  has  usually  been  supposed.  It  is  probable 
that  visual  purple  is  only  the  basis  of  one  of  the 
elements  of  the  complex. 

The  comparative  evidence  is  in  favour  of  the  theory, 
visual  purple  being  abundant  in  nearly  all  vertebrates 
the  habits  Of  which  are  nocturnal  or  which  live  under- 
ground. 

It  has  only  been  possible  here  to  give  the  briefest 
sketch  of  the  views  of  von  Kries  and  his  co-workers. 
The  "  Abhandlungen  "  should  be  consulted  for  the 
elaborate  investigations  and  detailed  arguments  in 
support  of  their  views.  W.  H.  R.  Rivers. 


OUR    BOOK   SHELF. 

Botanische  Forschungen  des  Alexander zuges.  By  Dr. 
H.  Bretzl.  Pp.  xii  +  412.  (Leipzig:  Teubner,  1903.) 
Price  12  marks. 

The  criticism  passed  by  Sachs  in  his  "  History  of 
Botany  "  on  the  writings  of  the  ancient  classical 
writers,  including  Theophrastus,  seems  to  have  been 
unnecessarily  severe  where  he  passes  over  their  "  cor- 
rupt texts  "  with  a  brief  mention.  At  that  time  the 
study  of  geographical  and  ecological  botany  had  not 
received  the  stimulus  which  was  mainly  induced  by 
the  appearance  of  Schimper's  master  work,  "  Die 
Pflanzengeographie. "  It  would  hardly  be  going  too 
far  to  say  that  it  required  the  development  of  this 
branch  of  the  subject  to  admit  of  the  full  appreciation 
of  Theophrastus 's  work.  For  the  essential  feature  of 
Theophrastus 's  "  Plant  Geography,"  and  this  book  is 
the  main  source  of  information  concerning  Alexander's 
expedition,  is  the  painting  of  a  series  of  word  pictures, 
illustrations  of  types  of  vegetation,  in  which,  while 
correct  morphological  ideas  could  hardly  be  looked  for, 
the  descriptions,  in  their  accuracy  of  observation  and 
power  of  expression,  are  not  often  excelled  by  those 
due  to  present-day  writers.  As  might  be  expected, 
some  of  the  accounts  are  difficult  of  explanation,  and 
discrepancies  arise  which  have  demanded  considerable 
skill  and  enthusiasm  on  the  part  of  Dr.  Bretzl  to  clear 
up.  Others  are  more  obvious;  thus  the  paragraph 
which  begins  : — 

"  vnoj3e^p(oTai  Se  ravra  ra  dfvSpa  navra  Kara  fieaov  vtto  ttjs 
6dXdTTr]s  Koi  ea-rrjKtv  vtto  tSjv  pi^o)v  &cnr(p  no\vnovs"  calls 
up   very  definitely  the   picture   of  a   mangrove   swamp. 


July  30,  1903] 


NA  TURE 


293 


Even  more  striking  is  the  description  of  a  mimosa  which 
grew  near  Memphis: — "orav  8e  rt?  a^r\Tak  twv  k\<ovi(ov 
uxTTTip  dcpavaifufifva  to.  (f)vWa  avfxniTrTfiv  (fiaaif,  (ira  fxtra 
Tt,va  xpovov  dva^KtiaKardai  7rdXi«'  Km  OdWfiv." 

Here  the  difficulty  arises  with  regard  to  the  species 
which  is  denoted,  but  special  investigation  by  Dr. 
Schweinfurth  elicited  the  information  that  in  the 
vicinity  there  grows  Mimosa  asperata,  a  plant  the 
sensitivity  of  which  is  almost  unknown  to  botanists. 
Another  graphic  description  is  that  of  the  banyan, 
ffVKTj  'ivSiKv,  with  the  allusion  to  the  roots  developed 
from  the  branches,  which  are  roots  because  they  are 
lighter  in  colour  and  leafless.  But  the  book  contains 
many  similar  points  of  interest,  and  Dr.  Bretzl  has 
furnished  abundant  proof  of  the  accuracy  of  percep- 
tion and  faculty  of  discernment  possessed  by  some  of 
the  ancient  Greeks. 

The  sources  of  information  are  to  be  traced  to  the 
memoirs  of  certain  of  Alexander's  retinue.  These 
manuscripts,  which  were  deposited  in  Babylon,  have 
unfortunately  been  lost;  but  they  were  apparently 
available  to  Theophrastus,  who  has  worked  up  the 
material  with  truly  remarkable  intuition.  Between 
the  writings  of  Theophrastus  and  those  of  other 
authors,  notably  Pliny,  Dr.  Bretzl  draws  a  sharp  Hne 
of  distinction,  the  distinction,  in  fact,  between  the 
original  thinker  and  the  annotator. 

Practical  Plane   and  Solid   Geometry   for   Elementary 

Students.      By    Joseph    Harrison.      Pp.    xiii  +  250. 

(London  :    Macmillan   and  Co.,    Ltd.,    1903.)     Price 

25.  6d. 
This  little  book  will  be  found  very  useful  for  the  teach- 
ing of  the  fundamental  principles  of  geometry  to 
young  students.  The  most  important  properties  of 
triangles  and  other  plane  figures  are  illustrated  by 
means  of  accurate  drawing  and  numerical  calcula- 
tion, and  thus  appeal  more  readily  to  the  understand- 
ing and  memory  than  if  the  beginner  were  made 
acquainted  with  them  by  means  of  the  severe  and 
tedious  logic  of  Euclid.  The  great  advantage  of  such 
a  book  as  this  is  that  it  prepares  the  mind  of  the 
beginner  for  methods  of  accurate  logical  demonstra- 
tion at  a  later  stage  in  his  studies.  The  very  large 
number  of  numerical  exercises  requiring  calculation 
and  the  use  of  instruments  should  suffice  to  give  the 
student  a  very  firm  knowledge  of  all  the  important 
part  of  elementary  geometry;  and  for  this  reason  the 
book  can  be  confidently  recommended  to  teachers. 

The  first  ten  chapters  are  of  this  useful  kind ;  then 
follow  some  chapters  on  the  nature  of  vectors  and 
their  addition,  including  some  properties  of  uniplanar 
forces  acting  on  a  particle  the  necessity  for  which 
may,  perhaps,  be  doubted.  In  these  chapters  we  meet 
with  a  little  careless  writing  which,  doubtless,  will 
be  corrected  in  the  next  edition.  Thus,  the  first 
sentence  (or  what  should  be  a  sentence)  on  p.  118  re- 
minds us  of  Mr.  Skae's  item  in  "  The  Jumping 
Frog  "  :  a  verb  is  missing  and  no  assertion  is  made. 
The  use  of  the  expression  "  in  tandem,  or  follow-my- 
leader  "  to  indicate  cyclic  order  in  the  sides  of  a 
triangle  is  of  doubtful  propriety ;  but  such  trifles  con- 
stitute, of  course,  no  serious  objection. 

The  notation  I,  for  the  magnitude  and  direction  of 
a  vector  (p.  130)  is  distinctly  useful  in  the  composition 
of  vectors.  Chapter  xiii.,  on  concurrent  forces,  will, 
of  course,  be  omitted  by  the  beginner  whose  aim  is 
to  acquire  only  a  knowledge  of  the  elements  of 
geometry ;  and  it  scarcely  belongs  to  the  subject. 

The  remaining  five  chapters  deal  with  geometrical 
drawing  in  three  dimensions,  and  they  constitute  a 
very  good  introduction  to  the  subject,  the  figures  being 
very  numerous,  and  accompanied  by  a  large  number 
of  numerical  examples. 

NO.    1 76 1,  VOL.  68] 


Die  Aluminium-Industrie.  By  Dr.  F.  Wintelen. 
Pp.  xi+io8.  (Braunschweig:  Friedrich  Vieweg 
and    Sohn,   1903.)     Price  6  marks. 

This  very  interesting  monograph  upon  the  aluminium 
industry  commences  with  a  short  historical  introduc- 
tion, in  which  we  learn  that  Davy,  so  far  back  as  1808, 
after  he  had  discovered  sodium  and  potassium,  en- 
deavoured to  prepare  aluminium  by  electrolysing, 
alumina.  In  this  he  was  not  successful,  and  it  fell 
to  the  lot  of  Wohler  in  1827  first  to  prepare  the 
metal  by  purely  chemical  methods.  Bunsen,  how- 
ever, was  able  in  1854  to  obtain  it  by  electrolysing  its 
chloride.  In  a  table  on  p.  5  the  variation  in  the  price 
of  the  metal  is  traced  since  1854,  when  it  was  merely 
a  chemical  curiosity.  Its  value  in  that  year  was  120/. 
per  kilo,  and  even  in  1889  it  cost  2/. ;  but  with  the 
improvements  of  the  electrical  methods,  the  price 
rapidly  dropped,  until  in  190 1  it  ranged  from  25.  to 
25.  6d.  per  kilo.  Following  the  historical  portion  of 
the  work,  a  very  full  account  of  the  physical  and 
chemical  properties  of  the  metal  is  given.  It  is  not 
until  we  reach  p.  22  that  the  present  methods  of 
obtaining  the  metal  are  gone  into,  but  here  the 
thoroughness  of  the  treatment  leaves  nothing  to  be 
desired.  In  the  first  place  a  careful  account  of  the 
preparation  of  the  outgoing  materials  used  in  the 
manufacture  is  given.  This  part  of  the  work  is  of 
very  considerable  value.  Everyone  is  aware  that 
bauxite  and  cryolite  are  the  substances  used  for  pre- 
paring aluminium,  and  those  who  have  studied  the 
subject  know  that  these  substances  cannot,  as  a  rule,, 
be  employed  without  being  first  purified.  In  this 
book  the  methods  of  purification  are  described  in 
detail,  and  methods  of  analysis  are  also  set  forth. 
Page  54  is  headed  "carbon  electrodes";  these  are 
employed  both  for  the  anode  and  kathode,  in  con- 
sequence of  impurities  introduced  into  the  bath  when 
other  electrodes  are  used.  The  author  gives  details 
of  the  manufacture  of  these  carbon  electrodes — ter» 
pages  are  devoted  to  this.  Some  useful  diagrams 
illustrating  the  way  in  which  the  electrodes  become 
corroded  during  the  electrolysis  are  also  given. 

The  last  few  pages  of  the  monograph  are  devoted 
to  the  "  working  up  of  the  metal  ";  one  of  the  most 
interesting  points  being  the  method  for  welding  the 
metal  which  is  employed  by  Heraus,  of  Hanau.  It 
consists  in  heating  aluminium  sheets  with  a  hydrogen 
flame  to  a  temperature  of  about  400".  The  edges  are 
then  pressed  together,  and  after  being  worked  for 
some  time  with  the  hammer,  they  weld  together  in 
such  a  manner  that  tubes  made  in  this  way  can  hardly 
be  distinguished  from  seamless  ones. 

This  monograph  is  one  of  the  most  interesting  and 
useful  which  we  have  had  the  pleasure  of  reading  for 
a  long  time.  The  facts  are  well  arranged,  and 
although  there  are  108  pages  devoted  to  the  single 
subject  of  the  aluminium  industry,  we  do  not  consider 
that  the  work  suffers  from  prolixity;  we  wish  this 
could  be  said  of  many  German  monographs  which 
have  lately  been  published.  F.  M.  P. 

Die  Konstitution  des  Kamphers  und  seiner  wichtigsten 
Derivate.       By     Ossian     Aschan.       Pp.      xi+117. 
(Braunschweig :  Friedrich  Vieweg  und  Sohn,  1903.) 
Price  3.50  marks. 
The   chemistry   of   camphor   and   its   derivatives   has 
occupied  the  attention  of  chemists  for  many  years,  and 
has  now  become  so  specialised    that  it  is  almost  im- 
possible for  the  ordinary  chemist  to  keep  up  with  the 
immense  amount  of  research  published  in  the  journals 
devoted    to    chemistry.       The    monograph    by    Prof. 
Aschan  is  accordingly  very  welcome,  and  will  be  found 
useful  not  only  by  the  non-camphor  chemist,  but  also 


294 


NA  TURE 


[July  30,  1903 


by  the  camphor  specialist.  The  treatment  of  the 
subject  is  purely  theoretical,  and  in  that  respect  differs 
from  the  valuable  paper  "  On  the  Constitution  of 
Camphor  "  read  at  the  British  Association  in  1900  by 
Dr.  Lapworth. 

A  short  introduction  is  followed  by  a  chapter  giving 
a  rdsumd  of  the  various  camphor  formulae  arranged 
in  historical  order,  starting  from  that  proposed  by 
Victor  Meyer  in  1870  and  coming  down  to  that  of 
Schryver  in  1898.  This  history  of  camphor  formulae 
is  an  interesting  example  of  evolution.  The  formula 
proposed  by  Bredt  in  1893,  and  now  generally  accepted, 
seems  best  to  explain  the  constitution  of  camphor  and 
its  numerous  derivatives,  and  is  the  one  adopted  by 
the  author. 

In  the  third  chapter  the  practical  data  on  which  the 
constitution  of  camphor  rests  are  recorded  under  twelve 
heads,  such  as  "  camphor  is  a  ketone,"  it  "  contains 
the  group  .CHj.CO,"  "  camphor  and  camphoric  acid 
are  saturated  compounds,"  &c.,  all  of  which  conditions 
are  fulfilled  by  the  Bredt  formula.  In  this  connec- 
tion, to  the  researches  of  Briihl  on  the  refractive  index 
might  have  been  added  those  of  Perkin  on  the  mag- 
netic rotation,  as  confirming  the  bridged  ring  structure 
of  camphor.  The  inconsistencies  of  other  formulae 
with  the  above-mentioned  facts  are  briefly  pointed  out 
in  the  fourth  chapter.  The  degradation  products  are 
next  treated,  and  the  monograph  finishes  with  a  dis- 
cussion of  the  constitution  of  camphene  and  bornylene. 

The  clear  manner  in  which  Prof.  Aschan  indicates 
how  some  of  the  many  seemingly  inexplicable  reactions 
probably  take  place  is  worthy  of  comment.  The 
dilHculty  of  excluding  unimportant  details  and  in- 
cluding all  that  is  important  in  such  a  monograph  as 
the  one  under  notice  has  been  overcome  by  the  author 
with  great  success.  J.  E.  M. 

Theorie  der  Bewegimgsiibertragung.  By  Richard 
Manno.  Pp.  iv  +  102.  (Leipzig :  Engelmann, 
1903-) 
In  laying  down  the  fundamental  notions  of  mechanics 
there  has  been  divergence  of  opinion  concerning  the 
definition  of  force.  There  is  the  distinction  between 
cause  and  effect,  between  statics  and  dynamics.  The 
older  school  has  regarded  force  as  the  cause  of 
motion,  modern  theorists  prefer  to  define  and  measure 
force  by  the  effect  only.  Herr  Manno  attempts  to 
construct  a  system  of  mechanics  by  regarding  force  as 
neither  cause  nor  effect,  but  as  the  phenomenon  of 
motion  itself,  and  further,  in  order  to  get  rid  of  the 
notion  of  action  at  a  distance,  every  instance  of  force 
is  supposed  to  be  due  to  impact,  so  that  motion  is 
transferred  from  body  to  body  by  a  succession  of  in- 
tervening impacts.  Accordingly  the  attempt  is  made  to 
develop  the  theory  of  impulsive  forces  from  the  simple 
cases  of  direct  and  oblique  impact.  Naturally,  in  this 
view,  some  divergence  is  found  from  the  ordinarily 
accepted  theory.  The  proportionality  of  cause  and 
effect  as  implied  in  the  "  second  law  of  motion  " 
obviously  fails  when  the  momentum  of  a  striking  body 
is  regarded  as  producing  the  momentum  of  a  struck 
body. 

It  must  be  confessed  that  the  author's  theory,  when 
its  ^meaning  is  disentangled  from  the  mass  of  verbiage 
with  which  it  is  swathed,  does  not  seem  to  smooth  the 
way  towards  a  clear  apprehension  of  the  principles  of 
'mechanics.  His  leading  idea  seems  to  be  that  purely 
■theoretical  conceptions,  such  as  action  at  a  distance, 
must  be  discarded,  and  that  all  the  terms  used  must 
represent  observable  phenomena.  The  author  prob- 
ably has  in  his  mind  the  subject  of  a  discussion  recently 
■  appearing  in  Nature,  as  is  evidenced  by  sunary  physio- 
logical allusions,  and  his  objection  to  the  technical 
meaning  of  "  work  "  when  applied  to  living 
organisms  R.  W.  H.  T.  H. 

NO.  1 76 1,  VOL.  68] 


LETTERS    TO    THE    EDITOR. 

[The  Editor  does  not  hold  himself  responsible  for  opinions 
expressed  by  his  correspondents.  Neither  can  he  undertake 
to  return,  or  to  correspond  with  the  writers  of,  rejected 
manuscripts  intended  for  this  or  any  other  part  of  Nature. 
No  notice  is  taken  of  anonymous  communications.] 

On  a  Map  that  will  Solve  Problems  in  the  Use  of  the 
Globes. 

In  mapping  an  extensive  region  of  the  earth  in  separate 
sheets,  there  are  great  advantages  in  dividing  the  region 
into  belts  by  parallels  of  latitude,  and  modifying  the 
law  of  representation  in  passing  from  each  belt  to  the  next. 
This  plan  is  illustrated  by  the  accompanying  sketch,  which 
represents  a  region  extending  from  the  equator  to  the  North 
Pole,  and  covering  80°  of  longitude. 

The  map  consists  of  nine  sheets,  each  covering  10°  from 
north  to  south,  and  80°  from  east  to  west.  The  meridians 
are  indicated  at  every  tenth  degree,  and  are  straight  lines, 
all  of  the  same  length,  at  right  angles  to  the  parallels  of 
latitude,  which  are  arcs  of  circles.  The  two  parallels  which 
bound  each  sheet  are  on  the  same  scale  as  the  meridians,  so 


Fig. 


that  the  four  sides  of  each  of  the  seventy-two  compartments 
of  the  map  are  precisely  equal  to  the  lengths  which  they 
represent  on  a  spherical  globe;  and  no  difference  is  made 
between  extreme  and  central  meridians,  all  longitudes  being 
treated  alike.  The  intermediate  meridians  and  parallels 
will  be  at  right  angles,  as  well  as  those  shown,  and  the 
meridians  will  be  of  correct  length.  The  interrnediate 
parallels  will  be  a  trifle  too  short,  the  defect  amounting,  in 
the  case  of  the  middle  parallel  of  each  sheet,  to  rather  less 
than  I  part  in  250,  a  difference  too  small  to  be  detected  by 
the  eye. 

In  examining  on  the  map  the  borderland  of  two  sheets, 
the  two  sheets  are  to  be  placed  in  contact  at  any  point  on 
the  parallel  common  to  both,  and  then,  on  rolling  the  edge 
of  one  sheet  against  that  of  the  other,  the  whole  border 
region  from  end  to  end  will  pass  in  review.  All  the 
successive  meridians,  when  they  are  brought  in  turn  to  the 
point  of  contact,  will  be  seen  as  straight  lines  crossing  the 
point  of  contact,  and  the  same  will  be  true  for  the  two 
portions  of  any  oblique  line  which  crosses  the  boundary. 

If  we  want  to  trace  a  great-circle  route  from  one  place 
to  another,  we  have  merely  to'  roll  the  sheets  into  such 
positions   that   the  points' of  contact  lie  in   a   straight  line 


July  30.  1903] 


NATURE 


295 


drawn  from  one  place  to  the  other.     This  straight  line  will 
represent  the  great-circle  route. 

I  have  put  this  matter  to  experimental  test  by  construct- 
ing (on  the  scale  of  a  20-inch  globe)  eighteen  cards,  con- 
sisting of  two  sets  of  duplicates,  and  the  accompanying 
figure  is  a  reduced  copy  of  one  set. 

As  all  meridians  are  treated  alike,  one  card  can  be  shifted 
10°,  20°,  30°,  &c.,  east  or  west  relative  to  another,  and  this 
is  necessary  when  the  difference  of  longitude  of  the  two 
places  exceeds  80°.  The  second  set  of  cards  can  either  be 
used  for  the  southern  hemisphere  or  for  increasing  the 
range  of  longitude  to  160°.  I  can  thus  measure  the  great- 
circle  distance  from  London  to  Shanghai  (the  route  passing 
i^  degrees  north  of  St.  Petersburg),  or  from  Yokohama 
to  San  PVancisco,  or  from  Land's  End  to  Cape  Horn.  For 
measuring  the  distances  I  use  a  card  scale  divided  into 
degrees  of  the  same  length  as  the  degrees  of  the  meridian. 

The  process  above  described  also  serves  for  finding  the 
position  of  the  sun  in  the  sky  at  a  given  hour  of  the  day, 
and  by  obvious  modifications  of  it,  most  of  the  problems 
set  forth  in  books  on  the  use  of  the  globes  can  be  solved. 
In  dealing  with  a  spherical  triangle,  two  of  the  sides  are 
represented  by  polar  distances,  the  included  angle  by 
difference  of  longitude,  and  the  third  side  by  the  divided 
scale.  J.   D.   Everett. 


Action  of  Tesla  Coil  on  Radiometer, 

The  following  phenomena,  observed  while  experimenting 
with  a  small  Tesla  coil,  will,  I  believe,  interest  some  of 
your  readers.  Not  having  access  to  the  necessary  litera- 
ture, I  am  not  in  a  position  to  find  out  whether  they  are 
new  or  already  known. 

The  knobs  of  the  Tesla  coil  were  placed  in  contact  with, 
or  just  close  to,  the  bulb  of  a  Crookes's  radiometer,  and 
the  coil  set  at  work.  When  the  brush  discharge  fell  upon 
the  bulb,  the  blackened  surfaces  of  the  vanes  first  retreated, 
as  they  do  under  the  influence  of  radiant  heat,  but  soon 
the  direction  of  rotation  changed,  and  the  blackened  sur- 
faces moved  forward,  the  motion  continuing  as  long  as  the 
brush  discharge  fell  upon  the  bulb. 

At  the  same  time,  inside  the  bulb,  were  seen  diverging 
from  the  glass  sides  close  to  the  knobs  two  cones  of  pale 
blue  light,  which,  falling  on  the  opposite  sides  of  the 
bulb,  caused  a  yellowish-green  fluorescence.  On  the 
fluorescent  parts  the  shadows  of  the  rotating  cones  were 
clearly  visible,  the  shadow  on  one  side  being  always  more 
intense  than  on  the  other  side.  When  the  direction  of  the 
current  in  the  charging  Ruhmkorff  was  reversed,  the 
shadows  exchanged  places,  but  no  change  in  the  direction 
of  rotation  of  the  vanes  was  noticed. 

On  examining  the  fluorescent  parts  with  a  screen  of 
potassium  platinocyanide,  the  same  effects  were  noticed  as 
with  the  X-ray  tubes. 

Similar  effects  were  obtained  on  repeating  the  experi- 
ments with  two  incandescent  lamps  in  the  laboratory.  The 
larger  of  these,  an  old  Swan  lamp,  fluoresced  green,  and 
the  smaller  new  one,  supplied  with  the  Tesla  coil  by  the 
manufacturer,  fluoresced  blue.  But  in  both  cases,  though 
somewhat  feeble,  the  same  X-ray  effects  were  observed. 

To  study  further  the  cause  of  the  motion  of  the  vanes 
of  the  radiometer,  the  experiment  was  repeated  with  a 
Crookes's  tube  containing  a  freely  suspended  wheel  with 
transparent  mica  waves.  In  this  case  it  was  found  possible 
to  alter  the  direction  of  rotation  of  the  wheel  by  adjusting 
the  positions  of  the  knobs  of  the  Tesla  coil  relatively  to 
the  sides  of  the  tube  and  the  wheel  inside  it. 

^,    .  P.  L.  Narasu. 

Christian  College,  Madras,  June  18. 


Tides  at  Port  Darwin. 

Along  the  north-west  coast  of  .Australia  the  tidal  wave, 
flowing  in  from  the  Indian  Ocean,  produces  at  most  places  a 
large  rise  and  fall.  At  Port  Darwin  the  mean  spring  range 
IS  about  24  feet,  but  the  range  is  sometimes  as  much  as 
30  feet.  A  tide  gauge  of  Lord  Kelvin's  pattern  was  sfet 
up    here    by.  the   South    Australian    Government    some    few 


years  ago,  and  good  records  are  available  up  to  1897,  since 
when  it  has  been  dismantled,  waiting  the  building  of  a 
new  jetty.  Captain  Inglis,  the  harbour-master  at  Port 
Adelaide,  and  the  writer  selected  the  last  good  records  avail- 
able for  a  whole  year's  tides,  the  records  beginning  January 
I,  i8g6,  and  subjected  them  to  a  harmonic  analysis,  with 
the  results  given  in  the  table  below.  Thfe  records  show  a 
very  marked  diurnal  inequality,  especially  at  the  low  waters. 
In  the  year  examined  the  greatest  difference  in  height 
between  the  two  high  waters  occurred  in  January  and 
December,  and  amounted  to  4  feet  9  inches.  In  April,  how- 
ever, there  was  a  difference  in  height  of  the  two  low  waters 
of  as  much  as  10  feet.  The  analysis  shows  the  existence 
at  Port  Darwin  of  a  remarkably  large  annual  tide,  the 
water  on  this  account  standing  nearly  two  feet  higher  at 
the  end  of  summer  than  it  does  at  the  end  of  Winter.  At 
first  sight  this  seems  very  remarkable,  especially  when  we 
find  that  at  Kupang,  on  the  island  of  Timor,  to  the  north, 
according  to  Van  der  Stok,  the  solar  annual  tide  has  a 
semi-range  of  only  23  centimetres.  The  tide  appears  to 
be  a  purely  meteorological  effect  due  to  the  conformation 
of  the  harbour  and  the  direction  of  the  prevailing  winds. 
The  harbour  opens  towards  the  N.W.,  and,  as  will  be 
seen  from  a  perusal  of  the  wind  charts  given  in  Van  der 
Stok's  work,  "  Wind  and  Weather,  Currents,  Tides  and 
Tidal  Streams  in  the  East  Indian  Archipelago,"  the  winds 
during  the  summer  blow  with  great  persistency  from  the 
N.W.,  tending  to  pile  the  water  up  in  the  harbour,  while 
in  the  winter  time  the  prevailing  winds  are  S.E.,  with,  of 
course,  an  opposite  effect.  This  is  further  assisted  by  the 
variations  of  atmospheric  pressure.  The  average  barometer 
readings  exhibit  a  remarkably  regular  annual  fluctuation, 
as  is  shown  by  the  following  results.  The  averages  are 
from  readings  taken  at  regular  intervals  of  three  hours  for 
twenty  years,  ending  1901  : — 


Mean  Readings 

1 

Mean  Readings 

for  20  years. 

for  1896. 

January  ... 

2976s 

29757 

February            ...           

29769 

29759 

March 

29-814 

29808 

April       

29-863 

29  849 

May        

29-917 

2997.3 

June 

29-945 

29-966 

July      

29966 

29969 

August^ 

29-956 

30005 

September 

29-931 

29978 

October 

29-892 

29948 

November 

29-841 

29-868 

December          

29793 

29854 

Results  of  Harmonic  Analysis  of  Records  of  Tide  Gauge  at 
Port  Darwin  (Latitude  12°  23'  S.,  Longitude  130°  37'  E.) 
for  the  year  beginning  noon,  January  i,   1896. 


Component. 

Amplitude. 

Phase  (K). 

1 
Component. 

Amplitude. 

K. 

Keet. 

teet. 

C^ 

o'i6 

169 

Q 

034 

324 

f« 

3  44 

193 

M 

0-39 

no 

f* 

0-05 

127 

p 

0-44 

I 

b 

o-oi 

184 

Ki 

1-91 

336 

¥.' 

0-05 

315 

T 

0-24 

166 

¥.^ 

6-56 

144 

R 

0-83 

97 

H« 

0-05 

26       , 

K2 

I  02 

204 

M4 

0  13 

279        1 

2SM 

0-17 

13 

l^ 

0-06 

167      ! 

MS 

0-16 

30 

N 

0-40 

121 

Sa 

0-97 

76 

L 

0-41 

216 

Ssa 

0-54 

58 

V 

0-96 

161 

Msf 

0-47 

29 

0 

1-14 

313 

M/ 

0-128 

333 

J 

0-I4 

197        , 

Mm 

0-045 

284 

NO.   1 76 1,  VOL.  68] 


The  University,  Adelaide. 


R.  W.  Chapman. 


296 


NATURE 


[July  30,  1903 


Spirals  in  Nature  and  Art. 

HAVE  to  thank  you  for  a  very  kind  notice  of  my  little 
ly  on  spirals,  and  I  venture  to  trouble  you  further  on  the 
subject,  because  your  last  paragraph,  criticising  my  attribu- 
tion of  spiral  curves  in  flight  to  Leonardo,  gives  me  an 
opportunity  of  making  a  correction  to  which,  I  feel  sure, 
vour  courtesy  to  a  distinguished  scientific  writer  will  enable 
me  to  give  publicity.  It  appears  that,  in  pp,  153  to  155 
of  my  study  of  spirals,  and  in  the  figures  45  and  46  therein 
included,  I  have  unconsciously  done  an  injustice  to  the 
original  researches  on  flight  published  by  Dr.  J.  Bell 
Pettigrew,  M.D.,  LL.D.,  F.R.S.,  Chandos  professor  of 
medicine  and  anatomy  at  the  University  of  St.  Andrew's, 
who,_  I  now  find,  has  been  steadily  engaged  on  the  problem 
of  flight  since  1867,  and  has  apparently  published  many 
papers  and  memoirs  on  the  subject  in  the  Proceedings  of 
the  Royal  Institution  of  Great  Britain,  the  Transactions 
of  the  Linnean  Society  and  of  the  Royal  Society  of  Edin- 
burgh, and  elsewhere. 

My  figure  45,  which  you  acutely  ascribe  to  its  right 
author,  is  of  very  little  importance  to  my  argument,  and 
only  a  side-issue  in  my  essay,  but  it  is  right  to  say  that 
it  is  Dr.  Pettigrew 's  original  figure,  and  should  have  been 
acknowledged  as  such  in  my  pages.  Had  I  known  of  this, 
I  think  I  need  hardly  assure  you  that  this  acknowledgment 
would  have  been  inserted,  and  that  Dr.  Pettigrew 's  own 
explanation  of  the  figure  would  have  been  substituted  for 
what  he  would  justly  stigmatise  as  the  incorrect  explan- 
ation given  in  my  text.  I  have  also  to  add  that  Prof. 
Marey's  photograph  of  a  flying  pigeon,  which  I  attributed 
to  the  only  source  I  knew,  was  really  an  illustration  of  the 
alternate  and  opposite  rise  and  fail  of  the  body  and  the 
wings  of  a  bird  in  flight,  a  principle  first  described  and 
figured  by  Dr.  Pettigrew  in  his  memoir  on  "  The  Physio- 
logy of  Wings  "  (Trans.  Roy.  Soc.  Edin.,  1870),  and 
acknowledged  by  Prof.  Marey  as  a  previous  discovery. 
Theodore  Andrea  Cook. 


Distribution  of  Calostoma. 

In  December,  1891,  I  found  in  a  pit  near  Port  Katsura, 
a  few  miles  off  this  place,  a  species  of  Calostoma  in  abund- 
ance, and  this  year  I  see  the  same  fungus  now  and  then 
occurring  here.  I  send  you  some  specimens  of  it  herewith, 
in  the  hope  that  some  mycologist  of  your  acquaintance  may 
determme  it  in  my  behalf.  Of  all  the  species  given  in  Mr. 
Massee's  monograph  of  the  genus  in  the  Annals  of  Botany, 
vol.  li.    1888,  it  seems  most  near  C.  Ravenelii,  Mass. 

If  my  memory  deceives  me  not,  Mr.  Massee,  in  the  same 
paper,  divided  the  genus  Calostoma  into  two  groups,  the 
so-called  eastern  group,  growing  in  Asia  and  the  adjacent 
islands,  with  globose  spores,  and  the  western  group,  the 
habitats  of  which  are  America  and  Australia,  with  elliptical 
spores.  Now  the  Japanese  species  in  question  has  its  spores 
oblong-elhptical,  which  fact  would  seem  to  necessitate  such  a 
naming  of  the  groups  as  eastern  and  western  to  be  modified 

"^^?   O""   l^fS.  KUMAGUSU    MiNAKATA. 

Mount  Nachi,  Kii,  Japan,  June  5. 


The  specimens  of  fungi  from  Japan  belong  to  Calostoma 
Naveneht,  Mass.,  agreeing  in  every  essential  point  with 
the  type  of  that  species  preserved  in  the  herbarium  at 
Kew. 

In  the  monograph  referred  to  in  the  letter  accompanying 
the  specimens,  the  form  of  the  spores  was  not  made  a  basis 
of  classification,  but  the  fact  was  simplv  pointed  out  that 
eastern  species  possessed  globose  spores,  whereas  in  all 
known  western  species  the  spores  were  elliptical. 

The  fact  of  a  North  American  species  occurring  in  Japan 
while  very  interesting,  will  not  cause  surprise  to  botanists 
considering  the  intimate  relationship  between  the  phanero- 
gamic flora  of  the  two  countries.  Geo.  Massee. 


School  Geometry  Reform. 
In   your  issue  of  June   25,    Mr.    R.   W.    H.   T.    Hudson 
criticises   the   fact   that,    in   my   "Elementary   Geometry," 

NO.    1 76 1,  VOL.    68] 


I  give  three  meanings  of  the  word  angle,  the  third 
being  what  may  be  called  the  "  sector  of  plane 
space  "  meaning. 

He  considers  that,  even  if  not  wrong,  it  is  undesirable 
in  a  school  book.  It  seems  to  me  that  the  one  essential 
point  which  requires  attention  in  introducing  a  new  subject 
to  boys  and  girls  is  to  attach  a  clear,  definite  meaning  to 
the  terms  employed,  and  that,  if  there  be  any  terms  such 
as  this  word  "  angle,"  of  which  many  people  have  confused 
notions  owing  to  the  bringing  together  and  blurring  of 
two  or  three  distinct  meanings,  then  those  meanings  should 
be  carefully  dissected. 

Mr.  Hudson  quotes  with  approval  the  French  writers 
who,  while  stating  that  an  angle  is  a  simple  undefinable 
idea,  incidentally  give  "  inclinaison  mutuelle  "  as  a 
synonym  ;  personally,  I  am  adverse  to  the  word  "  inclin- 
ation,"  it  seems  to  mean  a  "leaning  towards  one 
another,"  whereas  an  angle  is  a  "leaning  away  from 
one  another,"  if  it  be  a  leaning  at  all.  I  have  endeavoured 
to  express  this  idea  in  my  second  meaning,  viz.  the  "  wide- 
ness  "  of  the  opening  between  two  radii  drawn  from  a 
point. 

That  the  space-sector  meaning  is  implied  in  nineteenth 
century  Euclids  is  indisputable,  e.g.  in  iii.  20  we  have 
"  Case  i.,  when  the  centre  is  within  the  angle  " — how  could 
the  centre  lie  within  a  "  mutual  inclination  "  or  within  "  an 
amount  of  turning  "?  Again,  "  a  solid  angle  is  .  .  .  made 
by  .  .  .  plane  angles  .  .  .  meeting  at  one  point  " — how 
can  "  mutual  inclinations  "  meet?  I  doubt  even  if  a 
"  mutual  inclination  "  is  more  capable  of  being  bisected 
than  is  any  other  abstract  quality,  say,  for  example, 
gratitude. 

Mr.  Hudson  speaks  of  the  axiom,  "  whole  is  greater  than 
its  part  "  :  surely  this  is  no  axiom  at  all ;  it  is  a  definition, 
whether  of  "  a  part  "  or  of  "  greater  than  "  I  would  not 
venture  to  say. 

Whether  my  position  be  right  or  wrong,  it  is  surely 
preferable  to  the  attitude  which  makes  geometry  the 
"  science  of  the  undefinable." 

I  am  grateful  to  your  reviewer  for  the  suggestion  that 
angles  should  be  quoted  in  decimals  of  a  degree  rather  than 
to  the  nearest  ten  minutes,  and  will  adopt  the  suggestion 
as  soon  as  possible. 

Frank  R.  Barrell. 

University  College,  Bristol,  July  6. 


The  Moon's  Phases  and  Thunderstorms. 

In  connection  with  the  note  in  Nature  (July  9,  p.  232), 
it  is  interesting  to  compare  the  results  of  Prof.  W.  H. 
Pickering  with  those  obtained  by  Schiaparelli  in  1868,  from 
the  discussion  of  observations  made  in  Vigevano  (north 
Italy)  for  thirty-eight  years  (1827-1864)  by  Dr.  Siro 
Serafini. 

"  Sebbene  i  numeri  della  seconda  colonna  presentino  delle 
grandi  irregolarita  nel  loro  andamento,  sembra  tuttavia 
indubitato,  che  nella  prima  met^  della  lunazione  i  temporali 
debbano  in  generale  essere  meno  frequenti  che  nella 
seconda.  Facendo  la  somma  di  5  in  5  per  veder  meglio  la 
legge  di  progressione,  si  vede  che  il  minimum  cade  verso 
il  5°  giorno  della  lunazione,  il  maximum  verso  il  24°.  E  la 
proporzione  della  frequenza  minima  alia  massima  fe  quella 
di   loi  :  153,   ci6  h  quasi  esattamente  di  2:3." 

Translated  into  English,  the  quotation  reads  as  follows  : — 
"  Although  the  figures  of  the  second  column  show  great 
irregularities  in  their  proceeding,  it  seems  nevertheless 
undoubted  that  in  the  first  half  of  a  lunation  thunder- 
storms may  be,  generally  speaking,  less  frequent  than 
in  the  second.  Adding  5  by  5  in  order  to  see  better 
the  law  of  progression,  one  remarks  that  the  mini- 
mum falls  towards  the  5th  day  of  the  lunation  and  the 
maximum  towards  the  24th.  The  ratio  of  the  least 
frequency  to  the  greatest  is  that  of  loi  :  153,  or  almost 
exactly  of  2:3."  (Clima  di  Vigevano:  Milano  Vallardi, 
1868,  p.  81.) 

The  conclusion  is  thus  exactly  the  reverse  of  what  Prof. 
W.  H.  Pickering  has  found. 

Ottavio  Zanotti  Bianco. 


July  30,  1903; 


NATURE 


297 


THE  NEW  MAMMOTH  AT  ST.  PETERSBURG. 

THE  new  mammoth  just  mounted  for  exhibition 
in  the  Zoological  Museum  at  St.  Petersburg, 
is  a  triumph  of  the  taxidermist's  art.  The  frozen 
skin  has  been  cleaned,  softened,  and  prepared.  The 
skeleton,  and  as  many  of  the  surrounding  soft  tissues 


I 


Fig.  I.— Front  view  of  Mammoth  in  frozen  earth  ob  the  banks  of  the  Beresowka,  Jakutsk,  showing 
the  bent  fore  limbs  widely  spread.     From  pho«ograph  by  Dr.  O.  Herz. 

as    possible,    have    been    carefully    removed    from    its 
interior   and   preserved   separately.     The   animal    has 
been  actually  stuffed  like  a  modern  quadruped,   and 
placed   in    the    attitude    in    which    it   originally    died. 
The  skin  of  the  head  and  the  ears  are  artificial,  copied 
from  the  famous  old  specimen  obtained  a  century  ago 
by  Adams.     A  model  of  the  base  of  the  proboscis  has 
also  been  added.       The  skin  of  the 
trunk  and  limbs,  however,  is  nearly 
complete,  only  embellished  in  parts 
by  the  addition  of  a  little  wool  and 
hair     from    other     specimens;     and 
some  deficiencies  are  covered  by  the 
surrounding    mount,     which    repre- 
sents   the    morass    into    which    the 
animal  slipped.     The  well-preserved 
tail    is    especially    noteworthy,    and 
bears   a   large   tassel   of  long   black 
hair  at   its   tip.       The   animal    is   a 
young  male  of  rather  small  size. 

The    hopelessly-struggling    aspect 
of  this  mammoth  is  very  striking, 
and  reproduces  exactly  the  attitude 
of  the  carcase  as  it  lay  buried  in  the 
Siberian  tundra.     In  fact,  the  chief 
value  of  the  specimen  depends  upon 
the  circumstance  that  it  was  scien- 
tifically disinterred,  photographed  at 
various  stages  in  the  excavation,  and 
carefully     preserved     by     the     best 
modern   methods.       Great  credit   is 
due  to  Dr.  Otto  Herz,  the  leader  of 
the  expedition  organised  by  the  St. 
Petersburg     Imperial     Academy    of 
Sciences,  who  undertook  the  arduous  task  of  securing 
the  carcase  and  transporting  it  to  the  Russian  capital. 
His  are  the  only  photographs  hitherto  obtained  of  a 
mammoth  buried  in  the  tundra,  and  they  throw  im- 
portant new  light  on  the  question  of  the  conditions 
under  which   these  large  quadrupeds  were  destroyed 
and  entombed.     Some  of  Dr.  Herz's  photographs  have 


lately  been  presented  by  Dr.  Salensky  to  the  Britisn 
Museum,  and  two  of  them  are  reproduced  in  the 
accompanying  figures. 

The  carcase  in  question  was  exposed  by  a  landslip 
on  the  bank  of  the  River  Beresowka,  an  affluent  of 
the  Kolyma,  in  the  Government  of  Jakutsk,  in  latitude 
67°  32'  N.  The  head  was  entirely  uncovered,  so  tnat 
the  foxes  and  other  carnivores  ate 
its  soft  parts,  while  the  inhabitants 
of  a  neighbouring  village  removed  a 
tusk.  The  Governor  of  Jakutsk, 
however,  succeeded  in  keeping  the 
remainder  of  -the  specimen  undis- 
turbed until  the  arrival  of  the  ex- 
pedition from  the  Academy.  It  was 
buried  partly  in  ice,  partly  in  frozen 
sand  and  gravel,  and  there  was  a 
sufllicient  covering  of  earth  to  prevent 
its  naturally  thawing. 

According   to    the   general    report 
published  by  Dr.  Herz,'  he  began  to 
excavate  the  specimen  from  the  front. 
In  this  manner  he  soon  discovered 
the    two    fore    limbs    spread   widely 
apart,  and  sharply  bent  at  the  wrist, 
as   shown    in    the   first   photograph 
(Fig.   i).     Proceeding  backwards  on 
the   left   side,   he   unexpectedly   met 
with  the  hind  foot  almost  at  once, 
and  it  gradually  became  evident  that 
the     hind     limbs     were     completely 
turned  forwards  beneath   the  body, 
as  shown  in  the  second  photograph 
(Fig.    2).     Dr.    Herz   then   removed 
the  skull,  and  found  the  well-preserved  tongue  hang- 
ing out  of  the  mandible.     He  also  noticed  that  the 
mouth  was  filled  with  grass,  which  had  been  cropped, 
but  not  chewed  and  swallowed.     Further  examination 
of  the  carcase  showed  that  the  cavity  of  the  chest  was 
filled  with   clotted  blood.     It  is   therefore   natural   to 
conclude   that   the   animal   was   entrapped   by   falling 


. — Left  and  partly  posterior  view  of  the  same  specimen,  showing  the  bent  left  fore  limb  and 
the  left  hind  limb  turned  forwards  beneath  the  body.     From  photograph  by  Dr.  O.  Herz. 


NO.    1761,  VOL.  68] 


into  a  hole,  and  suddenly  died  from  the  bursting  of 
a  blood-vessel  near  the  heart  while  making  an  effort 
to  extricate  itself.     As  shown  by  the  recent  researches 

1  "  Berichte  des  Letters  der  von  der  kaiserlichen  Akademie  der 
Wissenschaften  zur  Ausgrabung  eines  Mammuth-kadavers  an  die  Kolyma- 
Beresowka  au^gesandten  Expedition  "  (St.  Petersburg  Academy  of  Sciences, 
1902). 


298 


NATURE 


[July  30,  1903 


of  Dr.  Tolmatschow,^  the  ice  surrounding  the  carcase 
was  not  that  of  a  lake  or  river,  but  evidently  formed 
from  snow.  It  is  thus  quite  likely  that  the  mammoth 
was  quietly  browsing  on  grassland  which  formed  the 
thin  covering  of  a  glacier,  and  fell  into  a  crevasse 
which  was  obscured  by  the  loose  earth.  On  this 
subject,  however,  much  more  information  may  shortly 
be  expected,  when  Mr.  Ssewastianow  publishes  an 
account  of  the  geological  researches  which  he  made 
in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  Beresowka  last  summer. 

The  director  of  the  Zoological  Museum  of  St.  Peters- 
burg, Dr.  W.  Salensky,  has  not  only  arranged  an 
admirable  and  unique  exhibition  of  the  newly-acquired 
mammoth,  but  has  also  devoted  much  time  to  a 
scientific  investigation  of  the  specimen.  The  results 
of  his  researches  will  be  published  by  the  Imperial 
Academy  of  Sciences  in  a  series  of  memoirs,  of  which 
the  first,  dealing  with  the  skeleton,  has  just  appeared. 
In  this  work,  he  not  only  describes  the  parts  of  the 
new  animal,  but  also  refers  to  the  rich  collection  of 
remains  of  the  Siberian  mammoth  already  in  the 
museum  under  his  direc- 
tion.    The  first  instalment,       

illustrated  with  twenty-five 
fine  plates  of  bones  and 
teeth,  is  unfortunately 
written  only  in. the  Russian 
language.  We  venture  to 
express  the  hope  that,  when 
his  work  is  completed.  Dr. 
Salensky  will  make  it 
more  generally  accessible 
by  appending  a  copious 
abstract  in  one  of  the 
languages  with  which 
most  naturalists  are 
familiar.  A.  S.  VV. 


studies  of  the  external  physical  characteristics  of  these 
tribes,  together  with  some  valuable  osteological  obser- 
vations. So  far  the  authors  have  presented  us  with  a 
considerable  body  of  data  which  are  at  once  available 
to  students  for  comparative  purposes,  but  they  reserve 
comparisons  and  discussions  until  the  final  part.  We 
look  forward  with  great  interest  to  the  fulfilment  of 
this  promise,  as  there  are  several  important  ethnological 
problems  connected  with  the  region  visited  that 
students  at  home  have  no  means  of  solving.  When 
the  full  results  of  this  expedition  are  before  us,  as  well 
as  those  of  the  Skeat  expedition  (which  we  hope  will 
not  long  be  delayed),  we  shall  be  in  a  better  position  to 
reconstruct  the  anthropological  history  of  a  very  im- 
portant district,  a  knowledge  of  which  is  necessary 
before  the  ethnological  problems  of  the  Indonesian 
Archipelago  can  be  unravelled. 

A  general  sketch  of  the  main  results,  from  a  racial 
point  of  view,  will  be  found  in  the  authors'  paper  in 
the  current  number  of  the  Journal  of  the  Anthropological 
Institute,  but  for  the  facts  on  which  they  are  based  the 


Fk;. 


-Se:. 


THE   ETHNOLOGY 

OF  THE  MALAY 

PENINSULA.^ 

THE  scientific  results 
of  the  Skeat  expedi- 
tion of  1899  to  Siam  and  the 
Malay  Peninsula  have  not 
yet. been  published,  but  a 
secondary  result  of  that 
expedition  was  the  return 
of  Mr.  Nelson  Annandale 
to  the  same  district  in 
1901.  Sir  William  Turner 
suggested  to  Mr.  Annan- 
dale  that  he  should  obtain  measurements  of  the 
people,  of  the  Siamese  Malay  States,  and  the 
Edinburgh  University  gave  him  a  grant  for  that  pur-, 
pose  from  the  Moray  Fund.  Mr.  H.  C.  Robinson 
joined  Mr.  Annandale,  and  together  they  made  a  most 
successful  expedition,  the  results  of  which  are  now  be- 
ginning to  appear  with  praiseworthy  promptitude,  a 
result  that  is  rendered  possible  through  private  muni- 
ficence in  Liverpool.  The  association  of  this  expedition 
with  the  University  of  Liverpool  augurs  well  for  the 
spirit  of  that  young  institution,  and  we  hope  tnat 
it  may  continue  to  foster  field  work  in  ethnology. 

The  present  fasciculus  contains  a  general  account  of 
the  appearance  and  mode  of  life  of  the  Semang  and 
Sakai  tribes  of  the  Malay  Peninsula,  of  the  coast  people 
of  Trang,  and  of  the  Malays  of  Perak,  and  detailed 

1  "  Bodeneis  vom  Fluss  Beresowka  (Nord-ost  Sibiriens),"  {Verhandl.  k. 
ntss.  min.  Ges.,  vol.  xl.  pp.  415-452,  pis.  v-viii,  1903.) 

2  "  Fasciculi  Malayenses:  Anthropology."  Parti.  (London:  Longmans, 
Green  and. Co.,  1903.)    Price  15.1.  net. 


NO.    1 76  I,  VOL.   68] 


student  must  have  recourse  to  the  "  Fasciculi  Malay- 
enses." Only,  part  i.  of  this  series  has  yet  been  pub-" 
lished,  and  as  no  forecast  is  given  of  what  is  to  be 
expected,  one  cannot  say  very  much  about  the  accounts 
of  the  social  life  of  the  jungle  tribes,  as  subsequent  parts 
may  render  the  criticism  void.  It  is  safe  to  say  that 
the  physical  anthropology  is  well  done,  and  will  prove 
of  permanent  value,  to  which  the  excellent  illustrations 
of  natives  materially  assist.  The  characteristic 
decoration,  clothing,  implements,  habitations,  and 
other  details  of  the  several  tribes,  which  an  intelligent 
traveller  can  readily  observe,  are  carefully  no'ted,  and 
some  curious  engraved  designs  and  patterns  on  dart 
cases,  combs,  and  other  objects  are  figured  and  parti- 
ally described.  There  is  an  interesting  chapter  by  Mr. 
Annandale  on  the  beliefs  and  customs  of  the  Patani 
fishermen.  These  Malays  have  various  animal  cults, 
but  they  certainly  do  not  present  any  features  of  true 
clan  totemism.  This  is  followed  by  the  first  part  of  an 
essay  on  religion  and  magic  among  the  Malays  of  the 


July  30,  1903] 


NATURE 


299 


Patani  States,  in  which  souls  and  ghosts  are  dealt 
with;  a  consideration  of  ghosts  and  spirits  unconnected 
with  material  bodies  will  be  published  in  another  part. 
The  work  is  admirably  printed,  and  the  illustrations 
are  excellent.  This  first  part  reflects  great  credit  on 
the  University  Press  of  Liverpool. 


ELECTROCHEMISTRY  IN  AMERICA. 

'X'HE  third  meeting  of  the  American  Electrochemical 
J-  Society  took  place  in  New  York  on  April  i8. 
Three  meetings  may  seem  rather  a  small  number  for 
a  society  which  has  been  in  existence  for  more  than 
eighteen  months,  but  the  society,  which  has  members 
from  all  parts  of  the  United  States,  only  meets  once 
in  six  months,  and  the  meetings  assume  the  form  of 
a  congress,  which  lasts  several  days.  This  style  of 
meeting,  which  might  be  compared  to  the  annual  meet- 
ing of  the  Society  of  Chemical  Industry,  in  which 
members  from  all  parts  of  the  country  meet  together 
each  year  in  a  different  town,  partly  for  work  and 
partly  for  social  intercourse,  has  certain  obvious  ad- 
vantages, in  that  country  as  well  as  town  members 
are  able  to  attend;  there  is,  however,  one  disadvantage, 
and  that  is  that  papers  are  only  published  once  in  six 
months.  The  transactions  of  the  society  are  also  only 
published  once  in  six  months,  hence  they  contain  the 
concentration  of  six  months'  work. 

The  presidential  address  of  Dr.  Joseph  W.  Richards, 
an  abridgment  of  which  is  printed  below,  contains 
several  points  of  considerable  interest.  One  thing 
which  will  strike  British  electrochemists  is  that  al- 
though the  Americans  have  made  great  progress  in 
the  industrial  applications  of  electrochemistry,  yet  they 
have  to  admit  that  they  owe  their  present  position  in 
a  large  measure  to  foreign  trained  electrochemists. 
Dr.  Richards  mourns  that  they  are  vastly  behind  the 
Germans  in  the  number  of  their  chairs  and  laboratories 
of  electrochemistry.  How  much  more,  then,  should 
we  in  this  country  mourn— we  have  not  a  single  chair 
devoted  to  the  teaching  of  electrochemistry,  and  there 
are  only  two  or  three  laboratories  in  the  whole  king- 
dom. 

It  is  often  said  that,  having  very  little  water  power 
in  this  country,  we  can  never  expect  to  compete  indus- 
trially with  other  countries  in  electrochemical  processes. 
Dr.  Richards  remarks  that  although  all  countries  have 
not  Niagaras,  they  have  gas-engines,  and  he  points 
out  some  of  the  sources  of  gas  supply.  Finally  his 
remarks  upon  the  value  of  literature,  good,  sound 
literature,  are  worth  consideration.  Where  is  the 
British  electrochemical  literature  to  be  found? 


To  live  is  to  progress,  and  to  progress  is  to  live.  A 
science  which  does  not  progress  petrifies.  The  science  of 
electrochemistry  has  progressed  so  magnificently  in  the  last 
decade  that  a  mere  catalogue  of  its  achievements  would 
be  a  monumental  compilation.  Abler  and  better-informed 
pens  than  mine  have  given  to  us  recently,  in  presidential 
addresses  and  in  careful  reviews,  the  detailed  history  of  this 
progress.  I  do  not  intend  to  attempt  that  task  anew  this 
evening  ;,  my  theme  is  an  analysis  of  the  conditions  which 
make  for  progress,  and  which  I  hope  to  make  clear  in  all 
their  bearings  on  electrochemical  science. 

I  place  discovery  of  new  facts  in  electrochemical  science 
as.  the  corner-stone  of  progress  in  our  science.  Given 
a  freshly-flowing  current  of  new  electrochemical  facts, 
and  all  the  other  elements  of  progress  have  a  chance 
to  exist.  No  less  certain  than  this  is  the  location  of  the 
birthplace  and  the  identity  of  the  sponsors  of  these  newly- 
born  facts.  The  birthplaces  are  chemical,  electrical  and 
physical  laboratories ;  the  sponsors  are  the  investigators, 
the  searchers  after  truth— the  professors,  students,  em- 
NO.    1 761,   VOL.    68] 


ployees,  private  investigators,  and  all  who  with  the  in- 
satiable thirst  for  more  knowledge  are  pushing  back  the 
thick  curtain  of  the  unknown  which  hems  us  in  so  closely 
on  every  side.  The  elect  among  these  workers,  the  highly- 
favoured  few,  are  the  professors  of  electrochemistry  pro- 
vided with  well-equipped  electrochemical  laboratories.  They 
are  in  the  position  to  do  or  to  direct  the  most  valuable 
investigations,  and  are  also  under  the  moral  obligation  to 
publish  freely  to  the  world  all  that  they  discover.  The 
giants  of  the  electrochemical  fraternity  are  in  this  class  : 
Davy,  Faraday,  Bunsen,  Arrhenius,  van  't  Hoff,  Ostwald, 
Nernst,  Moiss'an.  The  labours  of  such  workers,  given  to 
the  world  in  their  publications,  form  the  body  of  electro- 
chemical science,  and  their  thoughts — its  soul.  Such  are 
the  heroes  of  science ;  men  who  work  for  the  work's  sake, 
who  sacrifice  time,  money,  and  often  health,  to  increase 
the  boundaries  of  our  knowledge,  and  then  keep  nothing 
back. 

The  German-speaking  countries  count  up  alone  at  their 
universities  and  technical  schools  fifteen  chairs  of  electro- 
chemistry and  twelve  electrochemical  laboratories.  These, 
we  all  know  it,  have  been  the  source  of  the  greater  part 
of  the  advance  of  electrochemical  science  in  the  last  ten 
years.  The  whole  industrial  electrochemical  world  is 
debtor  to  the  European  electrochemical  laboratories  and 
their  workers,  and  how  can  that  debt  be  requited?  Surely 
not  by  selfishly  using  all  the  facts  and  holding  fast  all  the 
material  benefits.  Not  only  common  gratitude  but  also 
self-interest  unite  in  recommending  to  the  captains  of 
electrochemical  industry  that  more  such  laboratories  be 
built  and  more  such  chairs  endowed  ;  money  thus  spent  will 
be  seed  which  will  return  many  fold  its  value  to  the  in- 
dustry. America  has  boasted  that  it  is  "  The  Electro- 
chemical Centre  of  the  World."  It  may  be  so,  in  the 
development  of  electrochemical  industries,  in  the  amount  of 
power  used  and  material  products  turned  out ;  but  is  it 
not  a  fair  question  to  ask  "  Where  are  the  professors  of 
electrochemistry  at  our  universities  and  how  many  electro- 
chemical laboratories  are  at  their  command?  "  Are  we  not 
out  of  comparison  with  Germany  in  that  respect — but  I  trust 
not  hopelessly  so?  Our  present  flourishing  condition  in- 
dustrially is  largely  due  to  our  foreign-trained  electro- 
chemists and  our  imported  literature.  Shall  we  not, 
through  shame  at  contributing  so  little  ourselves  to  that 
literature,  soon  begin  to  establish  chairs  of  electrochemistry 
and  build  well-equipped  laboratories  to  go  with  them? 
Then  our  boast  might  begin  to  be  more  than  the  empty 
boast  of  a  successful  money-maker  ;  then  we  may  begin  to 
be  an  illuminating  centre  radiating  knowledge  to  the  rest 
of  the  world. 

In  place  of  professors  and  professional  laboratories,  how- 
ever, America  is  blessed  with  another  class  of  investigators 
who  are  no  less  industrious  in  acquiring  facts,  and  to  whom 
a  large  part  of  our  commercial  success  is  directly 
ascribable ;  I  refer  to  the  small  army  of  patient  investi- 
gators in  the  laboratories  of  our  industrial  plants,  who  are 
searching  over  ground  not  yet  explored  and  accumulating 
facts  of  value  in  their  special  industrial  lines.  The  expense 
of  such  work  is  borne  by  the  corporation  for  which  they 
labour,  and  the  work  itself  is  in  reality  an  investment  made 
in  the  hope  of  yielding  financial  reward. 

By  means  of  facts,  correlating,  discussing  and  deducing 
therefrom,  we  arrive  at  a  knowledge  of  the  laws  of  science, 
the  rules  governing  its  various  phenomena  and  according 
to  which  its  manifestations  invariably  proceed.  Such  de- 
ductions are  the  goal  of  pure  science ;  they  contain  no 
element  of  speculation,  hypothesis  or  theory,  and  represent 
man's  deepest  insight  into  the  phenomena  of  nature. 

The  indefatigable  Faraday  discovered  our  first  funda- 
mental laws.  Ohm  and  Joule  added  to  them,  and  numerous 
later  investigators  have  contributed,  but  we  must  not  make 
the  mistake  of  thinking  that  there  remains  very  little  more 
in  the  nature  of  generalisations  to  be  discovered  ;  we  could 
not  make  a  greater  mistake.  If  facts  are  being  discovered, 
the  recognition  of  unforeseen  generalisations  and  the  estab- 
lishing of  new  laws  are  bound  to  follow,  and  thus  the  science 
reaches  its  highest  consummation. 

Such  discoveries  are  usually  the  privileges  and  the  per- 
quisites of  the  experimenter  and  investigator,  if  so  be  that 
he  is  likewise  a  thinker.  He  gets  the  facts  at  first  hand, 
and  has  the  first  chance  to  deduce  new  laws.     The  electro- 


300 


NATURE 


[July  30,  1903 


chemist  not  blessed  with  laboratory  facilities  has,  however, 
free  entrance  to  this  field.  He  may  be  only  a  student,  a 
looker-on  at  what  others  are  doing,  a  reader  of  the  newly- 
discovered  and  recorded  facts,  but  if  he  is  at  the  same 
time  a  thinker,  a  compiler,  an  analyst  with  the  power  of 
collating,  dissecting  and  deducing,  he  may  in  the  seclusion 
of  his  study  discover  laws  which  escape  the  observation  of 
others  less  studious,  and  thus  render  a  service  of  the  highest 
value  to  the  science. 

As  soon  as  facts  accumulate  and  laws  are  discerned,  the 
man  of  science  inevitably  begins  to  reflect  on  the  why  and 
the  wherefore.  He  commences  to  search  for  relations,  to 
imagine  connections  and  dependencies,  and  to  make  pic- 
tures of  the  mechanism  of  the  phenomena.  It  was  thus 
that  Dalton  imagined  the  atomic  theory  to  account  for  the 
fact  of  chemical  combination  in  simple  multiple  proportions, 
that  Arrhenius  hit  upon  the  dissociation  theory  to  account 
for  the  increase  of  molecular  conductivity  with  increasing 
dilution,  that  Nernst  worked  out  the  solution-pressure 
theory  to  explain  the  generation  of  current  in  the  galvanic 
cell.  Thus  there  are  theories  and  theories,  some  poor, 
some  good,  and  some  almost  perfect  in  their  applicability, 
since,  granting  their  premises,  they  give  an  explanation 
satisfactory  to  the  mind    of  all  observed  phenomena. 

Such  theories  are  not  only  allowable,  but  necessary.  We 
must  have  them,  much  as  an  artisan  must  have  a  working 
drawing  of  the  machine  he  will  construct ;  the  drawing  is 
but  paper  and  ink,  which  never  moves  or  works,  but  it 
guides  the  workman  in  putting  his  ideas  into  realities.  So 
theories  help  us  to  handle  mental  conceptions  as  if  they 
were_  concrete  things,  and  thus  to  imagine  and  discover 
relations  and  genera:lisations  which  would  otherwise  be 
beyond  our  mental  grasp. 

The  danger  to  the  development  of  a  science  comes  when 
a  theory,  by  being  believed  too  implicitly  and  by  not  being 
open  to  constant  revision,  becomes  a  strait-jacket  for 
the  growing  science.  Like  a  "creed  outworn,"  it  stifles 
criticism,  warps  the  judgment,  engenders  blindness  and 
bias  in  its  adherents  and  undue  hostility  and  acrimony  in 
its  opposers.  _We  should  be  slow  in  revising  our  theories, 
or  in  discrediting  a  theory  which  has  done  us  good  service 
in  its  day,  just  as  we  are  conservative  in  correcting  our 
"  confessions  of  faith  "or  indulgent  and  sympathetic  with 
the  weaknesses  of  a  faithful  old  servant ;  but,  after  all, 
when  a  theory  has  come  to  be  considered  so  firmly  fixed 
as  to  be  above  criticism,  or  so  certainly  true  as  to  be  above 
the  possibility  of  revision,  or  so  well-established  as  to 
thunder  its  excommunications  on  those  who  dare  to  think 
or  believe  otherwise — such  a  theory  had  better  be  placed  at 
once  in  the  museum  of  scientific  petrifactions,  where  it 
properly  belongs,  and  where  it  can  do  no  further  harm. 

li  science  is  progressing,  theories  must  progress  too  ;  they 
will  be  outgrown,  much  light  will  give  way  to  more  light, 
imperfect  pictures  of  phenomena  founded  on  crude  assump- 
tions must  be  replaced  by  better  pictures  corresponding  more 
accurately  to  the  newer  and  the  larger  truth,  and  then 
progress  begins  anew. 

All  theories  have  been  of  some  use  in  their  day ;  they 
have  helped  men  to  grasp  concretely  evanescent  immaterial 
phenomena,  they  have  very  often  been  splendid  guides  to 
further  experiment  and  new  discoveries,  they  have  at  times 
been  so  helpful  that  many  have  mistakenly  thought  them 
infallible,  and  lastly,  they  have  been  stepping-stones  to 
better  theories.  One  great  hindrance  to  scientific  progress 
is  the  common  human  weakness  of  becoming  partisans  of 
a  theory.  Who  is  not  familiar  with  the  well-meaning 
theoriser  whose  mental  vision  is  so  biased  that  he  refuses 
or  is  incompetent  to  give  a  fair  reception  to  new  facts  and 
theories;  or  who  has  not  met  the  egotistical  speculator  who 
experiments  and  makes  researches  not  to  discover  truth,  but 
to  prove  his  pet  theory?  Thus  the  warmest  friends  of  a 
theory  are  often  its  worst  enemies,  and  by  their  blind 
partisanship  lay  obstacles  in  the  path  of  scientific  progress 
instead  of  being  the  leaders  which  they  might  be. 

To  make  a  specific  application  of  these  remarks,  who 
has  not  felt  that  the  most  eff'ective  blows  dealt  the  present 
theory  of  electrolytic  dissociation  have  come  from  the  ex- 
cessive zeal  of  its  warmest  adherents?  There  are  scientific 
zealots  as  well  as  religious  bigots,  and  the  one  does  as 
much  harm  to  the  progress  of  true  science  as  the  other  does 
to  the  development  of  pure  religion. 


NO.    I  76  I,   VOL.  68] 


The  fundamental  conceptions  of  any  and  every  theory 
must  always  be  open  to  correction  and  revision,  and  thus, 
progress  will  be  rendered  easy.  If  new  facts  appear  which, 
contradict  our  theories',  let  us  welcome  them,  like  loyal 
lovers  of  the  truth  should.  The  theory  of  electrolytic  dis- 
sociation is  being  saved  by  being  modified  and  revised,  it 
is  being  transformed  into  a  more  perfect  mirror  of  the 
truth  as  we  now  conceive  it,  and  thus  only  is  it  retaining 
its  usefulness  and  aiding  in  scientific  progress. 

Power  alone  is  apt  to  be  regarded  as  the  first  desideratum 
for  the  success  of  electrochemical  processes,  but  knowledge, 
thinking  power  and  industry  are  more  primary  factors. 
Given  these,  crude  materials  to  work  with  will  be  found 
on  every  hand,  and  power  sufficient  will  be  created  if  it 
is  not  to  be  found.  _ 

A  few  words,  however,  about  this  question  of  the 
necessary  cheap  power.  This  item  in  manufacturing  cost 
is  of  variable  importance  in  electrochemical  processes ;  in. 
some  it  may  form  three-quarters  of  the  total  cost  of  the 
process,  in  others  perhaps  only  one-quarter.  The  former 
are  frequently  compelled  to  move  to  the  cheapest  power,  in 
order  to  exist  at  all,  while  such  as  the  latter  may  take  into 
account  many  other  considerations,  and  find  it  cheaper  for 
them  to  locate  at  more  expensive  powers.  Niagara  Falls 
is  the  most  accessible  of  our  great  water  powers,  and  has 
therefore  drawn  into  its  fold  the  majority  of  our  electro- 
chemical industries.  But  another  source  of  surplus  power 
is  distributed  over  a  large  part  of  our  country,  in  a  con- 
dition at  present  as  undeveloped  as  was  Niagara  power 
when  Columbus  touched  our  shores.  I  refer  to  the  surplus 
power  from  blast-furnaces,  obtainable  by  using  gas-engines. 
Every  blast-furnace  burns  its  gases  to  heat  its  blast  and  to 
raise  steam  for  its  power.  The  two-thirds  of  its  gases  used 
for  the  latter  purpose  generate  just  about  the  power  needed 
for  the  blowing-engines,  pumps,  hoists,  &c.,  an  amount 
equal  on  an  average  to  2500  horse-power  for  a  furnace 
making  500  tons  of  iron  per  day.  If  the  gas  thus  used  was 
used  in  gas-engines,  there  would  be  an  average  surplus- 
power,  over  and  above  all  the  requirements  of  the  furnace 
itself,  of  10,000  horse-power.  The  gas-engine  plant  needed 
to  produce  this  power  does  not  cost  more  than  50  dollars 
per  horse-power  investment,  which  compares  favourably 
with  the  cost  of  developing  water-powers,  which  vary  from 
25  dollars  to  100  dollars  per  horse-power.  It  is  thus  de- 
ducible  that  there  are  scattered  over  the  United  States,  in 
some  of  our  most  flourishing  industrial  centres,  un- 
developed powers  which  aggregate  more  than  1,000,000 
horse-power,  which  can  be  developed  at  no  more  cost  than 
the  average  water-power,  can  be  generated  just  at  the  spots^ 
where  they  can  be  most  favourably  utilised,  and  without 
any  more  drain  on  our  .natural  resoui-ces  than  the  harness- 
ing of  a  new  water-power — for  not  a  pound  of  coal  more 
would  have  to  be  burnt  than  is  used  at  present. 

Other  possible  sources  of  power  are  the  waste  surplus- 
gases  from  by-product  coking  ovens,  and  the  utilisation 
of  gas-producers,  using  cheap,  almost  waste,  coal,  in  con- 
nection with  gas-engines.  Power  therefore  is  available 
in  immense  quantities  in  places  and  in  countries  not  blessed 
with  Niagaras  in  their  midst,  and  the  industrial  develop- 
ment of  such  sources  will  be  one  of  the  most  marked! 
industrial  movements  of  the  next  ten  years. 

And  now,  let  us  inquire,  how  is  this  increasing  develop- 
ment of  power  and  its  increasing  application  to  industrial' 
purposes  best  promoted  by  the  electrochemists  themselves. 
Undoubtedly,  it  is  by  the  intimate  and  cordial  cooperation 
of  theoretical  with  practical  electrochemists.  This  is 
attained  by  many  agencies,  but  the  most  potent  are  re- 
search companies  and  our  Electrochemical  Society. 

Such  organisations  as  research  companies,  formed  ex- 
plicitly to  combine  research  with  practical  application,  are- 
novelties  in  the  industrial  world  which  have  originated! 
with,  and  are  almost  peculiar  to,  electrochemistry.  They 
invent,  investigate  and  develop  electrochemical  process,  and 
furnish  facilities  to  would-be  experimenters  whose  ideas 
might  otherwise  remain  still-born.  Such  companies  deserve 
the  hearty  support  of  all  electrochemists,  for  they  are  in- 
jecting new  life  into  the  industry.  May  we  have  more 
such,  scattered  all  over  our  land  to  nurse  and  develop 
quickly  into  active  being  the  many  electrochemical  processes 
which  are  to  be. 

The    factors    which    promote    increasing    applications    of 


July  30,  1903] 


NATURE 


301 


electrochemistry  are  therefore  cheap  and  accessible  power, 
experimentation  on  a  semi-industrial  scale,  men  with  heads 
full  of  ideas  and  inventiveness  in  applying  them  to  the 
industrial  needs  of  the  country,  more  research  companies 
and  a  further  cultivation  of  the  beneficent  results  of  our 
society  meetings. 

By  thus  doing,  cheap  raw  materials  will  be  converted  by 
the  electrochemist  into  valuable  products  with  constantly 
increasing  ease  and  constantly  decreasing  cost,  and  thus 
electrochemistry  will  achieve  its  great  raison  d'etre  by 
increasingly  ministering  to  the  needs,  the  comforts  and  the 
pleasures  of  life,  and  thus  it  will  become  an  increasingly 
important  factor  in  social  progress. 

No  modern  science  can  progress  if  it  adopts  the  mediaeval 
practice  of  the  alchemists,  and  carefully  guards  its  wisdom 
for  the  exclusive  use  of  the  initiated.  Widespread  dis- 
semination of  the  literature  of  our  science,  not  only  among 
our  own  fraternity,  but  among  educated  people  in  general, 
and  even  down  to  the  rising  generation  of  expectant  men  of 
science,  is  as  necessary  to  our  progress  as  is  the  recruit- 
ing of  the  human  family  to  the  preservation  of  the  race. 

The  literature  of  our  science  consists  of  transactions, 
journals,  treatises,  monographs  and  text-books.  Without 
these,  and  without  the  constant  extension,  improvement 
and  dissemination  of  the  same,  our  science  would  soon  be 
dead  indeed. 

The  transactions  of  our  societies  are  the  standing  record 
of  papers  and  discussions  presented  at  our  meetings.  The 
contents  represent  the  labours  of  many  heads  and  hands, 
and  the  opinions  of  many  minds.  As  such,  they  form  a 
permanent  record  of  the  latest  advances  and  the  best 
thought  in  electrochemical  lines.  They  are  the  reservoirs 
of  information  from  which  the  other  literature  of  the 
science,  such  as  treatises  and  monographs,  is  largely  com- 
piled. They  are  of  particular  value  to  people  who  cannot 
personally  attend  the  meetings  which  they  report.  Their 
value  is  augmented  by  being  quickly  printed  and  dis- 
tributed, and  the  publication  committees  having  that  task 
in  their  charge  should  receive  the  cooperation  of  all  authors 
in  their  efforts  to  prevent  the  transactions  from  becoming 
ancient  history  before  they  are  issued.  We  may  be  pardoned 
referring  with  a  little  pride  to  the  fact  that  the  report  of 
our  Niagara  meeting  was  distributed  seven  weeks  from 
the  close  of  the  meeting,  and  that  25  per  cent,  of  the  papers 
presented  at  this,  our  most  notable  New  York  meeting, 
were  in  print  before  the  meeting  began. 

The  increasing  membership  of  our  societies,  and  the 
placing  of  such  transactions  in  scientific  and  public 
libraries,  are  potent  means  towards  interesting  and  instruct- 
ing the  world  in  electrochemistry,  and  recruiting  the  army 
of  electrochemical  workers. 

Our  text-books,  intended  to  give  beginners  their  first 
ideas  of  electrochemistry,  should  be  most  carefully  written. 
Nothing  sticks  so  permanently  in  the  mind  as  a  correct 
idea  taken  in  youth  from  a  good  text-book — except  an 
incorrect  idea  taken  from  a  bad  one,  and  I  think  that  the 
latter  often  sticks  the  hardest.  It  used  to  be  remarked 
that  every  professor  elected  to  a  chair  of  mineralogy  in 
Europe  felt  himself  expected  to  write  a  treatise  on  crystal- 
lography— and  he  generally  wrote  it ;  it  is,  of  course,  an 
exaggeration  to  say  that  every  privat-docent  elected  to 
lecture  on  electrochemistry  writes  a  text-book  on  the 
elements  of  the  science,  but  it  is  an  exaggeration  with  a 
grain  of  truth  in  it.  There  are  entirely  too  many  imperfect 
or  partisan  or  downright  execrable  text-books  of  this  kind  ; 
one  good  one,  written  by  a  master,  is  worth  more  than  all 
of  these  poor  ones  put  together.  Electrochemistry  should 
also  be  better  presented  in  the  elementary  text-books  of 
chemistry  and  electricity.  The  interrelation  of  these  sub- 
jects is  so  intimate  that  the  fundamentals  of  either  neces- 
sarily include  some  of  the  fundamentals  of  the  other,  and 
beginners  are  wonderfully  apt  at  comprehending  the 
essential  fundamental  facts  if  they  are  skilfully  presented. 
I  recall  to  mind  a  very  complete  modern  text-book  of  in- 
organic chemistry,  written  by  a  splendidly-informed 
chemist,  in  which  the  electrochemical  part  was  turned  over 
to  an  assistant,  and,  as  a  consequence,  abounds  in  mis- 
statements. We  cannot  afford  to  have  our  students  started 
wrongly,  and  it  is  therefore  of  the  highest  importance  that 
our  text-books,  while  being  as  brief  as  is  necessary,  should 
be  as  accurate  as  is  possible. 

NO.    1 76 1,  VOL.   68] 


NOTES. 

The  monument  which  was  unveiled  last  month  at  Bonn,, 
in  honour  of  Prof.  Kekul6,  stands  away  from  the  city  and 
just  in  front  of  the  building  of  the  chemical  laboratories 
of  the  University  of  Bonn,  the  place  in  which  Kekul6 
laboured  and  taught  for  so  many  years  and  with  such 
pronounced  and  conspicuous  success.  The  statue  stands 
on  a  granite  pedestal,  and  is  life-size  and  of  bronze.  On 
each  side  of  the  sculptured  figure  of  Kekul6  is  a  sphynx. 
The  character  of  the  man,  simple  and  unpretentious,  yet 
convincing,  is  well  brought  out,  and  some  of  his  greatest 
scientific  achievements  are  clearly  represented  in  relief  on 
the  pedestal.  At  the  unveiling  ceremony  many  universi- 
ties and  scientific  bodies,  foreign  as  well  as  German,  were 
represented,  and  so  also  were  numerous  firms  engaged  iiv 
the  chemical  industry. 

The  third  International  Mathematical  Congress  has  been- 
arranged  to  take  place  in  Heidelberg  on  August  8-13  of 
next  year.  The  congress  will  be  divided  into  six  sections, 
dealing  respectively  with  arithmetic  and  algebra,  analysis, 
geometry,  applied  mathematics,  history  of  mathematics,  and: 
paedagogics.  In  addition  to  the  business  and  sectionat 
meetings,  there  will  be  conversaziones,  a  banquet,  and  an. 
excursion  up  the  Neckar,  and  illumination  of  the  Castle. 
The  year  1904  is  the  centenary  of  the  birth  of  C.  G.  J. 
Jacobi,  and  the  occasion  will  be  celebrated  in  connection! 
with  the  congress  by  the  publication  of  a  memorial  volume 
on  Jacobi  under  the  authorship  of  Prof.  Konigsberger.  The 
secretarial  work  of  the  congress  is  in  the  hands  of  Prof. 
A.  Krazer,  of  Carlsruhe. 

The  Anthropological  Institute  announces  that  Prof.  Karl 
Pearson,  F.R.S.,  has  accepted  its  invitation  to  deliver  the 
annual  Huxley  memorial  lecture  this  year.  The  lecture 
will  be  delivered  on  Friday,  October  16,  at  8.30  p.m.,  in 
the  lecture  theatre  of  Burlington  House.  Prof.  Pearson  has 
chosen  for  his  subject,  "  On  the  Inheritance  in  Man  of 
Moral  and  Mental  Characters,  and  its  Relation  to  the  In- 
heritance of  Physical  Characters." 

A  Reuter  message  from  Strassburg  states  that  the  second 
International  Seismological  Conference,  the  object  of  which 
is  to  found  an  association  for  the  study  of  seismological 
phenomena  in  countries  interested  in  the  question,  was 
opened  there  on  July  24.  Twenty  States  were  represented. 
The  Statthalter  of  Alsace-Lorraine,  who  is  patron  of 
the  conference,  welcomed  the  delegates  in  the  name  of  the 
German  Empire. 

The  Government  has  appointed  Captain  Harry  Mackay, 
a  Dundee  whaling  master,  to  the  command  of  the  Discovery 
relief  expedition.  The  relief  ship  Terra  Nova  will  be 
manned  by  an  entirely  civilian  crew,  chiefly  whalemen. 
The  ship  is  expected  to  be  ready  for  sea  in  about  a  month, 
and  it  has  been  decided,  instead  of  making  a  long  passage 
round  the  Cape,  to  proceed  by  the  Suez  Canal.  Arrange- 
ments will  be  made  to  ensure  that,  after  passing  Gibraltar, 
the  Terra  Nova  will  be  towed  by  fast  vessels  of  the  Royal 
Navy  attached  to  the  Mediterranean  and  East  India 
stations.  The'  relief  ship  will  proceed  to  Hobart,  where 
she  will  be  joined  by  the  Morning. 

The  bust  of  the  late  Sir  William  Flower,  prepared  for 
the  Flower  Memorial  Committee  by  Mr.  Thomas  Brock, 
was  formally  presented  to  the  trustees  of  the  British 
Museum,  at  the  Natural  History  Museum,  on  Saturday  last. 
Dr.  P.  L.  Sclater  gave  an  address  in  the  name  of,  and  on 
behalf  of,   the    185  subscribers  to  the  fund. 


302 


NATURE 


[July  30,  1903 


The  Mackinnon  research  studentships  of  the  Royal  Society 
have  been  awarded  for  the  year  1903-4  to  Mr.  F.  Horton 
for  physical  research,  and  to  Miss  A.  L.  Embleton  for 
biological  research. 

The  French  Association  for  the  Advancement  of  Science 
will  hold  its  thirty-second  annual  meeting  this  year  at 
Angers  from  August  4  to  11,  under  the  presidency  of 
M.  Levasseur,  Administrator  of  the  College  de  France. 

Governor  Lanham,  of  Texas,  has,  Science  announces, 
issued  a  proclamation  oiTering  a  reward  of  10,000?.  from  the 
State  to  any  person  who  discovers  a  practical  method  for 
eradicating  the  cotton  boll  weevil. 

At  an  extraordinary  general  meeting  of  the  members  of 
the  Jenner  Institute  of  Preventive  Medicine  on  July  22,  a 
resolution  to  alter  the  name  of  the  institute  to  "  The  Lister 
Institute  of  Preventive  Medicine,"  proposed  by  Sir  Henry 
Roscoe,  seconded  by  Sir  Joseph  Fayrer,  and  supported  by 
Prof.  W.  J.  Simpson,  was  unanimously  adopted.  A  second 
meeting  will  be  held  on  August  7,  when  the  resolution  will 
be  submitted  for  confirmation. 

The  council  of  the  Society  of  Arts  attended  at  Marl- 
borough House  on  Monday,  when  the  Prince  of  Wales,  as 
president  of  the  society,  presented  the  society's  Albert  medal 
to  Sir  Charles  A.  Hartley,  "  in  recognition  of  his  services, 
extending  over  forty  years,  as  engineer  to  the  International 
Commission  of  the  Danube,  which  have  resulted  in  the 
opening  up  of  the  navigation  of  that  river  to  the  ships  of 
all  nations." 

An  outline  programme  has  been  issued  for  the  autumn 
meeting  of  the  Iron  and  Steel  Institute  to  be  held  at  Barrow- 
in-Furness  on  September  1-4.  The  president,  Mr.  Andrew 
Carnegie,  will  deliver  a  short  address,  and  the  papers  down 
for  reading  include  the  following  : — Alloys  of  iron  and 
tungsten,  Mr.  R.  A.  Hadfield  ;  the  restoration  of  danger- 
ously crystalline  steel  by  heat  treatment,  Mr.  J.  E.  Stead 
and  Mr.  A.  Windsor  Richards  ;  the  influence  of  silicon  on 
iron,  Mr.  Thomas  Baker ;  the  diffusion  of  sulphides  through 
steel,  Prof.  E.  D.  Campbell ;  the  heat  treatment  of  steel, 
Mr.  W.  Campbell ;  the  diseases  of  steel,  Mr.  C.  H.  Rids- 
dale  ;  carbon  in  iron.  Prof.  A.  Stansfield. 

Science  announces  that  the  Bufalini  prize  of  the 
University  of  Florence  will  be  awarded  at  the  end  of 
October,  1904.  This  prize  is  of  the  value  of  240Z.,  and  is 
awarded  once  every  twenty  years.  The  subject  is  the  value 
of  the  experimental  method  in  opposition  to  the  speculative 
method  of  scientific  research. 

An  international  exhibition  is  to  be  opened  at  Arras,  in 
the  north  of  France,  on  May  i,  1904,  and  remain  open  until 
the  following  October.  It  is  under  the  patronage  of  the 
President  of  the  French  Republic,  the  honorary  president 
of  the  automobile  section  being  the  King  of  the  Belgians. 
Industrial  chemistry  is  dealt  with  in  one  of  the  classes,  and 
another  is  devoted  to  alcohol  and  its  production. 

In  reply  to  a  question  on  the  position  of  wireless  tele- 
graphy in  the  Navy,  Mr.  Arnold-Forster  has  stated  that  all 
battleships,  and  a  very  large  number  of  cruisers,  are  fitted 
either  with  the  Marconi  system  of  wireless  telegraphy  or 
with  modifications  of  that  system.  The  present  average 
expenditure  upon  wireless  telegraphy  is  about  20,000/.  per 
annum,  a  considerable  portion  of  this  amount  being  paid 
to  the  Marconi  Company.  An  agreement  with  the  Marconi 
Company  is  now  being  concluded,  and  the  use  of  wireless 
telegraphy  throughout  the  service  will  be  greatly  extended 
in  the  future. 

NO.    I  76  I,   VOL.  68J 


Some  additional  particulars  of  the  International  Congress 
of  Science  and  Arts  to  be  held  at  St.  Louis  next  year  were 
published  in  Monday's  Times.  A  body  of  men  of  learning 
from  all  parts  of  the  world  will  assemble  at  St.  Louis  in 
connection  with  the  congress,  and  it  is  hoped  their  deliber- 
ations will  stimulate  thought,  promote  science,  and  thus 
form  a  permanent  contribution  to  the  world's  progress. 
An  administrative  board  has  been  entrusted  with  the 
arrangements  in  connection  with  this  new  departure,  and 
Prof.  Nicholas  Murray  Butler,  of  Columbia  University,  is 
at  the  head  of  it.  The  main  features  of  a  plan  proposed  by 
Prof.  Miinsterberg,  of  Harvard  University,  for  the  conduct 
of  the  proceedings  of  this  section  have  been  adopted. 

Reuter  reports  that  on  July  22,  after  a  period  of  ex- 
plosions, there  was  a  flow  of  lava  from  Mount  Vesuvius. 

The  Museum  of  Practical  Geology,  Jermyn  Street,  will 
be  closed  to  the  general  public  during  the  painting  of  the 
interior  from  August  i.  The  business  of  the  Geological 
Survey  will,  however,  be  carried  on  as  usual,  and  visitors 
requiring  special  information  will  be  admitted  to  the 
Museum. 

The  Rev.  G.  W.  Rawlings,  of  Osaka,  Japan,  sends  us 
an  interesting  example  of  the  pertinacity  and  strength  of 
Japanese  sparrows.  A  pair  of  sparrows  he  found  flying 
about  his  bedroom  one  morning  had  begun  to  build  in  a 
corner  of  the  room,  and  though  the  beginnings  of  the  nest 
were  cleared  away  each  morning,  the  sparrows  repeated 
their  attempt  three  or  four  successive  days.  A  clothes- 
brush  placed  in  the  corner  to  keep  the  birds  away  was  found 
to  have  been  moved  by  the  sparrows,  though  it  was  six 
inches  long  and  two  inches  wide. 

Mr.  F.  W.  Branson,  of  Leeds,  sends  us  an  account  of 
some  experiments  made  by  him  with  a  mixture  of  radium 
and  barium  chlorides  in  a  dry  and  in  a  moist  state.  When 
the  substance  was  moistened  with  water  and  stirred,  its 
radio-activity  was  only  slightly  reduced,  though  thf 
luminosity  instantly  disappeared,  but  it  was  restored  by 
drying  for  fifteen  minutes  at  150°  C.  When  placed  in  ben- 
zene the  dried  salt  retained  its  phosphorescence.  Benzene, 
however,  appeared  to  diminish  somewhat  the  emission  of 
light  rays.  Exposure  of  the  dried  salt  for  a  few  hours  to 
a  moist  atmosphere  caused  a  total  cessation  of  phosphor- 
escence, but  not  in  a  dry  atmosphere.  No  action  could  be 
observed  on  a  photographic  plate  exposed  to  the  radiations 
from  the  moistened  salt  for  thirty  seconds,  whereas  the  dry 
salt  gave  a  full  image  in  the  same  time.  A  much  longer 
exposure  of  the  moist  salt  gave  a  faint  impression,  about 
equal  in  amount  to  that  produced  by  an  equivalent  amount 
of  the  dried  salt,  when  the  latter  was  covered  with  a  thin 
paper,  opaque  to  light  rays. 

At  the  beginning  of  this  year  Mr.  A.  E.  Shipley  directed 
attention  in  these  columns  (vol.  Ixvii.  p.  205)  to  the  widely 
spread  belief  that  a  basil  plant  (Ocimum  viride)  provided  a 
means  of  protection  against  mosquitoes.  Observations 
made  by  Captain  H.  D.  Larymore  at  Lokoja,  Northern 
Nigeria,  seemed  to  show  that  the  belief  was  well  founded, 
but  Mr.  Shipley  pointed  out  that  further  experiments  were 
needed  upon  the  subject.  The  article  was  reprinted  in  the 
British  Medical  Journal,  and  was  referred  to  by  many  other 
periodicals  ;  and  in  consequence  requests  for  seeds:, of  the 
plant  were  received  at  the  Royal  Gardens,  Kew,  from  many 
parts  of  the  world.  Sir  William  Thiselton-Dyer  has,  how- 
ever, sent  to  the  Times  of  July  27  a  report  of  experiments 
made  on  the  basil  plant  in  relation  to  its  effect  on  mosqui- 
toes by  Dr.  W.  T.  Prout,  at  Freetown,  Sierra  Leone,  and 
he  remarks  that  it  "  appears  to  dispose  conclusively  of  the 
plant's  possessing  any  real  protective  value."  The  con- 
clusions arrived  at  by  Dr.  Prout  as  the  result  of  his  experi- 


July  30,  1903] 


NATURE 


303 


il 


mcnts  are  : — (i)  Growing  plants  have  little  or  no  effect 
in  driving  away  mosquitoes,  and  are  not  to  be  relied  on 
as  a  substitute  for  the  mosquito  net.  (2)  Fresh  basil  leaves 
have  no  prejudicial  effect  on  mosquitoes  when  placed  in 
close  contact  with  them.  (3)  The  fumes  of  burnt  basil 
leaves  have  a  stupefying,  and  eventually  a  destructive,  effect 
on  mosquitoes,  but  to  obtain  this  action  a  degree  of  satura- 
tion of  the  air  is  necessary  which  renders  it  impossible  for 
the  individual  to  remain  in  the  room.  It  is  probable,  how- 
ever, that  cones  made  of  powdered  basil  would,  when  burnt, 
have  the  effect  of  driving  mosquitoes  away,  and  to  this 
extent  might  be  found  useful. 

A  REi»ORT  has  been  issued  by  the  London  County  Council 
upon  the  manufacture  of  aerated  waters  in  London.  It  is 
recommended  that,  in  view  of  the  large  consumption  of 
aerated  waters,  the  premises  upon  which  they  are  manu- 
factured should  be  registered  and  periodically  inspected  in 
order  to  ensure  a  proper  standard  as  regards  sanitary  con- 
ditions. 

We  recently  noted  in  these  columns  the  outbreak  of 
ankylostomiasis  (infection  with  a  parasitic  worm)  which 
has  occurred  in  the  Dalcoath  mine,  Cornwall,  reported  upon 
by  Drs.  Haldane  and  Boycott.  A  report  has  now  been 
issued  by  the  Home  Office  on  an  outbreak  of  the  same 
disease  in  the  Westphalian  colliery  district  in  Germany. 
A  case  has  also  been  met  with  in  Scotland  by  Dr.  Stock- 
man. In  all  probability,  therefore,  this  disease  is  more 
widespread  than  was  formerly  supposed. 

Dr.  Timbrell  Bulstrode's  report  upon  alleged  oyster- 
borne  illness  following  the  mayoral  banquets  at  Winchester 
and  at  Southampton  has  been  issued  by  the  medical  officer 
of  the  Local  Government  Board.  Dr.  Bulstrode  summarises 
the  facts  as  follows.  Two  mayoral  banquets  were  given 
on  the  same  day  in  two  towns.  After  both  banquets  a 
certain  percentage  of  guests,  all  of  whom  had  partaken  of 
oysters,  were  attacked  with  illness  of  analogous  nature, 
in  some  cases  with  definite  enteric  fever,  in  others  with 
gastro-intestinal  disturbance  only.  The  oysters  supplied 
to  both  banquets  were  from  the  sam.e  source  (Emsworth), 
and  the  oysters  from  this  source  were  at  the  same  time 
and  in  other  places  proving  themselves  competent  causes 
of  enteric  fever. 

It  is  reported  that  Prof.  Kossel,  of  the  Imperial  Depart- 
ment of  Health,  Berlin,  supports  Prof.  Koch's  view  of  the 
non-transmissibility  of  bovine  tuberculosis  to  man.  He 
stated  at  a  recent  meeting  of  the  Berlin  Medical  Society 
that  out  of  all  the  experiments  conducted  by  the  Imperial 
Hoard  of  Health,  in  two  cases  only  had  human  tubercle 
iiacilli  affected  the  experimental  animals.  Prof.  Orth,  the 
-accessor  to  Virchow  in  the  University  of  Berlin,  on  the 
I  her  hand,  states  that  in  his  own  experiments  10  per  cent. 
of  the  animals  were  infected  with  the  tubercle  bacillus  of 
human  origin.  At  the  recent  congress  of  the  Royal  Insti- 
tute of  Public  Health,  Prof.  Young,  who  has  collaborated 
with  Prof.  Hamilton,  of  Aberdeen,  said  that  their  experi- 
ments upon  twenty  calves  left  no  doubt  of  the  communi- 
rability  of  human  tuberculosis  to  bovines,  and  Drs.  Dean 
and  Todd  have  proved  the  same  point  as  regards  pigs. 

In  a  paper  entitled  "  Luftelektrizitat  und  Sonnemtrab- 
lung  "  (Leipzig),  Dr.  H.  Rudolph  develops  a  theory  of 
the  origin  of  atmospheric  electricity.  We  do  not  think  his 
theory  is  likely  to  meet  with  general  acceptance ;  the 
reasoning  by  which  he  arrives  at  the  laws  on  which  his 
mathematical  investigation  is  based  is,  to  say  the  least, 
by  no  means  convincing.  In  an  appendix  the  author 
mentions  a  method  which  he  has  invented  for  employing 
a  captive  balloon  to  collect  from  the  upper  atmosphere  the 
NO.    I  76  I,  VOL.  68] 


large  amount  of  electrical  energy  which  he  believes  to  be 
now  running  to  waste,  and  he  complains  that  the  public 
have  not  given  his  scheme  the  support  that  it  deserves. 

The  "  spinthariscope  "  devised  by  Sir  William  Crookes 
to  show  the  scintillations  which  are  produced  on  a  blende 
screen  when  a  piece  of  radium  nitrate  is  brought  near  it,  is 
now  made  by  several  scientific  instrument  makers.  Mr. 
A.  C.  Cossor,  of  54  Farringdon  Road,  has  sent  us  one  of 
these  instruments,  which  consists  of  a  short  brass  tube 
having  at  one  end  a  blende  screen  with  a  speck  of  radium 
salt  about  a  millimetre  in  front  of  it,  and  at  the  other  end 
a  simple  convex  lens.  The  instrument  is  very  satisfactory, 
and  shows  the  scintillations  wonderfully  well  ;  it  provides  a 
convenient  means  of  observing  the  action  of  radium,  and 
can  be  recommended  as  a  waistcoat-pocket  instrument  of 
scientific  value. 

We  have  received  a  copy  of  the  observations  made  at  the 
Batavia  Observatory  during  the  year  1901  ;  it  contains  hourly 
meteorological  values  and  seismometric  records,  but  the 
magnetometer  was  out  of  action  during  the  year,  owing  to 
its  removal  to  Buitenzorg.  We  are  glad  to  see  that  the 
Netherlands  Government  propose  to  undertake  a  magnetic 
survey  of  the  East  Indian  Archipelago,  extending  from 
longitude  95°  to  140°  ;  this  will  be  a  valuable  addition  to 
the  magnetic  survey  of  British  India.  An  appendix  to  the 
volume  contains  a  discussion  of  the  anemometric  observ- 
ations for  the  ten  years  1891-1900.  This  laborious  investi- 
gation shows  that  calms  largely  predominate,  especially 
during  the  westerly  monsoon,  from  December  to  April. 
The  direction  of  the  wind  during  this  period  is  chiefly  from 
the  north-western  quadrant.  From  April  to  November, 
northerly  and  north-easterly  winds  predominate  by  a  large 
percentage.  The  greatest  horizontal  displacement  of  the 
air  occurs  between  August  and  October,  during  which  time 
easterly  trade-winds  largely  prevail.  Another  appendix 
contains  valuable  electrical  and  meteorological  observations 
made  during  the  total  eclipse  of  the  sun  on  May  18,  1901, 
at  various  stations. 

The  Quarterly  Journal  of  the  Royal  Meteorological 
Society  (No.  127,  July)  contains  an  important  and  interest- 
ing paper  on  the  prevalence  of  gales  on  the  coasts  of  the 
British  Islands  during  the  thirty  years  1871-1900,  based  on 
the  data  collected  annually  in  the  Meteorological  Office  for 
the  purpose  of  testing  the  accuracy  of  storm  warnings  issued. 
We  can  only  refer  here  to  some  of  the  general  results  :— the 
mean  annual  number  of  gales  experienced  on  the  west 
coasts  is  296 ;  of  the  total  number  82  per  cent,  occur  in  the 
winter  half-year  ;  on  the  north  coasts  the  mean  number  is 
25-7,  with  a  percentage  of  84  in  winter ;  on  the  south  coasts, 
mean  191,  winter  percentage  80;  on  the  east  coasts,  mean 
1 56,  with  84  per  cent,  in  the  winter  half  year.  As  regards 
direction,  the  mean  results  show  that  on  the  west  coasts 
about  68  per  cent,  of  the  gales  blew  from  the  Atlantic,  or 
equatorial  directions,  and  about  26  per  cent,  from  the 
Arctic,  or  polar  directions  ;  on  the  north  coasts  about  66  per 
cent,  blew  from  equatorial,  and  30  per  cent,  from  polar 
quarters  ;  on  the  south  coasts  the  numbers  were  respectively 
73  and  25  per  cent;  the  results  for  the  east  coasts  show 
that  less  than  53  per  cent,  blew  from  equatorial  directions, 
and  more  than  44  per  cent,  from  polar  quarters.  The 
prevalence  and  direction  of  gales  in  each  division  are  plainly 
illustrated  by  wind-roses. 

An  account  of  the  flora  of  the  north  island  of  Nova 
Zembla  appears  in  the  Bulletin  du  jardin  impdrial 
botanique  of  St.  Petersburg.  The  author,  Mr.  Palibin, 
observes  that  the  flowering  plants  are  most  closely  allied 
to  those  found  in  the  Arctic  regions  of  Asiatic  Russia,  but 
the  algal  flora  resembles  rather  that  of  Spitsbergen. 


304 


NATURE 


[July  30,  1903 


A  SECOND  paper  by  Prof.  Vines  is  published  in  the  Annals 
of  Botany,  and  gives  an  account  of  further  investigations 
into  the  action  of  proteid-dissolving  ferments  in  plants. 
Certain  divergences  appear  to  exist  between  the  observations 
of  the  author  and  other  experimenters ;  these  are  traced  to 
the  use  of  different  antiseptics,  so  that  it  becomes  necessary 
to  try  several  antiseptic  substances  before  formulating  any 
conclusions  as  to  the  digestive  power  of  the  ferments  under 
consideration. 

The  formation  of  the  first  tropical  experiment  station  in 
the  British  Empire  in  Ceylon,  has  already  been  referred  to 
in  these  columns.  Apart  from  agricultural  experiments 
and  the  cultivation  of  economic  products,  questions  of  pure 
scientific  interest  will  doubtless  receive  attention.  In  his 
report,  Mr.  Wright,  the  controller  of  the  station,  announces 
that  experimental  plots  have  already  been  laid  out  to  deter- 
mine how  far  the  cultivated  varieties  of  cacao  plants  bear- 
ing pure  purple  or  pure  white  seeds  will  breed  true.  Should 
this  be  the  case,  the  results  produced  by  crossing  will  give 
valuable  evidence  for  testing  the  Mendelian  laws. 

Among  other  articles,  the  Transactions  of  the  Manchester 
Microscopical  Society  for  1902  contain  some  interesting 
observations  by  Mr.  J.  Barnes  on  the  microscopic  structure 
of  the  mountain  limestone  of  Derbyshire.  In  the  first  place, 
it  is  recorded  that  the  rock  contains  large  numbers  of  very 
minute  but  perfectly  formed  quartz-crystals,  frequently 
formed  round  a  jaspideous  nucleus.  Of  special  interest  is  the 
description  of  a  mottled  phase  of  the  mountain  limestone,  in 
which  the  dark  portions  have  been  produced  by  the  carbon- 
aceous matter  contained  in  foraminifera,  with  which  the 
rock  is  crowded. 

The  Geological  Survey  has  issued  a  memoir  on  the 
geology  of  the  country  around  Reading,  by  the  late  Mr. 
J.  H.  Blake,  edited  by  Mr.  H.  W.  Monckton.  The  district 
•is  a  part  of  the  London  Basin,  with  a  foundation  of  Chalk, 
overlain  by  Reading  Beds,  London  Clay,  Bagshot  and 
Bracklesham  Beds,  with  extensive  coverings  of  plateau  and 
valley  drifts.  The  Reading  Beds  are  of  special  interest, 
and  many  detailed  sections  of  the  strata  are  given,  with  an 
analysis,  by  Dr.  W.  Pollard,  of  the  mottled  clay  which  is 
so  largely  worked  for  brick-  and  tile-making.  There  are 
also  figures  of  some  of  the  plant-remains  which  are  found 
in  the  strata.  A  list  of  fossils  from  the  basement-bed  of 
the  London  Clay  is  likewise  given.  Mr.  Monckton  has 
contributed  many  notes  relating  to  the  superficial  deposits. 

Some  interesting  facts  referring  to  the  cultivation  and 
economic  uses  of  the  potato  in  Germany  were  recently  stated 
by  the  American  Consul-General  in  Berlin  in  connection 
with  a  technical  exhibition  there.  In  1901,  for  every 
10,000  inhabitants  160  acres  were  planted  with  potatoes, 
against  98  acres  in  France,  31  in  Great  Britain  and  Ireland, 
and  34-8  in  the  United  States.  The  sandy  plains  of  northern 
and  central  Germany  are  well  adapted  by  nature  to  the 
cultivation,  and  elaborate  experiments  in  scientific  fertilising 
and  cultivation  have  increased  the  production  per .  acre  by 
about  38  per  cent,  in  the  last  ten  years.  The  result  has 
been  that  the  crop  reached  the  danger  point  of  over-produc- 
tion in  1901,  and  accordingly  there  was  in  that  year  an 
enormous  increase  in  potato  alcohol^  and  the  market  was 
glutted  with  raw  spirit.  In  February,  1902,  there  was  an 
exhibition  in  Berlin  to  illustrate  and  promote  the  use  of 
denaturised  alcohol  for  technical  and  industrial  purposes, 
and  it  has  been  repeated  this  year.  Besides  alcohol,  the 
technical  products  of  the  potato  are  starch,  starch  syrup, 
potato  flour,  dextrin,  and  starch  sugar.  The  production  of 
NO.    I  76 1,  VOL.  68] 


these  during  the  last  ten  years  has  increased  rapidly,  as 
has  the  export  also.  Last  year  the  exports  of  potato  flour 
and  starch  reached  45,970  tons,  or  more  than  double  those 
of  1900,  while  the  export  of  dextrin  was  14,047  tons.  The 
United  Kingdom  is  the  largest  purchaser  of  German  potato 
starch,  the  imports  last  year  being  23,827  tons.  The 
Consul-General  adds  that  the  law  of  1887  regulating  the 
production  and  use  of  untaxed  alcohol  for  technical  purposes 
was  one  of  the  wisest  and  most  far-seeing  of  enactments, 
for  Germany  has  profited  largely  by  the  stimulus  thereby 
given  to  the  cultivation  of  the  potato  and  to  the  employ- 
ment of  cheap  spirit  in  the  chemistry  and  the  industrial  arts. 

We  have  received  a  copy  of  an  article  published  in  the 
Natural  History  and  Scholastic  Abhandlungen  of  Leipzig, 
by  Mr.  F.  Miihlberg,  on  the  object  and  extent  of  the  in- 
struction in  natural  science  given  in  the  higher  middle- 
schools. 

We  have  received  two  further  instalments  of  Messrs. 
Jordan  and  Fowler's  valuable  reviews  of  Japanese  fishes,  in 
course  of  publication  in  the  Proceedings  of  the  U.S. 
Museum,  the  one  being  devoted  to  the  carp  group,  or 
cyprinoids,  and  the  other  to  the  cat-fishes,  or  siluroids.  In 
both  groups  several  new  forms  are  described,  some  of  which 
have,  however,  been  already  referred  to  in  preliminary 
notices.  A  new  genus  of  cat-fish  receives  the  name  of 
Fluvidraco,  and  apparently  includes  the  well-known  "  yellow 
dragon  "  of  the  rivers  of  China.  In  another  fasciculus  of 
the  same  publication  Mr.  T.  Gill  discusses  the  affinities  of 
the  opah,  or  king-fish,  and  finds  that  he  is  not  able  to 
accept  in  their  entirety  the  views  on  this  subject  recently 
published  by  Mr.  G.  A.  Boulenger.  He  has  some  interest- 
ing observations  on  the  origin  of  the  name  "  opah,"  which 
appears  to  have  been  imported  from  the  west  coast  of 
Africa,  but  does  not  seem  to  be  the  proper  native  title  of 
the  fish  to  which  it  is  now  applied. 

Three  other  papers  from  the  Proceedings  of  the  U.S. 
Museum  are  also  to  hand.  In  one  of  these  Mr.  D.  W. 
Prentiss  describes  as  new  an  imperfect  mink  skull  from  the 
shell-mounds  of  Maine.  In  the  second  Mr.  A.  N.  Caudell 
discusses  the  orthopterous  insects  of  various  States,  with 
descriptions  of  new  species;  and  in  the  third  Mr.  J.  E. 
Benedict  revises  the  crustaceans  of  the  genus  Lepidopa. 

An  issue  of  the  Circulars  and  Agricultural  Journal  of  the 
Royal  Botanic  Gardens  at  Ceylon  contains  an  account,  by 
Mr.  E.  E.  Green,  of  a  recent  abnormal  and  remarkable 
increase  in  one  district  of  the  numbers  of  the  so-called 
lobster-caterpillar  (Stauropus  alternus),  which  affects  tea- 
plants.  Until  quite  recently  this  caterpillar  was  so  un- 
common that  good  specimens  were  regarded  as  prizes  by 
collectors ;  but  latterly  it  has  made  its  appearance  in  enor- 
mous numbers  on  certain  plantations  in  the  Kalutara 
district,  where  it  has  become  a  perfect  "  tea-pest."  The 
reason  for  this  sudden  increase  has  not  been  ascertained. 

All  that  Mr.  E.  Thompson-Seton  writes  with  regard  to 
the  habits  and  ways  of  animals  is  well  worth  reading,  and 
we  are  therefore  glad  to  welcome  an  article  from  his  pen 
in  the  Smithsonian  Report  for  1901  entitled  "  The  National 
Zoo  at  Washington,  a  Study  of  its  Animals  in  Relation  to 
their  Natural  Environment."  The  author  describes  in 
some  detail  the  history  of  the  formation  of  this  great  and 
important  undertaking,  and  the  prime  object  which  the 
founders  had  before  them,  namely,  the  preservation  of  as 
many  of  the  larger  North  American  animals  as  possible 
under  conditions  assimilating,  so  far  as  practicable,  to  their 
natural  surroundings.  In  the  case  of  many  species,  such 
as  the  wapiti,  the  bison,  and  the  pronghorn,  the  experiment 


July  30,  1903] 


NATURE 


305 


has,  up  to  the  present,  been  a  decided  success.  There  are, 
however,  a  number  of  mammals,  inclusive  of  the  bighorn 
sheep,  the  true  blacktail  deer,  the  mule-deer,  the  moose, 
(the  white  goat,  and  the  grizzly  bear — all  more  or  less  in 
danger  of  extermination — which  have  not  yet  been  estab- 
lished in  refuges  of  their  own.  This,  it  is  said,  is  largely  due 
to  lack  of  funds ;  and  the  author  points  out  that  if  the 
-Alaskan  brown  bear — the  largest  living  member  of  its  kind 
— be  not  soon  established  in  the  gardens,  it  will  be  too  late. 
Many  interesting  traits  in  the  habits  of  American  mammals 
^re  recorded,  notably  the  fact  that  the  prongbuck  expands 
«he  hairs  of  its  white  rump-patch  in  a  disc-like  manner  when 
alarmed,  after  the  fashion  of  the  Japanese  and  Peking  deer, 
the  white  patch,  when  thus  expanded,  forming  a  conspicuous 
""  recognition  mark." 

Messrs.  Watts  and  Co.  have  issued  for  the  Rationalist 
Press  Association,  Ltd.,  a  sixpenny  edition  of  a  selection 
■of  Tyndall's  lectures  and  essays  from  "  Fragments  of 
Science."  The  famous  British  Association  address  at 
Belfast  in  1874  is  included,  and  also  the  biographical  sketch 
of  Tyndall  in  the  "  Dictionary  of  National  Biography." 

Since  its  publication  in  1881,  Mr.  W.  Robinson's  de- 
lightful book  on  "  The  Wild  Garden  "  has  been  the  means 
of  introducing  many  lovers  of  plants  to  new  and  beautiful 
aspects  of  vegetation  obtained  by  placing  hardy  exotic 
iplants  under  conditions  where  they  will  thrive  without 
further  care.  The  fifth  edition  has  just  been  issued  by 
Mr.  John  Murray,  and  will  appeal  to  a  larger  circle  of 
readers  than  that  which  derived  ideas  from  the  original 
•work.  The  illustrations  are  all  woodcuts  by  Mr.  Alfred 
Parsons. 

The  first  part  of  the  fifteenth  volume  of  the  Proceedings 
of  the  Royal  Physical  Society  of  Edinburgh,  a  copy  of  which 
has  been  received,  deals  with  the  work  of  the  session  1901- 
1902.  In  addition  to  the  opening  address  by  Dr.  David 
Hepburn,  vice-president  of  the  society,  on  some  morpho- 
Bogical  evidences  of  the  evolution  of  man,  the  volume  con- 
tains, amongst  others,  papers  by  Mr.  Goodchild  on  the 
origin  of  rock-salt  and  on  observations  upon  the  bathy- 
metrical  distribution  of  reef-building  corals,  and  one  by  Dr. 
Munro  on  the  prehistoric  horses  of  Europe  and  their  sup- 
posed domestication  in  Palaeolithic  times. 

The  additions  to  the  Zoological  Society's  Gardens  during 
ithe  past  week  include  a  Sooty  Mangabey  {Cercocebus 
,fuliginosus)  from  West  Africa,  presented  by  Mrs.  Watkins ; 
a  Ring-tailed  Lemur  {Lemur  catta)  from  Madagascar,  pre- 
sented by  Mr.  H.  P.  Jaques ;  a  Suricate  {Suricata  tetra- 
^actyla)  from  South  Africa,  presented  by  Captain  C.  P. 
Harvey ;  two  Kinkajous  {Cercoleptes  caudivolvulus)  from 
South  America,  presented  by  Miss  C.  Wallace  Dunlop ;  a 
Himalayan  Whistling  Thrush  {Myiophoneus  temmincki), 
•a  Blue-winged  Siva  (Siva  cyanouroptera),  a  Lesser  Blue- 
winged  Pitta  {Pitta  cyanoptera)  from  the  Himalayas,  pre- 
sented by  Mr.  E.  W.  Harper;  a  Cardinal  Grosbeak 
^Cardinalis  virginianus)  from  North  America,  presented  by 
Mrs.  F.  S.  Stevenson  ;  a  Greek  Tortoise  {Testudo  graeca), 
European,  presented  by  Mrs.  F.  Bailey ;  two  Wanderoo 
Monkeys  {Macacus  silenus)  from  Malabar,  a  Common 
'Crowned  Pigeon  {Goura  coronata),  a  Sclater's  Crowned 
Pigeon  {Goura  sclateri)  from  New  Guinea,  a  White- 
'throated  Ground  Thrush  {Gcocichla  cyanonotus),  a 
Bengal  Pitta  {Pitta  bengalensis),  two  Indian  Rollers 
riracias  indica),  three  Pond  Herons  {Ardeola  grayi),  five 
arlet-backed  Flower-peckers  {Dicaeum  cruentatum),  two 
Iwo-banded  Monitors  {Varanus  salvator)  from  India, 
<deposited. 

NO.    1 76 1,  VOL.  68] 


OUR  ASTRONOMICAL  COLUMN. 

Astronomical  Occurrences  in  August  :— 
August    2.     8h.  im.  to  iih.  501.     Transit  of  Jupiter's  Sat.  III. 
(Ganymede). 

8.  I3h.    lom.    to    I5h.    $6x0.      Transit   of   Jupiter's 

Sat.  IV.  (Callisto). 

9.  iih.    27m.    to    I4h.    32m.      Transit   of  Jupiter's 

Sat.  III.  (Ganymede). 
10-13.     Epoch    of   the    great    Perseid    meteoric    shower 
(Radiint  point  45° +  57°). 

12.  iih.     Venus  at  maximum  brilliancy. 

13.  loh.  54m.     Minimum  of  Algol  (/3  Persei). 

15.  Venus.     Illuminated  portion  of  disc   =o'236;   of 

Mars  =  0-877. 

16.  I4h.  50m.  to  I7h.  54m.     Transit  of  Jupiter's  Sat. 

IV.  (Callisto). 
19.     i3h.   i6m.  to  I3h.   46m.     Moon  occalts  X  Gemi- 
norum  (Mag.  3 •6). 

28.  Perihelion  Passage  of  Borrelly's  comet  (1903  c). 

29.  Mars  1^°  south  of  a  Librae  (mag.  2 '9). 

Photographs  of  Comet  1902  b. — Prof.  R.  H.  Curtiss 
reproduces  on  their  original  scale,  and  minutely  describes, 
some  excellent  photographs  of  Perrine's  comet  (1902  b)  in 
the  Lick  Observatory  Bulletin,  No.  42. 

The  photographs  were  secured  with  the  Pierson  camera, 
which  has  a  Dallmeyer  objective  of  15cm.  aperture  and 
82-6cm.  focal  length,  the  Floyd  telescope  of  12cm.  aperture 
and  20ocm.  focus  serving  as  a  guiding  telescope.  The  nine 
photographs  reproduced  show  very  clearly  the  remarkable 
changes  which  took  place  in  the  size  and  form  of  the 
comet's  tail. 

The  New  Observatory  for  Buluwayo. — The  Buluwayo 
Observer  for  March  21  gives  an  interesting  account  of  the 
new  observatory  which  i§  being  founded  in  that  city  by  the 
Jesuit  mission. 

Father  Goetz,  who  obtained  brilliant  successes  at  the 
Paris  University,  and  for  eighteen  months  has  been  work- 
ing at  the  Georgetown  (U.S.A.)  Observatory,  has  been 
appointed  director,  and  has  taken  with  him  a  fairly  complete 
outfit  of  instruments  for  magnetic  and  meteorological 
observations.  It  is  proposed  that,  as  the  work  progresses, 
other  instruments  for  astronomical  work  shall  be  added, 
and  part  of  the  programme  for  the  new  observatory  is  to 
undertake  the  mapping  and  cataloguing  of  variable  stars 
in  the  southern  hemisphere  on  similar  lines  to  those 
followed  at  Georgetown  for  the  northern  variables.  For 
this  purpose  the  mission  negotiated  for  the  loan  of  an 
equatorial  telescope  from  the  Carnegie  Institution,  but  the 
negotiations  have  not  yet  been  successful. 

The  Chartered  Company  has  given  two  blocks  of  land 
for  the  observatory  site,  and  the  Government  has  granted 
assistance  in  the  erection  of  the  necessary  buildings 
{Zambesi  Mission  Record,  July). 

The  System  of  e  HvoRiE. — In  No.  36  of  the  Lick  Observ- 
atory Bulletin  Prof.  Aitken  gives  the  details  of,  and  dis- 
cusses, his  observations  of  the  binary  system  e  Hydrae, 
which,  since  its  discovery  by  Schiaparelli  in  1888,  has  been 
observed  to  possess  a  rapid  motion.  The  various  observ- 
ations, except  those  made  at  Greenwich,  are  satisfactorily 
represented  by  an  ellipse  having  the  following  approximate 
elements  : — 

T=i9oir,    P  =  i5-7  years,    6  =  0-685,    o=o''-24. 
a  =  iog''s,  t=3SS.  X  =  2647,  n  = +  22-293. 

The  components  differ  fully  two  magnitudes  in  brightness, 
and  their  maximum  separation  is  only  o'^s. 

There  is  a  third  star  at  a  distance  of  3'  forming,  with 
the  close  double,  the  double  star  2  1273,  and  the  observ- 
ations show  that  together  they  form  a  ternary  system,  whilst 
the  spectrograms  obtained  with  the  Mills  spectrograph,  and 
measured  by  Dr.  H.  D.  Curtis,  show  that  this  third  star 
has  a  line  of  sight  velocity  varying  from  -f-45-2  on  November 
2802,  1899  (G.M.T.),  to  +2'9i  on  November  706,  1901, 
and  that  the  visual  and  spectrographic  binary  systems  are 
identical.  If  this  is  correct  the  spectrum  observations 
should  show  a  slow  increase  in  the  velocity  of  recession  for 
the  next  year  or  two,  and  then  a  nearly  uniform  velocity 
until  1912. 


3o6 


NATURE 


[July  30,  1903 


Wave-lengths  of  Silicon  Lines. — Supplementing  his 
recent  work  on  the  wave-length  of  the  magnesium  line  at 
A  4481,  Prof.  Hartmann  has  now  redetermined  the  wave- 
lengths of  the  two  silicon  lines  at  \  4128  and  A  4131,  and 
has  published  his  results  in  No.  i,  vol.  xviii.  of  the  Astvo- 
physical  Journal. 

These  two  lines,  which  are  of  great  importance  in  the 
discussion  of  stellar  spectra,  generally  appear  broad  and 
hazy  in  laboratory  spectra,  but,  by  photographing  the 
spectrum  of  Geissler  tubes  containing  silicon  tetra-fluoride 
at  low  pressure.  Prof.  Hartmann  has  obtained  them  as 
sharply  defined  lines,  from  measurements  of  which  he  has 
obtained  4128-204  and  4131040  as  their  respective  wave- 
lengths, these  values  being  based  on  Kayser's  wave-lengths 
for  three  iron  lines,  viz.  A  4118-709,  A  4x32-217  and 
A  4144033. 

By  similar  means  he  has  redetermined  the  wave-length 
of  the  carbon  line  at  A  4267,  and  gives  4267-301  as  its  exact 
value. 

The  EcLirsE  of  the  Moon,  April  11-12. — In  the  July 
number  of  the  Bulletin  dc  la  Society  Astronomique  de  France 
a  large  number  of  photographs  of  this  eclipse,  obtained  by 
various  correspondents  of  the  society,  are  reproduced.  The 
photographs  were  obtained  with  many  various  instruments, 
and  they,  together  with  the  remarks  accompanying  them, 
emphasise  the  exceptional  density  of  the  earth's  shadow 
during  this  eclipse. 


A  METHOD  OF  APPLYING  THE  RAYS  FROM 
RADIUM  AND  THORIUM  TO  THE  TREAT- 
MENT   OF    CONSUMPTION.' 

"yHE  successful  results  reported  in  the  treatment  of  rodent 
cancer  by  the  rays  from  radium,  and  the  general 
germicidal  action  of  the  rays,  make  the  discoveries  and 
investigations  by  Prof.  Rutherforcl  of  the  radio-active 
emanations  of  radium  and  thorium  of  great  possible  im- 
portance to  medical  men.  The  present  article  deals  with 
the  manner  in  which  these  emanations  can  be  inhaled  into 
the  lungs  and  be  made  the  means  of  applying  the  rays 
from  radium  and  thorium  to  the  treatment  of  consumption, 
in  the  hope  that  medical  men  will  be  induced  to  undertake 
research  in  this  field.  The  rays  from  radium  and  thorium 
are  very  similar  in  kind,  but  differ  greatly  in  relative  degree. 
Five  minutes'  application  of  radium  would  be  about  equiva- 
lent to  ten  years'  application  of  the  same  weight  of  thorium. 
Both  elements  continually  and  spontaneouslv  produce 
radio-active  emanations,  or  gases  in  infinitesimal  quantity, 
beyond  the  present  means  of  chemical  or  spectroscopic  de- 
tection, but  endowed  with  very  considerable  powers  of 
giving  out  rays  on  their  own  account  of  exactly  similar 
kind  to  the  rays  from  radium  and  thorium  themselves.  The 
best  condition  for  the  free  escape  of  these  emanations,  so 
that  they  can  mingle  with  the  air  the  patient  breathes, 
occurs  with  both  radium  and  thorium  compounds  when  they 
are  dissolved  in  water.  In  the  solid  state  the  emanations 
are  often  stored  up  by  the  salt  and  do  not  escape.  Three- 
quarters  of  the  normal  activity  of  a  dry  solid  radium  com- 
pound is  due  to  the  stored  up  emanation.  This  escapes 
into  the  air  instantly  when  it  is  dissolved  in  water. 

If  the  air  containing  the  emanation  is  removed  and  stored 
in  a  gas-holder  away  from  the  radium,  the  quantity  slowly 
diminishes,  and  the  radium  solution  grows  a  fresh  crop 
as  fast  as  the  old  disappears.  In  four  days  one-half  of  the 
emanation  removed  has  disappeared,  and  one-half  has  re- 
appeared in  the  vessel  containing  the  radium  solution,  pro- 
vided, of  course,  that  it  has  been  closed  air-tight  in  the 
interval.  After  about  three  weeks  the  amount  of  the  old 
emanation  remaining  is  negligibly  small  ;  the  amount  re- 
formed is  a  practical  maximum,  the  same  as  was  originally 
obtained  on  dissolving  the  solid  salt.  In  the  case  of 
thorium  one-half  of  the  emanation  disappears  or  is  repro- 
duced, as  the  case  may  be,  in  one  minute.  In  five  minutes 
the  old  emanation  has  practically  all  disappeared,  and  the 
thorium  solution,  if  kept  in  a  closed  bottle,  again  contains 
as  much  as  it  ever  did  or  can  contain.  In  three  weeks  for 
radium,  and  in  five  minutes  for  thorium,  an  equilibrium  in 
the  amount  of  emanation  present  is  reached,  as  much  dis- 
1  Abridged  from  the  British  Medical  Journal,  July  25. 
NO.    176  I,  VOL.   68] 


appearing  as  is  reproduced,  in  the  same  way  as  the  popula- 
tion of  a  country  remains  constant  when  the  number  of 
births  in  any  given  time  equals  the  number  of  deaths. 

These  considerations  regulate  the  "  dosage."  The  longer 
a  patient  breathes  through  a  thorium  solution  the  greater 
th°  dose  of  emanation.  With  radium,  however,  once  the 
emanation  has  all  been  inhaled,  no  further  effect  is  pro- 
duced, and  the  solution  must  be  left  tightly  closed  to  re- 
cover its  emanation  before  it  can  again  be  advantageously 
used.  Further,  in  dealing  with  the  thorium  emanation,  it 
is  essential  that  the  air  should  reach  the  patient's  lungs 
within  the  shortest  possible  time,  say  half  a  minute,  after 
leaving  the  thorium   solution. 

The  property  of  the  emanations  of  leaving  behind  a  film 
of  radio-active  matter  wherever  they  come  into  contact, 
which  causes  the  phenomenon  of  "  excited  "  or  "  induced  " 
radio-activity,  is  important  in  the  present  connection, 
because  this  excited  activity  will  remain  in  the  air-cells  of 
the  lungs  after  the  emanations  themselves  have  been  ex- 
haled. This  excited  activity  gradually  disappears  in  the 
course  of  time,  becoming  negligible  with  thorium  after  two 
days,  and  with  radium  after  three  or  four  hours.  The 
practical  effect  of  this  in  both  cases  will  be  to  cause  a 
feebler  continued  action  of  the  rays  on  the  lungs  after  the 
more  powerfully  radio-active  emanations  have  all  been 
exhaled. 

Which  emanation  will  prove  the  more  suited  for  the  pre- 
sent purpose  is,  of  course,  a  matter  for  trial,  but  thorium 
possesses  many  compensating  advantages  which  make  up 
for  its  very  feeble  radio-activity.  It  is  cheap,  and  can  be 
procured  in  any  quantity.  Unl'ike  radium,  the  effect  of  its 
emanation  is  proportional  to  the  time  of  inhalation.  More- 
over, in  dealing  with  the  emanation  there  is  practically  no 
limit  to  the  quantity  effectively  employable.  The  radiation 
from  a  solid  salt,  owing  to  absorption  of  the  rays  by  the 
salt  itself,  is  practically  confined  to  a  thin  surface  layer, 
but  with  the  emanation  no  such  absorption  occurs.  The 
emanation  from  a  kilogram  or  more  of  thorium  salt  could 
be  effectively  employed  on  the  lungs  of  a  single  patient. 
Thorium  nitrate,  a  very  soluble  salt,  is  the  most  suitable 
compound  to  employ,  but  the  free  nitric  acid  present  should 
be  neutralised  after  the  salt  has  been  dissolved  in  water  by 
cautious  addition  of  ammonia  with  stirring,  until  precipita- 
tion is  about  to  take  place.  A  gas  washing  bottle,  with 
outlet  and  inlet  tubes  ground  in,  could  be  used  as  the  in- 
haler, and  this  should  be  filled  as  full  as  possible  with  the 
moderately  concentrated  solution.  There  is  not  much  fear 
that  an  hour's  daily  inhalation  of  the  emanation  from  100 
grams  of  dissolved  thorium  nitrate  would  produce  any  ill 
effect,  and  both  the  quantity  employed  and  the  time  of 
inhalation  could,  after  due  trial,  be  increased  indefinitely. 
For  use  with  the  radium  emanation  the  inlet  and  outlet 
tubes  should  be  provided  with  taps.  A  few  milligrams  of 
the  salt,  radium  bromide,  for  example,  should  be  placed 
in  the  dry  bottle,  and  water  drawA  in  "to  dissolve  it,  the 
taps  being  then  closed.  For  the  first  trials,  a  few  bubbles 
only  of  the  total  gas  contained  in  a  fairly  large  bottle  should 
be  drawn  into  the  lungs  with  a  deep  breath  of  air,  and  re- 
tained as  long  as  possible  before  being  exhaled.  The  dose 
should  be  only  very  gradually  increased,  and  the  effect  on  the 
system  very  carefully  watched,  for  the  radium  einanation 
is  an  exceedingly  powerful  agent.  Mixed  witfc  £fir  it  glows 
brightly  in  a  dark  room,  and  exerts  a  very  rapid  oxidising 
action  on  carbonaceous  matter,  and  even  on  mercury.  The 
maximum  possible  dose  for  any  one  quantity  of  radium 
solution  would  be  obtained  by  inhaling  the  whole  gaseous 
contents  of  the  bottle,  a  few  bubbles  at  every  breath,  once 
every  twenty-four  hours. 

The  immunity  of  these  processes  from  external-  inter- 
ference, the  simple  nature  of  the  treatment  proposed,  the 
infinitesimal  quantity  of  the  active  agents  employed,  the 
manner  in  which  the  emanations  may  be  inhaled  to  do 
their  work  at  the  very  seat  of  the  disease,  leaving  behind 
in  their  place  the  excited  activity  to  continue  the  work  in 
a  gentle  manner  after  they  have  been  exhaled,  make  out 
a  strong  case  why  the  attention  of  medical  men  should  be 
directed  to  these  new  weapons  which  physics  and  chemistry 
have  placed  at  their  disposal.  Indeed,  if  nature  had  de- 
signed these  phenomena  for  the  purpose  proposed,  it  is 
difficult  to  see  in  what  way  they  could  be  improved  upon. 

Frederick  Soddy. 


July  30,  1903] 


NATURE 


THE  CHEMISTRY  OF  THE  ALBUMINS. 
'TTHE  composition  and  constitution  of  the  albumins  have 
hitherto  been  studied  ahnost  exclusively  from  the 
analytical  point  of  view,  and  particularly  by  the  examination 
of  the  products  of  hydrolysis  effected  by  either  acids, 
alkalies,  enzymes,  or  putrefactive  bacteria. 

Improved  methods  for  the  separation  of  these  products, 
due  to  Kossel,  E.  Fischer,  and  others,  have  led  to  the  con- 
ception of  the  complex  albumin  molecule  as  composed  of  a 
large  number  of  simple  molecules,  consisting  to  a  great 
extent  of  monamino-  and  diamino-acids  and  related  com- 
pounds (compare  Nature,  vol.  Ixv.  p.  90),  united  together 
by  some  form  of  condensation,  which  involves  an  amino- 
group,  and  is  probably  similar  in  nature  to  that  which 
occurs  in   the  formation  of  the  acid  amides. 

The  various  members  of  the  vast  group  of  albuminous 
substances  may  differ  from  one  another  in  many  ways,  but 
two  of  the  chief  points  of  difference  appear  to  be  the  variety 
of  these  component  groups,  and  the  numbers  of  them  con- 
tained in  a  single  molecule.  Thus  a  comparatively  simple 
albuminoid  substance,  such  as  silk  when  it  is  completely 
hydrolysed,  yields,  among  other  products,  the  monamino- 
acids,  tyrosine,  phenylalanine,  leucine,  alanine  (amino- 
propionic  acid),  and  glycine  (aminoacetic  acid).  Gelatin, 
on  the  other  hand,  which  is  also  comparatively  simple  in 
composition,  differs  markedly  from  silk  by  the  absence  of 
tyrosine,  whilst  oxyhaemoglo'bin,  to  take  another  instance, 
yields  tyrosine,  but  no  glycine. 

By  the  incomplete  hydrolysis  of  the  fibroin  of  silk,  more- 
over, Prof.  E.  Fischer  has  obtained  a  substance  which 
appears  to  be  a  compound  of  aminoacetic  and  amino- 
propionic  acids.  The  formation  of  this  substance  is  of 
great  interest,  since  it  probably  represents  an  intermediate 
stage  of  the  decomposition,  and  affords  strong  confirmation 
of  the  view  of  the  constitution  of  the  proteid  molecule  which 
has  just  been  stated. 

Most  of  the  final  products  of  hydrolysis  of  the  albumins 
are  familiar  compounds  which  can  readily  be  prepared  by 
synthetic  methods,  but  very  little  has  hitherto  been  known 
of  the  more  complex  substances  to  be  obtained  by  the  link- 
ing together  of  several  of  these  molecules.  It 'is  in  this 
direction  that  Prof.  Emil  P'ischer  has  been  working  for 
some  time  past,  and  he  has  contributed  to  the  current 
number  of  the  Berichte  an  account  of  the  highlv  important 
results  which  have  already  been  attained.  The  plan  of 
attack  consists  in  endeavouring  to  build  up  complex  sub- 
stances from  the  simple  amino-acids  by  first  introducing  a 
second  molecule  of  the  same  or  another  acid,  and  then  re- 
peating the  process  as  frequently  as  possible  with  each 
successive  product. 

The  first  step  was  taken  some  time  ago  by  the  production 
of  glycylglycine,  NH,.CH,.CO.NH.CH...CO,H,  from 
glycme  anhydride.  This  substance  contains  two  molecules 
of  glycine  united  in  the  typical  manner,  and  is  the  simplest 
of  the  polypeptides,  as  these  bodies  have  been  named, 
because  of  their  assumed  similarity  to  the  peptones  in 
structure.  To  add  a  third  link  to  the  chain  is,  however, 
a  matter  of  difficulty,  owing  to  the  ease  with  which  the 
amino-group  undergoes  change.  Two  methods  have,  how- 
ever, been  found  by  means  of  which  this  can  be  accom- 
plished. 

The  first  of  these  consists  in  building  up  the  new  amino- 
acetic molecule  by  first  introducing  into  the  amino-group 
the  chloracetyl  radical,  Cl.CH,.CO.  (bv  the  action  of 
chloracetyl  chloride),  and  then  introducing' the  amino-group 
by  the  action  of  ammonia,  the  final  product  being  a  crvstal- 
line  substance  having  the  formula  of  a  diglvcylelvcine 
NH,.CH,.CO.NH.CH,.CO.NH.CH,.CO.H.  A  description 
of  the  properties  and  reactions  of  this  substance  has,  un- 
fortunately, not  yet  been  published. 

The  other  method  consists  in  first  of  all  introducing  the 
group  .COXjH,  into  the  amino-group  of  glycylglycine. 
The  resulting  compound  can  then  be  converted  into  an  acid 
chloride,  which  readily  reacts  with  the  ester  of  glycine  to 
form  the  desired  compound  containing  three  glycine  mole- 
'  ules.  A  repetition  of  this  process  leads  to  the  addition  of 
I  fourth  glycine  molecule  to  the  chain,  the  final  product 
which  has  hitherto  been  obtained  being  of  the  respectable 
complexity  shown  bv  the  formula 


307 


CO2C2H5.NH.CH2.CO.NH.CH.J.CO.NH.CH2.CO.NH.CH2.CO2C2H5 
NO.    I  76  I.  VOL.  68] 


(carboxethyl-triglycylglycine  ester).  This  substance  is 
crystalline  and  is  converted  by  ammonia  into  a  crystalline 
aniide,  which  gives,  with  an  alkali  and  a  copper  salt,  the 
well-known  biuret  reaction,  which  is  given  by  all  the  arnides 
of  this  series,  as  well  as  by  the  albumins.  The  group 
.COjCjH,  combined  with  the  amino-group  cannot,  so  far, 
be  removed  from  the  molecule,  so  that,  until  some  means 
of  doing  this  is  discovered,  this  method  can  scarcely  be 
expected  to  yield  derivatives  so  closely  related  to  the  actual 
proteids  as  those  obtained  by  the  method  first  described. 

Both  methods  obviously  lend  themselves  to  the  production 
of  a  great  variety  of  compounds  containing  different  amino- 
acid  groups,  and  substances  of  this  kind,  derived  from 
glycine  and  leucine,  and  from  glycine  and  alanine,  have 
already  been  prepared.  It  seems'  probable  that  by  their 
extended  use  compounds  of  the  order  of  complexity  of  the 
peptones  or  albumoses  may  soon  be  prepared.  The  appli- 
cation of  both  methods  is,  indeed,  still  in  its  infancy,  but 
we  can  have  little  doubt  that  the  genius  which  laid  bare 
the  innermost  secrets  of  the  sugars  will  succeed  in  solving 
many  of  the  problems  which  surround  the  chemistry  of  the 
albumins.  Arthur  Harden. 


T//E  ANTARCTIC  EXPEDITIONS. 

'T'HE  report  of  Captain  Scott  to  the  presidents  of  the 
Royal  and  Royal  Geographical  Societies,  which  is 
printed  in  the  July  number  of  the  Geographical  Journal, 
adds  a  number  of  points  of  geographical  interest  to  those 
previously  published,  especially  with  regard  to  the  great 
southern  ice-barrier,  and  the  nature  of  the  lands  discovered 
by  the  British  expedition  ;  while  the  map  published  at  the 
same  time,  which  has  had  the  advantage  of  revision  by 
Lieut.  Shackleton  since  that  officer's  arrival,  permits  the 
details  of  the  narrative  to  be  followed  with  much  clearness, 
although  it  is  still  to  be  considered  merely  provisional. 

The  voyage  down  the  east  coast  of  Victoria  Land  brought 
to  light  some  new  features  in  the  configuration  of  the 
country.  Thus,  in  about  lat.  75°  30',  an  enormous  floe  of 
the  inland-ice  was  seen  to  descend  into  the  sea  and  extend 
for  many  miles  to  seaward,  closely  resembling  the  Great 
Barrier  and  the  barrier  formation  which  entirely  fills  Lady 
Newnes  Bay.  Near  the  entrance  to  MacMurdo  Strait 
(between  Erebus  and  Terror  Island  and  the  mainland),  ice- 
cliffs,  150  feet  high,  were  again  skirted,  being  evidently 
the  seaward  face  of  the  great  glacier  subsequently  explored 
by  Lieut.  Armitage.  During  the  voyage  eastward  along 
the  face  of  the  Great  Barrier,  soundings  for  some  time 
showed  depths  of  more  than  300  fathoms,  the  barrier  edge 
being  very  irregular,  and  varying  from  30  to  215  feet  in 
height.  In  the  neighbourhood  of  the  eastern  land  dis- 
covered by  the  expedition  (King  Edward  VII.  Land)  the 
soundings  suddenly  became  less,  varying  from  70  to  100 
fathoms.  The  bare  patches  seen  among  the  snow  slopes 
of  the  new  land,  which  are  evidently  the  sharp  spurs  of 
snow-capped  hills,  stand  at  a  height  of  2000  to  3000  feet. 
The  balloon  ascent  and  sledge  expedition  made  in  long. 
196°  15',  showed  that  the  surface  of  the  barrier  '  undulated 
in  long  waves  running  W.S.W.  and  E.N.E.  It  was  noticed 
that  here  the  ship  neither  rose  nor  fell  in  relation  to  the 
ice,  thus  apparently  indicating  that  the  latter  is  floating. 

The  winter  quarters  were  established  in  February,  and 
the  magnetic  observatory  was  in  readiness  for  the  term- 
day  observations  of  March  i,  all  the  subsequent  term  days 
being  kept  by  Mr.  Bernacchi  without  a  break.  On  May  3 
a  strong  southerly  gale  brought  the  first  heavy  snowfall,  also 
blowing  the  strait  clear  of  ice  to  within  200  yards  of  the 
ship.  Mr.  Hodgson  was  constantly  engaged  on  his  bio- 
logical work,  keeping  holes  open  for  his  nets  and  fish- 
traps,  and  all  the  officers  assisted  Lieut.  Royds  in  the  night 
meteorological  observations.  Auroral  displays  were  in- 
frequent and  feeble,  but  were  carefully  observed.  The 
winter  sledge  reconnaissances  revealed  much  of  the  topo- 
graphy of  the  neighbourhood,  both  on  the  south  side  of 
Erebus  and  Terror  Island,  and  between  it  and  the  main- 
land, where  there  are  three  smaller  islands,   named  White, 

1  The  whole  southern  ice-sheet  is  spoken  of  throughout  as  the  "barrier,' 
though  this  term  wotild  more  naturally  apply  to  its  northern  face  only. 


3o8 


NATURE 


[July  30,  1903 


Black,  and  Brown,  from  their  characteristic  aspects ;  the 
first  being  snow-covered,  while  the  two  others  displayed 
the  bare  basaltic  rocks  of  which  they  are  composed.  In 
September  and  October  minimum  temperatures  of  —51° 
and  —57°  F.  were  experienced  during  two  of  the  journeys. 

During  a  visit  to  Mount  Terror,  the  eastern  slopes  of 
which  are  terribly  wind-swept  and  bare  to  the  summit,  Mr. 
Skelton  made  a  perilous  descent  to  the  sea-ice.  and  was  sj 
fortunate  as  to  discover  a  breeding-place  of  the  Emperor 
penguin,  obtaining  several  specimens  of  the  young  in  down, 
besides  photographs  and  notes.  The  attacks  of  scurvy  which 
occurred  about  this  time,  brought  about  by  severe  work 
and  exposure,  were  in  reality  very  slight,  and  their  im- 
portance has  been  much  exaggerated,  all  symptoms  quickly 
disappearing  when  the  diet  was  restricted  to  seal-meat. 
Skua  gulls,  which  were  also  obtained,  were  found  to  be 
excellent  eating. 

The  southern  sledge  expedition  undertaken  by  the  Com- 
mander, with  Lieut.  Shackleton  and  Dr.  Wilson,  was 
carried  out  entirely  on  the  surface  of  the  great  ice-sheet, 
it  being  found  impossible  to  reach  the  land,  though  it  was 
sufficiently  near  to  allow  of  observations  as  regards  the 
bearing  and  altitude  of  the  different  land-masses,  as  well 
as  sketches  and  photographs.  A  remarkable  feature  seems 
to  be  the  fiord-like  openings  by  which  it  is  penetrated  at 
various  points,  though  the  intervening  volcanic  masses  rise 
into  magnificent  ranges  of  mountains.  These  openings 
had  the  appearance  of  straits,  nothing  being  seen  behind, 
though  the  state  of  the  ice-sheet  opposite  them  showed  that 
ice  must  be  pressing  out  through  them.  On  approaching 
the  land  at  the  furthest  south,  the  ice-sheet  was  found  to  be 
separated  from  it  by  an  immense  chasm,  the  ice-foot  re- 
sembling that  seen  elsewhere  at  the  sea-margin  of  the 
lands,  and  forming  a  complete  bar  to  further  progress. 
The  return  journey  was  rendered  difficult  by  the  nature  of 
the  surface  and  the  prevalent  mist. 

The  further  details  supplied  of  Lieut.  Armitage's  western 
expedition  show  that,  after  proceeding  up  one  large  glacier, 
lying  between  precipitous  granite  mountains,  a  ridge 
was  crossed  by  a  pass  4000  feet  above  the  sea  to  a 
second  glacier,  which  had  a  general  trend  from  south- 
west to  north-east.  Its  right-hand  branch  was  ascended 
to  a  range  of  remarkably  bare  granite  mountains,  the 
ice  surface  being  much  crevassed.  A  line  of  sticks  set 
up  during  the  ascent  showed  a  maximum  motion  of  3  feet 
8  inches  in  twenty-three  days.  On  gaining  a  height  of 
9000  feet  a  smooth,  open  snow-covered  plain  stretched  to 
the  westward,  its  surface  being  soft,  with  successive  crusts 
nine  inches  or  a  foot  apart.  There  were  no  sastrugi.  The 
whole  horizon  to  the  west  was  clear  and  unbroken,  and  the 
plain  appeared  to  have  a  slight  fall  in  this  direction. 
Running  streams,  7  feet  wide,  with  occasional  pools  some- 
times a  mile  in  diameter,  were  seen  on  the  return  journey, 
and  Bergschrunds  150  feet  deep  were  found  at  the  base  of 
the  mountains.  Among  the  other  journeys  described,  those 
of  Dr.  Koettlitz  for  the  investigation  of  the  ice  and  esker- 
like  lines  of  debris  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  Black  and 
Brown  Islands  are  of  most  interest. 

An  interesting  complement  to  the  narrative  of  the  British 
expedition  has  been  supplied  by  the  report  of  Dr.  von 
Drygalski,  leader  of  the  German  expedition  in  the  Gauss, 
which  was  published  as  a  supplement  to  the  official 
Keichsanzeiger  on  July  10.  It  describes  the  voyage  from 
Kerguelen  -Jid  Heard  Island  to  the  supposed  position  of 
the  non-existent  Termination  Land,  the  southward  advance 
to  a  previously  unknown  land,  in  the  vicinity  of  which 
winter  quarters  were  established,  the  scientific  work  done 
at  the  winter  station,  and  the  sledge  journeys  undertaken 
during  the  stay.  The  Gauss  was  frozen  fast  in  the  ice  to 
the  north  of  this  land,  the  pack  there  remaining  stationary 
owing  to  the  shallowness  of  the  sea  over  the  "  Continental 
Shelf.';  Only  a  few  miles  to  the  north  it  appears  to  be 
kept  constantly  in  motion  by  the  heavy  swell  caused  bv  the 
westerly  storms,  which  would  have  seriouslv  impeded  the 
scientific  work,  besides  endangering  the  ship.  From  the 
land  rose  a  bare  volcanic  peak  1200  feet  high,  which  was 
named  the  Gaussberg.  The  Gauss  was  set  free  on 
February  8  by  a  strong  easterly  wind,  but  was  caught  again 
temporarily  in  a  somewhat  lower  latitude,  the  final  start 
northward  being  made  on  April  8,  when  the  lengthening 
nights  were  already  making  navigation  difficult. 


THE    STRUCTURE    OF    SPECTRA.^ 

nPHIS  paper  gives  a  very  lucid  account  of  the  structure- 
-'■  of  various  types  of  spectra,  special  attention  being 
directed  to  the  work  on  "  series  "  which  has  been  per- 
formed during  recent  years. 

„  After  referring  to  the  splendid  work  performed  by 
Angstrom  ^nd  Rowland  in  establishing  trustworthy  tables 
of  standard  wave-lengths,  the  author  passes  on  to  the  evolu- 
tion of  the  definite  laws  which  have  been  found  to  govern 
the  distribution  of  lines  in  the  spectra  of  many  elements, 
comparing  the  occurrence  of  similar  definite  groupings  of 
lines  in  the  spectrum  of  a  substance  to  the  "  harmonics  " 
obtained  in  acoustics. 

In  1863  Mascart  found  that  certain  groups  of  lines  of 
characteristic  aspect  were  reproduced  in  different  parts  of 
the  spectrum  of  the  same  metal,  e.g.  he  found  that  similar 
triplets  to  the  "  b  "  group  of  magnesium  were  reproduced 
in  the  ultra-violet  region  of  the  spectrum  of  that  metal. 
To-day  it  is  known  that  altogether  there  are  fourteen  such 
groups  in  the  magnesium  spectrum,  one  in  the  infra-red, 
the  "  b  "  group  and  twelve  in  the  ultra-violet. 

Similarly  in  the  spectrum  of  sodium  there  are  twelve 
such  "  doublets  "  as  that  commonly  known  as  Dj  and  D, 
in  the  solar  spectrum.  If  these  "  triplets  "  and  "  doublets  " 
are  represented  on  a  scale  of  wave-lengths,  they  contract 
as  they  approach  the  ultra-violet,  but  if  they  are  represented 
on  a  scale  of  frequencies,  the  groups  of  the  same  metal' 
become  identical,  and  are  absolutely  superimposable. 
Similar  groups  have  been  found  for  a  large  number  of 
metals  by  Kayser  and  Runge. 

The  alkaline  metals,  like  sodium,  give  a  series  of 
"doublets,"  as  also  do  copper  and  silver,  whilst  the  diva- 
lent metals  (Mg,  Ca,  Sr  :  Zn,  Cd,  Hg)  give  triplets, 
although  some  of  them,  e.g.  Hg,  are  so  mixed  up  with 
other  groups  that  at  first  this  arrangement  is  difficult  tc 
recognise.  Here  then  we  have  a  simple  law,  which  should 
be  credited  to  Rydberg,  viz.  "  In  the  spectra  of  a  large 
number  of  elements  there  exist  groups  which  are  repro- 
duced several  times,  the  interval  which  separates  the  in- 
dividual lines  of  each  group  (when  represented  on  a  scale 
of  '  frequencies  ')  being  exactly  the  same  for  all  the  groups." 

For  the  alkaline  metals  the  length  of  the  interval  which, 
separates  the  doublets  varies  as  the  square  of  the  atomic 
weights,  as  is  shown  in  the  following  table  :— 


Atomic 

Length  ot 

Metal 

weights 

interval 

r/P»Xl 

(P) 

(«') 

2  Li 

7 

• — 

— 

Na 

23 

017 

3 '25 

K 

39 

057 

.        3-8i 

Rb 

...        8s 

2-34 

322 

Cs 

••       133 

5-45 

3-09 

It  was  then  found  that  these  groups  arrange  themselves- 
in  regular  series  capable  of  mathematical  expression,  and 
in  1885  Balmer  found  that  on  plotting  the  thirteen  lines- 
of  hydrogen  on  a  curve  which  had  "  m  "  (the  number  of 
the  line  counting  in  order  from  "  3  "  in  the  red  to  "  15  " 
in  the  ultra-violet)  for  its  abscissa  and  N  (the  frequency) 
for  its  ordinate,  he  obtained  a  perfectly  regular  curve  which* 
could  be  exactly  expressed  by  the  formula 
N  =  B/4-B/w2, 

where  B  was  a  constant.  Later,  Messrs.  Hales  and  Des- 
landres  discovered  sixteen  other  hydrogen  lines  in  the- 
spectra  of  prominences  and  various  stars,  and  it  was  found" 
that  these  also  might  be  represented  by  the  above  formula. 

The  spectra  of  metals  also  arrange  themselves  in  similar 
series,  although  the  relations  are  not  so  easily  seen  atj 
first,  because  of  the  overlapping  of  the  other  lines.  How- 
ever, the  spectrum  of  potassium  may  be  taken  as  an  ex- 
ample, and  we  find  that  on  plotting  the  lines  in  a  similar 
manner  we  obtain  three  such  series,  known  respectively 
as  "  the  principal,"  "  the  first  subordinate,"  and  the 
"  second  subordinate  "  series.  In  each  of  these  series  the 
brightness  of  the  lines  decreases  as  they  approach  the  more 

1  "La  Structure  des  Spectres,"  by  Prof.  Ch.  Fabry,  Marseilles,  in  the 
Kevue  G^neraU  des  Sciences,  No.  5,  March  15. 

2  The  "doublets"  for  lithium  have  not  been  observed,  but  if  the  law  is- 
applicable  in  this  case  the  interval  would  only  be  0016,  which  is  too  smali 
to  be  observed. 


0.  1 76 1,  VOL.  68] 


July  30,  1903] 


NA  TURE 


309 


irefrangible  end  of  the  spectrum,  acting  in  this  respect 
an  a  manner  analogous  to  the  hydrogen  lines.  It  is  found 
that  the  potassium  curve  is  exactly  similar  to  the  hydrogen, 
having  a  horizontal  asymptote  which  corresponds  to  the 
-limit  of  the  series.  Not  only  is  it  similar  to  the  hydrogen 
•curve,  but  by  making  two  displacements  parallel  to  the 
coordinates  it  is  found  to  be  superimposable,  and  both 
curves  may  be  represented  by  a  generalisation  of  Balmer's 
formula,  due  to  Rydberg,  as  follows  : — 

N  =  A-B/(w  +  Mr, 
where  A,   B   and  m  are  constants,    B   having   sensibly   the 
same  value  as  in  Balmer's  formula. 

It  is  interesting  to  compare  the  curves  for  the  various 
members  of  the  alkaline  metals  among  themselves,  when 
it  is  seen  that  both  for  the  "  principal  "  and  the  "  sub- 
ordinate "  series  the  limits  approach  the  red  end  of  the 
spectrum  in  the  order  of  the  atomic  weights  of  the  metals, 
•as  if  the  greater  masses  of  the  atoms  caused  the  frequencies 
of  the  vibrations  to  become  less ;  this  same  fact  becomes 
•obvious  when  we  consider,  similarly,  the  spectra  of  the 
other  metals  classified  into  tReir  natural  groups. 

Prof.  Fabry  next  describes  the  "  satellites  "  which 
accompany  most  lines  in  the  several  spectra.  For  an  ex- 
ample he  takes  the  spectrum  of  mercury,  which  is  com- 
posed of  triplets  forming  two  series,  one  the  "  diffuse  " 
and  the  other  the  "  sharp  "  ("  first  subordinate  "  and 
"  second  subordinate  "  respectively)  series  of  Rydberg.  In 
the  "diffuse"  series  the  first  element  of  each  group  is 
composed  of  four  lines,  the  second  of  three  and  the  third 
of  two,  but  in  the  "  sharp  "  series  the  elements  are 
apparently  single  lines ;  this  is  probably  due,  however,  to 
the  very  close  proximity  of  the  satellites  in  the  latter  series, 
and  in  several  cases  MM.  Fabry  and  Perot  have  shown 
hat,  with  special  apparatus  having  great  resolving  power, 
these  lines  are  of  a  compound  nature,  and  have  come  to 
the  conclusion,  which  at  least  is  probably  the  correct  one, 
that  all  the  elements  of  the  secondary  series  are  accom- 
panied by  satellites.  All  these  satellites  appear  to  share 
the  common  property  of  varying  greatly  under  different 
conditions  of  emission  {e.g.  as  temperature,  pressure  and 
nature  of  the  electric  discharge),  and  these  two  observers 
have  shown  that,  whereas  the  silver  line  at  X  547-2,  which 
is  a  satellite  of  the  line  at  X  5466,  appears  in  the  spark 
spectrum  in  air,  it  completely  disappears  when  the  spark 
takes  place  in  vacuo.  Many  metals  {e.g.  Fe,  Ni,  Mn) 
produce  spectra  so  complex  that,  as  yet,  it  has  not  been 
possible  to  classify  them,  but  this  may  be  done  when  a 
means  of  distinguishing  analogous  rays  is  discovered  and 
brought  into  use. 

This  latter  means  may  be  found  when  the  phenomena 
first  observed  by  Zeeman,  and  known  as  the  "  Zeeman 
«ffect,"  have  received  a  more  complete  study.  This 
•observer  found  that  if  the  emission  took  place  in  a  strong 
magnetic  field,  each  line  was  split  up  into  a  series  of  lines 
symmetrically  placed  as  regards  the  original  line,  but 
differently  polarised.  Taking  the  spectrum  of  mercury  as 
an  example,  we  see  that  the  second  subordinate  series  is 
made  up  of  triplets,  or,  as  shown  above,  three  separate 
parallel  series  of  lines,  which  one  may  call,  in  this  explan- 
ation, "  a,"  "  b  "  and  "  c  "  respectively.  In  the  magnetic 
field  the  members  of  the  "  a  "  series  split  up  into  nine 
separate  lines,  four  on  each  side  of  the  original  line,  some 
r.f  which  are  polarised  in  the  plane  of  the  lines  of  force,  the 
others  in  the  perpendicular  plane,  but  the  corresponding 
line  on  each  side  is  similarly  polarised.  In  the  "  b  "  series 
we  get  lines  which  are  similarly  placed  as  regards  the 
original  line,  and  similarly  polarised,  but  there  are  only 
three  on  each  side,  the  second  member  on  each  side  in  the 
"  a  "  group  having  disappeared.  Similarly  in  the  "  c  " 
series  only  two  extraordinary  lines  are  seen,  one  on  each 
side  of  the  original,  corresponding  to  the  extreme  lines  in 
the  "  a  "  series. 

To  the  first  workers  in  this  field  these  lines  appeared 
jrreatly  entangled,  but,  thanks  to  the  labours  of  Cornu, 
Micheison,  Preston,  and  more  especially  Runge  and 
Paschen,  order  has  been  evolved  from  the  chaos,  and  the 
study  of  the  "  Zeeman  effect  "  will,  in  the  future,  form  a 
ready  means  of  recognising  and  determining  series,  for  it 
has  already  been  proved  that  "  the  various  lines  which  go 
to  make  up  similar  series  behave  in  an   identical   manner 

NO.    I  76  I,  VOL.   68] 


when  the  emission  takes  place  in  a  magnetic  field,  and  if 
one  represents  each  line  by  its  '  frequency,'  the  various 
members,  in  the  same  magnetic  5eld,  resolve  themselves 
into  groups  which  are  strictly  superimposable."  It  is  also 
to  be  hoped,  and  even  expected,  that  when  the  work  of 
Humphreys  and  Mohler,  and  others,  on  the  displacement 
of  spectral  lines  under  various  conditions  of  pressure,  comes 
to  be  further  developed,  similar  laws  as  to  the  analogous 
behaviour  of  lines  in  their  corresponding  series  will  be 
evolved. 

Prof.  F"abry  concludes  his  article  with  a  discussion  of 
the  relations  which  exist  between  the  absorption  and 
emission  of  the  same  radiations,  taking  the  example  of 
the  telluric  absorption  assigned  to  atmospheric  oxygen  in 
the  solar  spectrum  as  an  example  for  discussion.  He 
doubts  the  coincidence  of  these  absorption  bands  with 
emission  lines  in  the  spectrum  of  the  gas,  although,  as 
he  points  out,  experimental  means  of  proving  their  non- 
coincidence  have  yet  to  be  devised. 


CONGRESS  OF  THE  SANITARY  INSTITUTE. 

THE  annual  congress  of  the  Sanitary  Institute  was  held 
at  Bradford  on  July  7-1 1,  under  the  presidency  of  the 
Earl  of  Stamford. 

In  his  inaugural  address  Lord  Stamford  dealt  with  the 
history  of  hygiene,  showing  how  closely  the  subject  was 
allied  to  political,  social  and  economic  history.  In  de- 
sctibing  broadly  the  various  sanitary  questions  as  they 
affected  the  home,  factory,  and  the  municipality,  the  presi- 
dent dealt  with  the  important  subject  of  school  hygiene, . 
and  pointed  out  how  essential  it  was  that  the  training 
schools  for  teachers  should  form  part  of  the  coordinated 
system  of  national  education.  It  should  be  one  of  the  first 
requirements  in  the  preparation  of  the  teacher,  and  also  of 
the  inspectors  who  are  appointed  to  visit  the  schools,  that 
they  should  practically  understand  something  of  the  nature 
of  the  child  material  upon  which  they  are  to  work,  the  con- 
ditions under  which  the  child  can  best  develop  by  the 
teacher's  guidance,  and  the  proper  use  of  the  appliances 
provided  in  modern  school  buildings. 

The  sections  and  conferences  to  which  the  papers  and 
discussions  of  the  congress  were  allotted  were  presided  over 
by  well-known  representatives  of  different  sciences  connected 
with  hygiene.  Prof.  Clifford  Allbutt,  in  his  address  on 
sanitary  science  and  preventive  medicine,  brought  forward 
for  consideration  the  question  if,  within  limits,  the  birth 
of  fewer  children  under  improved  conditions  may  be  better 
in  the  end  than  a  more  voluminous  birth-rate  of  children 
of  which  some  may  be  of  lower  vital  capacity,  and  many  less 
watchfully  reared. 

Mr.  Fitzmaurice,  of  the  London  County  Council,  presided 
over  the  section  of  engineering  and  architecture,  and  in 
connection  with  some  of  the  large  engineering  works  in 
which  he  had  been  engaged  he  directed  attention  to  the 
duty  of  providing  for  the  medical  and  sanitary  requirements 
of  the  large  bodies  of  men  temporarily  collected  for  the 
purpose  of  carrying  out  the  works,  and  showed  that  atten- 
tion to  these  requirements  was  an  economic  advantage.  In 
works  like  the  Forth  Bridge  or  others  in  the  neighbourhood 
of  large  towns  the  difficulty  could  be  overcome,  but  in 
works  abroad,  such  as  the  Nile  reservoir,  the  problem  was 
a  more  diflicult  one,  especially  as  smallpox  and  typhoid  are 
endemic  in  the  Nile  valley,  and  a  large  outbreak  of  either 
in  a  camp  where  15,000  persons  were  at  times  employed 
would  have  been  disastrous  ;  but  by  making  careful  pro- 
visions, health  conditions  were  so  well  maintained  that, 
during  the  five  years  the  works  were  going  on,  there  were 
only  four  deaths  from  smallpox  and  one  from  typhoid  fever. 
He  also  dealt  with  the  health  aspects  of  cheap  locomotion 
to  the  suburbs,  and  motor  traffic. 

Prof.  Hunter  Stewart,  in  addressing  the  section  of 
chemistry,  physics,  and  biology,  discussed  the  spread  of  and 
immunity  from  Asiatic  cholera,  and  referred  to  Great 
Britain  as  the  most  striking  instance  of  acquired  immunity. 
With  a  sea  traffic  from  India  greater  than  that  of  any  other 
European  Power,  and  in  constalnt  communication  with  the 
Mediterranean  ports,  with  no  quarantine  and  cordon  regula- 
tions such  as  prevailed  on  the  continent  of  Europe,  this 
country  has,  since  1866,  known  cholera  only  in  the  sporadic 


3IO 


NATURE 


[July  30,  1903 


form,  even  though  it  was  raging  as  an  epidemic  in  France 
and  Spain  in  1884-1885.  This  immunity  may  be  attributed 
to  the  great  measures  for  sewage  and  refuse  removal  carried 
out  in  Britain,  which  had  slowly  resulted  in  such  a  purifi- 
cation of  the  soil  as  to  make  it  unsuitable  for  conferring 
virulence  on   the  micro-organism   of  cholera. 

Among  the  subjects  discussed  in  the  sections  were  the 
notification  of  consumption,  the  several  aspects  of  sewage 
disposal,  construction  of  hospitals  and  public  baths,  and 
disinfection. 

In  addition  to  the  sections,  eight  technical  conferences 
were  held  dealing  with  the  aspects  of  hygiene,  particularly 
in  reference  to  the  different  professions  and  various  classes 
of  the  community. 

In  connection  with  the  congress  an  exhibition  of  sanitary 
apparatus  and  appliances  was  arranged,  containing  exhibit's 
brought  by  manufacturers  from  all  parts  of  the  country. 
The  visits  made  to  the  various  municipal  undertakings  arid 
sanitary  works  in  the  neighbourhood  served  as  a  valuable 
object-lesson,  illustrating  many  of  the  matters  discussed  in 
the  meetings  of  the  congress. 

Among  the  exhibits  at  the  exhibition,  which  were  care- 
fully examined  by  a  board  of  expert  judges,  a  special  Rogers 
Field  medal  was  awarded  by  the  institute  to  the  Northern 
Vacuum  Cleaning  Company  for  their  apparatus  for  clean- 
ing carpets,  furniture,  and  house  decorations  without  re- 
moving them  from  the  house.  The  attendance  of  members 
and  delegates  numbered  1550. 

E.  White  Wallis. 


THE   MUSEUMS  ASSOCIATION. 

"T*  HE  fourteenth  annual  congress  of  the  Museums 
-'■  Association  was  held  in  Aberdeen  on  July  13-16,  and 
although  the  place  of  meeting  was  so  far  north,  the  attend- 
ance was  exceptionally  good,  while  the  programme  of  busi- 
ness was  one  of  the  most  varied  and  useful  that  has  ever 
been  brought  before  the  Association.  The  president  for  this 
year  is  Dr.  F.  A.  Bather,  assistant  keeper  of  geology, 
British  Museum  (Natural  History),  whose  presidential 
address  dealt  chiefly  with  art  museums.  After  defining 
generally  the  purport  and  breadth  of  museums,  which  he 
classified  into  three  divisions,  (a)  investigation  for  the 
benefit  of  specialists ;  (b)  instruction  for  the  benefit  of 
students  ;  and  (c)  inspiration  for  the  guidance  of  the  general 
visitor,  he  entered  into  a  critical  survey  of  the  Museum  of 
Fine  Art,  specially  condemning  the  present  system  of 
arranging  pictures,  and  the  lack  of  harmony  between  the 
architecture,  decoration,  and  contents  of  an  art  gallery. 

Mr.  James  Murray  followed  with  a  paper  on  the  Aberdeen 
Art  Gallery,  which  is  about  to  be  greatly  extended  ;  then 
came  a  paper  by  Mr.  Alex.  M.  Rodger,  "  Method  of  Mount- 
ing Fish  with  Natural  Surroundings,"  which  can  be  com- 
mended to  all  curators  who  wish  to  make  their  museums 
attractive.  Mr.  W.  P.  Pycraft  was  rather  severe  on  some 
of  the  methods  of  representing  birds  in  a  museum,  and  Mr. 

E.  M.  Holmes  briefly  described  a  method  of  preserving  the 
natural  colours  of  dried  leaves  and  flowers  for  museum 
specimens,  which  had  stood  the  test  of  many  years'  ex- 
posure, while  a  paper  by  Mr.  H.  Bolton  treated  of  the 
"  Re-shelving  of  Museum  Cases."  "  On  Good  Form  in 
Natural  History  Museums  "  was  the  title  of  a  paper  by  Mr. 

F.  Jeffrey  Bell  ;  another  paper  of  the  same  character  being 
"  Neglect  of  Opportunities,"  by  Mr.  S.  S.  Buckman. 

In  addition  to  representatives  from  the  leading  museums 
of  Britain,  there  were  some  foreign  representatives  who 
read  papers.  Dr.  Jens  Thiis,  director  of  the  Nordenfjeldske 
Kunstindustri-museum,  Trondhjem,  explained  the  practical 
work  connected  with  that  museum  ;  Dr.  G.  Johanson  Karlin, 
of  the  Kulturhistoriske  Museum,  Lund,  gave  some  good 
advice  in  his  paper  on  the  museum  system  ;  while  Dr.  O. 
Lehmann,  of  the  Altona  Museum,  advocated  the  cultivation 
of  the  habit  of  drawing  in  natural  history  museums. 

Other  papers  were  contributed  by  Prof.  T.  D.  A. 
Cockerell,  of  the  New  Mexico  Normal  University ;  Dr. 
Anton  Fritsch,  of  the  Bohemian  Museum,  Prag ;  Mr.  B.  H. 
Woodward,  of  the  Perth  Museum,  Western  Australia  ;  and 
Prof.  Wm.  M.  Ramsay,  of  Aberdeen,  who  treated  of  the 
archaic  art  of  the  north-east  of  Scotland,  and  the  urgent 
necessity  for  the  preservation  of  existing  examples,  of  it, 
while    Prof.    J.    Arthur   Thomson,    in    a   convincing   paper, 


NO.    I  76  I,  VOL.   68] 


showed  the  need  for  a  faunistic  museum  for  the  north  of 
Scotland.  All  these  papers,  together  with  the  discussions 
which  they  aroused,  will  be  published  in  due  coursf^  in  the 
Museums  Journal.  The  invitation  of  the  City  of  Norwich 
to  hold  the  conference  in  1904  in  that  city  was  accepted, 
and  Dr.  S.  F.  Harmer,  superintendent  of  the  Museum  of 
Zoology,  Cambridge,  was  elected  president,  Mr.  E. 
Howarth,  of  the  Museum  and  Art  Gallery,  Sheffield,  being 
re-elected  secretary  and  editor. 


UNIVERSITY    AND    EDUCATIONAL 
INTELLIGENCE. 

The  third  reading  of  the  London  Education  Bill  was 
carried  in  the  House  of  Commons  on  July  22,  and  the 
second  reading  passed  the  House  of  Lords  on  July  28.  The 
measure  will,  therefore,  doubtless  soon  be  placed  upon  the 
Statute-book. 

The  following  awards  have  been  made  under  the  research 
scheme  of  the  Carnegie  Trust  for  the  universities  of  Scot- 
land, in  addition  to  those  announced  last  week  : — Research 
Scholarships. — Pathological  :  Mr.  C.  T.  Andrew,  Mr.  A. 
Matheson,  Mr.  M.  Logan  Taylor,  Mr.  S.  A.  K.  Wilson. 
Economical  :  Mr.  John  Young. 

Mr.  Philip  J.  Hartog  has  been  appointed  academic 
registrar  of  the  University  of  London  in  succession  to  Dr. 
H.  Frank  Heath,  and  Dr.  E.  R.  Edwards  secretary  to  the 
registrar  of  the  board  to  promote  the  extension  of  university 
teaching,  in  succession  to  Mr.  J.  Travis  Mills.  The 
Drapers'  Company  has  presented  to  the  university  the  sum 
of  1000/.  to  be  devoted  to  the  assistance  of  Prof.  Karl  Pearson 
in  his  statistical  researches  at  University  College  and  in  the 
higher  work  of  his  departnient. 

The  Technical  Instruction  Committee  of  Leeds  has  de- 
cided to  give  support  to  the  application  of  the  Yorkshire 
College  for  the  establishment  of  a  university  in  Leeds,  to 
be  entitled  Victoria  University  of  Yorkshire,  and,  in  the 
event  of  a  Charter  being  granted,  to  give  4000Z.  per  annum 
towards  the  university  funds,  in  addition  to  the  1550Z. 
granted  from  the  "  whisky  "  money.  The  finance  com- 
mittee also  approved  of  the  resolution.  The  Gazette  of 
Friday  last  announces  that  a  petition  has  been  presented 
to  the  King  in  Council  praying  that  a  Charter  be  granted 
constituting  an  independent  university  in  Sheffield. 

Among  many  questions  of  educational  interest  considered 
in  the  report  for  1902  of  the  council  of  the  City  and  Guilds 
of  London  Institute  is  that  of  the  relation  between  the 
amount  of  State  aid  for  university  and  higher  technical 
education  and  that  of  private  munificence  for  the  same 
purpose.  The  report  states,  "  that  State  or  public  aid  does 
not  necessarily  take  the  place  of  private  and  voluntary 
effort  is  shown  by  the  experience  of  the  United  States  of 
America.  Notwithstanding  the  increasing  revenue  avail- 
able there  from  the  State  land  grants  permanently  assigned 
to  education,  the  activity  and  munificence  of  private  effort 
increases  rather  than  diminishes,  as  shown  by  the  large 
contributions  which  are  continually  being  made  to  the 
principal  universities  and  higher  colleges.  In  the  three 
months  September  to  November  of  last  year  gifts  to  higher 
education,  amounting  in  all  to  nearly  five  million  dollars, 
equal  to  about  one  million  sterling,  have  been  publicly 
recorded."  The  report  also  shows  that  the  executive  com- 
mittee of  the  institute  has  had  under  consideration  the 
question  of  the  length  of  the  sessions  of  work  of  colleges 
providing  systematic  courses  of  higher  instruction.  It  has 
been  found  that  the  number  of  weeks  in  the  session  at  eight 
of  the  principal  technical  colleges  in  England  varies  from 
thirty-one  to  thirty-three,  leaving  between  four  and  five 
months'  vacation  during  the  year.  Vacations  do  not  neces- 
sarily mean  holidays,  and  in  most  colleges  the  work  of 
advanced  students  continues  into  the  vacations  ;  neverthe- 
less, the  committee  suggests  that  the  length  of  the  formal 
session  might  with  advantage  be  increased. 

Twenty-eight  senior  county  scholarships  and  exhibitions 
have  just  been  awarded  by  the  London  County  Council 
Technical  Education  Board.  The  awards  are  made  on  the 
work  and  promise  of  the  candidates,  and  most  of  the 
scholars  will  pursue  their  studies  at  universities  or  advanced 


July  30,  1903] 


NA  TURE 


311 


technical_colleges.  Among  the  awards  we  notice  the  follow- 
ing : — Mabel  Gardner,  who  has  gained  the  first  science 
scholarship  at  Girton  College,  senior  county  scholarship 
of  90/.  a  year  for  three  years.  H.  H.  Mittell,  a  full  senior 
county  scholarship  of  90/.  a  year  for  three  years  to  enable 
him  to  proceed  to  Magdalene  College,  Cambridge,  where 
he  has  gained  an  open  scholarship,  and  to  take  the  mathe- 
matical tripos.  C.  H.  Pitt,  a  senior  county  scholarship  of 
^90/.  a  year  to  enable  him  to  proceed  to  Corpus  Christi 
College,  Cambridge,  where  he  has  won  an  open  science 
scholarship.  A.  E.  Baker,  an  exhibition  of  75/.  a  year  for 
two  years  in  the  first  instance,  in  order  to  enable  him  to 
proceed  to  Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  where  he  has 
obtained  an  exhibition  and  subsizarship,  and  to  take  the 
natural  sciences  tripos.  W.  H.  Norris,  an  exhibition  of  70/. 
a  year  for  three  years  to  enable  him  to  proceed  to  Corpus 
Christi  College,  where  he  has  gained  an  open  science 
scholarship.  J.  W.  Kuhrt,  a  free  place  at  the  London 
->(  hool  of  Economics  and  Political  Science,  together  with 
III  exhibition  of  50?.  a  year  for  two  years,  in  order  to 
'  nable  him  to  take  the  B.Sc.  examination  of  the  London 
Lniversity  in  economics.  B.  P.  Williams,  an  exhibition  of 
50/.  a  year  for  two  years,  together  with  a  free  place  at  the 
college  to  enable  him  to  take  the  B.Sc.  degree  in  engineer- 
ing. P.  A.  Houseman,  an  exhibition  of  40Z.  a  year  for 
three  years  to  assist  him  to  proceed  to  Wiirzburg  University 
for  the  study  of  chemistry.  H.  H.  Hodge,  an  exhibition 
of  30Z.  for  one  year  in  order  to  enable  him  to  travel  on  the 
Continent  and  study  the  French  language  and  the  French 
system  of  education. 

The  Board  of  Education  has  recently  published  two  sets 
of  regulations,  for  the  session  1903-4,  for  schools  of  various 
grades.  One  volume  deals  with  secondary  day  schools,  and 
does  not  appear  to  differ  in  any  important  respect  from  that 
of  last  year.  The  other  contains  regulations  for  all  schools 
and  classes  in  connection  with  the  Board  of  Education  which 
have  not  received  attention  in  previous  regulations  already 
published  for  next  year's  work,  such  as  evening  schools, 
technical  institutions,  and  schools  of  art  and  art  classes. 
A  circular  letter  respecting  the  latter  volume  has  been  issued 
by  the  Board,  and  describes  for  the  benefit  of  managers  of 
schools  the  important  respects  in  which  the  regulations  for 
next  session  differ  from  those  of  previous  years.  The 
volume  may  be  said  to  concern  all  those  institutions  in 
which  instruction  of  a  specialised  or  technical  character  is 
given,  whether  in  the  day-time  or  in  the  evening,  as  well 
as  evening  schools  and  classes  the  scope  of  which  may  vary 
almost  indefinitely  with  the  attainments  and  aim  of  the 
students.  The  rule  under  which  the  rate  of  grant  payable 
for  science  instruction  given  in  the  day-time  was  half  the 
rate  payable  for  such  instruction  if  given  in  the  evening 
is  abolished,  and  grants  for  advanced  instruction  given 
during  the  day  in  technical  institutions  will  now  be  assessed 
in  accordance  with  regulations  appropriate  to  the  special 
circumstances  of  such  instruction.  The  letter  also  urges 
the  desirability  of  fixed  salaries  for  teachers  of  classes  of 
all  kinds,  and  rightly  insists  that  the  amount  of  stipend 
should  be  in  relation  to  the  qualifications  and  experience 
of  the  teacher  and  the  time  given  by  him  to  the  work  of 
the  class,  and  that  cognisance  should  be  taken  of  the  time 
absorbed  in  preparing  experimental  lectures,  in  travelling, 
and  in  the  correction  of  home-work.  It  is  very  satisfactory, 
too,  to  find  that  the  new  regulations  definitely  require  a 
sufficient  preliminary  training  for  students  in  classes  in 
>(-ientific  and  technical  subjects,  and  that  every  encourage- 
ment is  given  to  managers  to  inaugurate  a  system  of 
■  courses  of  study  "  rather  than  one  of  isolated  subjects 
in  no  way  correlated. 


SOCIETIES  AND  ACADEMIES. 
London. 
Royal    Society,    June  "18. — "On   the   Synthesis   or   Fats 
Accompanying      Absorption      from      the      Intestine."       By 
Benjamin  Moore.  M.A.,   D.Sc,  Johnston  Professor  of  Bio- 
chemistry at  University  College,  Liverpool.     Communicated 
by  Prof.  C.  S.  Sherrington,  F.R.S. 
IB  The  fats  of  the  food   are  changed   in   the   intestine  into 

fatty  acids  and  glycerine,   and  the  fatty  acids  are  then  in 
part  combined  with  alkali  to  form  soaps. 


NO.    I  76  I,  VOL.  68] 


Both  soaps  and  free  fatty  acids  have  a  very  small  solu- 
bility in  water,  and  it  is  by  the  agency  of  the  bile,  in  which 
both  are  much  more  soluble,  that  these  constituents  of  the 
digested  fats  are  made  capable  of  being  taken  up  in  soluble 
form  by  the  absorbing  cells  of  the  intestine. 

The  absorbed  fatty  constituents  are  not  taken  up  by  the 
blood  stream,  but  pass  by  a  separate  system,  namely,  the 
absorbent  lacteals  of  the  intestinal  area,  to  be  finally  carried 
to  the  circulating  blood  by  the  main  lymphatic  vessel,  the 
thoracic  duct. 

Now,  somewhere  along  the  path  of  absorption,  the 
absorbed  soaps  and  fatty  acids  are  recombined  with 
glycerine  to  form  fats,  for  in  the  thoracic  duct  after  a  meal 
containing  fat  only  fats  are  found. 

The  seat  of  this  transformation  has  not  hitherto  been 
known  with  accuracy,  but  in  this  paper  experiments  are 
quoted  to  show  that  the  change  occurs  in  the  intestinal 
cells  which  first  take  up  the  consituents  of  the  digested  fat 
in  soluble  form,  and  not  in  the  cells  of  the  lymphatic  glands 
of  the  intestine  through  which  the  absorbed  fatty  matter 
subsequently  passes  on  its  way  to  the  thoracic  duct. 

This  is  shown  by  analyses  of  the  fatty  matter  in  the 
small  lymphatic  vessels  leading  from  the  intestine,  which 
show  that,  even  here  before  the  absorbed  fatty  matter  has 
reached  the  abdominal  lymphatic  glands,  it  has  all  been 
changed  back  into  fat.  A  change  in  the  same  direction  is 
shown  by  analyses  for  fatty  constituents  of  the  intestinal 
cells,  but  here  the  process  is  found  in  progress,  and  not 
yet  complete. 

It  is  further  shown  that  the  cell  must  be  in  situ  and 
supplied  with  nutrient  matter  in  order  that  this  change  can 
be  brought  about,  for  no  synthesis  of  fat  occurs  when  the 
isolated  intestinal  cell  or  extracts  of  it  are  allowed  to  act 
upon  the  fatty  constituents  in  vitro.  The  only  change  then 
occurring  is  the  formation  from  soap  of  free  fatty  acid, 
which  is  probably  the  initial  stage  in  the  change  occurring 
in  the  living  intact  cell,  and  is  further  a  protective  action, 
which  would  prevent  the  entrance  of  the  poisonous  soaps 
into  the  circulation. 

This  demonstrates  that  the  living  cell  supplied  with 
energy  by  the  nutrient  matter  which  bathes  it  is  capable 
of  acting  as  an  energy  transformer  for  chemical  energy, 
and  of  carrying  out  syntheses  impossible  for  enzymes  which 
cannot  add  energy  to  the  ingredients  upon  which  they  act, 
and  hence  cannot  carry  out  complex  syntheses  requiring 
the  addition  of  chemical  energy  to  those  ingredients,  as  can 
the  living  cell. 

"  The  Theorv  of  Symmetrical  Optical  Objectives."  Bv 
S.  D.  Chalmers,  B.A.  (Cantab.),  M.A.  (Sydney),  St.  John's 
College,  Cambridge.  Communicated  by  Prof.  Larmor, 
Sec.  R.S. 

This  paper  deals  with  the  relations  between  the 
aberrations  of  a  lens  system,  used  with  a  front  stop,  and 
those  of  the  compound  system  formed  by  two  such  systems 
disposed  symmetrically  with  respect  to  the  stop.  The 
results  justify  the  practice  of  correcting  a  single  component 
— the  back  one — for  astigmatism  and  spherical  aberration, 
provided  due  attention  is  paid  to  the  securing  of  the  con- 
dition for  no  distortion. 

Paris. 

Academy  of  Sciences,  July  20. — M.  Albert  Gaudry  in  the 
chair. — The  manner  of  flow  of  a  spreading  sheet  of  water 
on  a  plane  surface,  applied  to  the  case  where  the  surface 
is  curved,  by  M.  J.  Boussinesq. — On  a  new  method  for 
the  detection  and  estimation  of  small  traces  of  arsenic,  by 
M.  Armand  Gautier.  It  is  based  on  the  principle  that 
ferric  oxide  precipitated  in  the  presence  of  arsenic  carries 
down  with  it  the  whole  of  the  latter,  even  in  the  presence 
of  chlorides  and  other  salts.  The  arsenic  in  the  precipitate 
can  then  be  directly  estimated  in  a  Marsh  apparatus.  In 
this  way  the  thousand  millionth  of  its  weight  of  arsenic 
can  be  detected  in  a  substance,  and  its  presence  was  shown 
in  the  purest  distilled  water  and  many  common  reagents. — 
On  the  torsion  movements  of  the  eye  when  looking  in 
certain  directions,  the  socket  remaining  in  the  primary 
position,  by  M.  Yves  Delagre. — On  a  new  action  produced 
by  the  rays  n,  and  on  several  facts  with  regard  to  these 
radiations,  by  M.  R.  Blondlot.  The  rays  n  falling  on 
platinum  foil  heated  to  dull  redness  cause  it  to  glow  more 
brightly.  This  effect  is  not  due  to  increase  of  temperature. 
The  increased  brilliancy   is  observed   on   both   sides  of  the 


312 


NA  TURE 


[July  30,  1903 


foil  owing  to  the  fact  that  cold  platinum,  which  is  opaque 
to  these  rays,  becomes  transparent  on  heating. — Study  of 
the  molecular  deformations  of  a  steel  bar  submitted  to 
thrust,  by  M.  L.  Fraichet. — Photographs  of  the  Borelly 
comet  (1903  c),  by  M.  Qudnisset.  These  photographs  were 
taken  at  the  author's  observatory  at  Nanterre,  and  in  pairs, 
so  as  to  give  a  stereoscopic  representation. — On  the  theory 
of  the  acoustic  field,  by  M.  Charbonnier.  The  theory 
serves  to  explain  certain  photographs  of  projectiles  obtained 
by  Dr.  Mach,  of  Vienna,  and  is  the  basis  of  Gossot's  method 
of  measuring  the  velocity  of  projectiles. — Contribution  to 
the  study  of  superheating,  by  M.  A.  Petot. — Sublimation 
curves,  by  M.  A.  Bouzat.  A  comparison  of  the  sublimation 
curves  of  carbon  dioxide,  ammonium  sulphide,  and 
ammonium  carbonate  with  the  dissociation  curve  of  the 
compound  of  silver  chloride  and  ammonia. — On  the  law  of 
recombination  of  ions,  by  M.  P.  Langevin.  An  expression 
is  developed  which  gives  the  ratio  of  recombinations  to  the 
number  of  collisions  between  two  ions  of  opposite  sign,  and 
is  verified  by  comparison  with  the  experimental  values  for 
air  and  carbon  dioxide. — On  commutation  in  continuous 
current  dynamos,  by  M.  Iliovici. — The  influence  of  tempera- 
ture on  the  dichroism  of  mixed  liquids,  and  a  proof  of  the 
law  of  indices,  by  M.  Georges  Meslin,  Substances  are 
chosen  for  which  the  value  of  the  index  of  the  liquid  but 
very  slightly  exceeds  the  mean  value  for  the  solid.  The 
change  in  sign  of  the  dichroism  with  rise  of  temperature 
was  experimentally  verified  in  a  number  of  cases. — On 
photographic  spectrophotometry,  by  M.  C.  Camichel. 
Various  catalytic  reactions  brought  about  by  metals  and  the 
accelerating  and  retarding  influences,  by  M.  A.  Trillat. 
Reactions  between  copper  or  platinum  and  the  vapour  of 
alcohols  of  oxidising,  reducing,  condensing,  or  saponifying 
effects.  The  reactions  are  considerably  affected  by  traces 
of  impurities,  and  the  copper  must  first  be  tarnished  by  heat- 
ing in  air. — On  ferrisulphuric  acid  and  ethyl  ferrisulphate, 
by  M.  A.  Recoura.  The  ethyl  ester  is  obtained  by  boiling 
the  acid  with  alcohol  as  a  yellow  solid.  On  heating  the 
acid,  it  loses  simultaneously  one  molecule  of  sulphuric  acid 
and  two  of  water,  leading  the  author  to  assign  to  it  the 
formula  Fe,03.3S03.H2SO,.2H,0  +  6H20.— Prussian  and 
TurnbuU's  blues.  A  new  class  of  complex  cyanides,  by 
M.  P.  Chretien.  A  soluble  acid  blue  or  hydrodiferrocyanic 
acid,  Fe2CygH,3H20,  is  obtained  by  the  spontaneous  de- 
composition of  hydroferrocyanic  acid  at  about  20°.  It 
reacts  with  alkalis  as  follows  : — Fe,CygH  +  4KOH  = 
FeCysK^+Fe(OH)3  +  H20.  This  and  other  reactions  are 
studied  thermochemically. — On  spartein.  General  charac- 
teristics ;  action  of  some  reducing  agents,  by  MM.  Ch. 
Moureu  and  A.  Valeur.  This  communication  contains  a 
repetition  of  previous  work  on  spartein,  and  an  account  of 
unsuccessful  attempts  to  obtain  reduction  products. — On  the 
isonitrosomalonic  ethers  and  their  conversion  into  mesoxalic 
ethers,  by  MM.  L.  Bouveault  and  A.  Wahl.  The  methyl 
and  ethyl  ethers  were  obtained  pure,  and  converted  into  the 
corresponding  mesoxalic  ether  by  means  of  nitrogen 
peroxide. — Action  of  ammonia  on  the  compound  of  oxide  of 
ethylene  and  ;8-o-cyclohexanediol,  by  M.  L6on  Brunei. 
With  an  excess  of  ammonia  o-aminocyclohexanol  is 
obtained  ;  with  less  ammonia,  more  complicated  substances. 
— Researches  on  the  nutrition  of  etiolated  plants,  by  M.  G. 
Andre. — On  the  phospho-organic  reserve  material  of  plants, 
by  M.  S.  Posternak.  The  method  is  given  for  the  separ- 
ation of  this  substance  as  the  salt  of  an  acid,  CH5PO5,  from 
seeds  and  other  parts  of  plants.  In  this  way  70  per  cent, 
to  90  per  cent,  of  the  phosphorus  in  the  seeds  can  be 
accounted  for,  lecithine  representing  only  i  per  cent,  to 
7  per  cent,  of  the  phosphorus. — On  roots  trained  by  experi- 
ment to  grow  upwards,  by  M.  H.  Ricome.  The  plants 
(beans)  were  attached  to  the  end  of  a  long  thread  kept 
oscillating.  The  development  of  the  root  and  longitudinal 
growth  were  perfectly  normal. — A  resinous  Granadilla,  by 
M.  Henri  Jumelle.  The  exudation  from  the  base  of  the 
stem  of  this  plant,  the  Ophiocaulon  Firingalavense,  is  a  resin 
rather  than  a  wax,  and  contains  83  per  cent,  of  true  resin, 
which  is  deposited  as  an  amorphous  mass  from  solvents. — 
Contribution  to  the  study  of  the  Aepyornis  of  Madagascar,  by 
M.  Guillaume  Grandidier.  Particulars  of  the  lower  portions 
of  a  skeleton  of  the  Aepyornis  ingens. — On  basic  inclusions 
from  the  volcanoes  of  Martinique  and  St.  Vincent,  by  M.  A. 
Lacroix. — Contribution  to  the  study  of  congenital  changes 
in  the  nervous  system,  by  MM.  Claude  Vurpas  and  Andr^ 


Ldri. — On  the  organic  respiratory  gases  in  diabetes,  by 
M.  J.  Le  Goff.  These  gases  contain  acetone,  which  wa& 
separated  as  iodoform  and  estimated.  In  one  case  it 
amounted  to  nearly  3  grammes  in  twenty-four  hours. — On 
the  retention  of  irritability  of  certain  organs  separated 
from  the  body  and  immersed  in  an  artificial  nutritive- 
medium,  by  MM.  E.  H^don  and  C.  Fleig:. — The  formation 
of  callus,  by  MM.  V.  Cornil  and  P.  Coudray. — Observ- 
ations on  the  sea-level  since  historic  and  prehistoric  times, 
by  M.  Ph.  N6grris.  From  the  fact  that  two  ancient  piers 
at  the  south  entrance  of  the  Straits  of  Leucade  are  now 
nearly  three  metres  under  water,  and  from  the  encroach- 
ments of  the  sea  in  various  parts  of  the  Mediterranean 
during  the  last  2500  years,  conclusions  are  drawn  as  to  the 
change  of  level  of  the  latter  during  a  long  period. — On  the 
use  of  fluorescein  in  subterranean  hydrology,  by  M.  E.  A.. 
Martel. 


CONTENTS.  PAGE 

A  Modern  Physicist 289 

Micro-organisms  in  the  Arts  and  Manufactures.   By 

Prof.  G.  Sims  Woodhead agO' 

Visual  Purple.     By  Dr.  W.  H.  R.  Rivers 291 

Our  Book  Shelf:— 

Bretzl :    "  Botanische    Forschungen    des    Alexander- 

zuges" 292 

Harrison:  "Practical  Plane  and  Solid  Geometry  for 

Elementary  Students  " 295 

Wintelen  :  *'  Die  Aluminium-Industrie." — F.  M.   P.     293 
Aschan :     "  Die    Konstitution    des     Kamphers    and 

seiner  wichtigsten  Derivate."— J.  E.  N 293 

Manno  :    "  Theorie    der    Bewegungsiibertragung." — 

R.  W,  H.  T.  H 294 

Letters  to  the  Editor  :— 

On  a  Map  that  will  Solve  Problems  in  the  Use  of  the 
Globes.     {With  Diagram.)     Prof.  J.  D.  Everett, 

F.R.S 294 

Action  of  Tesla  Coil  on  Radiometer. -—Prof.   P.  L, 

Narasu 295, 

Tides  at  Port  Darwin.— R.  W.  Chapman 295 

Spirals   in  Nature    and    Art.— Theodore    Andrea 

Cook 296 

Distribution     of     Calostoma. — Kumagusu     Mina- 

kata  ;  Geo.  Massee 296 

School  Geometry  Reform. — Prof.  Frank  R.  Barrell    296 
The  Moon's   Phases   and  Thunderstorms. — Ottavio 

Zanotti  Bianco 296 

The  New  Mammoth  at  St.  Petersburg.  {Illustrated.) 

By  A.  S.  W 297 

The    Ethnology    of  the    Malay   Peninsula,     {llltti- 

trated.) 2gS 

Electrochemistry  in  America 299 

Notes 301 

Our  Astronomical  Column  : — 

Astronomical  Occurrences  in  August 305 

Photographs  of  Comet  1902  b 305 

The  New  Observatory  for  Buluwayo 305 

The  System  of  e  Hydrse 305 

Wave-lengths  of  Silicon  Lines 306 

The  Eclipse  of  the  Moon 306 

A  Method  of  Applying  the  Rays  from  Radium  and 
Thorium  to  the  Treatment  of  Consumption.     By 

Frederick  Soddy 306 

The  Chemistry   of   the  Albumins.     By  Dr.  Arthur 

Harden 307 

The  Antarctic  Expeditions 307 

The  Structure  of  Spectra 30& 

Congress  of  the  Sanitary  Institute.     By  E.  White 

Wallis 309 

The  Museums  Association 310 

University  and  Educational  Intelligence 31a 

Societies  and  Academies "    311 


NO.    1 76  I,  VOL.  68] 


NATURE 


\% 


THURSDAY,   AUGUST  6,    1903. 


THE    MINERAL     WEALTH    OF    AFRICA. 
Les    Richesses    Minirales    de    I'Afrique.       By    L.    de 
Launay.     Pp.    395 ;    with    71     figures    and    maps. 
(Paris  :  Ch.   B^rangfer,   1903.)     Price  20  francs. 

PROF.  DE  LAUNAY  gives  a  further  proof  of  his 
indefatigable  industry  in  this  new  volume  from 
his  pen.  It  is  a  formidable  task  to  deal  even  briefly 
with  the  mineral  wealth  of  a  huge  continent,  which 
has  been  only  imperfectly  explored ;  but  fortunately 
the  author  is  eminently  qualified  for  the  task.  He  is 
no  novice  in  writing  upon  mineral  deposits,  and  he 
has  visited  many  mines  in  North  Africa,  besides  the 
most  important  districts  in  the  south.  The  book  is 
arranged  so  as  to  suit  two  classes  of  readers,  those 
who  wish  to  learn  all  they  can  about  the  occurrence 
of  some  given  mineral,  such  as  gold,  copper  ore, 
phosphate  of  lime,  &c.,  and  those  whose  interest  re- 
lates only  to  some  particular  country  or  region.  This 
arrangement  involves  a  certain  amount  of  duplica- 
tion, but  it  is  certainly  a  convenience.  Thanks  are 
likewise  due  to  the  author  for  his  little  sketch  maps. 
Who  has  not  experienced  the  want  of  such  maps? 
For  when  seated  in  an  easy  chair  the  reader  is  apt 
to  be  too  lazy  to  get  up  and  fetch  his  atlas,  and  he 
consequently  often  fails  to  derive  full  benefit  from  the 
work  he  is  perusing. 

What  is  the  mineral  wealth  of  South  Africa?  Of 
the  future  mineral  resources  of  the  Dark  Continent 
we  are  ignorant;  further  explorations  may  reveal 
new  treasures;  but  if  by  "  mineral  wealth  "  is  under- 
stood the  value  of  the  present  output,  the  question  is 
answered  by  the  following  tables,  which  have  been 
compiled  from  the  Blue-books  published  annually  by 
the  Home  Office.  Though  the  information  is  neces- 
sarily incomplete,  it  will  suffice  for  the  purposes  of 
the  present  article. 

In  a  normal  year,  such  as  1898,  gold  is  seen  to  be 
far  ahead  of  any  other  mineral  as  regards  value ;  and 
when  we  consider  that  before  the  war  with  the  Boers 
Africa  was  furnishing  more  than  one  quarter  of  the 
world's  supply  of  the  precious  metal,  it  is  evident  that 
Prof,  de  Launay  is  fully  justified  in  devoting  his  first 
chapter  to  a  description  of  the  auriferous  deposits  of 
the  continent.  The  gold  mines  of  the  Witwatersrand 
naturally  claim  a  full  share  of  attention.  Excellent 
figures,  with  full  descriptions,  explain  the  nature  of 
the  "  banket  "  or  gold-bearing  conglomerate,  and  the 
question  of  the  origin  of  the  gold  is  discussed  at  some 
length.  The  three  usual  hypotheses  are  brought  for- 
ward; they  may  be  spoken  of  briefly  as  "previous 
origin,"  "contemporaneous  origin,"  and  "subse- 
quent origin."  In  other  words,  it  is  supposed  by 
some  geologists  that  the  gold  is  a  detrital  product, 
like  the  pebbles  of  quartz;  others  suggest  that  it  was 
deposited  from  solutions  while  the  pebbles  were  find- 
ing a  resting  place;  whilst  most  mining  engineers 
favour  the  idea  that  solutions  brought  it  into  the 
conglomerates  long  after  their  consolidation.  The 
pros  and  cons  are  given  in  each  case;  however,  there 
are  difficulties  in  accepting  any  one  of  the  three 
NO.    1762,  VOL.  68] 


theories  advanced,  and  Prof.'  de  Launay  honestly 
confesses  that  he  is  puzzled,  and  that  he  cannot  make 
up  his  mind  on  the  matter. 

He  is  careful  to  point  out  that  the  Rand  must  be 
regarded  as  an  exceptional  case,  and  that  it  by  no 
means  follows  from  the  discovery  of  "  banket  "  in 
West  Africa  that  the  "  Jungle  "  gold  mines,  as  they 
are  known  on  the  Stock  Exchange,  will  necessarily 
prove  to  be  rich  and  valuable  properties. 

The  pages  relating  to  the  occurrence  of  gold  in 
Egypt  contain  matter  of  much  antiquarian  interest; 
the  public  are  only  now  beginning  to  learn  that 
Egypt  was  the  California  of  the  Old  World,  and' 
that  gold  w^as  being  extracted  from  quartz  veins 
between  the  Nile  and  the  Red  Sea  at  least  2500  years 
B.C.  But  the  author  makes  a  mistake  in  saying  that 
the  gold  occurs  under  conditions  similar  to  those 
under  which  it  is  found  in  Cornwall.  In  that  county 
we  have  no  auriferous  deposits,  for  the  small  grains 
of  the  precious  metal  occasionally  found  in  working 
stream  tin  in  olden  days  were,  practically  speaking, 
mineralogical  curiosities. 

Next  in  importance  come  diamonds ;  for  though  the 
emeralds  of  Gebel  Sahara  and  the  turquoises  of  Sinai 
were  known  and  worked  by  the  ancients,  the  only 
gem-mining  which  need  be  taken-  into  consideration 
at  the  present  time  is  that  of  South  Africa.  It  is 
a  curious  fact,  on  a  continent  in  which  both  gold 
and  gems  were  obtained  in  considerable  quantities 
even  in  very  remote  ages,  that  the  deposits  which 
are  now  yielding  so  lavishly  should  have  remained 
undiscovered  until  the  latter  part  of  the  last  century. 
The  mode  of  occurrence  of  diamonds  in  South  Africa 
is  thoroughly  well  known  to  geologists ;  but  the  pre- 
cise manner  in  vt'hich  they  were  originally  formed 
still  affords  room  for  speculation.  Prof,  de  Launay 
repeats  the  hypothesis,  already  suggested  in  his 
previous  work,  "  Les  Diamants  du  Cap,"  that  a  bath 
of  supercarburetted  molten  iron  and  magnesium 
existed  beneath  the  granite,  and  that  the  diamonds 
were  formed  on  a  large  scale  after  the  fashion  of 
the  minute  ones  obtained  artificially  by  Moissan. 

The  discovery  of  workable  deposits  of  phosphate 
of  lime  is  one  of  recent  date;  it  now  appears  that 
they  extend  more  or  less  continuously  from  Morocco 
to  Egypt.  Algeria  already  produces  more  than 
300,000  tons  a  year,  and  Tunisia  more  than  200,000 
tons  from  strata  of  Eocene  age.  The  Egyptian  de- 
posits, which  occur  in  Upper  Cretaceous  rocks,  are 
extensive  but  poor. 

There  are  reasons  for  believing  that  the  dry  Sahara 
and  Algeria  may  contain  deposits  of  nitrate  of  potash 
and  nitrate  of  soda  similar  to  the  "  caliche  "  of  Chili; 
the  matter  is  now  being  investigated  officially. 

Practically  speaking,  all  the  copper  of  Africa  comes 
from  Namaqualand;  the  advent  of  better  means  ot 
transport  may  render  this  statement  incorrect  in  the 
course  of  a  few  years,  for  ores  of  the  metal  are  known 
to  exist  in  many  parts  of  the  continent. 

Coal  of  Permo-triassic  age  is  worked  in  the  Trans- 
vaal, Natal,  and  Cape  Colony,  and  Rhodesia  will 
scon  become  a  producer. 

The   total   value   of   all   the   minerals   produced   in  , 

P 


3^4 


NATURE 


[August  6,  1903 


kv%\CK.  — Output  and  Value  of 


Abyssinia 

Algeria 

Cape  Colony 

French  Soudan 

German  E.  Africa          Gold  Coast 

Madagascar 

Quantity 
Stat.  Tons 

Value 

Quantity 
Stat.  Tons 

'   Value 

Quantity        Value 
Stat.  Tons          £, 

Quantity!   Value 
Stat.  Tons       £, 

Quantity 
Stat.  Tons 

Value 

Quantity 
Stat.  Tons 

Value 
£ 

Quantity   Value 
Stat.  Tons      £ 

Anttmony  Ore      .. 

Asbestos      

Brown  Coal 

Clay             

Coal 

Copper  Ore 

Crocidoli  e 

Diamonds  (carats)... 

Fireclay      

Flags           

Garnets        

Gold  (ounces) 

Gypsum       

Iron  ore       

Lead  tire    ...         ... 

Limestone  ... 

Marble         

Onyx            

Phosphate  of  Lime 

Plaster         

Potter's  Clay 

Salt 

Sand  and  Gravel  ... 

Silver  Lead  Ore  ... 

Stone,  Building    ... 

„        Rough        ... 

Tin  Ore      

Zinc  Ore     

- 

136 

197 
77.447 

6,271 

25,565 

265,145 
29,280 

20,966 

71.045 

'&. 
29.304 

883 

"96 
1Z.415 

— 

2,701 

15 

140.733 

624 

24.957 

6,  Dot 

2.497 
215,600 
22,117 

17.193 

3.143 

69.766 
37.843 

56.268 

149 
171.301 

3.270,917 

[carats 
1,240 

I  27  oz. 

11.850! 
442,380 
[bushels 

2.037 

i35.«5i 

310,636 

700 

4.i28,32r 

not  stated 
444 

I      32,598 

2,700  oz. 

- 

• 
^     .- 

11,560 

- 

— 

17.733  oz. 

- 
_ 

63..  838 

— 

Total 

_ 

- 

- 

612,852 

- 

4,610.5873,         -             11,560 

_         _ 

-        i    63,838 

1 

~     J  ~ 

Estimated  at  60  lb.  =1  bushel. 


3  Total  incomplete. 


AvVilCA.— Output  and  Value  of 


Abyssinia 

Algeria 

Cape  Colony 

French  Soudan     1  German  E.  Africa 

Gold  Coast 

Madagascar 

Quantity 
Stat.  Tons 

Value 
£  , 

Quantity 
Stat.  Tons 

Value 
£ 

Quantity 
sYat.  Tons 

Va^ue 

Quantity     Value      Quantity 
Stat.  Tons!       £        Stat.  Tons 

Value 
£ 

Quantity 
Stat.  Tons 

Value 
£ 

Quantity     Value 
Stat.  Tons        £ 

1 

Antimony  Ore 

Asbestos      

Brown  Coal 

Clay 

Coal 

Copper  Ore 

Crocidolite 
Diamonds  (carats)... 

Fireclay       

Flags            

Garnets        

Gold  (ounces) 

Gypsum        

Iron  Ore      

Lead  Ore    

Limestone 

Marble         

Onyx             

Phosphate  of  Lime 

Plaster         

Potter's  Clay 

Salt 

Sand  and  Gravel  ... 
Silver  Lead  Ore    ... 
Stone,  Building     ... 
„       Rough 

Tin  Ore        

2inc  Ore      ... 

3i,i6Toz.i 

139^600 

210 
117,312 

7.152 

8,218 
^  591 

26.574 

289 
260,815 
34.191 

18,226 

85.357 

785,948 
1,413,566 

26,488 

102 
17,040 

5,035 

3,424 

60 

198,679 

4,383 

25.500 

3.352 
212,000 
26,397 

15,99s 
3,774 

73,744 
56,550 

52,704 

88 

205,810 
45,356 

2,781.385 

[carats 

900 

78  oz. 
not  stated 

1.433 

180,413 

613.739 

150 

5,387.955 

not  stated 
302 

not  stated 

^ 

i       - 

not  stated 
- 

•  z 

2,750 

6,162  oz. 

22,187 
- 

z 

= 

z 

33,600  oz. 

112,860 

Total 

-: 

139,600 

-■ 

698,739' 

- 

6.i83,992» 

- 

- 

- 

2,750 

- 

22,187      -     [112,860 

2,710  ounces  of  fine' silver  are  contained  in  the  gold. 
Total  incomplete.        "  :    . 


NO.   1762,  VOL.  '68] 


August  6,  1903] 


NA  rURE 


315 


Minerals  in  the  year  1898. 


Natal 

Orange  River  Coly. 

Portug.  E.  Africa          Rhodesia 

Senegal 

Transvaal 

Tunis 

Total 

Quantity  1  Value 
Sut.  Tons!      £, 

Quantity  j  Value 
Stat.  Ions!       £, 

Quantity 
Stat.  Ions 

Value   Quantity 
£,      Stat.  Tons 

Value 

Quantity 
Stat.  Tons 

Value 

Quantity 
Stat.  Tons 

"t 

Quantity       Value 
"!tat.  Tons,        £, 

Quantity 
Stat.  Tons 

Value 

387.811 

r7  0Z. 

75.015 
"60 

_ 

288,937 
[carats 

z 
z 

z 



498.797 

- 

II  1  M  M  1   1  II  1  II  M  1  M  II  1   II  II  II 

\ 

- 

23,911  oz. 

E 

- 
83.^53'' 

— 

_ 

_ 

_ 
4,147  oz. 

— 
15.464 

z 

z 

_ 

- 

1.907,809 

22.843 
[carats 

z 

3,830,337 

~  80 

23 

668,346 
43,730 

16,240.630 

- 
500 

1,800 

2.337 
591 

7.708 
7.18s 

290.341 
65.942 

2t,4i9 

not  stated 

7T536 

not  stated 

not  stated 
6,424 

not  suted 
not  stated 

4r268 

•36 
149 
197 

77,447 
2,466,921 

36,822 

3,582,697 
[carats 
1,240 
6,271 

3,877.972  oz 

4^6'.^ 
2,455 
25,565 
1,560 
216 
265,145 
29.280 
5.708 
40,001 

71,045 

80 

1,017,690 

740,605 

23 

50,723 

833 

2.037 

96 

12.415 

879  2I*> 
310,636 

4,670,8^ 

not  stated 
2,701 

16,415,049 

15 

>40,733 

8,.6o 

24,957 

6,001 

not  stated 
56,215 

3.M, 

500 
69,766 
37.843 
1.800 
99,536 

- 

75.075            —          1  498.797  '          — 

- 

83.053 

- 

IS.464 

i  - 

16,955,006 

- 

57,2283 

i 

~ 

22,983,460 

2  This 

total  is  ma 

ie  up  of  g 

old  declare 

d  to  A 

ugust  31,  I 

398,  viz.. 

6,533  0Z-. 

and  gold 

produced 

from  Septen- 

ber  to  December,  1898,  16,378  oz. 

Minerals  in  the  year  190 1. 


Natal 

Orange  River  Coly. !  Portug.  E   Africa            Rhodesia 

Senegal 

Transvaal 

Tunis                              Total 

Quantity  j  Value 
Stat.  Tonsj      £, 

Quantity 
Slat.  Tons 

Value   !  Quantity 
L        Stat.  Tons 

Va^ue 

Quantity 
Scat.  Tons 

Value 

Quantity 
Stat.  Tons 

Value 

Quantity  |     Value 
Stat.  Tons           i 

Quantity 
Stat.  Tons 

Value 

Quantity 
Stat.  Tons 

88 

210 

117,312 

'  52,'5o8 

2,781,385 

[carats 

900 

8,218 

487,604  oz. 

591 

506,347 

«!^58 

60,834 

"289 

430.468 

46,970 

6,274 

34,850 
85,357 

1,645.952 
1,413.566 

44, JOS 

Value 

569200 
135  oz. 

1 

549.439 
531 

1  II  1  1  II  1  1  i  1  1  1  1  1  1  1  1  II      II  II  1  1  M 

13,C32  oz. 

52,577 

z 

172,035  oz. 

_ 

623,627 

M  M  M  M   II  II  II  II  M  M  1  1  II  1  M  1 

— 

468,1622 

230,801  3 

-  [oz. 

- 

201,634 

9te,38i 

8,070 
34.250 

169.653 
12,779 
6,274 
16.633 

88^004 

17.617 

26,760 
29.635 

105,700 
24,078 

14,880 
61,251 
43,240 

1,433 
102 

93M86 

618,774 

150 

5,387.955 

not  stated 

3.424 

2.750 

1,932,065 

60 

198,679 

3i,«43 

55.135 

3,352 
317,700 
50,47s 

30,875 
3.774 

f34.995 
56,550 

95.944 

■                 ,  549.970 

- 

- 

- 

5a,  577 

- 

623,637 

- 

- 

- 

i,i8a,oi5 

- 

30S.844 

- 

9,874,«6i 

'  Output  for  the  last  four  months  of  the  year  only.  3  Output  for  the  last  six  months  of  the  year  only. 

•  No  work  was  done  at  the  Jagersfontein  Mine  during  the  financial  year  ended  March  31,  1902.     The  output  for  the  financial  year  ended  March  31, 

1901,  was  18,002  carats,  valued  at  37,079/. 


NO.   1762,  VOL.  68] 


3<6 


NATURE 


[August '6,  1903 


Africa  in  1898  was  about  23  millions  sterling.  This 
amount  seems  small  for  the  huge  continent,  when  we 
reflect  that  in  190 1  the  coal  output  of  Wales  alone  was 
worth  19^  millions,  and  that  of  Northumberland  and 
Durham  about  the  same  amount.  But  after  reading 
Prof,  de  Launay's  book,  it  needs  no  prophet  to  predict 
that  Africa's  mineral  deposits  will  soon  be  more 
largely  utilised. 


ROWLAND'S    WORK. 

The  Physical  Papers  of  Henry  Augustus  Rowland. 
Collected  for  publication  by  a  Committee  of  the 
University.  Pp.  xi  +  704.  (Baltimore :  Johns 
Hopkins  University  Press ;  London  :  Wesley  and 
Son,  1902.)     Price  305.  6d.  net. 

PROF.  ROWLAND'S  friends  have  been  well- 
advised  in  issuing  as;  a  memorial  to  their  late 
colleague  this  volume  of  ihis  collected  papers.  It 
enables  us  to  realise  more  fully  all  we  owe  to  him 
and  to  grasp  the  value  and  importance  of  his  work. 

Commencing  with  an  early  note  sent  to  the  Scien- 
tific American  when  the  author  was  seventeen,  the 
list  of  scientific  papers  concludes  with  an  article  on 
diffraction  gratings,  published  in  the  new  edition  of 
the  "  Encyclopaedia  Britannica  "  after  Rowland's 
death.  Then  there  follow  some  six  addresses  on 
scientific  subjects,  a  bibliography,  and  an  account  of 
the  dividing  engines  he  designed. 

Dr.  Mendenhall's  commemorative  address,  delivered 
shortly  after  Rowland's  death,  fitly  forms  an  introduc- 
tion to  the  whole,  and  gives  us  a  glimpse  of  his  life 
and  methods  of  work. 

Rowland's  fame  came  to  him  early,  though  not 
without  some  severe  struggles  and  disappointments 
on  his  part,  and  it  is  a  satisfaction  to  us  Englishmen 
to  know  that  it  was  Maxwell  who  first  recognised  his 
genius.  Prof.  Mendenhall  tells  again  the  story  of 
his  first  serious  paper,  "  On  Magnetic  Permeability 
and  the  Maximum  of  Magnetism  of  Iron,  Steel,  and 
Nickel,"  Phil.  Mag.,  1873.  The  paper  was  more  than 
once  rejected  in  America  because  it  was  not  under- 
stood, and  finally  it  was  sent  to  Maxwell,  who  wrote 
immediately  that  since  the  temporary  suspension  of 
their  meetings  made  It  impossible  to  communicate  the 
paper  to  the  Royal  Society,  he  would  send  it  to  the 
Philosophical  Magazine,  where  it  appeared  in  August, 
1873,  Maxwell  having  himself,  to  save  time,  corrected 
the  proofs.  In  this  paper  Rowland  introduced  the 
idea  of  the  magnetic  circuit  as  the  analogue  of  Ohm's 
law,  and  developed  the  now  well-known  ring 
method  of  measuring  permeability.  In  1875,  on  his 
appointment  as  first  professor  of  physics  at  the  Johns 
Hopkins  University,  he  came  to  Europe  and  worked 
for  a  time  In  Helmholtz's  laboratory  at  Berlin,  and  by 
his  researches  answered  Tait's  question,  put  to  Max- 
well in  these  words — ■ 

Will  mounted  ebonite  disc 

On  smooth  unyielding  bearing, 
When  turned  about  with  motion  brisk 

Nor  excitation  sparing, 
Affect  the  primitive  repose 

Of  +  and  —  in  a  wire? 


NO.    1762,  VOL.     68] 


To  which  Maxwell  replies — 

The  mounted  disc  of  ebonite  ' 

Has  whirled  before  nor  whirled  in  vain, 

Rowland  of  Troy  that  doughty  knight 
Convection  currents  did  obtain 

In  such  a  disc  of  power  to  wheedle 

From  its  loved  North,  the  subtle  needle. 

And  Maxwell  goes  on  to  explain  that  such  convec- 
tion currents  will  not  produce  electromotive  force  In  a 
neighbouring  wire  unless  the  speed  of  the  disc  were 
variable,  j 

The  paper  on  the  "  Magnetic  Effect  of  Electric 
Convection,"  No.  12,  in  the  volume  before  us,  was 
presented  in  the  American  Journal  of  Science  for 
1878;  von  Helmholtz  had  already  announced  the  re- 
sult to  the  Berlin  Academy  in  1876.  Rowland  re- 
turned to  the  problem  with  the  same  result  In  1889,  In 
a  paper  presented  In  the  Philosophical  Magazine,  No. 
43  of  his  collected  works.  As  Is  well  known,  the 
results  were  challenged  by  Cr^mleu  shortly  before 
Rowland's  death.  Many  readers  of  Nature  will 
remember  the  interesting  occasion  in  Section  A  of 
the  British  Association  at  Glasgow,  when  Cr^mieu 
described  how  he  had  failed  to  obtain  the  effect. 
Those  present  felt  that  In  view  of  the  confirmation 
of  Rowland's  results  obtained  at  Baltimore  by  Pender, 
Cr^mleu  must  have  been  misled,  but  no  one  could 
put  his  fingers  definitely  on  the  error.  It.  is  satis- 
factory to  know,  from  the  recently  published  joint 
work  of  Cr^mieu  and  Pender,  that  Rowland  was 
right,  and  that  a  convection  current  of  electricity  does 
produce  a  magnetic  field. 

The  research  Into  the  value  of  the  British  Associa- 
tion unit  of  resistance.  No.  15,  and  a  determination 
of  the  value  of  "  v,''  No.  44,  complete  the  series  of 
fundamental  electrical  researches,  though  his  collected 
papers  contain  many  other  memoirs  of  real  import- 
ance. 

In  his  experiments  on  the  absolute  unit  of  resist- 
ance, Rowland  shows  his  usual  acumen  as  a  critic 
and  skill  as  a  mechanic  and  observer.  Various  lines 
of  argument  had  shown  that  the  B.A.  unit,  supposed 
to  represent  10^  C.G.S.  units  of  resistance,  was  in 
error.  Rowland  sums  up  effectively  his  criticisms  on 
the  method  of  the  B.A.  committee  and  points  out  the 
sources  of  error  in  Weber's  method  by  damping 
adopted  by  Kohlrausch.  He  then  describes  his  own 
method,  a  modification  of  that  originally  proposed  by 
KIrchhoff,  and,  after  a  careful  account  of  his  ap- 
paratus and  measurements,  arrives  at  the  result 
I  B.A.  unit  =  0.991 1  X  10'  C.G.S.  units.  A  repetition 
of  his  experiments  in  1884  gave  0.98627,  while  about 
the  same  time  his  pupil,  Kimball,  using  Lorenz's 
method,  arrived  at  the  result  0.9864.  The  value 
obtained  at  the  Cavendish  Laboratory  was  0.9867. 

Part  ill.  of  the  collected  papers  deals  with  the  work 
on  Heat,  and  foremost  among  these  Is  the  great 
memoir  on  the  "Mechanical  Equivalent  of  Heat,"  a 
work  which,  if  it  stood  alone,  would  have  made 
Rowland's  name  as  the  foremost  physicist  of  his 
nation. 

The  refinements  of  modern  thermometry  have 
enabled  us  to  Introduce  some  small  corrections  into 
certain  of  the  results,  but  the  work  remains  unrivalled. 


August  6   1903] 


NATURE 


^'7 


Rowland  was  an  engineer,  ^d  this  stood  him  in  good ; 
stead  in  all  his  researches,  and  nowhere  more  so  than, 
in  the  paper  under'  consideration.  ''  i 

In  arranging  his  laboratory,  Prof.  Mendenhall  tells! 
us,  many  of  his  friends  thought  he  was  giving  undue 
prominence  to  the  workshop,  its  machinery  and  tools, 
and  to  the  men  to  be  employed  in  it,  but  he  planned 
wisely,  for  in  original  work  "a  well-manned  and 
equipped  workshop  is  worth  more  than  a  storehouse 
of  apparatus  already  designed  and  used  by  others." 

So,  too,  it  was  in  the  optical  work  described  in 
part  iv. ;  the  concave  grating  is  the  child  of  the 
perfect  screw,  and  he  who  would  make  a  perfect  screw 
must  follow  Rowland  as  he  described  his  method  in 
the  article,  "  Screw,"  "  Encyclopedia  Britannica," 
ninth  edition.  No.  33  of  the  Collected  Papers. 

The  secret  is  to  correct  the  screw  by  grinding  it 
in  a  long  adjustable  nut  longer  than  the  screw  itself; 
thus,  if  the  finished  screw  is  to  be  9  inches  long,  the 
nut  should  be  11  inches;  as  the  grinding  progresses 
the  nut  is  closed  in,  and  the  grinding  continues  for 
two  weeks,  the  nut  being  turned  end  for  end  every 
ten  minutes  and  the  screw  kept  in  water  constant  in 
temperature  to  within  1°  C.  all  the  time. 

It  is  not  strange  that  machines  which  can  rule 
gratings  are  rare. 

The  original  paper  on  "Concave  Gratings,"  No. 
29,  is  a  short  one,  but  valuable  details  are  given  in 
No.  49,  "Gratings  in  Theory  and  Practice,"  and  in 
the  "  Encyclopgedia  "  article  already  referred  to. 

The  addresses  which  fill  the  last  hundred  pages  of 
the  book  are  full  of  interest.  To  many  who  have 
followed  the  accounts  recently  given  in  the  pages  of 
Nature  of  the  wealth  and  endowments  of  American 
universities,  "  A  Plea  for  Pure  Science  "  will  appeal 
forcibly.  Rowland  was  not  satisfied  that  even  America 
was  doing  all  that  was  needed. 

"  The  whole  universe  is  before  us  to  study.  The 
ifreatest  labour  of  the  greatest  minds  has  only  given 
us  a  few  pearls,  and  yet  the  limitless  ocean,  with 
its  hidden  depths  filled  with  diamonds  and  precious 
stones,  is  before  us.  The  problem  of  the  universe  is 
yet  unsolved,  and  the  mystery  involved  in  one  single 
atom  yet  eludes  us.  The  field  of  research  only  opens 
wider  and  wider  as  we  advance,  and  our  minds  are 
lost  in  wonder  and  astonishment  at  the  grandeur  and 
beauty  unfolded  before  us.  Shall  we  help  in  this 
grand  work  or  shall  we  not?  Shall  our  country  do 
its  share  or  shall  it  still  live  in  the  almshouse  of  the 
world?  " 

Or,  again,  in  his  last  address,  "  On  the  Highest 
Aim  of  the  Physicist,"  note  his  words,  after  speaking 
of  the  work  of  the  Physician  : — 

"  The  aims  of  the  physicist,  however,  are  in  part 
purely  intellectual;  he  strives  to  understand  the  uni- 
verse on  account  of  the  intellectual  pleasure  derived 
from  the  pursuit,  but  he  is  upheld  in  it  by  the  know- 
ledge that  the  study  of  nature's  secrets  is  the  or- 
dained method  by  which  the  greatest  good  and  happi- 
ness shall  finally  come  to  the  human  race." 

Rowland  unlocked  some  of  the  hidden  chambers 
himself;  he  did  more  than  this,  he  put  into  our  hands 
the  machine  by  which  we  may  hope  to  forge  the  key 
which  will  open  the  door  leading  to  some  of  the 
innermost  recesses.  R.  X.  G. 

NO.    1762,  VOL.  68] 


k    VINE    DISEASE.      -        /•       •  .*. 
Annates    de    Vlnstitut    Central    Atnpdlologique    Royal 
Hongrois.     Tome  ii.     Pp.  vii  + 288  + plates.     (Buda- 
pest:     Socidt^    d'Imprimerie  '  et    d'EditioiiS    Pallas, 
1902.)  '!''', 

THIS  admirably  printed  volume  is  devoted  entirely 
to  an  exhaustive  study  of  the  Rot  livide  of  the 
vine,  a  destructive  disease  due  to  the  ravages  of  a 
minute  fungus  known  to  botanists  as  Coniothyriutn 
DiplodieUa.  The  memoir  reflects  credit  on  the  author. 
Dr.  Istvanffi,  not  only  on  account  of  the  thoroughness 
and  clearness  of  the  288  pp.  of  text,  but  also  from  the 
beauty  and  completeness  of  the  numerous  (215)  ex- 
cellent figures  set  forth  on  the  24  plates. 

Of  the  fifteen  chapters  into  which  the  work  is 
divided,  the  first  deals  with  the  somewhat  extensive 
history  of  this  now  almost  ubiquitous  malady,  the 
place  of  origin  of  which  is  not  known  with  certainty, 
but  which  appears  to  have  been  more  probably  south- 
eastern Europe  than  the  America  to  which  we  owe 
so  many  pests. 

Chapters  ii.-iv.  are  concerned  with  the  description  of 
the  rot  as  manifested  on  the  shoots  and  leaves  of 
both  native  and  American  vines  grown  in  Europe,  and 
the  pathological  alterations  induced  in  the  tissues  by 
the  parasite. 

The  principal  signs  when  the  disease  is  advanced 
are  brown  spots  and  patches  on  the  leaves,  in  the  dead 
tissues  of  which  the  minute  black  pycnidia  appear; 
the  cortex  shrivels,  turns  brown,  and  peels  in  fibrous 
masses  as  it  dries.  The  dead  twigs  also  show  that 
the  pith  is  destroyed,  and  similar  pycnidia— frequently 
accompanied  by  other  fungi  such  as  Botrytis,  Pesta- 
lozzia,  CoUetotrichum,  &c. — appear  on  the  surface. 
The  dead  twigs  easily  disarticulate  at  the  nodes,  and 
the  leaves  above,  even  if  not  directly  attacked,  shrivel 
and  die  because  the  diseased  internodes  cannot  supply 
them  with  water.  A  characteristic  chambering  of  the 
dying  pith  often  precedes  its  total  destruction,  and  may 
remain  visible  at  the  nodes  long  after  the  pith  of  the 
internodes  has  dried  up. 

Microscopic  examination  shows  that  the  hyphae  of 
the  fungus  causing  these  destructive  effects  permeate 
all  the  softer  tissues,  and  rapidly  destroy  the  cortical 
parenchyma  with  the  formation  of  large  gaps  filled 
with  mycelium,  and  an  interesting  struggle  for  the 
mastery  between  fungus  and  host  is  evinced  as  the 
medullary  rays,  parenchyma  and  cambium  attempt  to 
heal  up  the  wounds  already  made ;  in  vain,  however, 
and  the  hyphae  pass  from  cortex  to  pith  vid  these 
medullary  rays. 

It  is,  of  course,  impossible  to  enter  here  into  the 
numerous  microscopic  details,  which,  as  might  be 
expected  from  so  able  a  histologist  as  Dr.  Istvdnffi, 
are  very  thoroughly  done,  and  embrace  many  dis- 
coveries of  interest,  such  as  the  sugar  sphaerocrystals 
in  certain  cells  of  the  diseased  cortex,  the  curious, 
cambium-like  callogene  layer,  &c.  Every  botanist  will 
find  the  careful  microchemical  reactions  valuable, 
and  the  coloured  diagrams  of  the  behaviour  of  the 
diseased  tissues  are  particularly  instructive.  .  ; 

But  it  is  not  only  the  stems  and  leaves  that  are 
invaded  by  this   fungus;   it  also  attacks   the  grapes 


-3fi 


NA  TURE 


[August  6,  1903 


themselves,  either  vi&.  the  pedicels  or  from  outside, 
and  the  author  gives  an  instructive  set  of  figures 
illustrating  the  development  of  the  flower  and  young 
fruit  in  connection  with  chapter  v. 

Chapter  vi.  is  concerned  with  the  development  of  the 
fungus  in  the  different  organs  of  the  vine,  and  with 
descriptions  and  figures  of  its  numerous  reproductive 
phases,  comprising  two  forms  of  conidia,  two  forms 
of  pycnidia,  the  perithecia,  and  certain  sclerotium-like 
stages. 

In  chapter  vii.  the  results  of  pure  cultures  are 
described,  and  the  conclusion  established  that  the 
spores  may  germinate  in  rain-water,  and  the  young 
mycelium  suffer  desiccation,  and  again  revive  if 
wetted;  further,  that  spores  germinating  on  the  sur- 
face of  the  plant  may  remain  alive  and  active  for  as 
much  as  six  days,  in  damp  weather,  awaiting  a 
moment  favourable  for  infection,  as  it  were.  Dry 
spores  may  be  kept  twenty-three  months,  and  still 
germinate  on  placing  in  water.  The  numerous  mor- 
phological details  must  be  passed  over  here. 

In  chapter  viii.  the  various  modes  of  infection  are 
dealt  with,  and  the  results  are  that  the  fungus  may 
enter  by  the  pedicel,  by  the  peduncle  or  one  of  its 
branches,  or  at  the  articulation  of  the  fruit  to  its  stalk, 
or  it  may  enter  the  fruit  directly.  A  valuable  series 
of  coloured  figures  shows  the  various  tints  assumed  by 
the  diseased  grapes,  and  we  are  reminded  of  one  form 
of  the  disease  termed  "  shanking  "  in  this  country. 

Chapter  ix.  is  devoted  to  the  experimental  infec- 
tions. Many  points  of  interest  are  given  here,  e.g., 
the  tips  of  the  germ-tubes  directly  dissolve  the  cuticle ; 
a  cellulose  dissolving  enzyme  also  occurs;  liquefied 
walls  resist  attack,  &c. 

Chapters  x.  to  xli.  deal  very  thoroughly  with  treat- 
n'.ent,  and  the  numerous  experiments  show  that  cal- 
cium bisulphite  and  free  sulphurous  acid  are  prac- 
tically the  only  efficacious  remedies,  Bordeaux  mixture 
and  other  copper  compounds,  or  mixtures,  as  well  as 
several  other  media  being  found  useless. 

In  chapter  xiii.  an  account  is  given  of  the  various 
other  fungi  which  may  accompany  the  Coniothyrlum. 
Chapter  xiv.  is  devoted  to  a  discussion  of  the  sys- 
tematic position  of  the  fungus,  while  chapter  xv.,  and 
last,  again  returns  to  the  question  of  treatment,  this 
time  dealing  with  It  In  the  form  of  advice  as  to 
methods,  quantities,  periods,  &c. 

There  can  be  no  question  that  Istvdnffi's  memoir 
has  a  three- fold  importance,  (i)  to  the  vegetable 
pathologist,  owing  to  the  clear  and  exhaustive  account 
of  the  parasite  and  Its  relations  to  the  host ;  (2)  to  .the 
histologlst  and  morphologlst,  because  it  contains  so 
many  interesting  anatomical  details  concerning  the 
host  and  Its  parasite,  and  (3)  to  the  practical  vine- 
grower,  who  will  get  from  It  one  of  the  best  accounts 
of  symptoms  and  treatment  we  have  ever  met  with. 

The  scientific  value  of  Istvdnffi's  book  Is  un- 
doubtedly dependent  on  his  clear  recognition  of  the 
fact  that,  to  deal  properly  with  any  parasitic  disease, 
it  Is  essential  to  take  into  account  not  only  the  peculi- 
arities of  the  fungus,  but  also  the  reactions  of  the 
host-plant. 

The  one  great  fault  we  have  to  find  with  it  is  the 
want  of  summaries  to  the  several  chapters  and  to  the 
whole  work. 

NO.    1762,  VOL.  68] 


OVR    BOOK   SHELF. 

Kinemaiics  of  Machines.  By  R.  J.  Durley,  B.Sc, 
Ma.E.  Pp.  viil  +  379.  (New  York:  John  Wiley 
and  Sons;  London  :  Chapman  and  Hall,  Ltd.,  1903.) 
Price  17s.  net. 

This  Is  a  carefully  written  elementary  text-book  deal- 
ing with  the  subject  from  the  Reuleaux  standpoint. 
In  the  first  chapter  the  author  introduces  the  notions 
of  kinematic  links  and  chains  and  the  pairing  of 
elements,  and  gives  some  fundamental  propositions  re- 
lating to  degrees  of  freedom  and  constraint,  and  to 
instantaneous  centres  and  centrodes  in  plane  motion. 

The  next  chapter  treats  pretty  fully  of  motion  In  a 
straight  line  and  about  a  fixed  axis.  Position,  velocity 
and  acceleration,  linear  and  angular,  in  regard  to  both 
time  and  displacement,  are  exhibited  by  means  of 
rectangular  and  polar  diagrams,  and  problems  are 
worked  by  graphical  processes,  the  scales  for  measur- 
ing the  results  beings  always  most  carefully  determined- 
The  alternative,  and  often  more  desirable  method  of 
tabulation  and  the  numerical  calculation  of  differences 
seems  to  have  been  overlooked;  It  might  well  have 
been  introduced  and  illustrated  in  an  example  like  that 
of  the. electric  car  found  on  p.  47.  Several  problems  on 
simple  harmonic  motion  are  given ;  but  the  author  is 
scarcely  alive  to  the  great  and  growing  Importance  ot 
this  branch  of  the  subject.  The  fruitful  idea  of  a 
rotating  vector  Is  not  fully  taken  advantage  of.  A  few 
additional  pages  are  all  that  would  be  required  in  order 
to  show  how,  In  many  cases  of  periodic  motion,  being 
given  or  having  plotted  a  number  of  suitable  positions 
in  the  cycle,  the  motion  could  be  quite  easily  analysed 
and  expressed  approximately  in  the  first  three  or  four 
terms  of  the  Fourier  series,  and  thus  readily  compre- 
hended and  dealt  with. 

In  the  next  two  chapters  the  various  mechanisms 
contained  in  the  quadric  and  slider  crank  chains  are 
well  described  and  excellently  Illustrated.  In  all  the 
more  important  cases  the  relations  between  the  linear 
and  angular  velocities  and  accelerators  are  obtained 
both  graphically  and  analytically,  the  principles  estab- 
lished In  the  first  two  chapters  being  now  applied. 

Chapter  v.  Is  interesting,  being  an  investigation  of 
the  motion  In  plane  mechanisms  In  general.  The 
author  establishes  and  uses  the  velocity  and  acceler- 
ation Images  of  Prof.  R.  H.  Smith.  As  an  example 
it  is  shown  how  to  find  the  velocity  of  any  point  in  a 
Stephenson  link.  The  direct  and  powerful  method  of 
working  from  point  paths  is  also  illustrated,  but  is 
deprecated  on  account  of  Its  supposed  inaccuracy.  We, 
however,  have  found  that,  by  the  use  of  suitable  appli- 
ances, large  scale  plotting  can  be  carried  out  ex- 
peditiously, and  with  a  degree  of  precision  which 
render  it  possible  to  obtain  not  only  velocities,  but 
accelerations  (or  second  differences),  with  quite  sur- 
prising accuracy,  and  sufficient  for  most  purposes. 

Subsequent  chapters  relate  to  mechanisms  contain- 
ing higher  pairing  and  non-rigid  links,  illustrated  by 
spur  gearing,  cams,  ratchets,  escapements,  belt  and 
chain  gearing,  springs,  chamber  trains,  &c.  And 
there  are  chapters  on  screw  and  spheric  motions,  the 
latter  containing  an  instructive  Investigation  of  the 
rolling  and  spinning  velocities  in  various  types  of  ball- 
bearings. The  book  concludes  with  a  short  historical 
account  of  the  attempts  which  have  been  made  to 
classify  mechanisms. 

The  rigid  exclusion  of  kinetics  and  of  all  dynamical 
considerations  from  a  book  like  the  present  seems 
artificial,  and  to  restrict  Its  value;  but  those  who  do 
not  take  this  view,  and  who  follow  Reuleaux,  will 
welcome  the  volume.  The  descriptions  are  clear,  the 
illustrations  well  selected,  and  the  diagrams  beauti- 
fully executed.  Graphical  and  analytical  calculations 
are  judiciously  mixed  without  an  undue  use  of  either. 


August  6,  1903] 


NATURE 


319 


Determination  of  Radicles  in  Carbon  Compounds. 
By  Dr.  H.  Meyer.  Translated  bv  J.  Bishop  Tingle, 
Ph.D.  Pp.  xii+  162.  (New  York  :  John  Wiley  and 
Sons;  London:  Chapman  and  Hall,  Ltd.,  1903.) 
Price  45.  6d.  net. 
Dr.  Meyer  has  brought  out  a  book  of  considerable 
value  to  chemists  engaged  in  research  work;  it  is 
hardly  a  book  for  students,  unless  working  along  re- 
search lines.  Such  a  work  as  this  is  very  difficult  to 
criticise,  because  it  is  really  a  small  dictionary  of 
methods;  such  dictionaries  are  naturally  very  useful, 
provided  they  are  carefully  drawn  up,  which  We  con- 
sider to  be  the  case  in  the  book  before  us.  Take,  for 
example,  the  first  chapter,  which  consists  of  37  pp., 
and  includes  practically  all  the  methods  which  may 
be  used  for  determining  the  hydroxy-groups.  One 
might  be  inclined  to  think  this  rather  an  unnecessary 
amount  of  space  to  devote  to  such  an  apparently  simple 
matter  as  the  determination  of  the  —OH  radicle,  but 
as  there  is  very  little  padding,  it  really  points  out  that 
ill  organic  chemistry  conditions  govern  everything; 
that  a  method  which,  under  certain  conditions,  may  be 
applied  with  success  is  quite  useless  when  these  con- 
ditions are  altered  or  modified. 

In  the  next  chapter  we  have  the  determination  of 
the  methoxy-  and  ethoxy-groups  by  means  of  Zeisel's 
method.  Three  diagrams  of  complicated  pieces  of 
apparatus  are  given  for  the  carrying  out  of  this 
important  determination.  It  is  a  pity,  considering 
both  the  author  and  translator  have  evidently 
taken  considerable  trouble  to  bring  the  book  up  to 
date,  and  the  importance  of  the  method,  that  they 
missed  Hewitt's  simple  modification  described  in  the 
Journal  of  the  Chemical  Society  for  1902  ;  tins  is  prob- 
ably an  oversight,  because  at  another  place  they  give 
a  reference  from  the  same  journal. 

L'nder  the  determination  of  the  carboxvl  groups,  the 
method  by  means  of  the  electrolytic  conductivity  of  the 
sodium  salts  is  described.  It  is  doubtful,  however, 
whether  the  description  will  be  o!^  much  value  to  anyone 
who  has  not  previously  carried  out  such  a  determin- 
ation. Not  that  this  matters  very  much,  because  in 
a  foot-note  a  reference  to  Ostwald's  work  is  given, 
where  a  description  of  the  parts  of  the  apparatus  may 
he  found. 

Dr.  Meyer  has  evidently  taken  great  pains  in  pre- 
paring this  book,  and  has  considerably  added  to  its 
value  by  the  copious  references  to  original  literature 
which  lie  has  added.  For  the  rest  the  translator  and 
publisher  have  carried  out  their  part  of  the  work  witn 
discretion  and  care.  F.  M.  P. 

A  Laboratory  Guide  for  Beginners  in  Zoology.  By 
Clarence  Moores  Weed,  D.Sc,  and  Ralph  Wallace 
Crossman,  B.A.,  M.Sc.  Pp.  xxiv  +  105.  (London  : 
D.  C.  Heath  and  Co.,  1903.)  Price  2s.  6d. 
This  handy  and  very  moderately  priced  laboratory 
guide  will  be  useful  in  those  courses  of  elementary  in- 
struction in  zoology  which  aim  at  a  fairly  wide  survey 
of  the  types  of  animal  life  without  going  into  great 
detail  in  regard  to  any.  Thus  there  are  instructions  in 
regard  to  six  Protozoa,  two  sponges,  three  Hydrozoa, 
a  rotifer,  three  Echinoderms,  the  earthworm  and 
Nereis,  Cyclops,  the  wood-louse,  the  lobster,  the  crab, 
the  centipede,  three  insects  and  a  spider,  three  molluscs 
and  three  vertebrates,  altogether  thirty-two  types.  The 
directions  for  study  are  for  the  most  part  really  direc- 
tions, and  not  little  paragraphs  of  condensed  informa- 
tion ;  many  of  them  take  the  form  of  questions.  The 
student  is  not  supplied  with  ready-made  diagrams ;  he 
is  asked  precisely  to  draw  certain  things.  There  is  a 
directness  and  business-like  clearness  about  the  whole 
book  that  we  like,  and  its  partiality  is  frankly  admitted, 
supplementary  text-books   being  indicated.     It   would 

NO.    1762     NOI..   6^] 


have  been  well  if  the  authors  had  always  stated  what 
particular  species  they  had  in  view,  e.g.  what  Tubu- 
larian  and  Campanularian  hydroid  or  hydroids.  In 
some  cases  the  headings  do  not  read  very  happily,  if 
the  book  is  to  be  used  in  Britain,  e.g.  "  The  simple 
Marine  Sponge  (Grantia  sp.).  This  sponge  is  a 
marine  animal,  found  commonly  along  the  Atlantic 
coast  of  the  United  States."  But  we  can  recommend 
the  little  book  as  a  terse,  unpretentious,  and  clear 
guide  to  introductory  studies  of  the  structure  of 
animals. 

A  Manual  of  Drawing.  By  C.  E.  Coolidge.  Pp.  iv  + 
200  (alternate  pages  blank).  (New  York  :  John 
Wiley  and  Sons;  London  :  Chapman  and  Hall,  Ltd., 
1902.)     Price  I  dollar. 

The  drawings  and  designs  made  by  the  professional 
draughtsman  in  a  good  manufacturing  workshop  are 
characterised  by  a  style  and  completeness  which  easily 
distinguishes  them  from  the  amateur  productions 
commonly  met  with  in  the  technical  school  and  college. 
The  object  of  the  author  in  this  book  is  to  give  to' 
students  precise  and  minute  instructions  relating  to 
the  numerous  small  details  of  manipulation  and  draft-, 
ing  that  must  be  followed  if  drawings  are  to  be  such  ^ 
as  would  command  respect  in  a  commercial  establish-' 
ment. 

Thus  we  find  information  about  drawing  and  tracing 
papers,  black  and  coloured  inks,  printing  processes, 
drawing  boards  and  squares,  compasses,  scales  and 
protractors,  indiarubber,  drawing  pens  and  pencils, 
and,  in  fact,  about  drawing  tools  and  implements  in 
general.  Instruction  is  given  as  to  the  proper  way 
of  arranging  the  several  views  in  a  drawing,  of  insert- 
ing the  dimensions,  printing  the  titles,  &c.  Various 
types  of  drawing  are  described,  including  detail  sheets 
fully  dimensioned,  with  the  machining  and  materials 
specified ;  general  views,  with  only  leading  features 
exhibited ;  patent  office  drawings  made  in  conformity 
with  the  United  States'  regulations,  and  suitable  for 
photographic  reproduction,  &c. 

The  student  is  assumed  to  have  obtained  elsewhere 
a  practical  knowledge  of  workshop  processes,  of 
machine  construction,  and  of  the  forms  and  propor- 
tions of  machine  parts.  The  author  gives  that  kind 
of  information  which  would  be  gradually  acquired, 
almost  unconsciously,  by  any  one  working  alongside 
an  expert  in  a  commercial  drawing  office.  The  book 
contains  a  useful  index  and  a  number  of  plates  in 
illustration  of  the  text.  Alternate  pages  are  left  blank 
in  order  to  induce  and  enable  the  student  to  collect  and 
record  additional  notes  and  observations  of  his  own, 
or  which  his  instructor  may  impart. 

Zoologische  Wandtafeln.  Gezeichnet  und  heraus- 
gegeben  von  Prof.  Dr.  x  aul  Pfurtscheller,  Wien. 
(Wien  und  Leipzig:  A.  Pichler's  Witwe  und  Sohn.) 

This  is  a  new  series  of  large  wall  diagrams  for  lecture- 
rooms,  similar  to  those  which  we  owe  to  Leuckart  and 
Nitsche.  The  two  samples  we  have  seen — of  the  sea- 
urchin  and  the  snail — command  our  admiration, 
especially  the  former.  They  are  boldly  and  clearly 
drawn,  with  more  shading  than  colour,  and  they  stand 
out  admirably  from  a  distance.  Two  of  those  on  the 
sea-urchin  sheet  are  even  beautiful.  Our  only  criti- 
cism is  that  it  seems  a  mistake  to  mix  up  mere 
diagrams,  e.g.  two  simple  figures  on  the  snail  sheet, 
with  the  chief  picture,  which  shows  things  more  or  less, 
as  they  are.  The  mere  diagram  can  be  drawn  on  the 
blackboard  in  a  minute,  and  should  not  be  put  on  the 
same  plane  as  the  elaborate  drawing  of  the  half- 
opened  sea-urchin,  which  the  teacher  requires  as  a 
permanent  part  of  his  illustration  equipment. 


J20: 


NATUHE- 


[August  6,  1903 


LETTERS    TO    THE    EDITOR, 

[The  Editor  does  not  hold  himself  responsible  for  opinions 

■  expressed  by  his  correspondents.    Neither  can  he  undertake 

to  return,  or  to  correspond  with  the  writers  of,  rejected 

manuscripts  intended  for  this  or  any  other  part  of  Nature. 

No  notice  is  taken  of  anonymous  communications .] 

Radium  and  Cancer. 

It  has  occurred  to  me  that  perhaps  you  would  care  to 
publish  the  enclosed  letters,  and  thus  start  some  one  ex- 
perimenting with  the  radium  rays  in  the  manner  suggested. 

Dr.  Sowers  is  a  distinguished  physician  of  Washington, 
D.C.,  now  spending  a  portion  of  his  summer  vacation  in 
riaddeck,  Nova  Scotia. 

Alexander   Graham   Bell. 

Baddeck,  N.S.,  July  21. 


Dr.  Z.  T.  Sowers, 

1707  Massachusetts  Avenue, 
Washington,  D.C. 
Dear  Dr.  Sowers, 

'  I  understand  from  you  that  the  Rontgen  X-rays,  and  the 
rays  emitted  by  radium,  have  been  found  ta  have  &  marked 
curative  effect  upon  external  cancers,  but  that  the  effects 
upon  deep  seated  cancers  have  not  thus  far  proved  satis- 
factory. 

It  has  occurred  to  me;  that  one  reason  for  the  unsatis- 
factory nature  of  these  la,tte.r  experiments  arises  from  the 
fact  that  the  rays  have  been  applied  externally,  thus  having 
td  pass  through  healthy  tissues  of  various  depths  in  order 
to  reach  the  cancerous  matter. 

"  The  Crookes's  tube  from  which  the  Rontgen  rays  are 
emitted  is,  of  course,  too  bulky  to  be  admitted  into  the 
middle  of  a  mass  of  cancer,  but  there  is  no  reason  why  a 
tiny  fragment  o.f  radium  sealed  up  in  a  fine  glass  tube 
should  not  be  inserted  into  the  very  heart  of  the  cancer, 
thus  acting  directly  upon  the  diseased  material.  Would 
it  not  be  worth  while  making  experiments  along  this  line? 

■«  Yours  sincerely, 

''  (Signed)  Alexander  Graham  Bell. 

'  Bhddebk,  N.S.,-July  21. 


Ur.  A.'  Graham  Bell, 
._.  ■         Baddeck,  N.S. 
Deac  Dr.  B^ll, 

:  The  suggestion  which  you  make  in  regard  to  the  appHca- 
tibn  of  the  radium  rays  to  the  substance  of  deep  seated 
cancer  I  regard  as  very  valuable.  If  such  experiments 
should  be  made,  I  have  no  doubt  they  would  prove  successful 
in  many  cases  where  we  now  have  failures. 
Yours  sincerely, 

(Signed)  Z.  T.  Sowers,  M.D. 
Baddeck,  N.S. ,  July  21.   ■' 


The  American  Tariff  and  the  St,  Louis  Exhibition, 

As  a  member  of  the  Royal  Commission  appointed  to  make 
a  success  of  the  British  Section  of  the  St.  Louis  Exhibition; 
I  have,  in  common  with  some  of  my  colleagues,  been  met 
by  the  difficulty,  which  for  a  time  seemed  an  insuperable 
one,  that  our  manufacturers  could  not  be  prevailed  upon 
to  send  their  goods  to  this  exhibition,  even  though  they 
would  be  admitted  duty  free,  because  the  tariff  had  practi- 
cally killed  their  trade  with  the  country. 

Even  in  the  subject  in  which  I  am  interested,  instruments 
of  precision,  I  have  been  met  with  this  answer  to  such  an 
extent  that  for  a  time  I  feared  that  the  formation  of  a 
representative  collective  exhibit  would  be  impossible. 

I  wish,  if  you  will  afford  me  the  space,  to  point  out  to 
our  manufacturers  that  in  our  class  the  incidence  of  the 
duty   need  not  be  so  disastrous  to  trade  as  it  must  be   in 

NO.    1762,  VOL.  68] 


many  others.  Not  only  will  instruments  and  other  goods 
sold  from  the  exhibition  to  public  institutions  in  the  United 
States  be  allowed  to  be  sold  free  of  duty,  but  instruments 
and  other  goods  sold  to  public  institutions  in  the'  United 
States  from  this  country  are  also  admitted  free  of  duty. 
(See  extract  from  Tariff  Law  below.) 

As  in  the  case  of  instruments  of  the  highest  class  the 
requirements  of  public  institutions  are  necessarily  large  in 
comparison  with  the  demands  of  the  public,  more  especially, 
I  believe,  in  a  country  like  the  United  States,  where  in- 
stitutions of  this  kind  are  so  liberally  supported,  and  as 
this  disparity  is  probably  greater  in  the  case  of  goods  in 
this  class  than  in  any  other,  I  hope  you  will  enable  me 
through  your  columns  to  urge  our  makers  to  reconsider 
any  refusal  to  assist  the  Royal  Commission  in  the  formation 
of  an  adequate  collective  exhibit  that  may  have  boen  made 
on  these  grounds,  and  to  avail  themselves  of  such 
advantages  as  we  are  able  to  offer. 

Section  638  of  the  Tariff  Law  of  1897  provides  as 
follows  : — 

"  638.  Philosophical  and  scientific  apparatus,  utensils, 
instruments  and  preparations,  including  bottles  and_  boxes 
containing  the  same,  specially  imported  in  good  faith  for 
th.3  use  and  by  order  of  any  society  or  institution  incorpor- 
ated or  established,  solely  for  religious,  philosophical, 
educational,  scientific  or  literary  purposes,  or  for  the 
encouragement  of  the  fine  arts,  or  for  the  use  or  by  order 
of  any  college,  academy,  school,  or  seminary  of  learning 
in  the  United  States,  or  any  State  or  public  library,  and  not 
for  sale,  subject  to  such  regulations  as  the  Secretary  of  the 
Treasury  shall  prescribe." 

It  should  be  noted,  however,  that  surgical  instruments 
are  not  classified  as  philosophical  or  scientific. 

C.  V,  Boys. 


The  Eucalypts. 

Your  reviewer  of  two  recent  works  on  Eucalypts  (April  2, 
p.  524)  seems  to  require  correction  on  certain  points. 
Eucalyptus  globulus  cannot  be  considered  as  the  first  in 
economic  importance  amongst  the  Eucalypts.  In  almost 
every  shade  of  extra-tropical  climate  there  is  to  be  found 
a  Eucalypt  which  will  grow  as  well,  or  better,  than 
E.  globulus,  and  yield  a  far  superior  timber.  It  is  generally 
held  now  that  Eucalypt  planting  has  suffered  by  the  in- 
discriminate praise  showered  on  E.  globulus  by  the  early 
Eucalypt  enthusiasts. 

Your  reviewer  says,  further,  that  Eucalypt  plantations 
now  exist  in  Italy,  France,  Algeria,  California,  and  other 
countries.  He  does  not  appear  to  be  aware  that  there  is; 
probably  more  Eucalypt  plantation  in  South  Africa  than 
in  any  other  country,  and  that  at  the  present  rate  of  progress 
there  will,  in  a  few  years,  be  more  Eucalypt  plantations  in 
South  Africa  than  in  all  the  other  countries  combined. 
I  There  is  no  group  of  trees  in  the  warm  temperate  regions 
I  of  the  world  that  can  produce  hardwoods  of  good  quality 
so  rapidly  and  so  cheaply  as  Eucalypts,  and  their'  cultiva- 
tion bids  fair  to  become  the  central  factor  in  the  forestry 
of  these  regions.  At  this  moment  train-loads  of  Eucalypt 
timber  are  pouring  into  South  Africa,  Eucalypt  sleepers 
displacing  metal  and  creosoted-pine  sleepers.  South  Africa 
will  soon  be  paying  out  something  like  a  quarter  of  a 
million  pounds  yearly  for  Eucalypt  timber  imported  for 
railway  sleepers  and  mining  timber  (little  or  none  of  this, 
by  the  way,  E.  globulus),  so  that  any  delay  in  the  prosecu- 
tion of  Eucalypt  planting  in  South  Africa  would  be  a  most 
expensive  proceeding.  It  is  noteworthy  that,  so  long  as- 
the  Eucalypt  is  properly  fitted  to  its  climate,  it  seems  to 
grow  better  in  South  Africa  than  in  Australia,  the  explan- 
ation being  probably  that  all  the  Eucalypts  in  South  Africa 
have  been  raised  from  seed,  and  are  thus  growing  in  South 
Africa  free  from  their  Australian  pests,  both  fungoid  and 
insect.  With  the  view  of  preserving  this  happy  immunity 
from  disease,  the  importation  of  Eucalypt  plants  into  Cape 
Colony  is  placed  under  stringent  restrictions. 

The  meritorious  work  of  Messrs.  R.  T.  Baker  and  H.  G. 
Smith,  if  carried  to  a  conclusion,  should  be  the  classic  for 
many  years  on  Eucalyptus  oil.  '  Your  reviewer  is  mistaken 
in  saying  that  practically  all  the  Eucalypt  species  indigenous 
to  Australia  are  included  in  their  work.  Practically,  all  the 
Eucalypts  are  indigenous  to  Australia,  but  they  are  r(0,t; 
included   in   Messrs.    Baker  and   Smith's   work,    which   em- 


August  6,  19,03] 


NATURE 


321 


braces  m  out  of  120  described  species  of  New  South  Wales 
and  a  few  others  from  the  neighbouring  colonies  of  East 
Australia,  but  none  of  the  well-known  timber  Eucalypts 
of  Western  Australia,  Jarrah,  Kari,  Touart,  red  gum, 
York  gum,  &c. 

It  is  a  .little  disappointing  that  the  authors  were  una&le 
to  obtain  leaves  of  such  a  prominent  Eucalypt  as  Eucalyptus 
rei;nans,  the  tree  which  shares  with  E.  diversicolor  the 
honour  of  being  the  tallest  tree  in  the  world.  It  is  common 
enough  in  the  Government  plantations  near  Cape  Town, 
as  is  also  E.  alpina,  which  figures  also  in  the  list  of  un- 
procurables.  It  is  particularly  unfortunate  that  they  have 
not  tested  Eucalyptus  calophylla,  the  type  of  the  parallel 
veined  Eucalypts.     This  is  a  West  Australian  species. 

Messrs.  Baker  and  Smith  state  that  forty  tons  of  Eucalypt 
leaves  were  used  and  500  distillations  made.  Their  work 
is  a  model  of  painstaking  investigation,  and  to  the  chemist 
and  those  interested  in  the  oil  industry  will  no  doubt  prove 
extremely  useful. 

But  the  authors  have  not  confined  themselves  to  the 
chemistry  of  Eucalyptus  oil.  They  propose  a  number  of 
new  Eucalypt  species  and  a  new  classification  of  Eucalypts. 
How  far  the  numerous  new  species  will  stand  the  test  of 
critical  investigation  in  the  field  remains  to  be  seen.  Many 
of  their  new  species  have  already  been  contested. 

Messrs.  Baker  and  Smith  have  discovered  that  there  is 
a  relation  between  the  venation  of  Eucalypt  leaves  and  the 
chemical  constitution  of  the  oils  of  those  leaves.  Parallel 
veins  and  pinene  go  together.  Many  of  the  parallel  veined 
leaves  smell  of  turpentine  like  a  pine  leaf.  Then  come  the 
peppermint  Eucalypts,  containing  piperitone,  with  a  more 
complex  venation  ;  and  then  a  still  more  complex  venation 
yielding  oils  rich  in  eucalyptol  or  cineol,  which  is  the 
valuable  constituent  in  the  best  Eucalypt  oils.  This  is  a 
very  interesting  and  important  correiation,  especially  if 
further  investigation  shows  that  it  holds  good  through  the 
whole  Eucalypt  genus.  As  chemists,  one  can  pardon  the 
authors  their  enthusiasm  over  it.  But  whether  it  is 
sufficient  to  found  a  new  classification  of  Eucalypts  on  may 
be  doubted.  We  have  numerous  Eucalypt  classifications  in 
th-;  field.  There  is  that  which  is  generally  accepted  in 
default  of  a  better,  the  anthereal  system  of  Bentham,  some- 
what modified  and  simplified,  but  not  improved  in  Mueller's 
subsequent  works.  There  is  a  (perhaps  more  practical) 
bark  system,  and  there  are  various  obsolete  systems  founded 
on  the  shape  of  the  cones  and  the  flower  buds.  As  Messrs. 
Baker  and  Smith  most  justly  remark,  a  natural  classifi- 
cation founded  on  a  combination  of  all  these,  including  the 
quality  and  structure  of  the  timber,  has  yet  to  be  made. 
It  is  not  likely  that  their  oil-and-vein  classification  will  be 
sufficient  in  itself.  It  seems  unlikely  that  anyone,  except 
a  scientifically  trained  forester,  who  has  spent  a  large 
portion  of  his  life  among  the  Eucalypts  in  their  natural 
forests,  will  be  able  to  construct  a  sound  natural  grouping 
of  the  species  of  this  difficult  genus.  The  work  will 
require  a  Mathieu,  a  Brandis,  or  a  Gamble,  that  is  to  say, 
a  practical  forester  with  special  scientific  qualifications.  It 
is  not  to  be  done  with  botanical  specimens  as  Bentham  and 
Mueller  attempted  it,  nor  with  practical  knowledge  alone 
as  Wools  attempted  it,  nor  in  a  chemical  laboratory  where 
Messrs.  Baker  and  Smith  have  done  most  of  their  work  ! 
It  is  true  that  Mr.  Maiden  is  now  bringing  out  a  "  Critical 
Revision  of  the  Genus  Eucalyptus,"  and  from  this,  with  his 
great  reputation  as  a  practical  botanist,  much  is  expected. 
The  first  number,  on  that  very  important  species  Eucalyptus 
pilularis  and  its  allies,  has  already  appeared,  also 
part  ii.  on  E.  obliqtia  and  the  gum-top  stringy  barks. 

In  view  of  the  differences  in  the  quality  of  the  oil  yielded 
by  various  Eucalypts,  the  authors  advocate  plantations  in 
certain  circumstances  of  good  oil-yielding  species.  The 
lopping  they  suggest  a  forester  would  replace  by  coppicing. 
It  is  believed  that  all  Eucalypts  coppice  welL  Most  of 
them  will  stand  a  considerable  amount  of  lopping,  but  it 
eventually  kills  them.  It  is  only  in  a  few  instances  that 
species  of  Eucalyptus  are  found  predominating  over  an 
area  of  country  to  any  great  extent,  so  that  a  particular 
species  being  worked  for  its  oil  may  soon  be  cut  out  in 
close  proivimity  to  a  permanent  plant.  But  some  Eucalypts 
are  very  tenacious  of  life,  and  "  suckers  "  soon  spring  from 
the  stumps  of  the  trees  cut  down  ;  it  is  thus  only  a  matter 
of  a  few  years  when  fresh  material  is  again  obtainable. 
This  may  be  seen  from  the  photograph  of  £.  Smilhii,  where 


NO.    1762,  VOL.   68] 


most  of  the  dense  growth  is  from  "  suckers  "  of  this  nature. 
We  have  been  able  to  show,  in  several  instances,  that  the 
oil  obtainable  from  this  young  growth  is  of  the  same 
character  as  that  obtained  from  the  mature  leaves,  so  that 
no  great  differences  in  the  quality  of  the  oil  need  be  ex- 
pected. But  we  think  it  to  be  a  pity  that  the  trees  should, 
in  many  instances,  be  felled  for  their  leaves  alone.  By 
judicious  lopping  a  fresh  supply  of  leaves  could  more  quickly 
be  obtained,  so  that  a  permanent  supply  might  be  assured. 
There  are  a  few  species  of  Eucalyptus,  however,  which  form 
the  prevailing  vegetation  in  certain  localities,  and  are  found 
growing  gregariously  in  their  native  habitat ;  this  is 
particularly  the  case  with  some  of  the  "  Mallees."  In  New 
South  Wales  there  are  several  species  of  this  nature,  as, 
for  instance,  the  "Blue  Mallee,"  E.  polybractea ;  the 
"Red"  or  "Water  Mallee,"  E.  oleosa;  the  "Grey 
Mallee,"  E.  Morrisii;  and  the  "  Argyle  apple,"  E.  cinerea; 
all  these  species  give  good  eucalyptol  oils,  and  all  are  more 
or  less  gregarious  in  their  habits,  so  that  natural  plant- 
ations of  these  species  are  practically  ready  to  hand ;  but 
besides  these  naturally  covered  areas  the  question  of  the 
cultivation  of  certain  Eucalyptus  species  is  of  importance 
in  this  connection.  ; 

It  may  possibly  be  accepted  as  conclusive  that  some 
Eucalyptus  species  are  not  inexhaustible  under  certain  con- 
ditions, and  it  is  worthy  of '  consideration  whether  plant- 
ations of  young  trees  of  Eucalyptus  Macarthuri,  for 
instance,  might  not  be  profitably  cultivated  for  the  prepar- 
ation of  its  valuable  geranyl-acetate  oil.  So  with  the 
eucalyptol  oils,  it  is  probable  that  the  cultivation  of  some 
species,  E.  Smithii,  for  instance,  could  be  profitably  under- 
taken, and  from  which  young  growth  an  oil  could  be  dis- 
tilled that  would  compete  satisfactorily,  both  in  price  and 
eucalyptol  content,  with  any  European  oil  of  this  class. 

A  minor  fault  running  all  through  their  book  is  their 
use  of  the  word  "sucker."  By  "sucker"  is  properly 
understood  shoots  from  the  roots,  such  as  one  sees  in 
poplars,  elms  and  willows.  Eucalypts  do  not  sucker  (ex- 
cept rarely  and  accidentally),  and  the  authors  use  the  word 
in  the  sense  of  "coppice  shoot."  No  doubt  "sucker"  is 
an  Australian  colloquialism,  but  naturally  the  use  of  slang 
expressions  is  to  be  avoided  in  a  scientific  work.  To  be 
accurate  the  authors  should  use  the  term  early  or  first 
foliage,  or  its  equivalent,  since  this  important  diagnostic 
feature  is  seen  in  the  first  foliage  of  Eucalypt  seedlings 
equally  with  coppice-shoots. 

As  yet  no  one  of  the  Australian  colonies  has  taken  the 
first  step  in  scientific  forestry.  Though  Mr.  Maiden  in 
his  various  writings  has  let  in  a  flood  of  light  on  the  subject, 
and  the  student  of  Eucalypts  stands  deeply  in  his  debt,  there 
is  not  a  line  by  a  scientifically  trained  forester  descriptive 
of  the  forests  of  Australia.  There  is  no  want  of  liberality 
on  the  part  of  .Australia  in  endowing  the  researches  of 
scientific  men  living  in  cities,  but  there  is  a  woeful  neglect 
of  forestry  in  the  field.  Scientific  forestry  as  understood  on 
the  Continent  of  Europe  is  unknown  in  Australia,  and  unless 
the  Commonwealth  can  bring  its  attention  to  bear  on  the 
terrible  waste  of  its  natural  forest  resources  now  going 
forward,  its  future  history  will  be  a  black  one,  comparable 
only  in  modern  times  to  that  of  the  Spaniards  in  Mexico. 

In  the  older  settlements  of  East  .Australia  the  forests, 
pillaged  of  their  best  species,  or  burnt  and  ruined,  have 
greatly  declined  in  value.  Gone  are  the  valuable  reserves 
of  iron-bark,  tallow-wood,  and  forest  mahogany  among  the 
Eucalypts,  and  the  splendid  cedars  {Cedrela  toona)  which 
should  have  been  the  country's  pride.  South  Africa  is 
getting  most  of  its  timber  from  the  comparatively  newly 
settled  West  Australia.  The  .Australian  has  Vet  to  learn  to 
take  the  honey  without  destroying  the  bees  ! 

When  your  reviewer  takes  us  to  .America,  we  get  amongst 
a  people  awakening  to  the  fact  that  there  is  such  a  thing 
as  scientific  forestry.  As  he  remarks,  the  .American  volume 
on  Eucalypts  is  excellently  got  up.  It  is  a  pleasure  to  turn 
over  the  pages  with  their  life-like  pictures  of  Eucalypts. 
It  is  not  likely,  however,  that  there  will  ever  be  any  great 
production  of  Eucalypt  timber  in  North  America.  It  is 
only  South  California  that  quite  repeats  any  .Australian 
climate,  namely,  South-West  Australia.  It  is  doubtful  if 
Eucalypts  will  ever  do  much  in  the  eastern  States.  The 
Gulf  States,  which  are  alone  suited  to  Eucalypts,  have  their 
cold  snaps  and  freezes,  together  with  an  ali-the-year-r'ound 
rainfall  which  we  do  not  find  in  .Australia,   while  there  is 


322 


NATURE 


[August  6,  1903 


an  abundance  of  good  hardwood  already  in  the  country,  and 
the  four  pitch-pines,  rivalling  hardwoods  in  strength  and 
durability.  Eucalypt  culture  in  America  is  still  in  its 
infancy  ;  they  have  not  yet  discriminated  the  valuable  from 
the  many  worthless  species,  nor  fitted,  as  far  as  may  be,  the 
species  to  its  climate.  D.  E.  Hutchins. 

E.    Hutchins. 
Cape  Town,  June  23.  * 

A  Simple  Form  of  Tide  Predictor. 

For  the  past  four  years  a  very  simple  form  of  tide-pre- 
dicting machine,  the  invention  of  Captain  A.  Inglis,  the 
harbour-master,  has  been  in  use  at  Port  Adelaide  for  the 
construction  of  the  yearly  published  tide  tables.  The  tides 
at  Port  Adelaide  are  rather  peculiar  in  their  behaviour,  this 
being'  due  principally  to  the  fact  that  the  solar  and  lunar 
semi-diurnal  components  are  almost  exactly  equal.  At  and 
near  the  neaps  these  neutralise  one  another,  and  the  diurnal 
components,  which  are  relatively  large,  are  then  the  main 
sources  of  the  tidal  movement.  Before  these  tides  were 
harmonically  analysed,  their  prediction  by  ordinary  methods 
was  quite  impossible,  except  near  the  springs.  By  means 
of  this  machine,  however,  they  are  now  predicted  yearly 
with  considerable  accuracy.  The  essential  principles  of  the 
machine  are  as  follows  : — A  number  of  thin  wooden  templets 
are  cut,  each  in  the  form  of  a  sine  curve,  representing  the 
various  tidal  components  (Fig.  i).  These  waves  are  of 
different  lengths,  the  length  of  each  component  wave  bearing 


carries  a  sheet  of  paper  on  which  the  tidal  curve  may  be 
traced  if  required  (P^ig.   2). 

Each  templet  is  fixed  in  the  carrier  in  proper  relative 
position  according  to  its  phase  at  the  start,  as  determined 
by  previous  harmonic  analysis.  When  the  handle  of  the 
machine  is  turned,  the  carrier,  vertical  slide  and  clock  are 
set  in  motion,   and  the  indicator  shows  the  height  of  the 


j  tide  at  the  time  shown  by  the  clock,  and  the  curve  may  at 
the  same  time  be  traced  on  the  vertical  slide. 

There  are  three  carriers  and  three  or  four  templets  to 
each  component.  When  one  of  the  carriers  has  been  worked 
forward  far  enough,  it  can  be  disconnected  from  the  others 
and  connected  up  again  at  the  other  end.  The  curves  are 
again  placed  in  their  respective  grooves,  and,  by  means  of 
a  suita-ble  attachment,  butted  close  up  to  the  preceding  ones. 
In  this  way  the  process  is  made  continuous. 

The  setting  of  the  curves  can  easily  be  checked  at  every 
month,  to  see  that  there  has  been  no  slipping. 

The  machine  involves  no  expensive  construction,  and 
enables  a  year's  tides  to  be  predicted  expeditiously,  and,  as 
experience  has  proved,  with  quite  sufficient  accuracy. 

The  University,  Adelaide.  R.  W.  Chapman. 

[In  a  subsequent  letter,  Mr.  Chapman  informs  us  that 
he  made  the  following  errors  in  the  list  of  values  of  the 
tidal  components  at  Port  Darwin,  printed  in  last  week's 
j  Nature  (p.  295).  "  The  amplitude  of  N  should  be  104,  of 
V  048,  and  of  T  1-53.  The  phase  of  v  should  be  141°,  and 
that  of  T  70°." — Ed.  Nature.] 


the  same  ratio  to  the  solar  semi-diurnal  as  its  angular  speed 
does  to  15°.  The  templets  are  all  fixed  side  by  side,  with 
their  planes  vertical  and  parallel,  being  supported  on  a 
carrier,  which  can  be  moved  forward  in  the  direction  of  the 
waves  by  means  of  a  rack  and  pinion  underneath.  A 
number  of  vertical  plungers  rest  in  a  transverse  line  with 
their  lower  ends  resting  on  the  tops  of  these  templets,  and 
are  moved  up  and  down  as  the  curves  progress  forward. 
The  motions  of  the  plungers  are  then  compounded  by  means 
of  a  fine  wire  passing  over  pulleys  at  the  top  of  each  one, 
and  under  fixed  pulleys  between  adjacent  ones.  This  wire 
is  connected  to  an  indicator,  which  moves  up  and  down: 
alongside  a  vertical  scale,  thus  marking  the  height  of  the 
compound  wave  at  any  instant. 

The  wire  passing  over  the  plungers  is  an  endless  wire, 
going  round  a  pulley  on  the  indicator  and  round  a  larger 
pulley  at  the  other  end  of  the  line  of  plungers.  This  larger 
pulley  is  attached  to  a  plate  which  is  movable  backwards 
and  forwards  by  means  of  a  fine  screw.  This  gives  a  means 
of  adjusting  the  height  of  the  indicator,  and  also  of  allow- 
ing for  the  effect  of  the  annual  and  semi-annual  tides. 
The  rise  or  fall  due  to  these  long  period  tides  is  treated 
as  constant  for  fourteen  days,  and  the  screw  adjusted  so 
as  to  alter  the  height  of  the  indicator  by  the  proper  amount 
at  the  end  of  each  such  interval.  In  front  of  the  frame  of 
the  machine,  between  it  and  the  indicator,  is  a  vertical  slide, 
which  is  moved  forward  at  the  same  rate  as  the  carrier,  and 


NO.    1762,  VOL.  68] 


Sympathetic  Song  in  Birds. 
•    In  your  issue  of  April  30  (vol.  Ixvii.  p.  609)  Mr.  George 
Henschel  describes  an  interesting  vocal  duet  between  a  bull- 
finch and  a  canary,  and  invites  contributions  to  the  subject. 

In  1893  I  obtained  a  nestling  Australian  magpie 
(Gyninorhma  tibicen,  Latham),  and  taught  it  on  the  flute  to 
pipe  the  following  : — 


.Some  years  later  I  acquired  another  bird  of  the  same 
species  ;  this  learned  the  tune  from  the  original  magpie.  I 
do  not  know  how  the  birds  agreed  upon  the  duet  (or  fugue) 
rendering,  but  it  was  performed  in  the  following  way  : — 
When  the  first  bird  commenced  its  song,  the  second  one 
immediately  came  to  attention,  and  with  half-open  beak 
avv'aited  the  point  marked  *,  whence  it  finished  the  strain 
alone.  The  birds  were  kept  in  a  large  outdoor  aviary  in 
company  with  many  others,  and  no  matter  where  or  how 
engaged,  the  second  bird  would,  on  hearing  its  mate, 
assume  an  attentive  attitude,  and  await  the  conclusion  of 
the  first  portion  of  the  theme. 

The  second  bird  died,  and  the  original  one,  which  I  still 
have,  now  pipes  the  whole  strain  alone,  as  was  its  original 
custom. 

I  may  also  mention  that  this  bird  has  the  faculty  of 
absolute  pitch,  and  pipes  the  theme  in  F  as  originally 
taught.  Edgar  R.  Waite. 

Australian  Museum,  Sydney,  June  18. 


August  6,  1903] 


NATURE 


323 


THIRTY  YEARS  OF  UNIVERSITY  EDUCA- 
TION IN  FRANCE. 

THE  modern  conception  of  a  University  in  France 
dates  from  the  Revolution.  In  place  of  the  old 
Sorbonne,  veritable  Bastille  of  scholasticism,  the  new 
University  was  conceived  as  a  kind  of  laboratory  and 
clearing-house  in  which  every  form  of  knowledge  was 
to_  be  pursued  or  dispensed.  Yet  in  spite  of  the  multi- 
plicity of  the  subjects,  unity  was  to  be  secured  by  the 
natural  connection  between  the  different  branches  and 
the  common  aims  and  ideals  of  the  teachers  them- 
selves. Unfortunately  the  Revolution  failed  to  realise 
the  grandiose  ideas  of  Talleyrand  and  Condorcet.  With 
the  exception  of  the  Institute,  the  only  establishments 
it  created  were  the  so-called  "  special  schools  "  limited 
to  the  study  of  a  single  science  or  group  of  subjects, 
such  as,  for  instance,  the  school  of  mathematics,  the 
school  of  medicine,  the  school  of  Oriental  languages, 
&c.  To  these  the  Consulate  added  the  schools  of  law 
ind  altered  the  title  of  many  of  these  schools  into  that 
of  "faculties."  It  further  increased  the  number  of 
faculties  by  adding  those  of  letters  and  of  science.  The 
research  side  of  university  work  was  ignored,  the 
faculties  were  mere  examination  machines  for  turning 
out  professional  men.  The  only  university  was  the 
University  of  France,  which,  though  made  a  corporate 
body  by  Napoleon,  was  above  all  things  an  institution 
for  the  propagation  of  an  official  education  most  favour- 
able to  Imperialism.  To  this  university  all  the  different 
faculties  in  the  different  towns  were  subordinated. 
But  here  all  connection  ended.  Although  often  exist- 
ing three  and  four  together  in  the  same  town,  they 
were  completely  strangers  to  one  another,  having  no 
unity  or  even  relationship  with  one  another,  almost 
entirely  devoid  of  the  necessary  resources,  not  merely 
for  original  investigation,  but  also  for  their  ordinary 
work. 

The  evils  arising  from  such  an  excessive  centralisa- 
tion combined  with  the  practical  isolation  of  the  local 
faculties  were  certain  to  make  themselves  felt  in  the 
long  run.  "  Paris,"  wrote  Guizot  in  his  "  Memoires," 
"morally  attracts  and  absorbs  France."  For  this,  in 
his  eyes,  the  only  remedy  was  the  creation  of  a  few 
large  provincial  universities.  Recognising  the  im- 
possibility of  creating  seventeen  complete  and  fully 
equipped  universities,  he  proposed  to  limit  their  number 
to  four.  Unhappily  he  was  in  advance  of  his  time. 
The  second  Republic  reduced  the  status  of  the  uni- 
versity itself  from  that  of  a  corporation  to  a  mere 
branch  of  the  central  Government.  The  most  en- 
lightened Education  Minister  of  the  Empire,  Victor 
Duruy,  seeing  the  impossibility  of  reforming  the 
faculties,  determined  to  establish  alongside  of  them  a 
scientific  institution  called  the  ficole  des  hautes  Etudes, 
which  reminds  one,  though  its  scope  was  wider,  of  the 
Royal  College  of  Science,  inasmuch  as  the  savants  who 
formed  the  "  personnel  "  were  chosen  on  their  merits 
alone,  and  no  question  was  made  as  to  whether  they 
were  members  or  not  of  the  university.  The  school 
had  no  fixed  quarters,  but  any  professor  of  ability  in 
the  Sorbonne,  the  College  de  France,  the  Museum  of 
Natural  History,  or  in  any  laboratory,  was  pressed  into 
the  service  of  this  new  corps  of  learned  and  scientific 
teachers.  The  effect  of  the  opening  of  this  "  opposition 
shop  "  was  most  beneficial  on  higher  education 
throughout  the  whole  of  the  country. 

Nevertheless  the  general  condition  of  higher  educa- 
tion was,  in  the  words  of  M.  Liard,  "  very  lamentable, 
and  what  was  most  lamentable  of  all  was  not  the  in- 
sufficiency of  the  buildings,  the  poverty-stricken  state 
of  the  laboratories,  collections  and  libraries,  or  the 
dearth  of  resources,  but  the  almost  absolute  miscon- 
ception of  their  real  functions  by  the  professors  of  those 

NO.    1762.  VOL.  68] 


faculties  which  ought  to  have  been  above  all  the  instru- 
ments of  scientific  progress  and  of  the  propagation  of 
scientific  methods.  With  a  few  exceptions,  in  the 
faculty  of  letters  the  teaching  was  above  all  rhetorical 
and  fashionable,  in  that  of  science  it  was  nearly  every- 
where limited  to  the  mere  popularisation  of  discoveries. 
The  highest  work  of  university  education,  the  training 
and  formation  of  the  man  of  science,  was  almost  un- 
known. The  admirable  savants  of  the  time  were  self- 
taught  persons  without  a  university  degree." 

Such  was  the  state  of  things  when  the  disaster  of  1870 
occurred.  With  the  conclusion  of  peace,  savants  and 
patriots  joined  forces  in  favour  of  a  radical  reform  of 
the  university  system.  It  was  felt  that  inefficiency  in 
higher  education  had  been  one  of  the  causes  of  national 
defeat. 

The  most  competent  judges  were  agreed  that  the 
essential  defect  in  university  education  was  the  multi- 
plicity and  isolation  of  the  faculties.  The  remedy  in 
their  eyes  was  the  concentration  of  the  faculties  of  the 
different  orders  into  a  limited  number  of  "  powerful 
centres  of  study,  science  and  intellectual  progress." 
Jules  Simon  affirmed  the  necessity  of  "  having  a  cer- 
tain number  of  intellectual  capitals  in  which  are  to  be 
found  united  all  the  necessary  resources  for  the  com- 
plete development  of  the  young."  Again,  according 
to  M.  Laboulaye,  universities  were  the  one  thing 
needful.  "  Let  them  cease  to  scatter  over  the  surface 
of  P'rance  faculties  the  isolation  of  which  condemned 
them  to  sterility." 

Some  of  the  strongest  arguments  in  favour  of  reform 
came  from  the  men  of  science  of  the  day.  It  was 
pointed  out  that  the  duty  of  the  Universities  was  not 
merely  to  distribute  the  existing  stores  of  knowledge, 
but  also  to  lead  in  the  van  of  discovery.  "  Close  the 
laboratories  and  libraries,"  said  Bertholet,  "stop 
original  investigation  and  we  shall  return  to  scholas- 
ticism." Insistence  was  also  laid  on  the  extreme  value 
of  scientific  discovery  as  a  factor  in  the  industrial 
struggle  between  the  different  nations,  while  at  the 
same  time  the  importance  of  introducing  the  scientific 
spirit  into  the  mental  life  of  a  people  only  too  often 
swayed  by  sudden  emotions    was  strongly  emphasised. 

But  the  advocates  of  university  reform  had  a  very 
serious  difficulty  to  encounter  at  the  outset.  Alongside 
of  the  faculties  there  already  existed  the  big  scientific 
establishments  like  the  College  de  France,  the 
Museum  of  Natural  History,  and  the  professional 
schools,  such  as  the  Ecole  Polytechnique  and  the  ficole 
Normale,  in  which  the  flower  of  military  engineers  and 
university  professors  were  being  trained.  All  these 
bodies  were  bitterly  hostile  to  incorporation.  For- 
tunately they  were  all  situated  in  Paris,  where  in  reality 
there  was  room  both  for  themselves  and  the  Univer- 
sity. The  main  problem  after  all  was  the  creation 
of  provincial  universities. 

Here  the  difficulties  were  far  more  real  and  pressing. 
To  begin  with,  many  of  the  existing  professors  in  the 
faculties  were  by  no  means  in  sympathy  with  the  re- 
formers. For  them  the  function  of  the  faculties  was  to 
turn  out  lawyers,  magistrates,  doctors,  pharmaceutical 
chemists  (the  calling  of  chemist  in  France  ranks  as 
a  liberal  profession),  not  to  conduct  original  research. 
Did  not  the  College  de  France  and  the  Museum  of 
Natural  History  exist  specially  for  these  purposes?  The 
answer  was  one  which  has  since  been  given  in  higher 
technical  education  in  England  and  elsewhere,  that 
science  should  be  the  centre  of  professional  training. 
Practice  without  science  was  pure  empiricism,  and 
empiricism  was  out  of  date.  Claude  Bernard  had 
already  converted  medicine  into  an  experimental  science, 
and  the  historical  method  had  wrought  a  similar  trans- 
formation in  the  study  of  law.  Whether  the  faculties 
remained  isolated  or  not,  they  would  henceforth  have  to 


324 


WA^TJ^RE 


[AuGu^t  6,  1903 


,adopt  scientific  methods.  Naiturally  evefy  student  could 
not  be  turned  into  a  man  of  science,  but  every  one  had 
;3  right  to  know  the  scientific  truths  on  which  his, pro- 
fessional education  was  based,  while,  the  small  ^lite  of 
really  talented  students  should  have  the  opportunity  of 
engaging  in  scientific  investigation.  In  the  case  ot 
ihese  exceptional  students  the  method  of  Working  in 
•common  with  their  masters  had  hitherto  been  largely 
neglected.  Yet  its  importance  in  working  out  a  dis- 
•covery  to  its  fullest  extent  is  not  only  beneficial  to  all 
parties,  but  often  of  the  highest  importance  to  the 
country  at  large.  Another  objection  urged  by  the 
K^pponents  of  reform  was  that  a  university  by  defini- 
I  tion  implies  the  concentration  of  subjects,  whereas 
imodern  science  on  the  contrary  is  fissiparous  by  nature, 
ever  splitting  up  into  new  branches  and  specialities.  To 
.this  it  was  easily  answered  that  one  of  the  chief  dan- 
;gers  of  the  day  was  excessive  specialisation,  and  that 
.the  university  is  therefore  the  best  antidgte,  as  its  chief 
.function  is  to  coordinate  knowledge  and  make  it  a 
.general  object  of  culture.  Warned  by  the  excessive 
.specialism  that  is  rampant  in  German  universities,  the 
French  have  taken  for  their  motto,  "  Specialisation 
isubordinated  to  a  general  culture." 

In  1883  Jules  Ferry  brought  the  question  within  the 
rsphere  of  practical  politics  by  a  circular  addressed  to 
the  faculties ;  after  speaking  of  the  efforts  he  had  made 
to  develop  in  higher  education  the  sentiment  of  re- 
sponsibility and  the  habit  of  self-government,  he  went 
on  to  say  : — 

"  We  shall  have  obtained  a  great  result  if  we  are  able 
to  constitute  one  day  universities  uniting  within  them- 
selves the  most  varied  kinds  of  teaching,,  in  order 
mutually  to  assist  one  another,  managing  their  own 
.afifairs,  convinced  of  their  duties  and  of  their  merits, 
inspiring  themselves  with  ideas  suitable  to  each  part 
of  France  with  such  variety  as  the  unity  of  the  country 
allows,  rivals  of  adjoining  universities,  associating  in 
these  rivalries  the  interest  of  their  own  prosperity  with 
the  desire  of  the  big  towns  to  excel  their  neighbours 
and  to  acquire  particular  merit  and  distinction." 

In  conclusion  he  invited  the  faculties  to  give  their 
opinions  on  his  suggestion.  These  were,  in  the  main, 
favourable.  It  was  left,  however,  to  his  successor,  M. 
Ren6  Goblet,  to  take  the  first  official  steps.  It  was 
evident  to  all  that  the  new  universities  could  not  be  con- 
stituted after  some  ideal  plan,  but  would  naturally  have 
to  be  built  up  out  of  the  existing  faculties.  To  group 
the  latter  in  collective  wholes,  effacing  all  distinction 
I  between  them,  would  have  proved  too  drastic  a 
measure.  The  best  way  of  building  up  a  university 
was  to  begin  by  strengthening  and  not  by  weakening 
the  faculties.  This  was  done  by  restoring  to  them  the 
"  personality  civile  "  which  had  lapsed,  and  recognising 
their  capability  to  receive  and  hold  property.  At:  the 
same  time  another  decree,  without  giving  them  the 
absolute  right  to  frame  a  budget,  allowed  them  the 
right  to  expend  all  subventions,  to  which  no  conditions 
had  been  attached  by  the  parties  making  them,  whether 
departments,  communes,  or  private  individuals,  on 
the  creation  of  new  courses  of  instruction,  on  labora- 
tories and  libraries,  and  on  scholarships.  To  regulate 
this  expenditure  a  council  was  created  called  the 
''  Conseil  general  des  Facultes."  This  council,  estab- 
lished for  purely  financial  reasons,  was  destined 
to  become  the  real  nucleus  in  the  development 
of  the  universities.  As  M.  Liard  has  well 
said,  "  the  decree  of  28th  December,  1885,  was 
truly  the  provisional  charter  of  the  universities  be- 
fore the  universities."  Linking  together  the  faculties 
of  a  single  town,  the  Council  not  only  dealt  with  the! 
.  functions  for  which  it  was  first  created ;  it  was  soon; 
allowed,  under  certain  conditions,  to  draw  up  the  pro-i 
(^grammes  of  courses  and  lectures,   to  exercise  certain 

NO.    1762,  VOL.  68] 


disciplinary  powers,  to  make  financial  proposals  to  the 
Minister,  and  to  engage  in  a  multiplicity  of  tasks  which 
fall  to  the  lot  of  an  ordinary  university  to  perform.  In 
1889  the  separate  faculties  received  the  right  to  friame 
budgets  of  their  own.  At  the  same  time  those  grants 
were  directly  paid  to  them  which  the  Ministry  pre- 
viously had  itself  expended  on  buildings  and  equip- 
ment. So  far  the  Government  had  only  proceeded  by 
way  of  decrees,  a  method  which  is  not  unknown  in 
England,  and  corresponds  roughly  to  an  order  in 
council,  but  in  1890  the  moment  seemed  to  have  come 
for  legal  enactment,  and  M.  Leon  Bourgeois,  the  then 
Minister  of  Public  Instruction,  brought  forward  a  Bill 
to  settle  the  whole  subject  once  for  all. 

Nothing  gives  a  better  idea  of  the  enormous  sacrifices 
made  by  the  Republic  for  the  sake  of  higher  education 
than  the  preamble  of  the  Bill,  which  ran  as  follows  : — 
".  The  Republic  has  understood  that  university  educa- 
tion is  in  the  highest  degree  necessary ;  that  if  primary 
education  is,  according  to  the  phrase  of  one  of  our  pre- 
decessors, the  canalisation  by  which  knowledge  is  dis- 
tributed to  the  very  lowest  strata  of  democracy,  univer- 
sity .education  is  the  source  where  it  collects  and  whence 
it  f^ows.  It  has  understood  that  a  particular  dignity 
and  utility  are  attached  to  this  grade  of  education,  that 
in  it  especially  are  formed  and  trained  the  men  who  are 
capable  of  conceiving  general  ideas,  by  the  power  and 
novelty  of  which  the  real  influence  of  nations  is 
measured  to-day.  Therefore  it  has  liberally  given  to 
it  the  necessary  millions  which  had  been  persistently 
refused  by  former  administrations. 

"  In  the  last  15  years  it  has  renewed  the  buildings 
of  the  faculties. 

"  It  has  supplied  almost  entirely  their  equipment, 
their  laboratories,  their  libraries. 

"It  has  enlarged  and  increased  the  scope  and  range 
of  their  teaching. 

"It  has  more  than  doubled  their  budget. 
"  It  has  improved  the  position  of  the  '  personnel  '  and 
endowed  their  teaching  with  the  requisite  resources. 

"  It  has  created  two  categories  of  student,  formerly 
unknown  in  France,  students  in  science  and  in  letters. 
"  It  has  introduced  more  science  into  those  courses 
in  which  the  preoccupations  of  professional  studies  pre- 
dominated, and  it  has  imposed  a  professional  task  on 
those  orders  of  faculties  which  were  without  it. 

"  It  has  restored  to  the  faculties  the  '  personality 
civile,'  a  right  which  a  suspicious  rigime  had  denied 
they  possessed. 

"  It  has  rendered  relationship  possible  between  them 
by  giving  them  a  common  function  to  fulfil. 

"It  has  given  full  liberty  to  science    and  theory. 
"It  has  favoured  the  coming  together  of  students  as 
well  as  that  of  teachers. 

"  In  conclusion  it  has  seen  the  number  of  its  students 
rise  from  9000  to  more  than  16,000,  foreigners  return- 
ing to  its  schools,  and  frequenting  them  in  greater 
numbers  than  in  any  other  country  in  Europe. "_ 

The  Bill  itself  proposed  to  create  universities  in  the 
fullest  sense  of  the  word  out  of  the  existing  groups  of 
faculties  in  the  seven  largest  towns.  Unfortunately 
local  influences  proved  too  strong ;  the  other  ten  towns 
possessing  two  or  more  faculties  demanded  equality  of 
treatment.  The  former  adversaries  of  the  project  joined 
forces  with  them,  and  in  the  end  the  Government  was 
obliged  to  withdraw  the  Bill. 

Beaten  on  the  question  of  establishing  local  uni- 
versities of  the  fully  equipped  type,  the  reformers  took 
once  more  the  line  of  least  resistance,  and  in  1893  an 
Act  was  passed  investing  with  the  "  personality  civile  " 
the  groups  of  faculties  formed  by  the  union  of  several 
faculties,  and  represented  by  the  Conseil  G^n^ral.  This 
was  followed  in  1896  by  an  Act  introduced  by  M. 
•Poincare,  which  converted  these  groups  of  faculties  Into 


August  6,  1903] 


NATURE 


'325 


T 


I 


universities.  The  idea  of  full  and  complete  universities^ 
which  had  been  the  underlying  conception  of  the  Bill 
of  1890,  was  abandoned,  and  wherever  an  academy 
existed,  even  if  it  had  but  two  faculties,  its  place  wa^ 
taken  by  a  university.  As  M.  Liard  well  says,  "  it  was 
a  choice  between  having  too  many  universities  or  of 
having  none."  To  provide  funds,  the  tuition  fees, 
which  had  hitherto  gone  to  the  Treasury,  were  handed 
over  to  the  new  bodies.  The  examination  fees,  how- 
ever, were  still  retained  by  the  Treasury.  The  law  con- 
tained  but   four  clauses.     The   first   decided   that   the 

roups  of  faculties  should  take  the  name  of  universities. 

he  second  decided  that  the  Conseil  General  should  re- 
ceive the  title  of  university  council.  The  third  en- 
larged the  disciplinary  powers  of  the  new  council.  The 
fourth  dealt  with  the  financial  arrangement  men- 
tioned above,  the  new  funds  provided  being 
*'  earmarked  "  for  certain  definite  purposes,  such 
as  expenditure  on  laboratories,  &c.  Certain  other 
financial  rearrangements  were  made,  with  the 
result  that  the  extra  cost  tO  the  State  came  to 
about  15,000/.  a  year.  The  existing  "  personnel  "  was 
paid,  as  before,  by  the  State,  and  the  regular  grant, 
variableyear  by  year,  for  buildings  and  equipment  was 
likewise  continued.  By  the  law  of  1899  the  univer- 
sities were  allowed  to  establish  '"  degrees  of  a  purely 
scientific  kind,"  This  was  largely  done  to  encourage 
the  attendance  of  foreigners,  while  the  proviso  that  they 
conferred  no  rights  or  privileges  safeguarded  the 
State  from  incurring  any  responsibilities  vis  a  vis  their 
recipients. 

The  preamble  of  the  Bill  of  1890,  quoted  above,  gives 
an  adequate  summary  of  the  progress  made  from  1870 
up  to  the  university  year  1888-1889.  More  detailed  in- 
formation of  the  progress  since  that  date  is  to  be  found 
in  the  "  Statistique  de  I'Enseignement  Superieur," 
which  brings  up  the  record  to  the  university  year 
1897-98  (the  last  year  available).  The  following 
are  some  of  the  principal  items  of  interest. 
Though  the  French  universities  have  not,  with  very 
rare  exceptions,  found  any  benefactors  on  the 
scale  of  the  Rockefellers  and  Carnegies,  the  list 
of  benefactions  published  in  full  shows  that  the 
power  of  the  new  universities  revived  in  1875  to  re- 
ceive donations  and  legacies  has  not  remained  un- 
appreciated. The  University  of  Paris  has  received  such 
lump  sums  as  210,000/.,  Montpellier  such  as  60,000/., 
while  several  have  received  donations  of  4,000/.  or  less. 
In  1889  the  annual  grant  from  the  State  amounted 
to  about  456,284/.  In  1898  it  was  more  than  523,640/:, 
showing  an  increase  of  67,000/.  odd  over  the  grant  of 
ten  years  before,  which  itself  was  more  than  double  the 
grant  under  the  Empire.  Though  the  universities  re- 
ceived the  above  sums  in  hard  cash,  the  actual  cost  to 
the  State  was  less,  as  one  must  deduct  from  it  the 
fees  for  degrees,  which,  as  has  been  already  stated,  go 
into  the  coffers  of  the  State.  These  amounted  to 
5,135,162  francs  in  1898,  or,  roughly,  205,406/.  The 
net  expenditure,  therefore,  of  the  State  was  about 
318,000/. 

The  departments  and  municipalities  make  contribu- 
tions to  nearly  all  the  universities,  their  contributions 
being  "  earmarked,"  as  a  rule,  for  specific  purposes. 
They  practically  support  all  the  medical  schools, 
whether  situate  at  the  seat  of  the  university  itself  or 
within  its  area  of  control,  the  only  exceptions  being 
Paris  and  Bordeaux,  which  also  receive  a  State  sub- 
vention. The  contributions  of  the  departments  and 
municipalities  to  the  budgets  of  the  university  and 
faculties  amount  to  about  68,000  francs  and  132,000 
francs  respectively;  their  contributions  to  the  medical 
schools  unsupported  by  the  Government,  and  to  the  so- 
called  preparatory  classes  in  letters  and  science  amount' 
NO.   1762,  VOL.   68] 


to  about  135,500  francs  and  882,060  francs  respectively. 
The  total  income  of  the  universities,  including  these 
medical  schools,  but  excluding  the  College  de  France, 
the  Museum,  and  the  various  special  schools,  amolints 
to  about  14,142,000  francs  for  the  universities,  and 
1,582,858  for.the  medical  and  preparatory  schools,  in  all 
a  grand  total  of  about  15,725,000  francs.  Towards  this 
total  the  State  contributes  13,096,664  francs,  the  depart- 
ments about  203,000  francs,  and  the  municipalities  about 
1,014,000  francs;  the  rest  is  made  up  of  students'  fees, 
legacies,  and  contributions  by  societies  and  private  per- 
sons. As,  however,  the  towns  receive  from  university 
sources  the  sum  of  421,837  francs,  their  net  contribution 
is  only  about  593,000  francs,  or  roughly  about  23,720/. 

Since  1888-89  ^he  number  of  students  has  risen  in  a 
remarkable  fashion,  though  no  doubt  this  increase  is 
due  in  part  to  the  law  which  grants  two  years'  exemp- 
tion from  military  service  to  those  who  have  passed 
certain  examinations.  In  1888-89,  the  number  of 
students  was  about  16,000,  in  1898  the  total  had  risen 
to  28,782,  of  whom  871  were  women,  and  no  less  than 
1784  of  foreign  nationality.  All  the  faculties  show 
an  increase  in  the  number  of  students  during  the  same 
period,  but  those  in  science  (a  school  which  did  not 
exist  before  the  Republic)  show  the  greatest  increase. 
Their  numbers  have  risen  in  the  last  ten  years  from 
1 187  to  3424. 

The  Baccalaur^at  shows  the  same  remarkable  itt- 
crease.  Certain  changes  'in  the  examination  do  not 
permit  of  a  comparison  being  drawn  with  any  year 
earlier  than  1892-93.  In  that  year  there  were  25,612 
candidates  for  the  different  sections  of  the  examination, 
of  whom  11,518  passed.  In  1897-98  there  were  36,922 
candidates,  of  whom  16,688  passed.  The  other  estab- 
lishments of  university  rank,  the  Coll^ge^de  France,  the 
Museum  of  Natural  History,  the  Ecole  Normale 
Sup^rieure,  the  ficole  pratique  des  hautes  fitudes,  &c., 
all  received  an  increased  grant  in  1898  in  comparison 
with  the  last  decennial  account.  The  College  de  France, 
which  is  entirely  devoted  to  research  work,  contains 
no  less  than  forty-two  chairs,  and  receives  from  the 
State  nearly  21,000/.  a  year.  The  Museum  of  Natural 
History,  equally  devoted  to  research,  has  a  budget  of 
more  than  38,000/.  The  school  of  Oriental  languages, 
which  has  no  counterpart  in  England,  though  we  have 
a  far  greater  need  of  one,  receives  more  than  6000/.  a 
year.  The  ficole  des  Chartes  receives  more  than  3000/. 
The  ficole  pratique  des  hautes  Etudes  receives  more 
than  12,500/.,  as  well  as  more  than  1500/.  a  year  from 
the  City  of  Paris.  The  majority  of  these  institutions 
have  enormously  developed,  if  they  have  not  been 
actually  created,  under  the  Republican  rigime. 

One  word  must  be  said  in  conclusion  for  the  free 
universities  founded  in  1875,  when  the  university  mono- 
poly in  higher  education  was  abolished.  -At  first  per- 
mitted to  grant  degrees  similar  in  name  to  those  of  the 
official  world,  they  have  since  lost  the  right.  In  spite 
of  this  they  have  none  the  less  continued  to  increase. 
In  1888-89  their  students  numbered  726,  in  1897-8  they 
had  increased  to  1407.  It  is  difficult  to  say  what  will 
be  their  fate  under  the  present  campaign  to  re-establish 
the  monopoly  of  the  State  in  education.  The  higher 
schools  of  art  and  technology  being  under  more  or  less 
separate  authorities  do  not  figure  here  in  the  list  of 
higher  education.^  The  present  rdgime  has  been 
equally  liberal  and  equally  successful  in  dealing  with 
these  important  branches  of  national  education.  What- 
ever may  be  the  final  verdict  of  history  on  the  Republic, 
its  bitterest  critics  will  never  be  able  to  contest  the  fact 
that  only  Prussia  after  Jena  can  compare  in  any  way 

1  The  schools  o(  «rt  are  under  a  separate  department  in  the  Ministry  of 
Publiclnsiruc'irinand  Art.  The  higher  schools  of  commerce  and  technology 
are  uijder  the  Ministry  of  Commerce.  -  ,  , 


326 


NATURE 


[August  6,  1903 


with  the  thoroughness  and  success  with  which  it  has 
reformed  and  revivified  every  branch  of  higher 
education.  Cloudesley  Brereton, 

Principal  works  consulted  :— "  Ministfere  de  I'lnstruc- 
tion  Publique  et  des  Beaux  Arts;  (i)  Statistique  de 
I'Enseignement  Sup^rieur;  (2}  Introduction  k  la 
Statistique  de  I'Enseignement  Sup^rieur,  par  M.  L. 
Liard,  Directeur  de  I'Enseignement  Superieur.  (Paris  : 
Imprimerie  Nationale,  MDCCCC.)  (3)  "  Legislation 
et  Jurisprudence  de  I'lnstruction  Publique.  Extrait  du 
Repertoire  du  Droit  administratif."  Premiere  partie, 
Historique  et  Organisation  g^n^rale ;  Deuxieme  partie, 
Enseignement  Superieur;  Sixieme  partie,  Ecoles  ne 
relevant  du  Ministere  de  I'lnstruction  Publique.  (Paris  : 
P.  Dupont,  1903.) 


THE  RESUSCITATION  OF  THE  APPARENTLY 

DROWNED. 
T  N  1862  a  committee,  which  included  several  eminent 
•"■  medical  men  and  physiologists— amongst  the  latter 
Dr.,  now  Sir,  John  Burdon  Sanderson — was  appointed 
by  the  Royal  Medical  and  Chirurgical  Society  to  investi- 
gate the  phenomena  attendant  upon  drowning,  and  the 
methods  which  had  been  recommended  for  the  recovery 
of  apparently  drowned  persons.  That  committee  made 
a  number  of  experiments  in  man  upon  the  dead  sub- 
ject, and  upon  animals  during  life,  and  the  results 
they  obtained  were  duly  published  in  the  Transactions 
of  the  society.  But  it  appeared  important  to  renew 
the  inquiry  with  modern  methods,  and  a  second  com- 
mittee for  the  investigation  of  this  important  subject 
was  accordingly  appointed  a  few  years  ago,  with  Prof. 
Schafer  as  chairman.  This  second  committee 
attempted,  in  the  first  instance,  to  pursue  the  inquiry 
as  to  the  best  means  of  carrying  on  artificial  respira- 
tion, in  the  same  manner  as  the  1862  committee,  i.e. 
upon  the  cadaver,  but  met  with  grave  difficulties  from 
the  outset  in  the  enormous  resistance  which  the  con- 
dition of  rigor  mortis  sets  up  to  effecting  changes  of 
volume  of  the  chest,  a  difficulty  which  had  been  also 
met  by  the  earlier  committee,  and  very  imperfectly 
surrnounted.  The  new  committee  accordingly  decided 
to  discard  the  cadaver,  and  to  endeavour  to  determine 
in  the  living  human  subject  how  great  an  amount  of 
air  could  be  moved  into  and  out  of  the  lungs  by  move- 
ments imparted  to  the  thorax  by  the  agency  of  external 
force.  This  force  was  applied  either  by  intermittent 
traction  upon  the  arms,  or  by  intermittent  pressure 
upon  the  thorax,  the  subject  being  either  in  the  supine 
or  prone  position,  and  remaining  perfectly  passive 
during  the  short  period  of  the  experiment.  The 
amount  of  air  taken  in  and  given  out  was  measured 
in  a  graduated  vessel,  or  by  means  of  an  ordinary 
gasometer. 

The  results  showed  that  by  all  methods  which  have 
been  suggested  for  the  performance  of  artificial  re- 
spiration, viz.  the  Silvester  traction  method,  the  Mar- 
shall Hall  rolling  method  plus  compression  of  thorax, 
the  Howard  method  of  compression  of  thorax  in  the 
supine  position,  and  also  a  similar  method  of  pressure 
upon  the  thorax  with  the  subject  in  the  prone  or  semi- 
prone  position,  an  amount  of  air  can  be  drawn  into 
and  driven  out  of  the  thorax  which  is  at  least  as  great 
as  the  amount  of  air  exchanged  in  the  ordinary  tidal 
respirations  of  the  individual.  This  being  so,  it  is 
evident  that,  in  selecting  a  method  of  artficial  respira- 
tion for  restoring  the  drowned,  one  should  be  guided 
less  by  the  actual  amount  of  air  which  any  given 
method  is  capable  of  exchanging  than  by  other  con- 
siderations, such  as  the  facility  offered  for  the  escape 
of  water  and  mucus  from  the  air  passages,  and  the 
preventing  of  the  tongue  from  falling  back  and  block- 
ing the  fauces,  both  of  which  objects  are  better 
NO.    1762,  VOL.  68] 


attained  by  the  lateral  and  prone  than  by  the  supine 
position.  It  was  further  clear  that  it  is  more  easy 
to  effect  artificial  respiration  by  exerting  intermittent 
pressure  upon  the  thorax  than  by  arm  traction,  and 
although  the  committee  do  not  give  instructions  for 
the  restoration  of  the  apparently  drowned  in  their  re- 
port, it  is  obvious  that  their  conclusions  point  to  the 
adoption  of  the  prone  or  semi-prone  position  of  the 
subject,  and  to  rhythmically  intermitted  pressure  upon 
the  thorax,  as  the  methods  which  are  likely,  in  the 
circumstances  of  drowning,  to  yield  the  best  results. 

The  experiments  upon  animals  (which  were  per- 
formed almost  entirely  upon  anaesthetised  dogs)  are,  it 
is  believed,  the  first  in  which  all  the  phenomena  con- 
nected with  the  circulation  and  respiration  have  been 
graphically  recorded  during  the  process  of  drowning 
and  subsequent  resuscitation  by  artificial  respiration. 
The  chief  points  which  they  illustrate  are  the  very 
large  amount  of  water  which  can  be  taken  into  the 
lungs  and  become  entirely  absorbed  into  the  system 
within  a  few  minutes,  without  producing  any  but  quite 
temporary  symptoms,  the  great  amount'  of  vagal 
stimulation  which  is  produced  during  drowning,  and 
which  is,  in  some  instances,  sufficient  to  arrest  the 
heart's  action  almost  entirely,  and  the  extreme  varia- 
bility in  the  power  of  resistance  to  drowning  in  different 
individuals  of  the  same  species,  so  that,  while  a  sub- 
mersion of  two  minutes  is  fatal  to  some  individuals, 
one  of  seven  or  eight  minutes,  or  even  more,  can  be 
borne  by  others  with  a  fair  chance  of  recovery  as  the 
result  of  the  application  of  artificial  respiration.  The 
experiments  all  point  to  the  supreme  importance  of 
commencing  artificial  respiration  at  the  earliest  possible 
moment,  and  are,  therefore,  condemnatory  of  all 
instructions  for  the  recovery  of  the  apparently  drowned 
which  direct  that,  before  proceeding  to  apply  artificial 
respiration,  the  patient  should  be  divested  of  clothing, 
hartshorn  should  be  applied  to  the  nostrils,  and  various 
other  remedies  attempted — all  of  which  merely  serve 
to  waste  time,  every  second  of  which  is  invaluable  for 
combatting  the  actual  condition  which  is  threatening 
life,  viz.  the  lack  of  oxygenation  of  the  blood.  Inci- 
dentally it  was  found  in  the  course  of  these  experiments 
that,  without  sufficient  aeration  of  the  blood,  even  the 
most  powerful  cardiac  and  vascular  stimulant — such, 
for  example,  as  the  extract  of  suprarenal  capsule — is 
entirely  unable  to  assist  recovery. 

The  experiments  upon  the  cadaver  were  chiefly  per- 
formed by  Mr.  Pickering  Pick,  Mr.  Henry  Power,  and 
Dr.  J.  S.  Bolton,  in  London;  those  upon  the  living 
subject  by  Prof.  Schafer  and  Dr.  P.  T.  Herring  in 
the  physiological  laboratory  of  the  University  of  Edin- 
burgh. The  report  of  the  committee  was  read  by 
Prof.  Schafer  at  a  largely  attended  meeting,  held  on 
May  26  last,  at  the  rooms  of  the  society  in  Hanover 
Square. 


NOTES. 

We  regret  to  learn  that  on  Saturday,  July  25,  M.  Prosper 
Henry,  of  the  Paris  Observatory,  was  found  lying  dead 
in  the  La  Valoise  Valley  near  Pomogen  at  an  altitude  of 
1600  metres,  in  the  French  Alps.  His  death  appears  to 
have  been  due  to  congestion  caused  by  extreme  cold.  M. 
Henry  was  buried  at  Nancy,  his  birthplace,  on  August  i. 
A  number  of  astronomers  was  present  at  the  sad  ceremony, 
among  them  being  M.  Callandreau,  of  the  Paris  Academy 
of  Sciences ;  MM.  Borchart  and  Fraissinet,  of  the  Paris 
Observatory ;  and  M.  Tripled,  director  of  the  Algiers 
Observatory.  M.  Prosper  Henry  and  his  brother,  M.  Paul 
Henry,  were  attached  to  the  Paris  Observatory  in  1865, 
and  their  work  is  well  known  in  the  astronomical  world. 
Between   1872  and   1882  they  discovered  fourteen  asteroids, 


August  6.  190, 


NATURE 


327 


and  in  the  latter  year  took  up  the  work  in  celestial  photo- 
graphy which  has  rendered  their  name  famous.  It  is  not 
too  much  to  say  that  in  many  ways  they  have  been  the 
real  founders  of  La  Carte  du  Ciel. 

An  International  Conference  on  Wireless  Telegraphy  was 
opened  at  Berlin  on  Tuesday.  We  learn  from  the  Times 
that  Great  Britain  is  represented  by  Mr.  J.  C.  Lamb,  Mr. 
J.  Gavey,  and  Mr.  R.  J.  Mackay,  of  the  General  Post 
Office,  Captain  H.  L.  Heath,  R.N.,  Lieut.  C.  R.  Payne, 
R.N.,  and  Colonel  R.  L.  Hippisiey.  Herr  Kraetke,  the 
Imperial  Secretary  of  State  for  the  Post  Office,  who  opened 
the  conference,  said  that  it  was  intended  "  to  make  a  clear 
road  for  the  further  extension  of  wireless  telegraphy  in 
order  that,  all  special  interests  being  set  aside,  the  new 
means  cf  communication  might  gradually  develop  to  the 
common  benefit  of  all  seafaring  peoples.  This  could  only 
be  brought  about  by  the  harmonious  cooperation  of  the 
"states  interested  in  the  shipping  trade."  The  business 
t  the  conference  is,  however,  only  preliminary,  the 
main  object  being  to  fix  upon  matter  for  discussion 
at  a  subsequent  international  conference.  This  later 
conference  will  probably  be  l^gely  occupied  in  con- 
sidering the  possibility  of  standardisation  with  a  view  to 
intercommunication  between  different  systems.  We  have 
often  pointed  out  in  these  columns  the  extreme  desirability 
of  such  intercommunication  from  the  point  of  view  of  public 
safety  and  convenience.  When  the  problem  of  syntonisation 
is  solved,  it  will  no  doubt  be  possible  for  one  system  to 
work  entirely  independently  of  all  others,  but  until  that 
time  it  is  practically  necessary  that  some  working  arrange- 
ment should  be  made  between  the  different  systems  which 
will  allow  the  public  to  derive  from  wireless  telegraphy  the 
full  advantage  that  it  can,  as  yet,  bestow. 

Mr.  R.  Lydekker,  F.R.S.,  has  been  elected  a  foreign 
member  of  the  R.  Accademia  dei  Lincei,  Rome. 

Mr.  W'.  R.  Ogilvie-Grant,  of  the  Natural  History 
Museum,  has  returned  from  his  trip  to  the  Azores  with  a 
large  collection  of  birds,  insects,  and  land  molluscs,  the 
latter  including  some  forms  of  special   interest. 

We  learn  from  the  Times  that  Dr.  Ludwig  Mond,  F.R.S., 
whose  death  was  incorrectly  announced  by  some  papers  last 
Saturday,  is  approaching  complete  recovery  from  a  nervous 
breakdown  on  the  shores  of  Lake  Leman. 

The  Civil  Service  Supplementary  Estimates  include  the 
sum  of  45,000/.  to  pay  the  expenses  of  the  two  reliei  ships 
Morning  and  Terra  Nova,  which  are  being  sent  out  by  the 
Admiralty  to  the  relief  of  the  Discovery.  The  estimate 
includes  provision  for  the  purchase  of  the  Terra  Nova  and 
for  the  wages  of  the  crews  of  both  vessels ;  also  for  stores, 
( oals,  provisions,  &c. 

Severe  earthquake  shocks  were  experienced  in  several 
parts  of  Italy  and  Spain  last  week.  Renter's  correspondent 
at  Rome  states  that  several  houses  and  churches  at 
I'iJattiera  and  Mulazzo  were  destroyed  by  an  earthquake  on 
July  31,  and  a  message  from  Madrid  states  that  at  Albunon, 
in  the  province  of  Granada,  severe  earthquake  shocks, 
followed  by  loud  and  prolonged  subterranean  rumblings, 
were  felt  on  July  26,  27  and  28. 

The  council  of  the  Institution  of  Electrical  Engineers  has 
now,  with  the  approval  of  the  Physical  Society,  undertaken 
the  publication  of  Science  Abstracts  as  an  Institution 
publication.  In  connection  with  this  work,  Mr.  Louis  H. 
Walter  has  been  appointed  editorial  assistant  to  the  secre- 
tary, and  will  take  up  his  duties  in  the  autumn. 


NO.    1762,   VOL.  68] 


The  death  is  announced  of  Prof.  Edmond  Nocard  in  his 
fifty-fourth  year.  Prof.  Nocard,  who  was  principal  of  the 
Veterinary  School  at  Alfort,  near  Paris,  had  a  world-wide 
reputation  as  a  veterinary  pathologist,  and  was  the  author 
of  several  important  works,  of  which  his  "  Maladies  micro- 
biennes  des  Animaux  "  (written  in  collaboration  with  Prof. 
Leclainche)  has  just  reached  a  third  edition.  He  was  also 
one  of  the  co-editors  of  the  Pasteur's  Annals.  He  attended 
the  Tuberculosis  Congress  in  London  in  1901,  and  was  a 
strenuous  opponent  of  Koch's  view  of  the  non-transmiss- 
ibility  of  bovine  tuberculosis  to  man. 

A  meeting  of  the  general  committee  of  the  Cancer  Re- 
search Fund  was  held  on  Friday  last,  July  30,  Mr.  Balfour, 
one  of  the  vice-presidents,  occupying  the  chair  in  the  absence 
of  the  president,  the  Prince  of  Wales.  The  first  annual  re- 
port, which  was  submitted,  showed  that  a  large  amount  of 
preliminary  work  had  already  been  accomplished  during 
the  few  months  the  Cancer  Research  Fund  has  been  in 
existence.  It  was  deemed  premature  to  make  any  detailed 
statement  of  the  experimental  work  in  progress,  but  an 
indication  was  given  that  considerable  importance  is 
attached  to  the  study  of  cancer  as  it  occurs  spontaneously 
in  the  lower  animals.  For  the  purposes  of  this  branch  of 
the  inquiry,  it  is  sought  to  secure  adequate  farm  accom- 
modation. Certain  statistical  data  are  also  in  progress  of 
compilation  with  regard  to  the  proportion  of  cases  in  which 
the  clinical  diagnosis  is  verified  by  the  pathological  find- 
ings, in  order  that  the  value  of  the  data  upon  which  exist- 
ing statistical  conclusions  are  based  may  be  determined 
and  sources  of  fallacy  obviated  in  future.  Sir  William 
Broadbent,  in  moving  a  vote  of  thanks  to  Mr.  Balfour, 
stated  that  he  thought  that  in  the  course  of  the  work  now 
being  inaugurated,  the  nature,  cause,  and  cure  of  cancer 
would  be  arrived  at.  Whatever  method  of  cure  might  be 
proposed,  it  would  receive  careful  investigation.  Mr. 
Balfour,  in  his  reply,  alluding  to  the  interest  which  every- 
one must  take  in  the  cancer  problem,  said  he  was  surprised 
that  only  213  persons  had  contributed  to  the  fund.  One 
anonymous  donor  had  promised  5000/.  if  thirteen  other 
individuals,  or  groups  of  persons,  would  each  contribute 
a  like  amount,  but  up  to  the  present  this  appeal  had  not 
been  successful.  Considering  the  progress  that  had  been 
made  in  all  departments  of  medical  science  during  the  last 
century,  he  believed  that  there  was  every  reason  to  hope 
that  the  investigations  of  the  committee  would  ultimately 
prove  successful.  The  Cancer  Research  Fund  now  amounts 
to  about  52,000/.,  but  in  order  to  pay  the  expenses  of  the 
work  out  of  the  income  of  the  fund,  the  amount  originally 
estimated,  viz.   100,000/.,  will  be  necessary. 

A  CORRESPONDENT  of  the  Times  states  that  Lieut.  Kolchak 
has  started  from  the  Arctic  coast  for  the  New  Siberian 
Islands  in  search  of  Baron  Toll,  the  head  of  the  Russian 
Polar  expedition  which  left  St.  Petersburg  three  years  ago 
in  the  yacht  Zaria.  If  Baron  Toll  be  not  found  on  the  New 
Siberian  Islands,  then  Lieut.  Kolchak  will  endeavour  to 
reach  Bennett  Island,  about  eighty  miles  further  north-west. 
A  year  ago  last  May  Baron  Toll,  with  the  astronomer 
Seeberg  and  two  native  Yakuts,  left  the  Zaria  off  Kotlin 
Island  with  a  view  of  reaching  Bennett  Island  over  the  ice. 
In  case  the  Zaria  should  not  be  able  to  follow  them,  which 
eventually  turned  out  to  be  the  case,  the  party  hoped  to 
be  able  to  return  independently  to  the  New  Siberian  Islands  ; 
but  it  is  supposed  that .  Baron  Toll  had  not  dogs  enough 
with  him  for  this  purpose,  and  was  therefore  obliged  to 
winter  on  Bennett  Island.  In  regard  to  food,  all  the 
members  of   his   party   are   e.xcellent   hunters,   and   in   case 


3^8 


NATURE 


[August  6,  1903 


the  baron  should  havfi  succeeded  in  making  his. :Way-bfack 
to  the  New  Siberian  Islands  in  the  spriHg,  he  and:  his  com- 
panions will  have  an  ample  supply  of  provisions,  lin  the 
stores  which  he  himself  left  there  for  Nansen  in  .  1893. 
According  to  notes  left  by  Seeberg  on  New  Siberia,  which 
is  the  last  news  received  of  the  expedition,  Baron  Toll's 
party  must  have  left  there  about  \he  beginning  of  July  of 
last  year  to  explore  Bennett  Island. 

It  is  announced  that  a  wireless  telegraphy  station  is  to 
ba  erected  at  Port  Arthur  at  a  place  known  as  Golden 
Mountain.  The  object  is  to  establish  regular  communica- 
tion with  Russian  warships  in  the  Gulf  of  Pechili.  The 
system  to  be  used  is  not  stated. 

The  Cable  Makers'  Association,  which  represents  the  chief 
makers  of  insulated  wire  in  this  country,  haS  decided  to 
put  on  the  market  a  special  quality  of  flexible  cord  which 
shall  be  quite  safe  and  trustworthy  under  all  conditions  of 
ordinary  use.  The  importance  of  installing  good  quality 
flexible  cord  cannot  be  overestimated,  as  the  loose  wire  is 
subjected  often  to  rough  treatment,  and  is  very  liable  to 
be  in  the  neighbourhood  of  inflammatory  material.  The 
cord  which  the  Association  proposes  to  make  is  to  be  in- 
sulated with  pure  and  vulcanised  indiarubber,  and  will  have 
a  minimum  insulation  resistance  of  600  megohms  per  mile 
after  twenty-four  hours'  immersion  in  water;  the  insulation 
will  also  be  tested  with  1000  volts  alternating  current  for 
fifteen  minutes.  The  cord  will  bear  a  special  label  and 
trade  mark  for  the  purpose  of  distinguishing  it. 

The  twenty-fifth  annual  report  of  the  Deutsche  Seewarte 
for  1902  will  be  noteworthy  in  the  history  of  that  useful 
institution  by  the  retirement  of  Dr.  von  Neumayer,  who  had 
been  director  since  January,  1876,  and  of  Captain  Dinklage, 
marine  superintendent,  after  twenty-two  years  of  very 
active  work.  The  long  list  of  meteorological  logs  received 
from  the  navy  and  mercantile  marine  shows  that  this 
branch  of  the  service  has  been  carried  on  with  great  activity  ; 
556  steamships  and  198  sailing  vessels  contributed  observ- 
ations during  the  year.  The  results  appear  in  various 
useful  publications,  including  daily  synoptic  charts  and 
monthly  pilot  charts  of  the  North  Atlantic  Ocean.  The 
department  of  storm  warnings  and  weather  telegraphy  has 
also  been  conducted  with  unabated  vigour,  to  the  success 
of  which  the  recent  establishment  of  a  telegraphic  service 
at  yh.  a.m.  has  greatly  contributed.  The  daily  weather 
report  issued  by  this  department  is  one  of  the  most  valuable 
publications  of  the  Seewarte,  and  includes  observations  from 
all  parts  of  Europe. 

We  have  received  the  report  of  the  Government 
astronomer  of  Western  Australia,  containing  meteorological 
observations  made  at  the  Perth  Observatory  and  other 
places  in  the  colony  during  the  year  igoi.  Very  complete 
observations  are  published  for  the  observatory,  including 
temperature  of  the  soil  and  evaporation,  together  with 
monthly  means  from  the  year  1876.  General  summaries 
are  also  given  for  more  than  forty  climatdlogical  stations 
an  J  rainfall  statistics  for  a  large  number  of  places.'  Morn- 
ing and  evening  weather  forecasts  form  part  of  the  routine 
work,  and  the  results  show  that  they  have  been  remarkably 
successful ;  the  general  forecasts  issued  at  noon,  for  the 
whole  State,  attained  a  complete  success  ,of  93  per  cent. 
During  the  latter  portion  of  the  year  astronomy  also  formed 
a  prominent  feature  of  the  work  of  the  observatory.  . 

In  the  Zoologist  for  July  Mr.  T.  E.  Lones  discusses  the 
identification  of  some  of  the  birds  mentioned  by  Aristotle, 
and  shows  that  certain  of  the  names  have  a  generic  rather 
than   a   specific   sense.     It   appears   that   the   name   hoscas, 

NO.    1762,   VOL.    68] 


now  used  for  the  mallard,  really  indicates  the  widgeon, 
while  netta,  now  employed  as  the  generic  title  of  the  red- 
headed pochard,  properly  denotes  the  first-named  bird.  Jn 
a  second  article  Mr.  R.  C.  J.  Swinhoe  publishes  a  fuller 
account  of  the  gisement  of  the  now  celebrated  chipped 
flints  from  Yenangyoung,  Burma,  and  concludes  that,  in 
place  of  Pliocene  or  Miocene,  they  are  really  of  late  Neo- 
lithic, if  not  of  the  Iron,  age.  Mr.  Lydekker  has  a  note 
on  the  gaur  of  Burma,  which  is  regarded  as  subspecifically 
distinct  from  the  wild  ox  of  India,  and  named  Bos  gaurus 
readei. 

A  COLLECTION  of  molluscs  from  the  Vicksburg  marls  has 
enabled  Mr.  T.  L.  Casey  to  describe  a  considerable  number 
of  new  species  and  genera  in  a  recent  issue  of  the  Proceed- 
ings of  the  Philadelphia  Academy.  In  the  same  journal 
Mr.  A.  E.  Brown  attempts  to  bring  into  something  like 
order  the  various  forms  of  garter-snakes  (Eutaenia)  from 
the  Pacific  Coast  of  North  America  which  have  received 
distinct  specific  and  subspecific  names.  Much  interest 
attaches  to  a  note  by  Miss  S.  P.  Monks  in  the  serial  under 
consideration  in  regard  to  regeneration  in  starfishes.  It 
has  been  stated  that  a  fragment  of  a  ray,  without  any 
portion  of  the  central  disc,  cannot  give  rise  to  a  new  animal. 
This  is  disproved  by  the  new  experiments,  in  which  the 
amputated  free  rays  developed  new  bodies,  while  the  muti- 
lated starfishes  produced  new  rays. 

From  among  a  series  of  papers  published  in  the  Proceed- 
ings of  the  U.S.  Nat.  Museum,  special  mention  may  be 
made  of  the  following.  In  No.  1345  Mr.  B.  A.  Bean  records 
from  Barbados  an  example  of  the  small  eel,  Ahlia  egmontis, 
hitherto  known  only  by  the  type  specimen  from  Florida, 
Reference  is  also  made  to  a  third  example  of  the  species 
from  Florida.  In  No.  1341  the  Rev.  T.  R.  R.  Stebbing 
describes  two  new  species  of  amphipod  crustaceans  from 
Costa  Rica.  The  walking-stick  insects  (Phasmidae)  of  the 
United  States  form  the  subject  of  a  paper  (No.  1335)  by 
Mr.  A.  N.  Caudell,  while  Mr.  W.  H.  Dall  (No.  1342)  con- 
tributes a  synopsis  of  the  bivalves  of  the  family  Astartidse, 
with  special  reference  to  the  American  species.  Finally, 
Mr.  S.  F.  Clarke  (No.  1343)  shows  that  the  Alaskan  hydroid 
polyp,  described  by  himself  as  the  representative  of  a  new 
family  and  genus  (Rhizonema),  belongs  to  one  or  other  of 
the  well-known  genera  Corymorpha  and  Lampra,  the  im- 
perfect condition  of  the  Alaskan  specimens  preventing  closer 
identification. 

In  Animal  World  Illustrated  (the  official  organ  for  the 
R.S.P.C.A.)  for  July,  Mr.  E.  V.  Windsor,  in  an  article 
entitled  "  Reflections  by  a  Lover  of  Nature,"  passes  an 
unqualified  condemnation  on  insect  collecting,  as  practised 
by  the  school-boy  and  the  amateur  entomologist.  Stuffed 
birds  as  objects  of  decoration  are  likewise  condemned,  and 
we  presume,  although  this  is  not  stated  in  so  many  words, 
that  collections  of  birds'  skins,  except  in  museums,  would 
likewise  come  under  the  writer's  ban.  While  we  have 
much  sympathy  with  Mr.  Windsor's  views,  more  especially 
as  regards  the  stuffed  birds,  we  believe  that  he  carries 
these  views  somewhat  too  far.  For  instance,  when  he  says, 
that  "  there  is  little  or  nothing  to  be  learnt  from  a  creature 
when  dead,"  we  beg  to  join  issue  with  him.  Again,  we 
have  the  following  passage  : — "  In  every  branch  of  natural 
history  this  wanton  slaughtering  is,  I  fear,  practised.  In 
branches  other  than  those  I  have  just  referred  to  it  is 
practised  almost  exclusively  by  men  who  have  a  real  claim 
to  the  title  of  naturalist,  because  these  branches  of  natural 
science  not  being  so  popular,  there  are  fewer  amateufs.',' 
If  by  this  the  author  means  to  condemn  museum  collecting, 
he  cannot  have  our  sympathy.     As  regards  the  contention 


A'UGUST  6,  1 903 J 


NATURE 


329 


that  nobody  should  collect  without  fully  study ing^  the  habits 
f  the  species  collected,  we  are  in  full  accord  with  Mr. 
Windsor ;  but  this  by  no  means  implies  that  collecting, 
under  proper  restrictions,  should  be  abolished  m  to\o. 
Were  this  to  be  done,  it  is  probable  that  young  collectors 
would  confine  their  attentions  to  stamps  and  such  like, 
whereby  many  a  promising  recruit  would  undoubtedly  be 
lost  to  science. 

The  Agricultural  Journal  of  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  the 
official  publication  of  the  Cape  Department  of  Agriculture, 
is  meant  to  circulate  among  the  farmers  of  the  Colony,  and 
contains  popularly  written  accounts  of  investigations  con- 
ducted by  the  experts  attached  to  the  Department,  articles 
on  general  farming,  reports  on  farmers'  congresses,  legis- 
lative enactments,  and  other  matters  of  agricultural  interest. 
The  current  number  (vol.  xxii.  No.  6,  June)  contains  plenty 
of  evidence  of  the  difficulties  which  beset  the  South  African 
farrner — infectious  and  parasitic  diseases  of  all  kinds  among 
his  stock,  insect  and  fungoid  pests  among  his  crops.  The 
two  most  active  branches  of  the  department  are  evidently 
those,  dealing  with  veterinary  medicine  and  insect  ento- 
mology; investigations  of  soil  and  manure  problems  are 
hardly  of  much  consequence'  to  the  Cape  farmer  as  yet. 
While  the  greater  part  of  this  number  deals  with  veterinary 
matters;  we  get  incidental  allusion  to  one  of  the  questions 
upon  which  the  future  of  South  African  agriculture  must 
depend,  the  successful  introduction  of  suitable  forage  crops 
.  carry  stock  through  the  winter ;  such  plants  as  lucerne 
alfalfa)  or  turnips  are  not  in  the  regular  routine  of  farm- 
ing, and  through  the  winter,  when  there  is  no  grass  on 
the  veldt,  the  animals  practically  starve.  We  learn,  too, 
that  wheat-growing,  as  in  some  of  the  Australian  colonies, 
must  depend  upon  the  introduction  of  rust-resisting  varie- 
ties ;  in  the  absence  of  sorts  remaining  rust-proof  there  is 
at  present  little  prospect  of  South  Africa  contributing  to 
the  "  Granary  of  the  Empire." 

The  geology  of  the  Cheadle  Coal-field  is  described  by  Mr. 
"^orge  Barrow  in  a  handy  pamphlet  of  sixty-two  pages, 
.vith  a  small  colour-printed  map  attached  to  it,  issued-  by 
tfie  Geological  Survey.  The  price  is  25.  The  area  is  an 
outlying  portion  of  the  North  Staffordshire  Coal-field,  and 
Mr;!  Barrow  gives  full  particulars  of  the- seams  of  coal,  with 
Lords  of  borings,  and  remarks  on  the  probablfe  extent  of 
the  workable  measures.  The  underlying  Millstone  Grit 
apd  overlying  Bunter  and  Keuper  formations  are  likewise 
described,  and  special  reference  is  made  to  the  water-bearing 
>trata.  .Attention  is  also  directed  to  the  Glacial  drift,  to 
the  great  amount  of  rain-wash,  and  to  the  recent  river 
deposits. 

The  fourth  part  of  the  memoir  on  the  geology  of  the 
South  Wales  Coal-field,  being  an  account  of  the  country 
around  Pontypridd  and  Maes-teg,  has  been  written  for  the 
Geological  Survey  by  Messrs.  A.  Strahan,  R.  H.  Tiddeman, 
and  W.  Gibson.  It  is  issued  at  is.  6d.,  with  a  separate 
colour-printed  map  (without  Glacial  drifts)  also  priced  at 
IS.  6d.  The  map,  which  is  very  clearly  printed,  embraces 
a  tract  almost  wholly  of  Coal-measures,  including  much  of 
the  Pennant  Grit,  which  forms  the  bold  moorland  features  of 
the  Coal-field.  Millstone  Grit,  and  small  areas  of  Carbon- 
iferous Limestone,  as  well  as  Lias,  Rhaetic  Beds,  Keuper 
Marl,  and  Dolomitic  Conglomerate  are  shown  on  the  south. 
Tracts  of  river  gravel,  peat,  alluvium,  and  blown  sand  are 
also  depicted.  The  Glacial  drifts  are  represented  on  another 
edition  of  the  map,  which  is  at  present  hand -coloured.  The 
memoir  deals  chiefly  with  the  details  of  the  Coal-measures, 
and  more  especially  with  the  lower  measures  of  the  south 
crop,  comparative  sections  of  which  are  given.     The  upper 

NO.    1762,   VOL     fS8l 


or  Llantwit  measures  occur  only  in  two  small  outliers.  The, 
structural  geology  is  fully  described,  the  Pontypridd  antir- 
cline  and  other  faults  and  disturbances  being  dealt  with. 
A  study  of  the  Glacial  deposits  indicates  that  the  main 
ice-flow  had  its  source  in  Brecknock.  It  followed  and  filled 
the  chief  valleys,  but  failed  to  surmount  the  Pennant  Grit 
scarp  of  Carn  Mosyn.  Subordinate  ice-flows  were,  how- 
ever, generated  on  these  higher  regions.  Economic  de- 
posits are  briefly  described  in  a  separate  chapter.  The 
Pennant  Grit  and  the  Llynfi  rock  in  the  lower  measures 
supply  materials  for  building,  paving,  and  road-mending. 
The  water-supply  is  obtained  chiefly  from  springs  and 
reservoirs,   seldom  from  wells. 

A  SOCIETY  for  spreading  information  about  St.  Michael's 
in  the  Azores  has  published  an  illustrated  booklet  setting 
forth  the  charms  of  St.  Michael's  as  a  health  resort  and 
as  a  station  for  tourists.  The  brochure  certainly  contains 
much  interesting  information  about  this  Atlantic  island. 

A  NEW  edition^  making  the  twenty-sixth  thousand,  of 
Miss  Agnes  Giberne's  "  Sun,  Moon,  and  Stars  "  has  been 
published  by  Messrs.  Seeley  and  Co.,  Ltd.  A  new  chapter, 
part  iv.,.  of  the  volume,  has  been  added,  and  deals  briefly 
with  celestial  pl^otography,  the  planets  Mars  and  Eros,' 
comets  and.  new  stars,  as  well  as  other  topics.  /With  the 
exception  of  these  additions,  the  present  editioni  is  the  same 
as  the  last. 

A  Sixpenny  booklet  describing  the  legends  and  the  story 
of  the  building  of  Stonehenge  has  been  received  from 
Messrs; '  James  Henderson  and  Sons.  In  an  appendix  to 
the  pamphlet;  a  short  account  is  given  of  recent  attempts 
to  ascertain  the  age  of  Stonehenge,  and  a  reference  is  made 
to  the  wire  fence  with  which  Sir  Edmund  Antrobus  has  had 
the  ruin  enclosed.  '  This  action  of  Sir  Edmund  Antrobus  is 
characterised  as  wise  and  public-spirited,  since  it  will  help 
in  the  preservation  of  this  valuable  monument  of  antiquity. 

We  have  received  a  copy  of  the  meteorological  observ- 
ations for  the  year  1902  made  at  the  Rousdon  Observatory 
in  Devonshire,  which  is  continued  under  the  superintendence 
of  Lady  Peek,  ,;  The  publication  was  prepared  under  the 
supervision  of,  Mr..  W.  Marriott,  of  the  Royal  Meteorological 
Society,  and  contains  remarks  on  the  weather  experienced 
during  ea9hi  ofi  the  months  of  1902,  and  a  useful  collection 
of  nine- tables  dealing  vifith  such  subjects  as  the  pressure, 
temperature,  and  hygrometric  state  of  the  air,  temperature 
of  the-  soil,  wind  direction,  rainfall,  amount  of  sunshine, 
&c  ,  The  concluding  table  affords  a  useful  summary  of  the 
annual  results  for  the  years  1884-1902.  • 

Two  more  numbers  of  the  "  Rural  Handbooks  "  pub- 
lished by  Messrs.  Dawbarn  and  Ward,  Ltd.,  have  been 
received;  one  is  by  Mr.  C.  F.  Townsend,  and  is  entitled 
"  Heating  and  Ventilation  of  Houses,"  the  other  is  on 
"  Utility  Fowl  Feeding  and  Management,"  and  is  by  Mr. 
H.  Francklin.  These  little  books  are  simply  written,  and 
will  serve  to  supply^  the  principles  upon  which  success 
in  many  pursuits  depends.  The  book  on  ventilation  is  well 
illustrated,  and  contains  practical  information  of  a  kind  to 
enable  any  inte.iligent  householder  to  secure  good  ventil- 
ation. The  amateur  poultry  farmer  will  find  numerous 
helpful  hints  in  the  second  handbook  as  to  how  to  make  his 
hobby  a  profitable  one.  " 

The  cur-rent  number  of  the  Quarterly  Revieiv  contains 
two  exhaustive 'articles  on  subjects  of  scientific  technology. 
The  first  is  by  Mr.  J.  Nesbit  on  the  improvement  of  British 
forestry,  apd.  begins  with  a  historical  retrospect  of  the 
attempts  made  by  legislation  and   otherwise   to  encourage 


330 


NATURE 


[August  6,  1903 


tree-planting  and  to  preserve  the  forests.  This  is  followed 
by  an  account  of  present  practice  and  ideals.  The  work  of 
the  departmental  committee  appointed  by  the  late  Mr. 
Hanbury  is  dealt  with  very  fully.  The  second  article  is  on 
submarine  vessels,  and  is  unsigned.  It  is  accompanied  by 
four  plates,  and  gives  a  full  description  of  the  attempts 
made  to  perfect  this  form  of  boat,  and  of  the  best  models 
now  in  existence. 

In  reviewing  Prof.  G.  P.  Merrill's  "  Stones  for  Building 
and  Decoration,"  when  the  book  was  first  published  in 
1891,  we  cited  it  as  affording  an  admirable  example  of  the 
value  of  exact  scientific  knowledge  when  applied  to  the 
treatment  of  economic  questions.  The  fact  that  since  the 
date  mentioned,  as  Prof.  Merrill  points  out  in  the  preface 
to  the  third  edition  which  has  now  been  issued,  there  has 
been  a  very  notable  increase  in  the  output  of  building  stone 
from  American  quarries,  serves  to  emphasise  the  real  con- 
nection between  the  scientific  treatment  of  an  industry  and 
its  success.  The  present  edition  differs  ftom  the  previous 
ones  in  containing  a  revised  chapter  on  methods  of  testing, 
a  new  chapter  on  the  use  of  drift  boulders  for  building 
purposes,  and  five  maps  showing  the  geographic  distribu- 
tion of  the  more  important  building  stones.  The  new 
edition  is  published  in  this  country  by  Messrs.  Chapman  and 
Hall,  Ltd.,  and  its  price  is  21s.  net. 

The  additions  to  the  Zoological  Society's  Gardens  during 
the  past  week  include  a  Chimpanzee  (Anthropopithecus 
troglodytes)  from  West  Africa,  presented  by  Mr.  H.  Free- 
land  ;  a  Chacma  Baboon  (Papio  cynocephalus)  from  South 
Africa,  presented  by  General  Sir  Henry  de  Bathe ;  a  Rhesus 
Monkey  (Macacus  rhesus)  from  India,  presented  by  Mr.  H. 
Baker;  a  Levaillant's  Cynictis  {Cynictis  penicillata)  from 
South  Africa,  presented  by  Mr.  C.  Marsh;  an  Egyptian 
Ichneumon  {Herpestes  ichneumon)  from  North  Africa,  pre- 
sented by  Dixon  Bey;  a  Nagor  Antelope  (Cervicapra 
redunca),  a  Crowned  Duiker  (Cephalophus  coronatus),  a 
Serval  (Felis  servai),  an  African  Civei  Cat  ( Viverra  civetta) 
from  West  Africa,  presented  by  Sii  G.  E.  Denton, 
K.C.M.G.  ;  a  Cuckoo  (Cuculus  canorus),  British,  presented 
by  Mr.  J.  O.  Pickington  ;  a  Back-marked  Snake  (Coluber 
scalaris),  South  European,  presented  by  Mr.  W.  H.  St. 
Quintin  ;  a  Common  Toad  (Bufo  vulgaris),  European,  pre- 
sented by  Mr.  H.  Verrall  ;  a  Common  Mynah  (Acrido'theres 
tristis)  from  India,  a  Chameleon  Lizard  {Chamaeleolis 
chamaeleontides),  two  Large  Cuban  Anolis  (Anolis  equestris) 
from  Cuba,  deposited;  three  Peacock  Pheasants  {Polypiec- 
tron  chinquis)  from  British  Burmah,  purchased. 


OUR  ASTRONOMICAL   COLUMN. 

The  Spectrum  of  o  Ceti.— No.  41  of  the  Lick  Observ- 
atory Bulletin  is  devoted  to  a  discussion  of  the  spectrum  of 

Ceti    by  Mr.  Joel  Stebbins. 

Using  the  Mills  spectrograph  modified  to  a  one-prism 
instrument,  he  obtained  a  series  of  twenty-five  good  spectra 
during  the  period  June,  1902,  to  January,  1903,  in  which 
period  the  star  decreased  in  magnitude  from  38  to  9  o. 
The  spectrograms  were  obtained  on  Cramer's  "  Crown  " 
or  "  Isochromatic  "  plates,  are  28mm.  in  length,  and  extend 
from  A.  3700  to  \  5600. 

Mr.  Stebbins  finds  that  the  absorption  spectrum  of  Mira 
is  very  different  from  that  of  the  sun  ;  the  calcium  lines  g,  H 
and  K  are  all  present,  but  g  is  much  stronger  than  in  the 
solar  spectrum.  From  measurements  of  six  suitable  lines 
he  found  that  the  velocity  in  the  line  of  sight  is  constant, 
with  a  value  of  -|-66km.  A  summary  of  the  dark  lines 
discovered  indicates  the  undoubted  presence  of  Fe,  Va,   Cr 

NO.  1762.  VOL.  68] 


and  Ca,  and  the  Al  and  Sr  lines  are  prominent,  whilst  the 
presence  of  Mn  and  Ti  is  as  yet  considered  doubtful. 

The  general  conclusion  arrived  at  is  that  many  of  the  lines 
become  broader  as  the  star's  magnitude  declines,  and  this 
is  undoubtedly  true  of  the  g  calcium  line  at  A.  422784.  In 
the  later  photographs  some  new  lines,  not  definitely  co- 
incident with  solar  lines,  were  observed,  the  chief  of  these 
being  \  3990-64,  A  4045-16,  X  4093-55,  and  \  4f)97-o8. 

As  regards  the  continuous  spectrum,  the  photographs 
show  that  as  the  star  declines  in  magnitude  the  continuous 
spectrum  between  \  4300  and  \  5000  decreases  in  intensity 
as  compared  with  that  between  A.  4000  and  A  4300. 

Amongst  the  bright  lines  the  hydrogen  series  is  un- 
doubtedly present,  although  previous  observers  have  doubted 
the  presence  of  Ha,  H/3  and  He  ;  the  two  latter  seem  to 
have  become  stronger,  compared  with  the  other  hydrogen 
lines  and  the  continuous  spectrum,  as  the  star  became 
fainter.  The  presence  of  bright  metallic  lines  is  as  yet 
open  to  question.  In  1898  Campbell  observed  H7  as  a 
triple  line,  and  it  was  intended  in  this  research  to  make 
polariscopic  tests  for  the  Zeeman  effect,  but,  as  the  line 
was  found  to  be  single  on  the  first  spectrograms  obtained, 
no  such  tests  were  made. 

Mr.  Stebbins  discusses  the  principal  theories  concerning 
the  remarkable  variation  in  the  magnitude  of  Mira,  and  is 
led  to  the  conclusion  that  it  is  due  to  internal  forces. 
Numerous  tables  and  diagrams,  and  several  reproductions 
of  the  spectrograms  of  Mira,  accompany  the  dissertation. 

Photographic  Efficiency  of  a  Short  Focus  Reflector. 
—In  an  abstract  from  No.  539  of  the  Astronomical  Journal 
Prof.  Schaeberle  discusses  the  photographic  efficiency  of 
short  focus  reflectors,  and  describes  some  remarkable  photo- 
gr'aphs  obtained  by  himself  with  a  13-inch  parabolic  re- 
flector of  20  inches  focus.  This  reflector  is  mounted  along- 
side a  similar  one,  which  is  used  as  a  finder  and  has  an 
aperture  of  12  inches,  a  focal  length  of  46  inches,  and  an 
eye-piece  magnifying  360  diameters,  on  an  ordinary 
English  equatorial  mounting,  the  photographic  plate 
(iV'xS")  being  placed  at  the  focus  of  the  mirror. 

The  resuUs  obtained  showed  that  with  less  than  five 
minutes'  exposure  the  13-inch  revealed  stars  which  are 
apparently  bevond  the  reach  of  the  36-inch  Lick  telescope, 
and  also  revealed  all  the  stars  obtained  by  the  3-feet  Crossley 
reflector  with  two  hours'  exposure. 

The  Ring  nebula  just  shows  on  plates  having  had  four 
seconds'  exposure,  and  the  central  star  and  Lassell's  No.  i 
star  (mag.  13)  plainly  show  on  an  eight  seconds'  exposure. 
These  photographs  disclosed  the  true  form  of  the  Ring 
nebula,  showing  that  it  is  a  two-branched  spiral  which 
commences  at  the  central  star,  and  in  a  clockwise  direction 
emerges  on  opposite  sides  near  the  minor  axis.  A  repro- 
duction of  a  photograph,  which  has  been  enlarged  150  times, 
accompanies  the  article,  and  shows  the  details  of  the  nebula 
very  clearly  ;  this  photograph  was  obtained  on  October  30, 
1902,  with  an  exposure  of  128  seconds. 

It  has  been  shown  by  the  photographs  obtained  that, 
under  favourable  conditions  and  using  fast  plates  ("  Seed  " 
Nc.  27),  this  instrument  can  photograph  stars  fainter  than 
the  seventeenth  visual  magnitude  in  less  than  five  minutes. 

The  Godlee  Observatory. — In  a  brochure  issued  from 
the  printing  department  of  the  Manchester  Municipal  School 
of  Technology,  the  principal  gives  a  detailed  description  of 
the  Grubb  telescope  presented  to  the  observatory  connected 
with  the  school  by  Mr.  Francis  Godlee,  of  Manchester. 

The  mounting  is  of  the  twin  equatorial  type,  and  carries 
an  8-inch  refractor  and  a  12-inch  Newtonian  reflector,  besides 
a  6-inch  achromatic  doublet  intended  for  astrographic  work. 

The  refractor  is  provided  with  a  filar  micrometer,  a  finely 
divided  position  circle,  and  the  usual  accessories  necessary 
for  delicate  visual  observations.  The  polar  axis  is  fitted 
with  two  R.A.  circles,  one  of  which  may  be  set  to  sidereal 
time  and  rotates  with  the  axis,  so  that  the  R.A.  may  be 
obtained  by  finding  the  difference  between  the  readings  of 
the  two  circles.  The  driving  of  the  telescopes  is  performed 
by  the  usual  clockwork  arrangements,  and  is  electrically 
regulated  by  a  pendulum  having  a  perfectly  free  movement ; 
the  mounting,  is  so  designed  as  to  permit  the  instrument  to 
make  the  whole  circumpolar  revolution  without  interruption. 


August  6,  1903] 


NATURE 


331 


THE   MARINE   BIOLOGICAL   ASSOCIATION. 

'T'HE  council  of  the  Marine  Biological  Association,  in 
■*■  the  report  for  1902-1903,  presented  to  the  annual 
general  meeting  of  the  association  on  June  24,  state  that 
the  work  of  the  association  has  been  considerably 
augmented  in  consequence  of  the  fact  that  a  commission 
has  been  accepted  from  H.M.  Government  to  carry  out 
in  the  southern  British  area  the  programme  of  scientific 
fishery  investigation  adopted  by  the  International  Con- 
ference, which  met  at  Christiania  in  1901.  The  work  in 
connection  with  these  investigations  is  being  carried  out 
in  the  southern  part  of  the  North  Sea  and  in  the  English 
Channel.  In  connection  with  the  North  Sea  work,  a 
laboratory  has  been  fitted  out  at  Lowestoft,  and  the  steam 
trawler  Huxley  has  been  hired.  Some  difficulty  was  ex- 
perienced in  obtaining  a  vessel  suitable  for  the  work  with 
the  funds  provided  by  Government,  but  the  council  were 
fortunate  in  securing  the  assistance  of  one  of  their  members, 
Mr.  G.  P.  Bidder,  who  himself  purchased  the  Huxley  from 
her  former  owners  and  let  her  upon  favourable  terms  to 
the  association.  Accommodation  for  the  naturalists  has 
been  fitted  up  in  the  old  fish-hold  of  the  trawler,  and  a  small 
laboratory  has  been  built  on  deck. 

The  investigations  in  the  North  Sea  include  a  scientific 
survey,  by  means  of  the  s.s.  Huxley,  of  the  trawling 
grounds  between  the  east  coast  of  England  and  about 
3°  30'  E.  longitude,  in  connection  with  which  observations 
are  made  on  the  nature  of  the  bottom,  the  nature  and 
abundance  of  animal  life  living  on  the  bottom  and  serving 
as  food  for  fish  or  otherwise,  the  size  and  weight  of  the 
fishes  caught,  the  food  of  the  more  important  fishes,  the 
condition  of  the  fishes  as  regards  sex,  maturity,  or  spawn- 
ing, and  the  temperature  of  the  sea  at  surface  and  bottom. 
A  simultaneous  survey  is  being  carried  out  of  the  regular 
fisheries  on  the  trawling  grounds,  with  the  assistance  of 
reliable  masters  of  commercial  fishing  vessels.  Experi- 
ments are  also  being  made  on  the  migrations  of  fishes,  by 
marking  and  liberating  fishes  in  large  numbers  over  wide 
areas.  These  experiments  are  designed  to  throw  light  on 
the  extent  and  direction  of  the  seasonal  and  other  migra- 
tions of  food-fishes  at  different  stages  of  their  growth, 
particular  attention  being  paid  to  the  migrations  of  under- 
sized flat-fish,  and  also  to  give  an  indication  of  the  per- 
centage of  fish  on  the  trawling  grounds  actually  caught 
by  the  trawling  fleets  from  one  year  to  another.  In 
addition  to  the  above  lines  of  research,  special  investi- 
gations are  to  be  made  on  the  rate  of  growth,  age, 
fecundity  and  racial  varieties  of  fishes,  on  the  abundance 
of  floating  fish-eggs,  and  on  the  variations  in  the  size  and 
weight  of  fish  landed  at  the  various  fishing  ports  through- 
out the  year. 

I'P  to  the  middle  of  June  the  Huxley  completed  twelve 
scientific  trawling  voyages  in  the  North  Sea.  More  than 
34,000  fishes  have  been  measured,  the  animal  life  of  the 
bottom  has  been  systematically  studied  from  the  point  of 
view  of  distribution,  and  the  food-contents  of  about  3000 
fishes  have  been  examined  and  determined.  Plaice  have 
been  marked  and  liberated  in  different  parts  of  the  North 
Sea.  In  November  and  December  a  number  of  small  flat- 
fish were  marked  on  the  grounds  west  of  the  Borkum  Reef, 
and  the  results  obtained  are  already  of  great  interest  and 
importance.  They  indicate  that  during  December  and 
January  there  was  a  marked  migration  southwards  and 
westwards  of  the  small  plaice  previously  congregated  on 
the  inshore  grounds  of  the  northern  and  western  coasts  of 
Holland,  the  distances  travelled  being  in  many  cases  quite 
unprecedented,  viz.  from  one  hundred  to  one  hundred  and 
sixty  miles  in  six  weeks  or  two  months.  More  than  10  per 
cent,  of  the  fish  liberated  have  already  been  recovered. 

The  English  portion  of  the  international  scheme  of  hydro- 
graphic  and  plankton  observations,  the  execution  of  which 
has  been  assigned  to  the  Marine  Biological  Association,  is 
to  be  carried  out  in  the  western  half  of  the  English  Channel. 
These  investigations  have  for  their  object  the  study  of 
the  seasonal  changes  which  take  place  in  the  physical  and 
biological  conditions  prevailing  over  the  entire  region 
covered  by  the  international  programme,  though  more 
particularly  directed  to  a  study  of  the  waters  entering  the 
North  Sea  from  different  directions.  They  are  designed  to 
determine  (i)  the  origin,  history,  and  physical  and  bio- 
logical  characters  of   the   water   found    in   each   locality   at 


different  seasons  of  the  year  and  at  corresponding  seasons 
in  different  years,  changes  in  which  must  necessarily  have 
a  profound  influence  upon  the  distribution  and  abundance 
of  the  fish-life  in  the  sea  ;  and  (2)  the  variations  which  take 
place  in  the  floating  and  swimming  organisms  (plankton) 
which  constitute  the  fundamental  food-supply  of  the  sea. 

The  investigation  is  being  carried  out  (i)  by  means  of  a 
series  of  quarterly  cruises  made  simultaneously  over  the 
whole  area  by  the  vessels  of  the  participating  countries,  as 
a  result  of  whioh  a  thorough  knowledge,  based  upon  the 
most  accurate  available  methods,  is  obtained  of  the  con- 
ditions prevailing  at  all  depths  at  certain  fixed  stations, 
together  with  a  less  detailed  knowledge  at  intermediate 
points  ;  and  (2)  by  observations,  more  especially  of  the  sur- 
face conditions,  at  as  many  points  as  possible  during  the 
time   intervening  between   the   seasonal   cruises. 

Complete  series  of  observations  at  twenty  stations  in  the 
P'nglish  Channel  were  obtained  during  the  first  fortnights 
of  February  and  May. 

The  ordinary  work  of  the  association  has  been  carried 
on  at  the  Plymouth  Laboratory  during  the  year.  Work 
on  the  detailed  record  of  the  Plymouth  fauna  has  been  con- 
tinued, the  trawling  experiments  in  the  bays  on  the  south 
coast  of  Devon  have  been  completed,  and  a  considerable 
number  of  naturalists  have  made  use  of  the  laboratory  for 
their  special  researches.  The  statement  of  receipts  and 
expenditure  for  the  year  shows  a  deficit  of  117/.  is. 


THE    PARSONS    STEAM    TURBINE. 

'X'HE  recent  launching  of  the  cross-channel  turbine- 
-*■  steamer,  the  Queen,  to  which  reference  was  made  in 
our  issue  of  July  2  (p.  209),  has  directed  attention  to  the 
efficiency  of  turbine  engines  for  many  purposes.  An  ideal 
engine  is  one  which  has  only  one  rotating  part,  and  in 
which  the  direction  of  movement  is  not  varied.  Engineers 
have  for  many  years  recognised  this  fact,  and  much  time 
and  money  have  been  expended  in  their  endeavour  to  perfect 
a  rotary  engine.  No  practical  success  was,  however,, 
attained  until  1884,  when  the  Hon.  C.  A.  Parsons,  F.R.S., 
placed  on  the  market  his  first  compound  steam  turbine 
applied  to  driving  a  dynamo.  Since  then  Mr.  Parsons  has 
effected  many  andvarious  improvements,  until,  at  the  pre- 
sent time,  the  Parsons  steam  turbine  is  recognised  by 
engineers  to  be  a  thoroughly  efficient  and  practical  engine, 
which,  in  the  larger  sizes,  has  attained  an  unprecedented 
degree  of  economy  in  steam.  In  the  latter  few  years,  the 
Parsons  steam  turbine  has  been  applied  to  the  propulsion 
of  ships  with  very  satisfactory  results,  and  bids  fair,  in 
the  near  future,  to  supersede  the  reciprocating  engine  for 
certain  classes  of  vessels. 

A  description  of  the  Parsons  turbine  was  given  in  Nature 
several  years  ago  (vol.  Ixi.  p.  424),  with  illustrations  of 
its  parts.  The  turbine  consists  of  a  cylindrical  case  with 
numerous  rings  of  inwardly  projecting  blades.  Within 
this  cylinder,  which  is  of  variable  internal  diameter,  is  a 
shaft  or  spindle,  and  on  this  spindle  are  mounted  blades, 
projecting  outwardly,  by  means  of  which  the  shaft  is 
rotated.  The  former  are  called  fixed  or  guide  blades,  and 
the  latter  revolving  or  moving  blades.  The  diameter  of 
the  spindle  is  less  than  the  internal  diameter  of  the  cylinder, 
and  thus  an  annular  space  is  left  between  the  two.  This 
space  is  occupied  by  the  blades,  and  it  is  through  these 
the  steam  flows. 

In  the  arrangement  of  turbine  machinery  as  adopted  in 
the  turbine  Channel  steamer  the  Queen,  there  are  three 
turbines,  viz.  one  high  pressure  in  the  centre  of  the  ship 
and  two  low  pressure,  one  on  each  side  of  the  ship.  Each 
turbine  drives  a  separate  shaft,  with  one  propeller  on  each 
shaft,  three  in  all.  Inside  the  exhaust  casing  of  each  of 
the  low  pressure  cylinders  a  reversing  turbine  is  fitted. 
In  ordinary  going  ahead,  the  steam  from,  the  boilers  is^ 
admitted  through  a  suitable  regulating  valve  to  the  high 
pressure  turbine,  and  after  expanding  about  5-fold,  it  then 
passes  to  each  of  the  low  pressure  turbines  in  parallel,  and 
is  again  expanded  in  them  about  25-fK,Id,  and  then  passe* 
to  the  condensers,  the  total  expansion  ratio  being  i2i;-fold. 

The  Queen  is  the  third  passenger  vessel  built  by  Messrs. 
Denny  and  Brothers  fitted  with  the  turbine  system  of  pro- 
pulsion supplied  by  the  Parsons  Marine  Steam  Turbine  Co., 


NO.    1762,  VOL.  68] 


332 


NHTURE 


[[AUGU.&T;6,;J:9Q3 


Ltd.  The  King  Ed-ward  was  the  first,  and  at  her  trial  in 
June,  1901,  this  vessel  obtained  a  mean  speed  of  2.0-48  knots. 
The  Queen  Alexandra  was  the  second  vessel;  .she  ,was  .built 
in  the  following  year,  and  obtained  a  .mean  Speed  of  21-63 
knots.     Both  these  vessels  are  now  running  on  ,the  Clyde. 

A  very  important  feature  of  these  turbiue  vessels  is  the 
economy  of  coal  consumption.     In  support  of  this  it  is  of 
interest    to    mention    that,    at    the    launch    of-   the    Queen 
Alexandra.    Mr.    James    Denny    stated-   that    if    the    King  | 
Edward   had   been    fitted    with    balanced    twin    screw    triple  j 
expansion  engines  of  the  most  improved  ,type,  and  of  such  , 
size   as   would   consume   all   the   steam    thp   existing   boiler 
could  make,  the  best  speed  that  they  possibly  could  expect 
would   be    19-7   knots,    as    against    the    20^,  knots    actually 
attained    by    the   King    Edward.       The    difference    between 
19  7  knots  and  20^  knots  corresponds  to  a  gain  in  indicated 
horse-power  in  favour  of  the  turbine  vessel  of  20  per  cent. 

Mr.   Parsons,   in  a  paper  before  the  Institution  of  Naval  , 
Architects    in    Dublin    recently    stated    that    "  the    engining 
of  larger  vessels  and  liners  is  not  a  very  long  step  beyond  | 
what   has  already   been   proved   to   be   successful.     The   ex-  j 
perience  with  the  marine  turbine  up  to  10,000  horse-power  j 
in  ships  of  fast  as  well  as  of  moderate  speed,   has  tended  ; 
to    justify    the    anticipation,    guided    by    theory,    that    the 
larger  the  engines  the  more  favourable  will  be  results  as 
compared     with     reciprocating     engines.     The     saving     of  : 
weight,    cost,    space,    attendance,    and   upkeep   will   become  ; 
still  more  marked  with  turbine  engines  of  above  10,000  and  | 
up    to    60,000   horse-power,    for    which    designs    have    been  | 
prepared." 

It  may  be  added  that  the  results  of  moderately  large 
turbines  "have  shown  an  increased  economy  in  steam  con- 
sumption of  10  per  cent,  to  15  per  cent.,  as  compared  with 
the  best  triple  expansion  engine. 

Among  the  principal  advantages  of  the  steam  turbine 
compared  with  ordinary  engines  are  the  following  : — com- 
plete absence  of  vibration  from  main  engines ;  increased 
economy  in  steam  and  coal  consumption;  increased  accom- 
modation and  stability  of  vessel  owing  to  low  position  of 
machinery ;  increased  safety  to  engine  room  staff,  owing  to 
absence  of  reciprocating  parts ;  reduced  weight  of 
machinery  ;  reduced  cost  of  attendance  on  machinery  ;  and 
reduced  consumption  of  oil  and  stores. 


and  independence,;  later  it  entered  a  new  phase  as  an 
accompaniment  to  the  drama;  in  modern  times  our  ^streets 
yet  retain  traces  of  the  ambulatory  troups  of  performers,  and 
acrobatic  performances  are  still  in  vogue  in  the  circus  and 
music-hall. 

The  annual  report  for  1901-1902  of  the  Field  Columbian 
Museum,  Chicago,  is  a  record  of  considerable  progress,  even 
for  this  enterprising  museum.  The  cost  of  new  installation 
for  that  year  was  about  io,oooZ.,  more  than  half  of  which 
amount  was  spent  on  new  cases.  Attention  is  directed  in 
the  report  to  the  unsatisfactory  condition  of  the  fabric  of 
the  museum,  which,  it  will  be  remembered,  was  one  of  the 
admittedly  temporary  buildings  of  the  World's  Fair. 
Judging  from  a  paragraph  in  Science  for  July  10,  this  will 
soon  be  remedied,  as  the  park  commissioners  of  Chicago 
have  approved  the  transfer  of  the  museum  from  Jackson 
Park  to  Grant  Park,  which  is  on  the  lake  front  in  the 
centre  of  the  city.  It  is  understood  that  Mr.  Marshall  Field 
has  agreed  to  give  i,ooo,oooL  for  the  construction  and 
endowment  of  the  museum.  In  the  department  of  anthro- 
pology all  the  collections,  with  the  exception  of  two  im- 
portant purchases,  have  been  derived  from  field  expeditions, 
consequently    they    are    of    unusual    interest    and    of    great 


ANTHROPOLOGICAL  NOTES. 

•T^RUSTWORTHY  studies  on  Australian  languages  are 
-'-  still  greatly  needed ;  it  is  therefore  with  pleasure 
that  we  welcome  the  elementary  grammar,  by  the  Rev.  N. 
Hey,  of  the  language  of  the  Nggerikudi,  a  tribe  of  some  400 
natives  of  North  Queensland  in  the  neighbourhood  of 
Batavia  River.  Although  Mr.  Hey  has  been  connected  with 
the  Presbyterian  Mission  to  these  people  for  ten  years,  he 
does  not  yet  quite  understand  all  the  intricacies  of  the 
language.  He  notes  that  the  aboriginals  are  fast  disappear- 
ing. The  vocabularies  will  be  of  some  use  to  ethnologists 
who  cannot  profess  to  grasp  the  structure  of  the  language. 
This  study  forms  the  sixth  Bulletin  of  North  Queensland 
ethnography  that  the  Department  of  Public  Lands,  Brisbane, 
is  bringing  out  under  the  editorship  of  Dr.  Walter  E.  Roth. 
The  last  issue  of  the  Reliquary  and  Illustrated  Archae- 
ologist maintains  the  interest  of  former  numbers.  Messrs. 
Miller,  Christy,  and  W.  W.  Porteous  deal  with  a  selection 
of  Essex  brasses  that  range  from  the  reign  of  Edward  IV. 
to  nearly  the  end  of  that  of  Charles  I.,  that  is,  almost  to 
the  time  when  the  custom  of  wearing  armour  and  the 
practice  of  laying  down  monumental  brasses  were  both 
discontinued ;  the  illustrations  show  clearly  the  various 
styles  of  armour  worn  during  this  period,  as  well  as  the 
modifications  in  the  costume  of  the  ladies.  Papers  of  this 
kind  are  calculated  to  form  a  valuable  adjunct  to  the  teach- 
ing of  history.  Mr.  J.  Romilly  Allen  describes  some  late 
■survivals  of  primitive  ornament  on  wooden  spoons,  stay- 
busks,  and  knitting-sticks  which  were  made  for  the  special 
purpose  of  being  given  away  as  presents  from  young  men 
to  their  sweethearts.  Mr.  Arthur  Watson  traces  the 
tumbler's  art  during  the  last  few  hundred  years;  it  was  an 
accessory  to  the  banquet  in  the  middle  ages ;  in  the  sixteenth 
x:entury   it  had   risen   to   a   position   of   greater   importance 


NO.    1762,  VOL.   68] 


scientific  importance ;  this  is  undoubtedly  the  most  satisfac- 
tory manner  of  stocking  a  museum.  The  zoological  collec- 
tions were  also  augmented  in  a  similar  manner.  The 
report  is  illustrated  with  excellent  plates,  which  show  that 
this  museum  is  determined  to  keep  the  lead  in  the  natural- 
istic and  artistic  excellence  of  its  large  animal  groups.  The 
Salish  house  group  shown  in  the  accompanying  figure  is 
an  instructive  addition  to  the  many  ethnological  groups  in 
the  museum.  Specifications  are  given  of  the  new  geological 
cases,  and  the  botanist  describes  the  reasons  why  he  has 
adopted  dead  black  labels  printed  with  aluminium  ink. 
Other  educational  aspects  of  the  museum  are  its  library, 
numerous  popular  lectures,  and  various  publications.  There 
is  a  very  large  attendance  of  school  children  accompanied 
by  their  teachers,  and  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  schools 
and  colleges  are  availing  themselves  more  and  more  of  the 
facilities  of  the  museum  as  teaching  adjuncts  to  books. 


A   BURIED   TRIASSIC  LANDSCAPE. 

/^  UR  older  rocks  have  naturally  diversified  the  scenery 
^-^  during  many  a  past  period.  Bent  and  hardened  by 
various  processes,  and  ridged  up  into  hilly  ground,  some 
of  them  have  so  long  withstood  the  assaults  of  eroding 
agents  as  to  have  fairly  earned  the  title  of  "  everlasting." 

This  may  truly  be  said  of  the  buried  mountains  of  Charn- 
wood  Forest.  Visitors  to  that  picturesoue  and  elevated 
district  will  have  been  struck  with  the  curious  rocky 
eminences  that  protrude  here  and  there  from  what  otherwise 
is  a  somewhat  rounded,    pastoral  region.       These   isolated 


AUGUST  6.  1 903]' 


NATURE 


333 


barren  stony  tracts,  with  highly  inclined  slabs  of  rock  and 
a  fring^e  of  fallen  blocks,  call  to  mind  descriptions  of  kopjes. 

Prof.  Watts,  in  an  interesting  essay  {Geographical 
Journal,  June),  shows  clearly  that  here  we  have  the 
"  veritable  peaks  and  aretes  "  of  a  mountain  system,  formed 
of  slates,  hornstones,  and  agglomerates,  with  intruded 
syenites  and  granites,  which  jut  out  from  a  thick  covering 
of  Triassic  marls,  with  basement  breccias  and  sandstones. 

Pre-Cambrian  in  age,  these  rocks  have  been  subjected  to 
various  earth-movements,  producing  cleavage  and  jointing, 
and  such  intense  induration  that  they  appear  to  be  equally 
strong,  and  the  structures  probably  were  impressed  upon 
them  in  Cambrian  times.  Be  this  as  it  may,  Prof.  Watts 
concludes  that  they  must  have  formed  a  mountainous  tract 
in  Old  Red  Sandstone  times,  and  that  then  the  mass  was 
ut  up  by  rapid  streams  into  fiord-like  valleys  with  ever- 
-harpening  ridges.  Some  features  are  indicative  of  marine 
.iction,  and  it  is  probable  that  these  were  formed  when  the 
area  was  submerged  in  Lower  Carboniferous  times,  and 
the  ridges  appeared  as  islands.  After  re-elevation  in 
Permian  times,  subaerial  waste  contributed  the  materials  of 
the  breccias,  and  the  conditions  led  on  to  those  of  the  Trias, 
when  salt-lake  and  desert,  akin  to  the  features  of  the  Great 
Salt  Lake  and  of  Baluchistan,  characterised  the  scene.  The 
landscape  which  had  been  blocked  out  in  Old  Red  Sandstone 


UNIVERSITY    AND    EDUCATIONAL 
INTELLIGENCE. 

Camdridgb.— Mr.  Howard  Marsh,  surgeon  to  St. 
Bartholomew's  Hospital,  London,  and  formerly  professor 
of  pathology  and  surgery  at  the  Royal  College  of  Surgeons 
of  EnglAnd,  has  been  elected  to  the  professorship  of  surgery, 
i  which  has  been  vacant  since  the  death  of  Sir  G.  M. 
Humphry,  F.R.S.     .    .  .  <  .    :  . 

Prof.  Ewing,.  F.R.S.,  has  sent  in  his  resignation  of  the 
chair  of  mechanism  and  applied  mechanics,  to  take  effect  on 
September  30.; 

Mr.  C.  <E.  Inglis,  King's,  and  Mr.  A.  H.  Peake,  St. 
John's,  have  been  appointed  demonstrators  in  the  engineer- 
ing department.-  ■ 

Mr.  W.  EX  Hartley,  Trinity,  has  been  appointed  assistant 
observer  at  the  observatory,  vice  Mr.  A.  Graham,  retired. 


Park,  Ci 


iwood  Fureit.     Crags  uf  Charnian  Rock  rising  : 
(From  the  Geographical  Journal.') 


times,  and  modified  in  the  Carboniferous  period,  was  now 
subjected  to  much  weathering,  and  ultimately  the  thick 
deposits  of  Keuper  Marl  buried  up  many,  if  not  all,  of  the 
summits,  to  be  partially  revealed  again  by  later  denuda- 
tion. Not  until  the  Glacial  period  is  there  any  positive 
evidence  of  the  subsequent  exposure  of  the  ancient  rocks, 
but  blocks  from  the  higher  summits  do  appear  in  the 
Boulder-clay  of  the  neighbourhood. 

Of  the  development  of  the  present  features  Prof.  Watts 
gives  an  interesting  sketch.  The  Trias  appears  to  have 
filled  fiords  which  have  been  revealed  by  the  present  streams, 
and  although  they  have  deepened  and  altered  the  character 
of  the  older  rocks  when  they  e.Kcavated  to  them,  the  main 
outlines  of  the  old  scenery,  uncovered  by  the  denudation  of 
the  Keuper  Marls,  belong  to  the  original  Triassic  land- 
scape. As  he  points  out,  the  granite  of  Mount  Sorrel,  when 
unbared  for  quarrying,  shows  often  a  smoothed  and  terraced 
surface,  which  was  at  first  attributed  to  glaciation.  More 
recently  these  surfaces  have  been  found  to  extend  beneath 
coverings  of  Keuper  Marl,  and  the  evidence  is  conclusive 
that  the  rounding  and  terracing  must  have  been  due  to 
wind-erosion  in  the  Triassic  deserts  before  the  peaks  were 
buried  under  the  Keuper  Marl.  H.  B.  W. 

NO.   1762,  VOL.  68] 


The  eleventh  summer  meeting  of  university  extension 
students  was  opeaed.  last  Saturday  at  Oxford,  when  the 
United  States  Ambassador,  Mr.  Choate,  delivered  the  in- 
augural address,,  taking  for  his  subject  American  university 
education.  After  describing  how  Harvard  was  founded  in 
.1636,  and. referring  to  the  rise  of  the  other  older  universities 
in,  the  United  States,  such  as  Yale  and 
Columbia,  Mr.  Choate  explained  that  it 
was  found  at  the  beginning  of  last 
century  that,  if  American  universities 
were  to  hold  their  own,  they  must 
greatly  increase  their  numbers,  change 
their  methods,  and  assume  new  and 
closer  relations  with  the  people.  At 
that  time  there  were  only  twenty-six 
colleges  and  universities  in  the  whole 
territory  of  the  United  States,  and  many 
of  these  were  in  an  undeveloped  state. 
They  are  now  numbered  by  hundreds, 
many  of  them  richly  endowed,  and  most 
of  them  furnishing  an  adequate  train- 
ing, adapted  to  qualify  youths  for  busi- 
ness and  for  any  duty  to  which  they 
may  be  called.  These  new  colleges  are 
not  all  on  the  same  model,  but  afford 
a  wide  choice  of  courses  of  study  to  suit 
the  varied  necessities  of  a  diversified 
community.  With  the  exception  of  a 
few  of  the  older  States  which  are  already 
well  provided  with  them  by  private 
means,  each  State  in  the  Union  has,  by 
I  he  use  of  public  funds  and  lands, 
created  a  State  university  ;  and  it  has 
been  the  ambition  of  several  of  their 
multi-millionaires  to  create  universities 
by  the  generous  application  of  portions 
of  their  fortunes.  By  this  means 
powerful  institutions  of  learning  have 
been  created  in  a  few  years.  The  Uni- 
versity of  Chicago,  founded  in  1892,  and  endowed  chiefly  by 
the  generosity  of  one  man,  now  numbers  more  than  3000 
students.  By  far  the  most  signal  advance  in  university  ex- 
tension yet  made  in  America  is  the  latest  in  date — the 
creation  of  the  Carnegie  Institute  at  Washington — with  an 
endowment  of  ten  million  dollars  to  be  devoted  absolutely 
to  original  research.  Another  reason  for  the  success  of  the 
efforts  to  improve  university  education  in  the  United  States 
was  brought  out  by  Mr.  Choate,  who  made  it  clear  that 
the  work  of  the  universities,  colleges,  and  technical  schools 
rests  on  the  broad  and  firm  foundation  of  the  common 
schools,  which  from  the  beginning  have  been  the  peculiar 
care  of  the  people,  and  that  educational  authorities  in 
America  adhere  rigidly  to  the  theory  that  special  study 
for  professional  or  business  life  should  be  postponed  until 
a  broad  and  general  education  has  developed  the  faculties 
and  character.  Referring  to  the  Rhodes  scholarship  scheme, 
Mr.  Choate  remarked  that  it  provides  that  henceforth  there 
shall  at  all  times  be  at  Oxford  100  American  youths  selected 
from  all  the  States,  there  to  receive  the  best  fruits  of  her 
nurture  and  instruction.  "  And  now  would  not  some  rich 
American  respond  to  Mr.  Rhodes 's  challenge,  and  forthwith 
in  his  lifetime  make  a  similar  and  equal  provision  for  100 


Triassic  ground. 


334 


NATURE 


[August  6,  1903 


young    Britons — English,    Scotch,    and    Irish — to   be    main- 
tained at  universities  in  the  United  States?  " 

The  Lord  Mayor  of  Liverpool,  Mr.  W.  Watson  Ruther- 
ford, has  received  in  his  capacity  of  chairman  of  the  uni- 
versity committee  the  charter  of  the  new  University  of 
Liverpool.  Since  the  publication  t)f  the  first  draft  of  the 
charter,  a  clause  has  been  added  specifying  that  degrees 
representing  proficiency  in  subjects  of  technology  shall  not 
be  conferred  without  proper  security  for  testing  the  scientific 
and  literary  knowledge  underlying  technical  considerations. 
Mr.  Rutherford  has  addressed  a  letter  to  the  Liverpool  City 
Council  suggesting  that  the  new  university  "  be  directly 
allied  with  the  city,  and  should  be  free,"  and  the  letter  is  to 
be  considered  by  the  council  as  we  go  to  ^ress.  In  his 
letter  Mr.  Rutherford  says  : — "  Let  the  matriculation  ex- 
amination be  as  severe  as  any  in  the  country,  and  let  every 
degree  remain  as  high  a  standard  of  knowledge  as  that  of 
any  university  in  the  world  ;  but  let  there  be  no  fees,  no 
financial  barrier  whatever  to  the  poorest  citizens  of  Liver- 
pool obtaining  all  the  advantages  of  the  Liverpool  Uni- 
versity," and  he  goes  on  to  point  out  that  a  maximum  rate 
of  one  penny  in  the  pound  would  cover  the  students'  fees 
and  leave  a  considerable  margin.  The  letter  maintains  that 
another  benefit  would  be  a  sense  of  proprietary  interest  in 
the  university  on  the  part  of  the  citizens  of  all  classes  in 
Liverpool,  who  would  thereby  at  this  juncture  have  not  only 
elementary,  secondary,  and  technical  instruction,  but  the 
highest  regions  of  advanced  education,  placed  at  their  free 
disposal,  and  would,  therefore,  be  far  more  likely  to  take  a 
keener  interest  in  the  Liverpool  University.  "  The  objections 
that  what  is  not  paid  for  is  not  valued,  and  that  the  course 
proposed  would  discourage  private  munificence,  are  re- 
garded by  Mr.  Rutherfoid  as  ill-founded.  The  experiment 
of  conducting  a  free'  university  in  this  country  has  not  yet 
been  tried,  and  should  the  proposal  be  put  into  practice,  the 
results  will  be  awaited  with  keen  interest  by  all  who  desire 
the  spread  of  higher  education.  At  the  first  meeting  of  the 
council  of  the  university  held  on  Tuesday,  Lord  Derby,  the 
Chancellor,  pledged  himself  to  the  utmost  of  his  power  to 
help  to  lay  the  foundations  of  a  university  in  which  studies 
of  the  arts,     science,   and  other  subjects  should  receive  all 

•possible  expansion.  Mr.  E.  K.  Muspratt  was  appointed 
president,    and    Mr.    J.    W.    Alsop    vice-president,    of    the 

-university  council. 

The  Board  of  Education  has  published  "  Syllabuses  and 
Lists  of  Apparatus  Applicable  to  Schools  and  Classes  other 
than  Elementary  "  for  next  session,  that  of  1903-4.  The 
divisions  in  science  and  art  subjects  other  than  mathematics, 
formerly  described  as  Elementary  Stage  andf^dvanced  Stage, 
are  now  described  as  Stage  i  and  Stage  2,  and  the  divisions 

.  in  science  subjects,  formerly  known  as  Honours  Part  i.  and 
Honours  Part  ii.,  are  now  described  as  Stage  3  and 
Honours.  We  notice  that  the  examination  tables  supplied 
to  mathematical  candidates  have  been  revised,  and  that 
notice  is  given  that  the  alternative  Stage  i  of  theoretical 
inorganic  chemistry  will  probably  be  discontinued  after  next 
session's  work.  Section  i.  of  the  first  stage  of  the  hygiene 
syllabus  has  been  transferred  to  the  subjects  in  which  the 
Board  of  Education  does  not  hold  examinations.  The 
second  part  of  the  volume  is  wholly  devoted  to  two  sets  of 
syllabuses,    styled    concise    and    detailed    respectively,    in    a 

-great  variety  of  subjects  suitable  for  evening  continuation 
schools,  but  in  which  the  Board  does  not  hold  examinations. 

New  buildings,  for  which  the  sum  of  8o,oooZ.  is  required, 
will  shortly  be  erected  for  University  College,  Reading. 
Of  this  amount,  30,000^.  has  already  been  contributed  by 
five  donors,  including  lo.oooZ.  given  by  Mr.  G.  W.  Palmer, 
M.P.,  and  10,000/.  by  Lady  Wantage.  The  late  Lord 
'Wantage  was  president  of  the  college  from  1896  to  1901. 

The  "  Year-book  "  of  the  Armour  Institute  of  Technology 
at  Chicago  for  the  session  1903-1904  contains  not  only  full 
particulars  of  the  courses  in  mechanical,  electrical,  civil, 
and  chemical  engineering,  as  well  as  in  architecture,  at 
the  College  of  Engineering,  but  also  of  the  preliminary 
■studies  which  have  been  arranged  at  the  Armour  Scientific 
.Academy,  where  students  are  prepared  for  the  more  advanced 
work  of  the  college.  Taking  into  their  own  hands  in  this 
ivay  the  early   training  of  their  engineering  students,    the 


authorities  of  the  Armour  Institute  are  able  to  provide  the 
professors  with  students  possessing  a  sufficiently  good 
education  to  benefit  by  the  lectures. 

The  issue  of  Science  for  June  19  reprints  Prof.  R.  H. 
Thurston's  address  at  the  dedication  of  Engineering  Hall, 
Iowa  State  College.  The  subject  chosen  is  the  functions 
of  technical  science  in  education  for  business  and  the  pro- 
fessions, and  in  the  course  of  the  address  Prof.  Thurston 
pleads  powerfully  for  the  full  recognition  of  the  importance 
of  scientific  knowledge  to  men  whose  business  is  in  any  way 
connected  with  technical  matters.  Perhaps  the  part  of  the 
address  which  will  most  interest  the  English  reader  is  that 
which  deals  with  the  employment  of  American  students  after 
they  have  left  the  universities  or  colleges.  The  demand  for 
college-trained  men  seems  to  be  much  greater  in  America 
than  it  is  here,  the  "  captains  of  industry  "  in  that  country 
having  apparently  realised  the  value  of  sound  theoretical 
training  in  those  whom  they  put  in  charge  of  their  technical 
manufactures.  "  I  have  a  deep  file  of  letters  calling  for 
such  men,"  says  Prof.  Thurston.  "There  is  practically 
none  unemployed  unless  on  the  sick  list.  All  the  pro- 
fessional engineering  schools  are  thus  situated.  Turning 
out  a  thousand  or  more  annually,  the  whole  output  is 
absorbed  by  the  great  industries,  and  immediately  upon 
leaving  the  doors  of  the  college."  Can  English  professors 
say  the  same? 


NO.    1762,  VOL.  68] 


SOCIETIES  AND  ACADEMIES. 
London. 
Royal     Societv,    May    28.— ''On   a    Remarkable    Effect 

produced  bv  the  Momentary  Relief  of  Great  Pressure  "     Bv 

J.  Y.  Buchanan,  F.R.S. 

The  experiment  was  made  first  during  the  cruise  of  the 

Challenger   on   March   27,    1873,    in   lat.    21°   26'   N.,    long. 

65°  16'  W.,  where  the  depth  of  the  sea  was  2800  fathoms, 

and    it   was   repeated   on    board   the   vacht    Princesse    Alice 

(H.S.H.  the  Prince  of 
Monaco)  on  March  11,  1902, 
in  lat.  43°  8'  N.,  long. 
19°  48/  W.,  where  the  depth 

of       the       sea       was      3000 

fathoms. 

Fig.     I    shows    the    effect 

produced    on    a    stout    brass 

tube   13   inches  long  and   if 

inches    in    diameter,     which 

was  perfectly  cylindrical  be- 
fore  it   was    exposed    to   the 

momentary     relief    of     high 

pressure  which  has  produced 

so  deep  a  corrugation.       In 

Fig.     2     the     corresponding 

effect  on  a  copper  sphere  of 

5  inches  diameter  is  shown  ; 

it  takes  the  form  of  a  multi- 
tude    of     small     creases     in 

place     of     the     single     deep 

corrugation  produced  on  the 

tube.    The  experiments  were 

made  on  the  sounding  cord 

on  board  the  yacht  Princesse 

Alice   on   September    10   and 

II,    1902.       The    brass    tube 

contained  an  ordinary  50  c.c. 

pipette    sealed    up    at    both 

ends,   and   empty   except   for 

the    air    which    it    contained. 

It  occupied  the  part  of  the 

tube  which  has  been  so  dis- 
figured, and  was  kept  in  its 

place  by  a  loose  packing  of 

cotton  waste.  Water  had 
free  access  both  at  top  and 
bottom. 

The  copper  sphere  contained  a  small  spherical  glass  flask 
of  I  to  I ^  inches  in  diameter,  and  it  was  kept  more  or  less 
in  the  centre  of  the  sphere  by  loose  cotton  packing ;  small 
holes  at  each  pole  of  the  sphere  admitted  the  outer  water. 
The  brass  tube  was  attached  to  the  sounding  cord  and  sent 


August  6,  1903] 


NATURE 


335 


to  a  depth  of  3(kk>  metres.  The  copper  sphere  was  sent 
first  to  3000  metres,  but  with  no  effect,  and  then  to  about 
6000  metres,  when  the  effect  shown  in  Fig.  2  was  produced. 
The  ratioiijle  of  the  proceeding  is  : — at  some  depth  less 
than  3000  metres  in  the  case  of  the  brass  tube,  and  less 
than  6000  metres  in  the  case  of  the  copper  sphere,  the  glass 
tube  in  the  former  and  the  glass  sphere  in  the  latter  case 
collapsed  suddenly.  Considering,  for  brevity's  sake,  only 
the  brass  tube  ;  immediately  before  the  collapse  the  pressure 
inside  and  outside  the  brass  tube  was  equal  and  uniform. 
The  collapse  of  the  glass  tube  produced  a  sudden  and  very 
considerable  relief  of  pressure  inside  the  brass  tube. 
In  ordinary  circumstances  the  void  so  produced  would 
have  been  filled  by  water  from  the  outside  entering  through 
the  perforated  ends  of  the  tube.  But  as  the  glass  tube  was 
subjected  to  a  pressure  of  nearly  300  atmospheres  before  it 
collapsed,  the  difference  of  pressure  produced  in  a  moment 
of  time  was  between  200  and  300  atmospheres.  The  deep 
corrugation  shown  in  Fig.  i  proves  that  it  was  easier  in  the 
time  for  the  pressure  to  pinch  up  the  stout  brass  tube  than  to 
shove  in  the  plugs  of  water  at  either  end.  The  sudden 
action  of  the  pressure  is  due,  not  to  the  settling  of  the 
column  of  2000  to  3000  metres  of  water  on  the  tube,  but 
to  the  resilience  of  the  enormous  quantity  of  water  of  high 
tension  produced  by  the  pressure  under  which  it  finds  itself. 


The  effect  produced  on  the  copper  sphere  when  the  enclosed 
glass  sphere  collapsed  is  of  exactly  the  same  kind. 

The  experiment  was  originally  made  on  board  the 
Challenger  on  the  day  after  she  made  her  deepest  sounding 
in  the  Atlantic  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  West  India 
Islands:  On  that  occasion  both  the  thermometers  attached 
to  the  sounding  line  collapsed  under  the  enormous  pressure 
of  3875  fathoms,  amounting  to  700  atmospheres,  and 
the  experiment  was  made  with  tubes  of  three  different 
widths  in  water  of  2800  fathoms  in  order  to  obtain  data 
for  the  construction  of  future  thermometers.  Two  of  the 
tubes  collapsed,  only  the  narrowest,  having  a  diameter  of 
6  millimetres,  withstood  both  the  pressure  assisted  by  the 
shock  of  the  others  collapsing  near  it.  In  all  three  cases 
the  glass  tubes  were  converted  into  a  fine  powder  like  snow. 

The  coiiapse  of  the  brass  tube,  in  the  peculiar  circum- 
stances-of  the  experiment,  is  the  exact  counterpart  of  the 
experiment  which  is  frequently,  but  unintentionally,  made 
by  people-  out  shooting,  especially  in  winter.  If,  from  in- 
attention or.  other  cause,  the  muzzle  of  the  gun  gets  stopped 
with  a  plug  of  even  the  lightest  snow,  the  gun,  if  fired 
with  this  plug  in  its  muzzle,  invariably  bursts.  Light  as 
the  plug  of  snow  is,  it  requires  a  definite  time  for  a  finite 
pressure,  however  great,  to  get  it  under  way.  During  this 
short  time  the  tension  of  the  powder  gases  becomes  so 
great  that  the  barrel  of  the  ordinary  fowling-piece  is  unable 
to  withstand  it  and  bursts. 


June  18. — "  New  Investigations  into  the  Reduction 
Phenomena  of  Animals  and  Plants."  Preliminary  Com- 
munication.    By  Prof.  J.  B.  Farmer,  F.R.S.,  and  J,  E.  S. 


In  this  communication  the  authors  in  the  first  place 
pointed  out  that  the  attention  which  investigators  have 
recently  paid  to  reduction  phenomena  occurring  in  animals 


Hg^.l. 


Pig.  2. 


and  plants  has  resulted  so  far  in  an  increasing  divergence 
of  opinion,  both  respecting  the  nature  of  this  process  and 
its  significance.  At  the  same  time  it  was,  however, 
apparent  that  there  were  several  important  points  upon 
which  all  were  now  agreed ;  it  had,  for  example,  been 
clearly  shown  that,  during  this  process,  the  number  of  the 
chromosomes  occurring  in  the  cells  affected  was  reduced  by 
one-half,  and  that  this  reduction  was  brought  about  during 
the  rest  preceding  two  cell  divisions,  which  appeared  to 
be  invariably  related  to  the  process.  Consequently  it  was 
rendered  probable  that  the  explanation  of  reduction  was 
to  be  sought  through  a  minute  study  of  this,  the  synaptic 
rest  phase,  in  a  number  of  selected  animals  and  plants. 
With  this  object,  the  authors  had  made  a  close  examin- 
ation of  a  large  number  of  types,  including  mammals, 
elasmobranchs,  amphibia  and  insects  among  animals, 
phanerogams,  ferns  and  liverworts  among  plants,  and  the 
results  of  this  investigation  are  at  variance  with  the 
common  existing  conceptions  of  the  process,  while  at  the 
same  time  they  seem  to  indicate  a  possible  reconcili- 
ation between  the  different  views  which  have  been,  and 
still  are,  held  by  other  investigators.  It  will  be  remembered 
that  there  are  two  main  theories  of  reduction.  In  the  first 
we  have  the  process  regarded  as  a  qualitative  division  of 
the  chromatin  by  the  separation  into  daughter  nuclei  of 
entire  somatic  chromosomes. 


Fig:.  9. 


Fig.  4. 


NO.    1762,  VOL.  68] 


In  the  second,  the  identity  of  the  original  somatic  chromo- 
somes becomes  lost  during  the  synaptic  rest,  and  these  are 
then  replaced  by  half  the  number  of  new  ones,  which,  during 
their  formation,  become  longitudinally  split  twice  in  planes 
at  right  angles  to  each  other.  This  double  longitudinal 
division  serves  for  two  mitoses  which  take  place  almost 
simultaneously. 

The  authors   find   that   at   the   end   of   the   synaptic   rest 


33^1 


NATURE 


[August  6,  1903 


the  spirpm  thread  certainly  undprgoes  longitudinal,  fissipij. 
CbVihec^tfed  with  "this'  there  is-  ^  stage  when  the  thread  is 
ari'^riged  in  loops,"  the  split  sides  q^  which  are  .approximated 
togfether'  in  TJ-shaped  figures.'  '  Although  at  their  first  form- 
ation the  sides  of  these  U-shapec}  loops  are  far  apart,  and 
still  show  the  original  longitudinal  fission,  they  ultimately 
becorrie  approximated  together, '  and*  at  the  same  time  the 
origirial  fis'sioh,  running  throughout  the  length  of  the 
loops,  disappears  from  general  view.  Through  this  process 
the  approximated  sides  of  the  loops  have  hithertp  been 
generally  mistaken  for  the  thickened  halves  of  the  originally 
split  spirem  thread,  whereas  in  favourable  cases  it  is  seen 
that  this  fission  can  still  be  traced  running  along  both  sides 
of  the  loops.  • 

/      The  number  of  these  loops  arising  during   the   synaptic 

/  rest  corresponds , to  the  reduced  number  of  the  chromosomes, 
and  the  further:  process  in  the  formation  of  these  chromo- 
somes'ig.  sim|)|.y  aithickening  and  shortening  of  the  loops 

I  already.  fSrpied.  'When  these  become  divided  during  the 
next  mi'tosis'  tl;\ey  break  transversely  at  a  point  correspond- 
ing fo.thie  original  bends  of  the  loops,  and  as  the  halves 
thus  seVere'd 'separate,  the  original  longitudinal  fission  can 
be  clearly  traced  running  along  their  entire  length.  It  is 
thus  this  original  fission  of  the  spirem  thread,  which  serves 
to  distribUteithe  halves  of  the  disunited,  somatic  chromo- 
somes during  the  following  homotype  division,  and  the 
hitherto  enigmatical  figures  described  by  Flemming 
Mev^s  and  others  in  the  djaster  of  the  heterotype  find  their 
natural  explanation; 

It  would  thus  appear  that  the  synapsis  and  the  so-called 
heterotype  mitosis  constitute  a  phase  which  has  been 
specially  intercalated  in  the  reproductive  cycle.  In  it  the 
reduction '  in  the  number  of  the  chromosomes  is  produced 
by  their  adhesion  in  pairs,  and  the  completion  of  the  original 
longittidinal  fission  of  the  spirem  thi-ead  is  deferred  until 
the  following  hbmotype  mitosis. 

The  authors  purposely  refrain  from  discussing  the  general 
bearing  of  t'hese  observations,  reserving  this  for  a  further 
and  more  detailed  comrnunication. 

Paris. 
Academy  of  Sciences,  July  27. — M.  Mascart  in  the  chair. 
— The  preparation  and  properties  of  a  silicide  of  ruthenium, 
by  MM.  Henri  Moissan  and  Wilhem  Manohbt.  At  the 
melting  point  of  ruthenium  this  metal  combines  with  silicon 
with  ease,  giving  a  silicide  of  the  formula  RuSi,  of  density 
5-40,  perfectly  crystalline,  .  possessing  great  hardness,  and 
very  stable  In  the  presence  of  most  reagents. — Arsenic  in 
sea-water,  in  rock-salt,  kitchen  salt,  mineral  waters,  &c. 
Its  determination  in  some  common  reagents,  by  M,  Armand 
Gautier. — On  dividing  waves,  by  M.  P.  Duhem.— On  cyclo- 
hexane  and  its  chlorine  derivatives,  by  MM.  Paul  Sabatier 
and  Alph.  Mailhe.  The  authors  have  shown  that  the 
aromatic  nucleus  really  persists  in  the  hydrocarbon ;  the 
vapour  of  cyclohexane  directed  alone  on  to  recently  reduced 
nickel  maintained  between  270°  and  280°  is  regularly  de- 
composed, reforrri^j^  benzene  and  hydrogen,  which  at  this 
temperature  rei^icts  on  the  benzene,  transforming  it  into 
methane,  3CgHj2  =  2CgHg-|-6CH^.  The  presence  of  the  aro- 
matic nucleus  is  also  proved  by  the  reactions  of  the  chloro- 
derivatiyes.  One  monochlorocyclohexane,  two  dichloro-, 
three ;  trichloro-,  and  one  tetrachloro-cyclohexane  are  de- 
scribed.— Photograph  of  Borrelly's  comet,  1903  c,  by  M. 
Quervjsset.  The  photograph  was  taken  at  the  Nanterre 
Observatory  on  July  24-25,  with  an  exposure  of  one  hour. 
The  photograph  shows  that  the  coma  measures  16'  in 
diameter,  that  is,  a  little  more  than  half  the  apparent 
diameter  of  the  moon.  Several  tails  can  be  distinguished, 
the  most  luminous  and  longest  of  which  is  at  least  7°  50' 
in  length. — On  the  conditions  of  synchronisation,  by  M. 
Andrade. — On  the  measurement  of  the  dichroism  of 
crystals,  by  M.  Georges  Meslin. — On  the  electrical 
dichroism  of  liquids  containing  crystalline  particles  in 
suspension,  by  M.  J.  Chaudier.  With  the  advice  of  M, 
Meslin,  who  has  examined  the  modifications  produced  in 
ordinary  light  by  its  passage  through  a  liquid  containing 
crystalline  ;  particles  and  placed  first  in  a  magnetic  field 
and  secondly  in  an  electric  field,  the  author  has  continued 
the  experiments  with  other  mixtures  in  an  electric  field.  A 
certain  number  of  the  mixtures  presented  a  decided 
dichroism,   which   took   a  certain   time   to   appear   and   dis- 


NO.    1762,  VOL.  68] 


appear  after  the  discontinuance  of  the  field.  The  liquids  ' 
which  entered  into  the  composition  of  the  active  mixtures, 
usually  contained  no  oxygen.  No  direct  relation  seems  to  ■ 
exist  between  the  chemical  properties  of  the  solid  and  the 
electrical  dichroism  it  is  able  to  cause  when  associated  with 
a  suitable  liquid. — On  the  separation  of  gaseous  mixtures 
by  centrifugal  force,  by  MM.  G.  Claude  and  E.  Demoussy. 
—On  the  laws  and  the  equations  of  chemical  equilibrium, 
by  M.  Aries. — On  a  combination  of  two  bodies  which  unite 
as  a  result  of  an  elevation  of  temperature  then  separate 
below  —79°,  by  M.  D.  Gernez. — Separation  and  simul- 
taneous determination  of  baryta,  strontia,  and  lime,  by 
M.  Lucien  Robin, — On  the  condensation  of  ethers  with 
alcohols,  by  M.  Ch.  Moureu. — On  the  composition  of  allyl 
cyanurate,  by  M.  R.  Lespieau. — Contribution  to  the  study 
of  the  quinones-diketones,  by  M.  CEchsner  de  Coninck. — 
Albuminoid  substances  in  Indian  corn,  by  MM.  Donard  and 
Labb^. — The  use  of  a  calorimetric  bomb  to  demonstrate 
the  presence  of  arsenic  in  the  organism,  by  M.  Gabriel 
Bertrand.  With  camphor  or  pure  sugar  no  trace  of  arsenic 
was  obtained,  but  a  few  grams  of  tortoise-shell,  of  sponge, 
of  the  white  or  yolk  of  an  ^%^,  gave  clear  indications  of 
arsenic. — Influence  of  temperature  on  the  production  of 
sulphuretted  hydrogen  by  albuminoid  substances,  extracts 
of  animal  organs  and  extracts  of  yeast,  in  the  presence  of 
sulphur,  by  MM.  J.  E.  Abelous  and  H.  Ribaut. — Re- 
searches on  the  natural  immunity  of  vipers  and  snakes,  by 
M.  C.  Phisalix. — On  the  spermatogenesis  of  decapod 
crustaceans,  by  M.  Alphonse  Labbe. — :Artificial  production 
of  gigantic  larvae  in  an  Echinoid,  byi  M.  F.  A.  Janssens. 
— Inscription  of  the  variable  state  of  the  tension  of  the  wire 
of  the  ergograph  :  equation  of  the  movement  and  expression 
for  the  work,  by  MM.  A.  imbeirt  and  J.  Gagrni'fere. — On 
the  production  of  gum  in  tissues,  by  M.  G.  Delacroix. — On 
the  trenchings  of  the  plain  of  Sevran,  by  M.  Gustaye  F. 
Dollfus. — On  a  new  physical  method  of  research  ^'sd  of 
the  determination  of  the  watering  of  wines,  by  M,  Georges 
Maneuvrler.  '^. 


CONTENTS.  PAGE 

The  Mineral  W^ealth  of  Africa 313 

Rowland's  Work.     By  R.  T.   G 316 

A  Vine  Disease 317 

Our  Book  Shelf:— 

Dutley  :   "  Kinematics  of  Machines  " 318 

Meyer :     "  Determination     of    Radicles    in    Carbon 

Compounds" — F.    M.  P 319 

Weed   and    Grossman:    "A    Laboratory   Guide    for 

Beginnerii  in  Zoology" 319 

Coolidge  :  "A  Manual  of  Drawing  " 319 

Pfurtscheller  :  "  Zoologische  Wandtafeln  " 319 

Letters  to  the  Editor  : — 

Radium  and  Cancer.— Dr.  Alexander  Graham  Bell; 

Dr.  Z.  T.   Sowers 320 

The  American  Tariff  and  the  St.   Louis  Exhibition. — 

Prof.  C.  V.  Boys,  F.R.S 320 

The  Eucalypts.  — D.  E.  Hutchins  ;  E.   Hutchins  .  320 
A    Simple    Form    of  Tide  Vi^6\c\.ox.—{lUttstrated.) 

R.  W.  Chapman 322 

Sympathetic  Song  in  Birds. — Edgar  R.  Waite     .    .  322 
Thirty  Years  of  University  Education  in   France. 

By  Cloudesley  Brereton 323  . 

The  Resuscitation  of  the  Apparently  Drowned    .    .  326 

Notes 326 

Our  Astronomical  Column  :— 

The  Spectrum  of  o  Ceti 330 

Photographic  Efficiency  of  a  Short  Focus  Reflector    ,  330 

The  Godlee  Observatory 330 

The  Marine  Biological  Association 331 

The  Parsons  Steam  Turbine 331 

Anthropological  Notes.     {Illustrated.)     . 332 

A     Buried      Triassic       Landscape.        {Illustrated.) 

H.  B.  W .    .  332 

University  and  Educational  Intelligence 333 

Societies  and  Academies.     {Illus-trated. ) 334 


NATURE 


337 


THURSDAY,   AUGUST   13,    1903. 


THE   UNIVERSITY  IN  THE  MODERN  STATE. 
V. 

SINCE  the  earlier  articles  under  the  above  heading 
appeared,  the  views  we  have  attempted  to  express 
touching  the  importance  of  universities  in  the  lives 
of  States  and  even  of  Empires  from  a  national  or 
political,  as  well  as  from  an  academic  point  of  view, 
have  been  strengthened  in  a  remarkable  manner  by 
the  inauguration  of  a  new  movement  in  relation  to 
the  universities  of  the  British  Empire. 

The  important  departure  to  which  we  refer  is  due 
to  the  initiative  of  Sir  Gilbert  Parker,  and  was  recently 
discussed  at  a  conference  in  London,  at  which  official 
representatives,  specially  approved  by  every  one  of 
the  governing  bodies  of  degree-conferring  universities 
throughout  the  Empire,  including  Canada,  Australia, 
New  Zealand,  and  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  as  well 
as  the  home  institutions,  were  present.  By  the  kind- 
ness of  one  of  the  delegates  we  were  enabled  to  give 
an  account  of  what  took  place  at  the  time.  The  publi- 
cation of  a  full  account  of  the  proceedings,  which  has 
now  appeared  in  the  Empire  Review,  enables  us  to 
enter  into  some  details. 

One  of  the  most  important  and  interesting  announce- 
ments made  during  the  meeting,  showing  how  much 
may  spring  from  a  closer  union  of  university  with 
other  national  aims,  was  made  by  Sir  John  Buchanan, 
the  Vice-Chancellor  and  delegate  of  the  Cape  of  Good 
Hope  University,  who  reported  that  the  first  step  to 
the  union  of  the  different  States  of  South  Africa  had 
been  accomplished  by  the  Cape  University,  which  this 
year,  for  the  first  time,  had  conducted  its  examinations 
in  each  of  the  five  States  of  South  Africa  at  the  request 
of  the  Governments  of  the  several  States. 

Now  that  this  conference  has  taken  place,  we  are 
in  a  position  to  gauge  its  importance.  There  is  no 
question  that  a  movement  has  been  begun  which  is 
bound  to  go  on  from  strength  to  strength ;  which,  if 
the  committee  appointed  does  its  work  thoroughly,  will 
bring  all  information  bearing  upon  our  university 
organisation  together,  and  so  enable  a  levelling  up 
process  to  go  on.  Nothing  is  more  distressful  in 
English  history  than  the  way  in  which,  since  the  in- 
troduction of  scientific  processes  into  modern  civilisa- 
tion, our  schools  and  universities,  for  want  of  proper 
endowment  for  the  new  learning,  have  failed  to  provide 
the  scientific  spirit  and  the  brain  power  which  are  now 
recognised  as  the  most  important  weapons  in  a 
nation's  armoury,  and  with  which,  to  our  detriment, 
the  competing  nations  are  now  so  fully  equipped. 

The  Prime  Minister  in  his  admirable  speech  at  the 
inevitable  dinner  left  no  doubt  as  to  the  origin  of  our 
present  backwardness.  While  properly  pointing  out 
that  the  collective  effect  of  our  public  and  secondary 
schools  upon  British  character  cannot  be  overrated,  he 
frankly  acknowledged  that  the  boys  of  seventeen  or 
eighteen  who  have  to  be  educated  '*  do  not  care  a 
11^  farthing  about  the  world  they  live  in  except  in  so  far 
as  it  concerns  the  cricket-field  or  the  football-field  or 
the  river."  On  this  ground  they  are  not  to  be  taught 
NO.    1763,  VOL.  68] 


science,  and  hence,  when  they  proceed  to  the  university, 
their  curriculum  is  limited  to  subjects  which  were 
better  taught  before  the  modern  world  existed,  or 
Galileo  was  born. 

The  first  great  result  of  the  conference  was  the 
distinct  recognition  of  the  importance  of  arrangements 
for  the  mutual  benefit  of  all  the  academic  bodies  in  the 
Empire,  and  this  complete  agreement  is  all  the  more 
satisfactory  at  a  time  when  the  question  of  fiscal 
arrangements  is  dividing  the  country  into  two  hostile 
camps.  Again,  the  absence  of  such  academic  arrange- 
ments at  present  was  shown  to  be  detrimental.  Unlike 
the  fiscal  problem,  therefore,  on  the  proper  discussion 
of  which  much  time  may  be  spent,  the  university 
problem  may  be  tackled  at  once,  and  we  need  hot  delay 
to  profit  by  any  benefits  it  may  bring. 

The  resolutions  passed  at  the  conference  were  as 
follows: — (i)  In  the.  opinion  of  this  conference  it  is 
desirable  that  such  relations  between  the  principal 
teaching  universities  of  the  Empire  should  be  estab- 
lished as  will  secure  that  special  or  local  advantages 
for  study,  and  in  particular  for  post-graduate  study 
and  research,  should  be  made  as  accessible  as  possible 
to  students  from  all  parts  of  the  Empire.  (2)  That  a 
council  consisting  in  part  of  representatives  of  British 
and  colonial  universities  be  appointed  to  promote  the 
objects  set  out  in  the  previous  resolution,  and  that  the 
following  persons  be  appointed  a  committee  to  arrange 
for  the  constitution  of  the  council : — Lord  Kelvin,  Lord 
Strathcona,  Mr.  Bryce,  M.P.,  Mr.  Haldane,  M.P., 
Sir  William  Huggins,  Sir  Michael  Foster,  M.P.,  Sir 
Oliver  Lodge,  Sir  A.  Riicker,  the  Rev.  Dr.  MahafTy, 
the  president  of  Magdalen  College,  Oxford,  the  presi- 
dent of  Queens'  College,  Cambridge,  the  Hon.  W.  P. 
Reeves,  and  Sir  Gilbert  Parker,  M.P. 

One  of  the  most  important  matters  raised  in  con- 
nection with  the  first  resolution  was  the  value  of  the 
education  imparted  in  the  British  universities  in  re- 
lation to  those  of  other  countries.  Sir  John  Buchanan 
told  the  conference  that  they  were  endeavouring  at 
the  Cape  to  send  their  best  graduates  abroad  for 
further  training,  "  and  it  was  much  to  be  regretted 
that  at  present  those  students  could  not  always  get 
what  they  sought  for  in  the  mother  country." 

In  the  United  States,  where  the  university  system 
is  more  complete  and  far  better  endowed  than  with  us, 
the  students  who  wish  to  go  afield  for  further'  study 
do  not  come  to  Britain,  they  go  to  Germany  or  France, 
and  before  we  can  expect  colonial  students  to  come  to 
the  mother  country  exclusively,  our  university  system 
will  require  to  be  brought  up  to  date,  which  can  only 
happen  when  many  millions  are  available  for  proper 
endowments,  in  other  words,  when  the  principle  of 
State  endowment  already  accepted  has  been  effectively 
acted  upon. 

If  one  effect  of  the  conference  is  to  bring  this  home 
to  the  minds  of  those  who  have  to  deal  with  such 
matters,  it  will  have  already  accomplished  an  im- 
portant work  when  as  great  freedom  and  facility  for 
study  and  research  can  be  obtained  within  the  King's 
dominions  as  are  available  elsewhere. 

That  the  facilities  referred  to  by  the  colonial 
university  authorities  included  ample  means  for  the 
prosecution  of  original   research   was   made  perfectly 

Q 


338 


NATURE 


[August  13,  1903 


■clear,  and  to  this  part  of  the  inquiry  Prof.  Ewing  con- 
tributed a  most  important  statement  as  to  the 
■educational  value  of  research  as  demonstrated  by  his 
experience  at  Cambridge.  We  may  hope  that  at  leaft 
after  thirty  years'  debate  this  matter  can  be  considered 
settled.  In  the  language  of  our  correspondent,  "  Since 
Germany  has  given  to  our -disadvantage  a  definite 
experimental  proof  of  the  success  of  research  as  an 
instrument  of  education,  the  delegates  probably  felt 
that  the  matter  had  gone  beyond  the  range  of  academic 
.  discussion." 

When  once  this  idea  of  the  proper  function  of  uni- 
versities is  re-established  and  in  full  operation,  not  only 
at  Oxford  and  Cambridge,  but  in  many  other  British 
universities,  it  may  happen  that  not  everybody  will 
agree  with  Mr.  Balfour's  comparisons  between  the  old 
and  the  new  seats  of  learning. 

"  I  daresay  that  many  of  us  have  looked  back  with 
a  certain  regret,  and  a  certain  feeling  of  shame,  to  the 
medieval  passion  for  learning  without  fee  and  without 
reward — with  no  desire  to  make  the  universities 
stepping-stones  to  good  places  or  to  successful  mercan- 
tile or  industrial  undertakings — but  with  an  ideal 
which  made  thousands  of  students  from  every  country 
In  Europe  undergo  hardships  which  would  be  regarded 
in  these  softer  days  as  absolutely  intolerable,  for  the 
sole  purpose  of  seeking,  and  it  might  be  finding,  the 
great  secret  of  knowledge.  We  despise,  and  we 
perhaps  rightly  despise,  their  methods.  We  know  that 
they  were  not  in  touch  with  the  actual  realities  of  the 
world  in  which  they  lived.  Yet,  after  all,  we  have 
something  to  learn  from  them ;  and  if  we  in  these  days 
could  imitate  their  disinterested  passion  for  knowing 
and  for  extending  the  bounds  of  knowledge,  surely  we, 
with  our  better  methods,  and  our  clearer  appreciation 
■of  what  we  can  know  and  what  we  cannot  know, 
might  accomplish  things  as  yet  undreamed  of.  Now, 
what  did  they  do?  They  moved  from  university  to 
university,  from  Oxford  to  Paris,  from  Paris  to  Padua, 
from  country  to  country,  in  order  that  they  might  sit 
at  the  feet  of  some  great  master  of  learning,  some 
great  teacher  who  might  lead  their  thoughts  into  un- 
dreamed of  paths.  I  hope  that  in  the  universities  of 
the  future  every  great  teacher  will  attract  to  himself 
from  other  universities  students  who  may  catch  his 
spirit — young  men  who  may  be  guided  by  him  in  the 
paths  of  scientific  fame ;  men  who  may  come  to  him 
from  north  or  from  south." 

We  agree  as  to  the  facts  as  to  the  past,  but  it  is 
not  the  carelessness  and  greed  of  the  modern 
student  that  are  in  question,  but  rather  the  decadence 
of  our  universities,  which  are  no  longer  seats  of  learn- 
ing in  the  old  sense,  that  is,  they  do  not  supply  the 
knowledge  most  useful  to  those  who  attend  them  in 
relation  to  the  needs  of  the  time.  They  are  chiefly 
conducted  as  playgrounds  for  the  sons  of  the  rich,  learn- 
ing is  too  little  endowed,  and  great  teachers  are  too 
little  encouraged,  especially  in  the  matters  in  which 
the  modern  world  is  concerned. 

If  only  students  of  science  found  at  our  universities 
of  to-day  what  students  of  theology,  law,  medicine, 
and  les  trois  langues,  found  in  the  old  time  at  all 
universities,  that  is,  perfect  teaching,  and  the  endow- 
ment of  research  at  the  university  itself,  things  might 
be  righted,  and,  as  of  old,  many  fitted  for  the  battle 
of  life  would  go  out  into  the  world  to  apply  their  know- 
ledge as  did  their  forerunners,  and  show  neither  more 
NO.    1763,  VOL.  68] 


nor  less  "  disinterested  passion  "  than  the  well  paid 
ecclesiastics,  lawyers,  and  doctors  of  the  past. 

It  is  because  the  universities  of  Germany,  France, 
and  the  United  States,  aided  by  wisdom  and  endow- 
ments, conform  to  the  old  ideal,  while  our  ancient  ones 
remain  as  hauts  lycies,  as  Matthew  Arnold  called  them, 
and  our  modern  ones  are  crippled  for  want  of  funds, 
that  the  students  of  both  Britain  and  Greater  Britain 
find  an  advantage  in  going  abroad  to  build  up  their 
brain  power. 

It  is  to  be  hoped  that  as  a  result  of  the  conference 
the  educational  federation  of  the  Empire  will  some  day 
be  brought  about.  It  must  not  be  forgotten  that  the 
first  step  in  this  direction  was  taken  when  the  Royal 
Commissioners  for  the  Exhibition  of  185 1  founded  its 
research  scholarships,  in  which  every  university  in  the 
Empire  has  a  share — a  share  which  it  has  fully  used, 
and  with  the  best  effects.  That  other  similar  scholar- 
ships should  be  founded  by  the  different  Governments 
and  private  individuals  may  be  one  of  the  results  of 
the  conference. 

Our  plea  for  better  brain  power  for  the  nation  was 
not  lost  sight  of  in  the  deliberations,  and  we  may  fitly 
conclude  by  the  following  quotation  from  a  speech  by 
Mr.  Haldane,  which  brought  the  discussion  to  a  close. 

"  To-day  we  are  a  step  further  on  towards  doing  that 
which,  as  a  people,  as  the  great  English-speaking 
people,  we  need  more  than  anything  else.  We  have 
got  the  splendid  energy  of  our  race,  we  have  got  the 
power  which  is  ours,  in  a  unique  degree,  of  adapting 
ourselves  to  new  conditions,  of  overcoming  difficulties 
which  to  others  might  even  seem  to  be  insurmountable, 
and  yet  we  have  been  deficient  in  the  capacity  of  organ- 
isation. What  we  have  lacked  in  this  country,  some- 
how, has  been  the  thinking  faculty,  and  it  is  the  work 
of  education  to  develop  the  thinking  faculty  in  a  nation. 
And  never  before  was  the  thinking  faculty  so  much 
needed  as  to-day  when  the  weapons  which  science  places 
in  the  hands  of  those  who  engage  in  great  rivalries  of 
commerce  leave  those  who  are  without  them,  however 
brave,  as  badly  off  as  were  the  dervishes  of  Omdurman 
against  the  Maxims  of  Lord  Kitchener." 


THE   SPECTROSCOPE   IN   ASTRONOMY. 
Problems    in    Astrophysics.     By    Agnes    M.     Clerke 
Pp.    xvi  +  567.     (London:    A.    and   C.    Black,    1903.) 
Price  20S.  net. 

THE  triple  alliance  of  astronomy,  phj^sics  and 
chemistry  has  extended  the  boundaries  of  each 
in  unexpected  directions.  Astronomy  is  no  longer  a 
dependency  of  mathematics,  but  an  independent  power 
having  a  high  place  in  the  hierarchy  of  the  physical 
sciences ;  instruments  of  research  in  physics  have  been 
turned  from  earth  to  sky,  and  chemistry  now  looks  to 
the  stars  for  evidence  as  to  the  distribution  and 
ultimate  structure  of  the  elements. 

The  spectroscope  is  the  chief  means  by  which  these 
new  territories  have  been  gained  for  science  and  ex- 
plored, and  the  photographic  plate  has  not  only  been 
its  faithful  scribe,  but  has  also  gained  distinction  as 
an  astronomical  artist.  Individually  and  jointly,  the 
prism  and  the  camera  have  increased  our  knowledge 
of  the  nature  and  number  of  all  classes  of  celestial 


August  13,  1903] 


NATURE 


339 


objects.  The  general  study  of  the  solar  spectrum  has 
given  way  to  investigations  of  the  sun  in  detail ;  and 
spectrum  analysis  now  not  only  reveals  the  constitution 
of  the  stars,  but  measures  their  movements  with  an 
exactitude  impossible  by  any  other  means.  The  light 
of  nebulae  has  been  shown  to  be  but  the  manifestation 
of  molar  activity  having  a  vastly  greater  sphere  of 
influence  than  that  suggested  by  the  visible  limits; 
and  nebulae  themselves,  from  being  regarded  as  a 
peculiar  class  of  celestial  bodies,  have  been  linked  to 
stars  and  shown  to  be  the  amoebae  in  a  scheme  of 
inorganic  evolution. 

The  story  of  this  development  is  related  by  Miss 
Gierke  in  the  exuberant  style  with  which  all  readers 
of  astronomical  literature  are  familiar.  The  first  part 
of  her  book,  occupying  about  one-third  of  the  whole, 
is  devoted  to  the  sun,  and  the  remainder  to  sidereal 
physics.  Among  the  subjects  of  chapters  in  the 
former  part  are  peculiarities  of  the  solar  spectrum, 
the  reversing  layer,  the  spectrum  of  sun-spots,  the 
chromospheric  spectrum,  the  sun's  rotation,  and  the 
solar  cycle.  The  forty-one  chapters  of  the  second  part 
deal  with  many  varieties  and  characteristics  of  stars 
and  nebulae,  the  subjects  including  helium  stars, 
carbon  stars,  the  spectra  of  double  stars,  rotation  of 
the  stars,  spectroscopic  binaries,  dark  stars,  star 
clusters,  nebulous  stars,  variable  nebulae,  the  nature 
of  nebulae,  and  the  physics  of  the  Milky  Way. 

For  the  collection  and  anal3sis  of  contributions  to 
the  study  of  these  and  other  problems  in  astrophysics, 
Miss  Gierke  merits  the  thanks  of  astronomers.  As 
is  the  case  with  every  branch  of  science  in  its  youth, 
questions  arise  much  faster  than  they  can  be  answered, 
and  it  requires  a  fine  critical  faculty  to  separate  results 
of  transient  value  from  those  of  significance  to  scien- 
tific progress.  The  historian  has  to  decide  what 
things  matter  and  what  may  be  neglected  when  con- 
sidered from  the  point  of  view  of  their  influence  upon 
development;  and  success  is  achieved  when  this  power 
of  discernment  is  combined  with  insight  which  enables 
the  relationship  to  be  seen  between  cause  and  con- 
sequence. 

With  the  best  desire  in  the  world  to  give  Miss  Gierke 
credit  for  her  work,  we  must  confess  to  a  feeling  that 
it  is  not  altogether  satisfactory.  In  the  first  place, 
the  net  which  she  has  used  in  her  explorations  of 
astronomical  literature  is  of  too  fine  a  mesh,  so  that 
she  has  gathered  in  results  and  ideas  which  ought  to 
have  been  discarded  as  being  of  little  value,  or  imma- 
ture. Next,  as  we  shall  show  later,  she  has  not  under- 
stood the  real  nature  of  some  of  the  material  collected ; 
and  finally,  she  passes  judgment  and  gives  advice  on 
matters  which  can  only  be  rightly  understood  by  in- 
vestigators actively  engaged  in  spectroscopic  work. 

A  man  who  has  had  a  scientific  training  can  quickly 
grasp  the  essential. points  of  progress  in  any  branch 
of  natural  knowledge  if  they  are  brought  before  his 
notice,  but  he  will  rarely  venture  on  criticism  of 
results,  or  lay  down  the  lines  of  further  research 
unless  he  has  a  personal  and  practical  acquaintance 
with  the  subject.  Miss  Gierke  does  not  always 
exercise  the  same  caution,  with  the  result  that  she 
sometimes  labours  the  obvious.  Her  function  as  an 
fiistorian  is  to  assimilate  and  describe,  and  when  she 
NO.   1763,  VOL.  68J 


is  exercising  her  talents  in  this  direction  she  is  at  her 
best.  She  surveys  the  work  from  the  point  of  view 
of  the  spectator,  and  should  describe  fairly  and  clearly 
what  she  sees,  without  irritating  the  men  who  are 
doing  the  work  by  expressing  her  opinion  upon  it 
or  suggesting  what  course  they  ought  to  take  next. 
In  other  words,  she  should  remember  that  "  Passen- 
gers are  respectfully  requested  not  to  speak  to  the 
man  at  the  wheel." 

In  preparing  a  statement  of  the  position  of  fact  and 
theory  in  any  branch  of  science,  great  care  must  be 
e.xercised,  and  not  a  single  assertion  should  be  made 
without  substantial  reason  for  it.  A  cynic  has  said 
that  it  is  a  characteristic  of  women  to  make  rash 
assertions,  and  in  the  absence  of  contradiction  to 
accept  them  as  true.  Miss  Gierke  is  apparently  not 
free  from  this  weakness  of  her  sex.  Referring  to  the 
line  1474  K  she  says  (p.  117)  : — "  Eclipse-spectrographs 
do  not  include  it,  while  they  have  afforded  some  other 
quite  unexpected  results."  An  examination  of  spec- 
trum photographs  of  the  eclipses  of  1893,  1896,  and 
1898  would  have  shown  Miss  Gierke  that  1474  K  is 
included  in  all  of  them.  There  are  other  instances  in 
which  statements  of  an  ex  cathedra  character  are  made 
without  a  full  appreciation  of  the  facts.  Thus,  the 
identification  of  a  "  dozen  and  upwards  "  chromo- 
spheric lines  in  the  spectra  of  krypton  and  xenon 
(p.  120)  is  doubtful,  to  say  the  least;  and  the  Stony- 
hurst  origins  referred  to  on  p.  187  in  connection  with 
the  spectrum  of  7  Gassiopeiae  are  in  the  same  case. 
Again,  in  the  table  of  nebular  lines  on  p.  477,  the  line 
at  A  4122  has  a  note  of  interrogation  placed  after  the 
word  helium  indicating  its  origin,  though  there  is 
practically  no  doubt  that  the  line  is  helium  x  412 1. 
Moreover,  the  line  a.  4715,  said  to  be  of  origin  "  un- 
known," is  really  the  helium  line  A  47I3-3. 

It  is  in  such  matters  as  these  that  Miss  Gierke  shows 
she  is  not  a  working  spectroscopist  possessing  an  in- 
timate acquaintance  with  the  subjects  she  describes. 
The  result  is  that  she  is  led  to  pass  unsound  judg- 
ments, and  to  be  satisfied  with  an  imperfect  record 
of  the  facts  available.  Thus,  on  p.  48,  in  considering 
the  relation  of  the  chemistry  of  the  chromosphere  to 
the  depth  she  quotes  a  paper  by  Mr.  S.  A.  Mitchell, 
but  makes  no  reference  to  the  Royal  Society  report 
on  the  1893  eclipse,  where  a  full  discussion  of  the  con- 
ditions is  given.  Again,  for  evidence  of  the  existence 
of  more  than  one  gas  in  the  solar  corona  reference 
is  made  (p.  131)  to  a  paper  by  Mr.  S.  J.  Brown,  but 
a  note  on  the  discussion  of  the  photographs  of  the 
1898  eclipse,  presented  to  the  Royal  Society  and  pub- 
lished in  the  Proceedings  (vol.  Ixvi.  p.  189),  is  not 
mentioned,  though  it  shows  that  three  groups  of  lines, 
indicating  three  gases,  are  recognisable  in  the  corona 
spectrum. 

Miss  Gierke  demurs  to  the  late  Prof.  Rowland's 
conclusion  that  there  is  no  fundamental  difference 
between  solar  and  terrestrial  chemistry.  "  Quanti- 
tative, if  not  qualitative,  dissimilarity  must,"  she 
believes,  "  be  recognised  ";  and  she  instances  titanium 
among  other  elements  which  are  clearly  represented 
in  the  solar  spectrum,  and  yet  are  scarce  here. 
Titanium  is  more  widely  distributed  than  Miss  Gierke 
supposes,    but,    even    if   it  -were   extremely   rare,    her 


340 


NATURE 


[August  13,  1903 


suggestion  as  to  the  relative  amounts  of  this  and  other 
elements  existing  in  the  sun  and  earth  is  misleading. 
Remembering  that  nothing  is  known  of  the  chemical 
constitution  of  the  earth. a  few  miles  below  the  surface, 
it  is  possible  that  rare  elements  in  the  crust  may  be 
abundant  nearer  the  centre.  The  differences  between 
solar  chemistry  as  manifested  *by  the  solar  spectrum, 
and  terrestrial  chemistry  as  represented  by  minera- 
logical  knowledge,  are  therefore  only  apparent,  and 
Rowland  was  justified  in  his  remark,  "were  the 
whole  earth  heated  to  the  temperature  of  the  sun,  its 
spectrum  would  probably  resemble  that  of  the  sun 
very  closely." 

The  distinction  between  spark  and  arc  spectra  is 
not  sufficiently  recognised,  with  the  result  that  un- 
sound judgments  are  sometimes  reached.  A  case  of 
this  kind  occurs  in  connection  with  the  discussion  of 
the  chromospheric  spectrum.  The  green  line  of  the 
chromosphere  is  coincident  with  one  of  the  members 
; — due  to  iron — of  the  triplet  known  as  Kirchhoff  1474 
in  the  Fraunhofer  spectrum.     Miss  Gierke  says  : — 

"  Now  the  chromospheric  ray  agrees  in  position  with 
the  iron  line,  which  is  one  of  secondary  importance ; 
yet  it  cannot  at  present  be  asserted  confidently  that  it 
really  emanates  from  glowing  iron  vapour.  If  it  did 
it  should  be  ordinarily  associated  with  other  iron  lines, 
and  none  have  been  ascertained  to  make  part  of  the 
fundamental  chromospheric  spectrum." 

If  the  spark  spectrum  of  iron  had  been  considered 
Instead  of  the  arc  spectrum,  these  remarks  would,  we 
think,  have  been  modified.  The  iron  line  at  1474  K 
is  not  of  secondary  importance  in  the  spark  spectrum ; 
indeed,  the  fundamental  chromospheric  spectrum 
consists  largely  of  iron  lines — not  the  ordinary  lines 
of  the  arc  spectrum,  but  lines  such  as  those  at 
w  1474  K,  5018,  4924,  4584,  and  4233,  which  are 
enhanced  in  relative  importance  in  passing  from  the 
arc  to  the  spark. 

In  connection  with  the  subject  of  the  temperature 
of  the  stars,  the  behaviour  of  lines  of  magnesium  at 
different  temperatures  is  referred  to.  Other  con- 
ditions being  the  same,  the  magnesium  line  4352  be- 
comes finer  with  increase  of  temperature,  while  that 
at  4481  becomes  thicker,  and  this  opposite  behaviour 
provides  a  test  of  increasing  or  decreasing  tempera- 
ture. But  it  is  not  pointed  out  that  the  test  must 
be  applied  with  caution ;  for  the  line  4352  in  the  spectra 
of  hot  stars  is  not  due  to  magnesium,  but  is  really  an 
enhanced  line  of  iron.  If  4352  in  the  hot  stars  were 
a  magnesium  line,  then  other  lines  of  the  same  series 
ought  to  be  present,  but  they  are  not. 

The  chapter  on  new  stars  is  characteristic  of  a  large 
part  of  the  book.  Details  are  given  of  observations 
of  new  stars  from  Nova  Aurigae  to  Nova  Persei,  but 
the  record  can  scarcely  be  described  as  complete,  and 
the  chief  lesson  taught  by  Novae  is  overlooked.  Many 
years  ago.  Sir  Norman  Lockyer  expressed  the  view 
that  "  new  stars,  whether  seen  in  connection  with 
nebulae  or  not,  are  produced  by  the  clash  of  meteor 
swarms."  When  this  conclusion  was  arrived  at,  few 
precise  observations  of  the  spectra  of  Novae  were 
available,  but  It  is  not  too  much  to  say  that  visual  and 
photographic  inquiries  made  since  then  into  the 
phenomena  of  new  stars  have  substantiated  it  in  a 
KO.    1763,   VOL.  68] 


very  remarkable  manner.  By  the  meteoritic  hypo- 
thesis, new  stars  approximate  to  nebulae  as  they  fade, 
until  their  light  at  the  last  stage  is  indistinguishable 
from  that  of  a  nebula.  This  association  of  new  stars 
with  nebulae  is  now  an  accepted  fact,  but  the  con- 
sequences have  not  been  so  clearly  acknowledged.  As 
a  new  star  reverts  to  the  condition  of  a  nebula  when 
it  cools,  evidently  nebulag  are  not  masses  of  gas  at 
transcendental  temperatures.  Just  as  in  biology,  the 
course  of  evolution  is  traced  in  the  development  of  the 
embryo,  so  we  may  consider  that  in  its  brief  life  a 
new  star  passes  in  some  respects  through  the  various 
stages  which  mark  the  growth  and  decay  of  worlds. 

The  spectroscopic  history  of  Nova  Aurigae  was  a 
surprise  to  astronomers,  who  regarded  the  meteoritic 
interpretation  of  the  phenomena  of  new  stars  as  a 
hypothesis  of  doubtful  validity.  For,  though  there 
might  be  a  difference  of  opinion  as  to  the  meaning 
of  the  displacement  of  the  bright  and  dark  lines  in 
the  spectrum,  there  could  be  none  on  the  fundamental 
fact  that  the  Nova  became  a  planetary  nebula,  both 
visually  and  spectroscopically,  as  It  sank  into 
obscurity ;  and  this  course  of  events  was  precisely  that 
previously  found  to  have  been  exhibited  by  new  stars 
which  had  been  subjected  to  spectroscopic  analysis. 
Rarely  has  h3'pothesis  received  such  decided  confirm- 
ation, but  Miss  Gierke  does  not  even  mention  the  paper 
in  which  it  is  put  forward.  The  history  of  several 
new  stars  is  concluded  with  words  to  the  effect  that 
"  the  regular  cycle  had  been  run  through  :  a  planetary 
nebula  replaced  the  faded  star,"  but  there  Is  no  refer- 
ence to  the  analysis  of  spectroscopic  records  before 
Nova  Aurigae,  which  showed  that  the  reversion  to  a 
nebular  type  is  a  common  characteristic  of  new  stars. 

The  case  of  Nova  Persei  is  of  even  greater  signi- 
ficance from  the  point  of  view  of  cosmogony  than  that 
of  Nova  Aurigae,  for  Its  light  revealed  the  existence 
of  vast  areas  of  dark  matter  in  Interstellar  space. 
Miss  Gierke  describes  the  vicissitudes  through  which 
the  object  passed,  and  the  apparent  expansion  of  the 
nebula  associated  with  It.  With  regard  to  this 
phenomenon  we  read  : — • 

"  An  explanatory  hypothesis  of  considerable  plausi- 
bility was  hit  off  independently  by  Prof.  Kapteyn  and 
Mr.  W.  E.  Wilson.^  It  affirms  the  nebula  to  have 
been  pre-existent,  and  to  remain  unchanged.  But 
since  we  see  it  by  the  unchanged  light  of  the  Nova, 
\X.:i  various  spires  and  condensations  have  come 
successively  Into  view  as  the  flare  of  the  explosion 
travelled  outward  in  widening  circles.  Hence  an 
Illusory  effect  of  radial  expansion  was  produced,  while 
in  point  of  fact,  the  temporarily  Illuminated  cosmic 
folds  were  as  immovable  as  aligned  snow-peaks,  in 
turn  set  aglow  by  the  setting  sun." 

In  other  words,  cosmic  dust,  or  meteoritic  particles, 
or  dark  nebular  matter — whatever  you  care  to  term 
it — existed  In  the  part  of  space  In  which  the  new  star 
made  Its  appearance.  The  fundamental  idea  of  the 
meteoritic  hypothesis  is  here  accepted,  and  Its  applica- 
tion to  the  phenomena  of  new  stars  acknowledged. 
Astronomers  have,  in  fact,  been  driven  to  the  belief 
in  the  existence  of  sheets  or  streams  of  non-luminous 
matter  in  space;  and  dark  nebulae,  as  Prof.  Turner 
has    termed    them    in    an    article    in    the    Fortnightly 

1  Nature,  January  30,  1902. 


August  13,  1903] 


NATURE 


341 


Review,  are  no  longer  considered  hypothetical,  but 
as  real  as  dark  stars. 

A  new  class  of  celestial  bodies  has  thus  been  brought 
under  notice,  and  Miss  Gierke  does  not  sufficiently 
appreciate  its  significance.  This,  however,  is  a  matter 
of  opinion,  but  surely  for  the  sake  of  historical  com- 
pleteness she  might  have  mentioned  that  the  associa- 
tion of  nebulae  with  new  stars  was  first  put  forward 
in  the  meteoritic  hypothesis.  She  is  careful  to  give 
credit  in  most  cases,  but  in  connection  with  Nova 
Persei  no  reference  is  made  to  the  fact  that  Sir  Norman 
Lockyer  first  suggested  in  these  columns  that  the  dark 
nebula  existed  before  the  star  appeared.  In  the  issue 
of  December  12,  1901,  he  wrote  : — 

"  It  is  impossible  to  think  that  the  great  nebula 
which  has  now  been  photographed  while  the  new  star 
is  still  in  being  did  not  exist  there  a  few  months  ago ; 
and  it  is  important,  further,  to  remark  that  the 
nebulous  matter  already  photographed  in  the  region 
round  the  Nova  is  very  probably  only  a  portion  of  the 
actual  amount  of  matter  existing  there,  and  that  if 
the  disturbances  continue,  more  of  the  remaining 
portion  may  become  visible." 

Here  we  have  a  definite  statement  of  the  pre- 
existence  of  the  dark  cosmic  matter  in  the  neighbour- 
hood of  Nova  Persei  before  the  new  star  became 
visible,  but  it  has  been  overlooked  by  Miss  Gierke. 
This  is  to  be  regretted  because,  a  few  years  hence, 
astronomers  will  be  just  as  interested  in  knowing  how 
the  idea  of  dark  nebulae  passed  from  hypothesis  to 
demonstration  as  we  are  in  Bessel's  discernment  of 
the  existence  of  dark  companions  of  Sirius  and  Procyon 
before  these  bodies  came  within  the  sphere  of  astro- 
nomical discovery. 

One  other  point  connected  with  Novae  is  worth 
mention.  In  the  description  of  the  spectrum  of  Nova 
Aurigae  it  is  stated  that  "  an  exceptional  feature  was 
the  predominance  of  *  green  '  helium ;  D,  and  the 
rest  of  the  lines  belonging  to  the  '  yellow  '  set  were 
comparatively  faint;  while  A  4922,  \  5016  and  their 
fundamental  \  6678,  shone  lustrously."  An  un- 
necessary difficulty  is  raised  in  the  attempt  to  account 
for  the  appearance  of  these  lines  in  the  Nova  spec- 
trum ;  for  the  first  two  lines  mentioned  were  really 
not  due  to  helium,  but  were  enhanced  lines  of  iron 
at  A.  4924  and  \  5018.  This  identification  does  not  rest 
solely  upon  these  two  lines,  for  other  enhanced  lines 
of  iron  appeared  in  the  spectrum  of  the  Nova. 

Other  details  upon  which  there  are  differences  of 
opinion  might  be  mentioned,  but  no  useful  purpose 
would  h'i  served  by  doing  so.  In  directing  attention 
to  the  various  points  referred  to  in  the  foregoing  re- 
marks, the  object  has  been  to  show  that,  though  Miss 
Gierke  writes  with  exceptional  facility  and  grace,  she 
is  not  an  infallible  guide,  and  has  a  tendency  to  works 
of  supererogation.  Notwithstanding  this,  we  do  not 
hesitate  to  say  that,  by  writing  the  record  of  astro- 
physics, she  has  done  a  great  service  to  astronomers. 
Her  book  makes  it  possible  to  obtain  a  view  of  the 
chief  fields  in  which  astronomical  inquiries  are  now 
being  carried  on,  and  of  the  achievements  which  have 
been  reached.  To  readers  interested  in  the  progress 
of  knowledge  relating  to  the  sun,  stars  and  nebulae, 
whether  they  are  laymen,  or  men  of  science  so  deeply 
engrossed  in  other  investigations  that  they  have  not 
NO.   1763,  VOL.  68] 


been  able  to  keep  in  touch  with  astronomy,  the  book 
will  be  a  revelation.  Those  who  are  engaged  in  the 
work  of  astrophysics  will  be  saved  many  hours  of 
tedious  research  among  scientific  books  and  papers 
by  this  chapter  from  the  history  of  science. 

R.  A.  Gregory. 


THE    GERMINAL    LAYERS    OF    THE 
VERTEBRATA. 
Furchting   und   Keimhlattbildtitig   bei   Tarsius   Spec- 
trum.    By  A.  A.   W.   Hubrecht.     Pp.    115  +  plates. 
(Amsterdam  :  Mijller,  1902.) 

EMBRYOLOGISTS  will  certainly  unite  to  con- 
gratulate Prof.  Hubrecht  on  the  completion  of 
this  memoir.  To  have  obtained  and  figured  a  com- 
plete series  of  developmental  stages  of  any  animal  is 
in  itself  no  mean  achievement,  but  when  this  animal 
is  one  of  the  rarest  of  mammals,  procurable  only  in 
a  distant  quarter  of  the  globe,  we  may  well  wonder 
at  the  persevering  patience  which  has  succeeded  in 
overcoming  difficulties  which,  to  an  ordinary  worker, 
would  have  been  insurmountable. 

Tarsius  has  always  been  regarded  as  a  member, 
though  a  very  aberrant  member,  of  the  Lemuroidea. 
The  embryological  evidence  which  has  now  been 
brought  before  us  is  practically  conclusive  in  favour 
of  its  removal  from  this  suborder.  The  placentation 
is  most  pronouncedly  of  the  so-called  "  deciduate  " 
type,  while  the  arrangement  of  the  foetal  membranes, 
with  the  diminutive  yolk-sac,  rudimentary  allantois, 
and  large  extra-embryonic  coelomic  space,  is  identical 
with  that  found  in  man  and  monkeys,  but  nowhere 
else. 

The  placenta,  and  the  important  changes  leading 
to  the  formation  of  the  "  Bauchstiel  " — so  long  a 
puzzle  to  human  embryologists — have  already  been  the 
subjects  of  two  publications  by  Prof.  Hubrecht.  In 
the  present  treatise  we  are  introduced  to  the  processes 
of  maturation,  fertilisation,  segmentation,  the  his- 
tology of  the  formation  of  the  amnion,  and,  above  all, 
to  the  germinal  layers. 

First  to  appear  are  the  above-mentioned  extra- 
embryonic ccelom  and  the  yolk-sac.  The  material  for 
the  former  springs  from  the  posterior  end  of  the 
blastoderm.  In  continuity  with  it  is  formed  the 
primitive  streak  in  the  centre  of  which  is  the  rudi- 
mentary blastopore  or  neurenteric  canal.  The  meso- 
blast,  however,  is  also  formed  from  an  anterior  tract 
of  hypoblast  (as  frequently  in  Amniotes)  and  from  a 
peripheral  ring  (as  described  by  the  author  in  Sorex). 

These  facts,  admirably  illustrated  by  a  very  complete 
set  of  figures,  form  the  basis  for  some  very  bold 
speculations.  The  germ  layers  of  the  Vertebrata  have 
proved  a  stumbling-block  to  many  an  embryologist. 
The  solution  of  the  problem  here  proposed  (due  origin- 
ally to  van  Beneden,  and  first  expounded  in  Oxford) 
is  one  which  cuts  all  the  old  ground  from  under  our 
feet.  We  are  taken  back,  not  to  Amphioxus,  or  even 
to  an  Annelid,  but  to  a  Gcelenterate,  and  asked  to  see 
in  the  gastrovascular  cavity  and  stomodaeum  of  this, 
the  latest  ancestor  of  all  the  Vertebrates,  the  fore- 
runners of  the  blastopore  and  notochord  respectively. 
Such    a    theory    involves    the    assumption    that    the 


342 


NATURE 


[August  13,  1903 


archenteron  communicates  with  the  segmentation 
cavity  in  all  Anamnia,  which  is  hardly  the  case;  on 
the  other  hand,  it  seems  to  get  over  the  difficulty  of 
deriving  the  conditions  found  in  the  Amniotes  from 
those  observed  in  lower  forms. 

We  imagine,  however,  that  few  morphologists  will 
accept  so  imaginative  an  hypothesis.  It  is  not  diffi- 
cult to  explain  the  differences  between  these  two  great 
divisions  of  the  Vertebrates  more  logically  by  refer- 
ence to  the  Gymnophiona.  But  putting  that  aside, 
it  is  open  to  grave  doubt  whether  it  is  possible  to 
attach  any  phylogenetic  significance,  any  morpho- 
logical value  in  the  determination  of  homologies,  to 
the  germ-layers  of  the  Vertebrates,  or,  indeed,  of  any 
other  group.  Their  significance  is  rather  physio- 
logical, and  can  only  be  analysed  by  the  ordinary 
physiological  methods  of  observation  and  experiment. 


PSYCHOLOGICAL   STUDIES. 
Harvard  Psychological  Studies.       Vol.  i.       Edited  by 
Hugo  Miinsterberg.       Pp.  654.       (New  York  :  The 
Macmillan  Company,  1903.) 

THIS,  the  fourth  volume  of  monograph  supplements 
to  the  Psychological  Review,  consists  of  sixteen 
papers  by  the  students  of  the  Harvard  School  of 
Psychology,  fifteen  of  which  represent  the  principal 
results  of  the  work  done  in  the  laboratory  in  the  last 
few  years.  Most  of  the  papers  show,  properly  enough, 
the  influence  of  Prof.  Miinsterberg 's  vigorous  and 
original  mind,  and  it  is  no  doubt  owing  in  part  to  his 
teaching  and  direction  that  each  of  the  researches  deals 
with  a  well-defined  problem  by  appropriate  and  original 
methods.  But  the  individual  workers  have  preserved 
their  independence,  and  the  standard  of  treatment  and 
achievement  reached  is  in  all  cases  a  high  one. 

Of  six  studies  in  perception,  Mr.  Holt's  explanation 
of  the  bands  seen  on  passing  a  rod  across  the  surface 
of  a  rapidly  rotating  disc  bearing  coloured,  or  black 
and  white,  sectors,  is  an  admirable  example  of  neat 
and  convincing  experiment.  Of  three  studies  in 
memory,  those  of  Messrs.  Meakin  and  Moore  are 
interesting  as  achieving  valuable  results  by  system- 
atically conducted  introspective  observation  of  the 
primary  memory-image.  Even  the  "  purest  "  and  most 
old-fashioned  psychologist  could  hardly  raise  objection 
to  their  procedure.  Their  results  suggest  that  much 
valuable  knowledge  is  to  be  gained  by  those  who  have 
the  patience  to  follow  up  this  line  of  research,  but 
the  absence  of  all  objective  control  of  the  results  makes 
the  method  a  dangerous  one,  unless  subjects  innocent 
of  psychological  theory  can  be  found  to  carry  out  the 
introspective  observations. 

Of  four  studies  in  eesthetic  processes,  the  principal 
are  elaborate  and  ingenious  researches  on  the  consti- 
tution of  objective  rhythm-forms  and  on  symmetry. 
In  the  case  of  the  latter,  the  experimental  conclusions 
are  supported  by  analyses  of  pictorial  compositions 
ranging  from  the  ornamental  designs  of  primitive 
people  to  the  altar-pieces  of  Raphael.  In  two  studies 
in  animal  psychology,  Mr.  Yerkes  breaks  new  ground 
by  registering  accurately  the  reaction-times  of  the  leg 
of  the  green  frog  in  response  to  a  variety  of  stimuli, 
and  he  shows  that  the  frog  and  the  crayfish  are  alike 
NO.    1763,    VOL.   68] 


capable  of  learning  by  experience,  of  acquiring  new 
associations,  though  but  slowly;  he  thus  refutes  the 
view  that  they  are  but  unconscious  automata,  a  view 
that  has  been  based  on  the  belief  that  they  are  devoid 
of  such  capacity. 

The  volume  is  completed  by  a  short  paper  in  which 
Prof.  Miinsterberg  briefly  restates  the  main  con- 
clusions reached  in  his  "  Grundziige  der  Psychologic  " 
(Leipzig,  1900).  He  claims  that  under  the  term 
psychology  two  fundamentally  different  sciences  are 
commonly  confused  together;  the  one  treats  of  "the 
inner  life  as  objective  content  of  consciousness,  as 
phenomenon,  the  other  of  the  inner  life  as  subjective 
attitude,  as  purpose."  The  former  science  is  descrip- 
tive and  explanatory,  those  who  pursue  it  are 
"  phenomenalists  " ;  the  psychical  objects  with  which 
they  deal  are  abstractions,  comparable  to  the  physical 
objects  dealt  with  by  the  physicist.  The  other  science, 
improperly  called  psychology,  is  "voluntarism";  it 
is  teleological  and  interpretative,  but  not  explanatory, 
it  includes  the  normative  and  historical  sciences,  and 
gives  "  a  more  direct  account  of  man's  real  life  than 
psychology  can  hope  to  give."  These  remarks  prepare 
the  way  for  a  comprehensive  tabular  classification  of 
all  the  sciences,  which,  whether  it  be  found  acceptable 
or  no,  is  certainly  novel  and  extremely  interesting. 

W.  McD. 


OUR    BOOK  SHELF. 
A    Gloucestershire    Wild    Garden.       By    the    Curator. 

Pp.  xii  +  230.     (London  :  Elliot  Stock,   1903.)     Price 

65.  net. 
Gardening  books  are  becoming  noted  for  containing 
a  small  amount  of  gardening  information  largely 
diluted  with  something  that  has  little  or  no  relevance 
to  horticultural  pursuits.  The  diluting  medium  may 
be  cookery  or  hygiene,  tirades  against  vivisection, 
stale  jokes,  spiritualism,  anything,  in  fact.  In  the 
present  book  gardening,  or  one  phase  of  it,  represents 
the  slices  of  bread,  between  which  are  inserted,  sand- 
wich-fashion, dissertations  on  the  molecular  structure 
of  the  brain  and  nerve  centres,  and  discussions  on  the 
origin  of  thought  and  the  nature  of  religious  im- 
pressions. 

The  "  Curator  "  is  the  gardener  who  evidently 
knows  plants  and  loves  them.  To  him  appear  when 
he  is  tired  of  work,  or,  at  any  rate,  without  preface 
or  apology,  a  somewhat  prosy  "  Professor,"  who  sup- 
plies the  anatomical  details  above  mentioned,  and 
explains  them  from  the  materialistic  standpoint,  and 
an  orthodox  "  Padre,"  who  is  somewhat  shocked  at 
the  views  propounded  by  the  professor.  The  Curator 
acts  as  moderator,  and  when  discussion  seems  likely 
to  become  dangerous,  suggests  a  pipe  of  tobacco  or 
a  cup  of  tea  as  effectual  "  shunters."  At  any  rate,  we 
pass  abruptly  from  metaphysical  subtleties  either  to 
the  tea-table  or  to  another  chapter,  in  which  we  are 
told  how  to  construct  a  "  wild  "  garden.  As  if  all 
this  were  not  enough,  a  love  story— a  very  short  one 
— is  introduced,  and  so  the  book  has  one  quality  which 
a  garden  should  possess,  and  that  is,  variety. 

The  author  tells  us  that  he  does  not  write  for  critics, 
but  we  hope  he  will  not  mind  our  saying  that  the 
gardening  part  of  his  book  is  on  a  higher  level  than 
that  to  which  we  are  accustomed  in  similar  books, 
and  as  for  the  remainder,  we  should  prefer  in  this 
Journal  not  to  express  any  opinion,  but  to  leave  the 
reader  to  form  his  own  conclusions. 


August  13,  1903] 


NATURE 


34. 


Geographen-Kalender.  In  Verbindung  mit  Dr. 
Wilhelm  Blankenburg,  Prof.  Paul  Langhans,  Prof. 
Paul  Lehmann,  unci  Hugo  Wichmann,  heraus- 
gegeben  von  Dr.  Hermann  Haack.  Erster  Jahr- 
gang,   1903-1904.     (Gotha  :  Justus  Perthes,  1903.) 

This  is  the  first  issue  of  what  is  likely  to  prove  an  in- 
dispensable work  of  reference  to  geographers  of  all 
nationalities,  as  it  gives  in  a  compact  form  a  mass  of 
information  on  the  yearly  progress  of  geographical 
science  in  all  its  branches,  besides  containing  much 
information  of  a  statistical  kind  which  will  be  of  use 
to  the  general  public  no  less  than  to  the  expert. 
Although,  perhaps,  as  is  but  natural,  the  greatest 
amount  of  attention  is  given  to  German  work,  the 
book  possesses  a  decidedly  international  character, 
account  being  taken  of  the  most  important  work  done 
by  geographers  throughout  the  world.  A  set  of 
general  tables,  &c.,  for  purposes  of  reference  is 
followed  by  sections  on  the  main  events  of  the  year 
with  a  bearing  on  political  geography,  on  the  progress 
of  exploration,  the  geographical  literature  of  the  year, 
and  so  on. 

.A  striking  feature  is  the  attention  paid,  in  a  special 
section  from  the  pen  of  the  general  editor,  to  the 
progress  of  geographical  education,  though  in  this, 
more  than  any  other  section,  the  attention  is  focused 
on  German  work,  hardly  anything  being  said  as  to 
the  steps  lately  taken  in  other  countries  to  improve  the 
position  of  geography  in  the  school  and  college  curri- 
culum. Thus,  when  speaking  of  periodical  publica- 
tions devoted  to  this  object,  Dr.  Haack  makes  no 
mention  of  the  Journal  of  Geography,  published  in 
the  United  States,  or  of  the  Geographical  Teacher,  the 
organ  of  the  Geographical  Association  in  this  country. 
From  a  purely  practical  point  of  view,  a  most  useful 
section  is  the  very  complete  "  Adressbuch,"  which 
gives  the  names  and  addresses  of  geographers  of  all 
nationalities,  with  a  brief  statement  of  their  special 
lines  of  study  or  research.  The  little  book,  which  is 
most  tastefully  got  up,  concludes  with  an  excellent 
series  of  maps  illustrating  the  principal  'geographical 
events  of  the  past  year. 

Biological  Laboratory  Methods.  By  P.  H.  Mell. 
Ph.D.,  Director  of  Alabama  Experiment  Station, 
Professor  of  Geology  and  Botany,  Alabama  Poly- 
technic Institute.  Pp.  xii  +  321;  127  figs.  (New 
York  :  The  Macmillan  Company ;  London  :  Mac- 
millan  and  Co.,  Ltd.,  1902.)  Price  6s.  6d.  net. 
This  is  a  well-conceived  and  eminently  useful  book, 
which  within  convenient  compass  and  in  clear  language 
gives  an  account  of  microscope  and  microtome, 
staining  and  mounting  methods,  photomicrographs, 
and  so  on.  It  begins  at  the  beginning,  and  expounds 
with  simple  accuracy  the  various  instruments  and 
methods  of  the  well-equipped  biological  laboratory. 
After  describing  the  microscope  and  the  microtome  and 
their  accessories,  the  author  discusses,  in  successive 
chapters,  fixing,  imbedding,  staining,  mounting,  and 
drawing.  Five  chapters  are  devoted  to  photomicro- 
graphy, and  others  follow  on  bacteriological  methods, 
special  methods  {e.g.  decalcification,  injection,  macera- 
tion and  polarisation).  The  book  ends  with  useful 
formulai  and  tables,  and  with  an  appendix  on  laboratory 
furniture.  We  have  tested  the  book  as  to  various 
points,  and  have  found  it  practical  and  lucid  in  every 
case.  It  is  in  pant  a  compilation  of  hundreds  of  duly 
acknowledged  useful  hints  and  recipes  from  workers 
all  over  the  world,  but  it  also  expresses  the  work  of 
one  who  has  faced  detailed  difficulties  in  actual  prac- 
tice and  overcome  them.  We  have  come  across  many 
illustrations  of  American  neatness  and  ingenuity  which 

NO.    1763,  VOL.  68] 


were  fresh  to  us,  and  we  confidently  recommend  the 
book  as  a  worthy  companion  to  Bolles-Lee's  vade 
niecum  and  similar  works. 

Ijain;  or,   the  Evolution  of  a  Mind.       Pp.   ix  +  207. 

I  sola;   or,    the   Disinherited.       Pp.    xv  +  153.       By 

Lady   Florence   Dixie.       (London  :   The   Leadenhall 

Press,  Ltd.) 

These  are  youthful  productions  of  a  versatile  writer, 

whose  object  is  to  spread  the  truth  about  everything 

at  whatever  cost.     "  Ijain  "  traces  the  development  of 

the    mind    of    an    unusually    thoughtful    child,     and 

"  Isola  "  is  a  drama,  the  object  of  which  is  to  secure 

greater  freedom  and  fuller  opportunities  of  work  for 

women. 


__ rn 

LETTER    TO    THE    EDITOR. 

\The  Editor  does  not  hold  himself  responsible  for  opinions 
expressed  by  his  correspondents.  Neither  can  he  undertake 
to  return,  or  to  correspond  with  the  writers  of,  rejected 
manuscripts  intended  for  this  or  any  other  part  of  Nature. 
No  notice  is  taken  of  anonymous  communications.] 

Radio-active  Gas  from  Bath  Mineral  Waters. 

Prof.  J.  J.  Thomson  has  shown  that  the  air  extracted 
from  Cambridge  tap-water  and  from  the  waters  of  certain 
deep-level  springs  is  mixed  with  a  radio-active  gas 
(Nature,  vol.  Ixviii.  p.  90).  It  appeared  of  special  interest 
to  determine  whether  such  a  constituent  existed  in  the  hot 
mineral  springs  of  Bath.  Samples  of  water  direct  from  the 
King's  Bath  Spring  have  been  examined  at  the  Blythswood 
Laboratory,  and  have  been  shown  to  contain  a  radio-active 
gas  in  solution.  In  the  first  experiments  the  gas  was  ex- 
pelled from  a  flask  containing  a  litre  and  a  half  of  water 
by  boiling  under  a  pressure  of  about  half  an  atmosphere. 
The  amount  of  gas  obtained  after  passing  through  a 
number  of  drying  tubes  was  small,  as  was  shown  by  the 
fact  that  the  pressure  only  altered  by  a  few  centimetres. 
Yet  this  was  sufficient  to  produce  a  marked  increase  in  the 
lonisation  in  the  testing  vessel.  The  gas  was  also  extracted 
from  the  water  by  exhausting  the  testing  vessel  and  allow- 
ing a  current  of  air  to  bubble  through  the  water  and  a 
series  of  drying  tubes  into  the  vessel.  In  this  case  the 
ionisation  current  increased  from  four  to  five  times. 

Whichever  method  was  employed  for  introducing  the  gas 
into  the  testing  vessel,  it  was  found  that  the  effect  did  not 
assume  its  full  value  instantaneously,  but  gradually  in- 
creased to  a  maximum  and  then  diminished.  The  activity 
reached  a  maximum  in  rather  more  than  one  hour  after 
the  admission  of  the  gas.  About  half  an  hour  later  the 
activity  had  diminished  to  one-half  the  maximum  value. 
Rutherford  {Phil.  Mag.,  v.  p.  448,  1903)  has  observed  a 
similar  effect  when  the  emanation  from  radium  is  introduced 
into  a  closed  space.  In  this  case  the  maximum  activity  is 
reached  after  five  or  six  hours,  and  the  activity  decays  to 
half  value  in  3-71  days.  The  gas  from  the  Cambridge  water 
lost  from  5  to  10  per  cent,  of  its  activity  in  twenty-four 
hours.  The  gas  from  the  Bath  water  appears  to  be  inter- 
mediate in  character  between  the  radium  emanation  and 
the  Cambridge  gas  on  the  one  hand,  and  the  thorium 
emanation  on  the  other.  The  activity  of  the  thorium  eman- 
ation diminishes  to  one-half  in  one  minute. 

If  the  therapeutic  action  of  the  Bath  waters  is  due  in 
any  degree  to  the  radio-activity  of  the  gases  contained  in 
them,  the  fact  that  the  activity  of  the  gas  now  being 
investigated  begins  to  decrease  so  soon  after  the  gas  has 
been  liberated  acquires  special  significance.  The  opinion 
is  commonly  held  that  the  waters  of  various  spas  possess 
greater  efficacy  when  used  on  the  spot.  It  is  probable  that 
this  opinion,  though  doubtless  fostered  by  interested 
individuals,  has  some  basis  in  fact,  and  it  is  possible  that 
the  underlying  fact  may  here  find  an  explanation. 

Prof.  Dewar  has  shown  that  the  Bath  waters  contain 
helium.  The  presence  of  a  radio-active  and  of  an  inert  gas 
in  the  same  water  is  of  interest  from  the  point  of  view  of 
the  possible  transmutation  of  such  elements. 

Blvthswood  Laboratorv,   Renfrew.  H.   S.   .\llen. 


344 


NATURE 


[August  13,  1903 


THE    SOUTHPORT    MEETING    OF    THE 
BRITISH    ASSOCIATION. 

SINCE  the  publication  of  the  first  article  on  the 
approaching  meeting  of  the  British  Association 
(July  9,  p.  224),  the  following  additional  arrangements 
have  been  made  : — 

Sir  George  Pilkington  will  give  a  garden  party  to 
loo  members  at  his  residence,  Belle  Vue,  Southport, 
on  Monday,  September  14.  Mr.  William  Vernon  will 
give  a  garden  party  to  100  members  at  Wyborne  Gate, 
Birkdale,  on  Tuesday,  September  15. 

An  exhibition  of  meteorological  and  magnetic  instru- 
ments, diagrams,  books,  &c.,  will  be  held  in  the  labor- 
atory and  lower  corridor  of  the  Science  and  Art  Schools, 
immediately  adjoining  the  reception  room.  The  exhibi- 
tion, owing  to  the  presence  of  the  International  Meteor- 
ological Committee  in  Southport,  is  likely  to  be  of 
unusual  interest.  Exhibits  are  promised  by  the  Royal 
Observatory,  Greenwich ;  the  Solar  Physics  Observ- 
atory ;  the  Meteorological  Office ;  Kew  Observatory ; 
the  Scottish  Meteorological  Society;  the  Royal  Meteor- 
ological Society ;  Captain  Wilson-Barker ;  the  Scientific 
Instrument  Co.,  Cambridge;  Mr.  W.  H.  Dines;  Prof. 
Pernter;  Dr.  A.  L.  Rotch ;  Captain  Creak;  Dr.  Mill; 
the  Radcliffe  Observatory,  Oxford;  Mr.  C.  T.  R. 
Wilson ;  Mr.  J.  Aitken ;  Mr.  Joseph  Baxendell ;  and 
Mr.  Halliwell. 

A  loan  muscurri  of  objects  of  local  scientific  and 
archaeological  interest  is  being  organised. 

The  printing  of  the  "  Handbook  "  is  now  complete. 
The  contents  are  as  follows: — (i)  "Southport: 
Historical  and  Descriptive";  (2)  "Southport  as  a 
Health  Resort,"  by  Dr.  J.  J.  Weaver  and  Dr.  A.  V. 
Wheeler;  (3)  "The  Meteorology  of  the  Southport 
District,"  by  Joseph  Baxendell;  (4)  "  The  Geology  of 
the  Southport  District,"  by  Harold  Brodrick  and 
Edmund  Dickson — (a)  "The  Ribble  Estuary,"  by 
Edmund  Dickson;  (5)  "The  Botany  of  the  District," 
by  W.  H.  Stansfield  and  Henry  Ball^a)  "  A  note  on 
Hypopitys  Monotropa,''  by  Henry  Ball,  (b)  "The 
.Mosses  of  the  District,"  by  J.  A.  Wheldon,  (c)  "The 
Hepaticae  of  the  District,"  by  J.  A.  Wheldon;  (6) 
Zoology^ — (a)  "  Protozoa- Foraminifera,"  by  Dr.  G.  W. 
Chaster,  (b)  "  Lepidoptera,"  by  F.  N.  Pierce  and 
J.  R.  Charnley,  (c)  "  Coleoptera,"  by  Dr.  G.  W. 
Chaster  and  E.  J.  Burgess  Sopp,  (d)  "  Araneae,"  by  Dr. 
A.  R.  Jackson,  {e)  "  MoUusca,"  by  Dr.  G.  W.  Chaster, 
(/)  "  Marine  Fauna  and  Fisheries,"  by  Prof.  W.  A. 
Herdman,  F.R.S.,  and  Isaac  C.  Thompson,  (g)  "A 
Note  on  the  Vertebrate  Fauna  of  the  District";  (7) 
"Martin  Mere  and  its  Antiquities,"  by  Harold  Brod- 
rick; (8)  "  Archaeology,"  by  Willis  Brunt;  (9)  "  Sketch 
of  the  Life  and  Works  of  the  Rev.  Jeremiah  Horrocks," 
by  G.  Napier  Clark. 

The  Cambridge  Scientific  Instrument  Company  will 
fix  a  Callendar  temperature  recorder  in  the  reception 
room,  the  instrument  being  connected  electrically  with 
a  thermometer  suitably  exposed  to  the  air  outside  the 
building. 

The  committee  of  the  British  Association  appointed 
at  Belfast  for  the  investigation  of  the  upper  atmo- 
sphere by  means  of  kites  will,  if  possible,  show  the 
working  of  the  kite  apparatus  during  the  meeting  of 
the  Association  at  Southport,  in  illustration  of  the  ex- 
periments carried  out  by  Mr.  W.  H.  Dines,  under  the 
auspices  of  the  Royal  Meteorological  Society  and  of  the 
British  Association,  with  the  aid  of  grants  of  money 
from  the  Association  and  from  the  Government 
Grant  Committee  of  the  Royal  Society.  The  com- 
mittee hoped  to  have  the  advantage  of  the  ser- 
vices of  an  Admiralty  vessel  for  a  sufficient  period 
to_  include  the  meeting  at  Southport,  for,  in  com- 
pliance  with   the   request   of   the   Royal   Society,    the 

NO.   1763,  VOL.   68] 


Lords  Commissioners  were  good  enough  to  assign 
a  vessel  for  the  experiments,  but  unfortunately  she  met 
with  an  accident  at  Devonport  and  sank  in  the  harbour. 
She  is  consequently  not  available.  The  local  committee 
of  the  British  Association  is  trying  to  assist  the  com- 
mittee to  obtain  a  steamer  for  the  purpose  of  carrying 
out  the  experiments  at  Southport. 

The  title  of  Dr.  J.  S.  Flett's  lecture  to  working  men 
on  Saturday,  September  12,  is  "  Martinique  and  St. 
Vincent:  the  Eruptions  of  1902,"  with  lantern 
illustrations. 

The  railway  companies,  as  before  stated,  will  issue 
tickets  to  Southport  available  from  September  8  to  18 
inclusive,  but  in  the  case  of  the  Irish  railways  the 
tickets  will  be  available  from  September  7  to  19 
inclusive.  The  committees  of  the  principal  clubs  have 
agreed  to  extend  the  privilege  of  honorary  membership 
to  non-resident  members  of  the  Association  during  the 
week  of  the  meeting. 

The  Saturday  afternoon  excursion  to  Hoole  and 
Rufford  will  take  the  form  of  a  motor-car  run.  More 
than  twenty  cars  have  been  placed  at  the  disposal  of 
the  committee  by  their  owners,  and  it  is  hoped  that 
this  excursion  will  be  a  popular  one.  Tea  will  be 
served  at  Rufford  Old  Hall.  The  excursion  to  the 
WIrral  Peninsula  is  specially  intended  for  geologists 
and  botanists,  and  geological  and  botanical  parties  will 
be  formed  in  connection  with  the  Windermere  ex- 
cursion. 

A  specially  prepared  plan  of  the  town  in  colours 
will  be  inserted  in  the  local  programme,  and  a  plan  of 
the  Municipal  Buildings,  where  most  of  the  meetings 
of  the  Association  will  be  held,  will  also  be  included. 

A  list  of  those  members  who  had  intimated  their 
intention  of  being  present  at  the  meeting  up  to  July 
14  has  been  printed,  and  can  be  obtained  at  the  local 
office.  The  following  names  of  foreign  and  American 
corresponding  members,  and  members  of  the  Inter- 
national Meteorological  Committee,  are  included  in 
the  list : — Prof.  G.  S.  Atkinson,  Cornell  University, 
U.S.A. ;  Dr.  Von.  Bebber,  Hamburg;  Dr.  R.  Billwiller, 
Zurich;  Prof.  Ludwig  Boltzmann,  Vienna;  M. 
Teisserenc  de  Bort,  Paris  ;  Captain  Chaves,  St.  Miguel, 
Azores;  Mr.  W.  Davis,  Cordoba,  Argentine;  Prof.  G. 
Gilron,  Louvain ;  M.  A.  Gobert,  Brussels;  the  Comte 
A.  de  Gramont,  Paris;  Prof.  Hellman,  Berlin;  Prof. 
H.  Hergesell,  Strassburg ;  Prof.  H.  H.  Hilde- 
brandsson,  Upsala ;  Prof.  Lignler,  Caen;  Prof.  C. 
Lombroso,  Turin ;  Dr.  T.  P.  Lotzy,  Leyden ;  Mr.  G.  G. 
MacCurdy,  Newhaven,  Conn.,  U.S.A.;  Prof.  E. 
Mascart,  Paris;  Prof.  H.  Mohn,  Christlania ;  Prof. 
Willis  Moore,  Washington,  U.S.A. ;  Prof.  Simon  New- 
comb,  Washington,  U.S.A.;  Prof.  L.  Palazzo,  Rome; 
Prof.  Paulsen,  Copenhagen;  Prof.  J.  M.  Pernter, 
Vienna;  Dr.  A.  L.  Rotch,  Blue  Hill  Observatory, 
Mass.,  U.S.A.;  General  Rykatcheff,  St.  Petersburg; 
Prof.  M.  Snellen,  Utrecht;  Prof.  R.  H.  Thurston, 
Cornell  University,  U.S.A.;  Dr.  H.  C.  White,  Uni- 
versity of  Georgia,  U.S.A.  ;  Prof.  E.  Zacharias,  Ham- 
burg. 

The  Mayor  of  Southport  (Mr.  T.  T.  L.  Scarlsbrick) 
has  issued  more  than  a  hundred  Invitations  to  members 
of  the  Association  and  to  distinguished  foreigners  who 
will  be  present  in  Southport  to  a  dinner  at  his  resi- 
dence. Greaves  Hall,  Banks,  on  Wednesday, 
September  16,  to  meet  Sir  Norman  Lockyer,  president 
of  the  British  Association,  and  Prof.  E.  Mascart,  presi- 
dent of  the  International  Meteorol^ical  Committee. 

The  Southport  Literary  and  Philosophical  Society, 
which  was  responsible  for  the  preliminary  negotiations 
which  resulted  In  the  holding  of  this  year's  meeting 
of  the  Association  at  Southport,  has  arranged  to  hold 
the  opening  meeting  of  Its  winter  session  on  Thurs- 
day,  September    17.       On   this  occasion   Prof.    A.    R. 


August  13,  1903] 


NA  TURE 


345 


Forsyth,  F.R.S.,  has  consented  to  deliver  an  address 
on  "Universities:  their  Aims,  Duties,  and  Ideals." 
Invitations  have  been  issued  to  many  members  of  the 
British  Association,  as  well  as  to  others  interested  in 
educational  work. 


THE    CENTENARY    OF    HEIDELBERG 
UNIVERSITY. 

ON  August  5-8  the  University  of  Heidelberg  cele- 
brated the  centenary  of  its  re-establishment.  The 
university,  one  of  the  oldest  universities  of  the  modern 
world,  was  originally  lounded  in  1386  by  the  Palsgrave 
Ruprecht  I.  of  the  Palatinate.  At  that  time  Heidel- 
berg was  the  seat  of  the  princely  residence  and  capital 
of  this  wealthy  State  of  the  middle  ages,  and  the 
young  university  did  good  work  from  the  point  of  view 
of  those  times.  The  "  German  Medici,"  Otto  Hein- 
rich  (1556),  delivered  the  university  from  the  chains 
of  scholastic  pedantry  and  inspired  in  her  the  ideas  of 
the  Renaissance  and  of  the  Reformation.  The  thirty 
years'  war  had  a  disastrous  effect  on  this  town  and  its 
university,  as,  indeed,  it  had  on  all  Germany ; 
nevertheless,  the  Elector,  Karl  Ludwig  (1650),  again 
gave  it  a  short  period  of  prosperity.  But  with  the  year 
16S5  commenced  for  the  Palatinate  and  the  university 
a  long  period  of  sorrow  and  loss. 

Soon  the  positions  held  by  broad-minded  inquirers 

and   teachers   were   occupied   by   imperfectly   educated 

members  of  Catholic  Orders,  and  the  university  sank 

to    a    mere    confessional    school.     Scientific    research 

I  degenerated  into  the  school-divinity  of  the  middle  ages, 

appointments  were  given  by  those  in  control  to  their 

\t  relatives,  and  very  strict  tests  in  matters  of  faith  were 

\  imposed. 

The  result  was  that,  during  the  eighteenth  century, 
scarcely  any  work  of  scientific  value  was  done  by  the 
university,  and  the  number  of  students  sank  to  a 
minimum.  The  condition  of  affairs  was  made  still 
worse  by  the  loss  of  the  income  hitherto  derived  from 
the  possessions  on  the  other  side  of  the  Rhine,  which 
were  then  in  the  hands  of  the  French. 

Though  the  Bavarian  Prince,  into  whose  hands 
Heidelberg  had  fallen  in  1799,  commenced  to  break 
the  dominion  of  the  monks,  and  though  he  sought  to 
procure  new  incomes  for  the  impoverished  university, 
her  renovation  was  really  the  work  of  the  Badish 
Prince,  Carl  Friedrich. 

By  the  division  of  Germany  in  1803,  Heidelberg 
came  into  the  possession  of  the  Elector,  Carl  Friedrich, 
who  later  became  the  Grand  Duke  of  Baden.  With- 
out delay,  he  commenced  to  re-establish  the  Heidel- 
berg University,  to  give  to  her  a  broad  constitution 
resting  on  high  ideals,  and  last,  but  not  least,  to  pro- 
cure the  necessary  money. 

He  endowed  the  university  with  an  annual  sum  of 
50,000  florins,  which  had  to  be  raised  by  the  State. 
He  reserved  to  himself  the  office  of  "  Rector  "  of  the 
university,  a  charge  which  since  that  time  has  rested 
in  the  hands  of  the  Grand  Dukes.  The  essential 
principle  of  the  reorganisation  is  to  be  found  in  the 
rule  that  "  the  professors'  chairs  shall  be  filled  by  the 
most  worthy  competitors,  without  any  consideration 
of  their  religion." 

The  names  of  the  first  professors  of  that  time  are 
still  well  known.  I  only  recall  the  names  of  the 
theologians  Daub,  De  Wette,  Paulus,  the  jurists 
Thibault  and  Zachariae,  the  physician  Naegele,  and 
the  philosophers  T.  H.  Voss,  Cr'euzer,  and  Bokh.  It 
is  the  centenary  of  this  reorganisation  that  the  uni- 
versity  has  just  now  celebrated. 

Indeed,  what  these  beginnings  promised,  the  nine- 
teenth century  has  seen  fulfilled,  and  the  university 
has  taken  her  place  among  the  foremost  of  the  world. 
Excellent    scientific    laboratories,    observatories,     and 


NO.    1763,  VOL    fSS] 


hospitals  have  been  built,  a  monumental  library-build- 
ing is  in  the  process  of  construction,  and  the  first 
modest  annual  endowment  of  50,000  florins  has  grown 
to  one  of  800,000  marks,  to  which  has  been  added  a 
regular  special  grant,  amounting  in  the  budget  of 
1902-03  to  almost  exactly  a  million  of  marks,  so  that 
at  the  present  time  about  65,000  pounds  sterling  are 
expended  annually  upon  the  university. 

If  one  remembers  that  Baden  has  about  two  millions 
of  inhabitants,  and  that  it  possesses  not  only  one,  but 
three  universities  (Heidelberg,  Freiburg,  and  the 
Karlsruhe  Polytechnicum),  it  must  be  confessed  that  a 
great  work  has  been  accomplished.  The  number  of 
professors  and  docents  of  the  Heidelberg  University 
is  now  151,  that  of  students  1884. 

The  work  of  the  university  during  the  nineteenth 
century  has  received  the  acknowledgment  of  educated 
men  all  over  the  world.  The  development  of  the 
history  of  Christianity  is  connected  with  the  Heidel- 
berg names,  Hitzig,  Ulmann,  Rothe,  Schenkel,  and 
Holsten ;  lawyers  and  political  economists  appreciate 
fullv  the  influence  of  Vangcrow,  Windscheid,  Blunt- 
schli,  Mittermaier,  Renaud,  and  Knies;  physicians  will 
remember  the  names  of  Chelius,  Pfeuffer,  Arnold,  and 
Gegenbaur.  The  names  of  the  philosophers  Hegel 
and  Zeller  are  known  far  and  wide.  Well  known, 
too,  are  the  philologists  Koechly,  Ribbeck,  VVachs- 
niuth,  Zaugemeister,  and  Bartsch,  and  the  historians 
Schlosser,  Hiiusser,  Gcrvinus,  and  Treitschke.  The 
mathematicians  Hesse  and  Fuchs,  and  the  leaders  in 
natural  science,  Hofmeister,  Kekule,  Kopp,  and 
above  all  Bunsen,  Kirchhoff  and  Helmholtz,  have 
spread  the  glorv  of  Heidelberg  over  the  world. 

The  greatest 'credit  for  the  success  of  the  Heidelberg 
University  in  the  past  century  must  be  attributed  to 
the  Grand  Duke  Friedrich,  now  seventy-six  years  old, 
who — during  the  fifty-one  years  in  which  he  has  been 
Rector — has  made  the  university  what  she  is  to-day. 

In  the  evening  of  August  5  the  students  formed  a 
torch-light  procession  in  honour  of  the  Grand  Duke. 
The  next  morning,  after  a  festival  divine  service,  the 
.Actus  was  held  in  the  Aula  of  the  university,  where 
the  Grand  Duke,  the  Minister,  the  deputations  of  other 
universities  and  corporations,  and  the  acting  Prorector 
of  the  universitv  (Prof.  Czerny)  delivered  addresses. 
.\fter  a  banquet' a  reception  was  given  by  the  city  in 
the  poetical  ruins  of  the  celebrated  Heidelberg  Castle. 

On  .August  7  the  historian  of  the  university  (Prof. 
Marks)  gave  a  historical  address,  concerning  the  de- 
velopment of  the  scientific  life  of  the  university  during 
the  past  century.  In  the  evening  the  students  held 
their  great  "  C'ommers." 

The  announcement  of  the  honoris  causa  doctores 
took  place  next  morning.  In  the  branch  of  medicine 
the  following  men  of  science  were  elected  : — M.  T.  H. 
Dunant,  Geneva;  Prof.  Sv.  Arrhenius,  Stockholm;  Sir 
W.  Ramsay,  London;  Prof.  P.  Lenard,  Kiel;  G. 
Schweinfurth,  Riga;  G.  Moynier,  Geneva. 

In  the  branch  of  natural  science  the  following  were 
elected: — Mathematics,  M.  G.  Darboux,  Paris; 
phvsics.  Dr.  R.  T.  Glazebrook,  London ;  astrophysics, 
Sir  William  Huggins,  London;  chemistry.  Prof.  S, 
Cannizzaro,  Rome;  mineralogy.  Prof.  F.  Fouqu^, 
Paris;  astronomy.  Prof.  E.  C.  Pickering,  Cambridge, 
LT.S..\. ;  zoology'.  Prof.  E.  Maupas,  Algiers;  botany, 
\.   Cogniaux,    Nivelles. 

In  the  evening  of  August  8  a  reception  was  given  by 
the  Grand  Duke  and  the  Grand  Duchess  at  their 
castle  in  Schwetzingen.  Sunday,  August  9,  was  de- 
voted to  excursions  in  the  neighbourhood,  and  at  night 
an  illumination  of  the  castle,  and  a  great  display  of 
fireworks  on  the  Neckar,  brought  the  festivities  to  a 
close. 

The  present  generation  has  expressed  by  these 
splendid  meetings  that  it  appreciates  highly  the  benefit 


346 


NATURE 


[August  13,  1903 


resulting  from  the  reorganisation  of  the  university  by 
Carl  Friedrich,  and  the  work  done  by  the  scientific  men 
of  past  generations,  and  has  indicated  how  it  hopes 
that,  in  the  century  just  begun,  the  development  will 
not  cease  but  continue,  that  new  successes  will  be 
achieved  by  the  more  and  more  unrestrained  unfolding 
of  all  intellectual  forces,  and  that  these  successes  may 
help  to  brighten  the  minds  of  the  people,  and  to  con- 
nect them  more  and  more  by  the  bridges  of  science, 
notwithstanding  political  boundaries.  M.  W. 


BRITISH   MEDICAL   ASSOCIATION   SWANSEA 
MEETING. 

THE  seventy-first  annual  meeting  of  the  British 
Medical  Association  was  concluded  at  Swansea 
on  July  31.  It  will  be  remembered  that  last  year  the 
meeting  was  held  at  Manchester,  and  although  as 
was  a  priori  to  be  expected  the  numbers  at  Swansea 
fell  short  of  those  at  Manchester,  yet  nevertheless  the 
meeting  will  always  live  in  the  memory  of  those  who 
attended  it  as  an  unqualified  success. 

The  president  this  year  was  Dr.  Griffiths,  of  Swan- 
sea, and  in  an  excellent  opening  address  he  touched 
upon  many  points  of  interest  and  importance  both  to 
the  profession  and  to  the  public.  Not  the  least  interest- 
ing of  these  to  the  readers  of  Nature  was  the  presi- 
dent's reference  to  the  much  discussed  question  of 
hospitals  for  paying  patients.  Sooner  or  later  the  very 
serious  attention  of  the  profession,  and  most  probably 
also  of  the  Government,  will  have  to  be  directed  to  this 
question.  An  increasing  number  of  patients  requiring 
skilled  medical  or  surgical  treatment,  such  as  they 
cannot  obtain  at  their  own  homes,  is  occurring  among 
a  class  the  financial  position  of  which,  while  being 
such  as  to  render  them  the  unethical  recipients  of 
charity,  yet  nevertheless  is  not  adequate  to  meet  tne 
charges  of  private  nursing  homes.  From  the  point  of 
view  of  the  economist,  it  seems  truly  absurd  that  this 
class  cannot  be  catered  for. 

Another  point  of  interest  in  the  president's  address 
was  the  repetition  of  the  great  want  of  complete  re- 
modelling of  the  Public  Health  Government  Depart- 
ment. The  need  for  something  in  this  country  corre- 
sponding to  the  German  Gesundheitsamt  has  from 
time  to  time  been  emphasised  in  these  columns. 
Numerous  departmental  committees  appointed  by 
various  departments,  the  minutes  of  reference  to  which, 
however,  have  all  borne  directly  upon  the  public  health, 
have  embodied  in  their  reports  a  specific  recommend- 
ation to  this  effect.  Stress  has  also  been  laid  upon  the 
inadequacy  of  the  present  Governmental  machinery  for 
dealing  with  the  important  questions  which  modern 
technical  industry  and  knowledge,  using  these  terms  in 
the  widest  sense,  are  apparently  intermittently,  but 
actually  constantly,  forcing  into  public  hygiene.  The 
policy  adopted  by  the  different  departments  of  State 
concerned  has  heretofore  been  one  of  empirical  oppor- 
tunism. When  a  question  has  been  sufficiently  acute 
a  Departmental  Committee  has  been  appointed  and  a 
report  of  this  kind  issued,  often  after  considerable  lapse 
of  time;  with  the  exception  of  notices  at  the  time  of  its 
appearance  in  the  Press,  this  report  and  its  recom- 
mendations are  often  never  heard  of  again.  This 
policy,  although  it  may  have  the  effect  of  saving  the 
salaries  of  permanent  officials,  cannot  in  the  present 
state  of  the  question  continue  long,  and  we  are  pleased 
to  see  that  it  was  brought  prominently  before  the 
greatest  professional  organisation  which  exists,  viz.  the 
British  Medical  Association. 

The  address  in  medicine  was  delivered  by  Dr.  F.  T. 
Roberts,  the  subject  chosen  being  infective  and  in- 
fectious diseases.     The  lecturer  dealt  chiefly  with  the 

NO.    1763.  VOL.  68] 


influence  which  new  scientific  method  has  exercised 
upon  the  diagnosis  and  treatment  of  disease.  The 
scientific  methods  considered  were  essentially  those 
which  have  been  introduced  as  a  result  of  increased 
knowledge  of  pathology,  comprising  under  this  term 
chemical  pathology  and  bacteriology.  These  sciences, 
true  to  their  name,  have  been  without  doubt  most 
ancillary  to  medicine,  but  their  very  helpfulness  may 
in  itself  be  a  source  of  danger  in  so  far  as  concerns 
the  progress  of  our  knowledge  of  the  treatment  and 
diagnosis  of  disease.  These  new  methods  have  a 
tendency,  according  to  the  lecturer,  to  be  studied  and 
pursued  at  the  expense  of  the  purely  clinical  ones. 
Students,  in  short,  are  apt  to  spend  too  much  time  in 
the  laboratory  and  too  little  in  the  wards.  An  interest- 
ing part  of  the  address  was  devoted  to  the  question  of 
the  use  of  alcohol  as  a  therapeutic  agent;  in  this  con- 
nection we  heartily  recommend  the  remarks  of  the 
lecturer  to  all  interested  in  this  question.  There  can 
be  no  doubt  that  under  certain  conditions  therapeutics 
possesses  no  more  valuable  agent;  most  clinicians,  as 
the  result  of  their  experience,  are  enabled  to  maintain 
that  numerous  lives  have  been  saved  by  the  skilful 
administration  of  alcohol;  but,  on  the  other  hand,  it 
is  equally  true  that  the  seeds  of  future  intemperance 
havenot  infrequently  been  sown  by  the  indiscriminate 
and  indefinite  instructions,  or  rather  want  of  instruc- 
tions, which  often  accompany  the  ordering  of  alcohol 
by  the  practitioner  of  medicine.  Too  much  care  can- 
not be  exercised  in  the  prescribing  of  a  remedy  so  potent 
both  for  good  and  evil. 

The  address  in  surgery  was  delivered  by  Prof.  Mayo 
Robson,  who  took  lor  his  subject  the  evolution  of 
abdominal  surgery  during  the  last  third  of  a  century. 
The  address  practically  confined  itself  to  the  enormous 
development  which  has  taken  place  in  this  branch  of 
the  healing  art  during  the  above  time.  In  conclusion, 
the  lecturer  remarked  that  the  future  progress  of 
surgery  will  probably  be  intimately  bound  up  with  the 
work  of  the  physician,  the  pathologist,  and  the  bacteri- 
ologist, and  the  time  will  come  when  preventive 
measures  will  save  much  operative  work. 

Much  good  work  was  done  at  the  meetings  in  the 
different  sections,  though  apparently  no  papers  of  very 
striking  original  interest  were  co'mmunicated.  The 
social  arrangements  left  little  to  be  desired,  the  pro- 
fession at  Swansea  and  the  neighbourhood  extending 
a  very  hearty  welcome  to  the  visitors.  Many,  no 
doubt,  made  "the  Association  meeting  at  Swansea  the 
starting  point  of  their  holidays,  and  we  have  little 
doubt  that  the  mental  food  ingested  there  will  in  many 
cases  be  assimilated  on  the  charming  holidav  grounds 
of  Wales.  F"  W.  T. 


VENTILATION   OF   FACTORIES   AND 
WORKSHOPS.^ 

ABOUT  three  years  ago.  Lord  Ridley,  when  Secre- 
tary of  State  for  the  Home  Department, 
appointed  a  committee  consisting  of  Dr.  J.  S.  Haldane, 
F.R.S.,  and  Mr.  E.  H.  Osborn,  engineering  adviser 
to  the  Chief  Inspector  of  Factories,  to  inquire  into  and 
report  upon  the  means  of  ventilation  in  factories  and 
workshops,  with  especial  reference  to  the  use  of  fans 
and  the  use  and  construction  of  respirators  for  the  pro- 
tection of  workpeople  exposed  to  dust  or  dangerous 
fumes. 

In  the  report  before  us-  the  committee  deals  with  a 
portion  only  of  the  question  upon  which  it  was 
directed  to  make  inquiry.  It  is  for  the  present 
mainly   concerned   in    the   attempt   to   strengthen    the 

1  "First  Report  of  the  Departmental  Committee  appointed  to  inquire 
into  the  Ventilation  of  Factories  and  Workshops ;  with  Appendices." 
(London  :  Eyre  and  Spottiswoode,  1903.) 


August  13,  1903] 


NATURE 


347 


hands  of  the  Secretary  of  State  in  prescribing  a 
standard  of  sufficient  ventilation  for  factories  and 
workshops  based  upon  what  it  deems  to  be  an 
adequate  objective  criterion  of  what  constitutes  reason- 
ably "  sufficient  "  ventilation,  viz.  the  proportion  of 
carbonic  acid  in  the  air.  Looked  at  from  the  point  of 
view  of  the  Inspecting  Department  of  the  Home  Office, 
it  was  necessary,  at  the  outset,  to  determine  whether 
it  was  practicable  to  make  use  of  this  proportion  as 
a  legal  standard  of  "  sufficient "  ventilation,  or 
whether  such  estimations,  if  made  with  the  requisite 
accuracy,  might  not  prove  to  be  both  expensive  and 
troublesome. 

Determinations  of  atmospheric  carbonic  acid  are 
mainly  carried  out  on  the  principle  first  made  use  of 
by  DaJton  and  worked  out  by  Hadfield,  that  is,  absorp- 
tion of  the  carbonic  acid  contained  in  a  known  volume 
of  the  air  by  a  suitable  alkaline  solution,  the  amount 
-o  absorbed  being  ascertained  by  volumetric  analysis. 
This  process  was  first  extensively  applied  by  Petten- 
kofer,  and  is  generally  known  by  his  name.  With 
proper  precautions  it  is  capable  of  a  very  high  degree 
i>f  accuracy,  and,  indeed,  practically  all  our  know- 
ledge concerning  the  distribution  of  carbonic  acid  in 
ihe  atmosphere,  whether  in  the  free  air  or  in  inhabited 
places,  has  been  obtained  by  its  means.  The  apparatus 
needed  is  somewhat  bulky  on  account  of  the  necessity 
of  using  large  volumes  of  air  in  cases  where  the 
amount  of  carbonic  acid  is  relatively  small,  as  in 
ordinary  atmospheric  air.  At  the  same  time,  when 
it  is  merely  necessary  to  determine  whether  the  air 
of  an  inhabited  room  or  that  of  a  factory  or  workshop 
contains  an  excess  of  carbonic  acid  over  the  quantity 
that  could  reasonably  be  prescribed  as  an  official  limit, 
vessels  holding  a  couple  of  litres  would  suffice  for  most 
purposes.  It  would  be  readily  possible  to  put  together 
lor  the  use  of  inspectors  a  Pettenkofer  "  kit  "  which 
>hould  be  light  and  not  too  bulky,  and  would  enable 
the  estimation  of  carbonic  acid  to  be  carried  out  rapidly 
and  with  approximate  accuracy. 

The  committee  recommends' mf^r  alia  that  the  limit 
of  carbonic  acid  should  be  fixed,  except  on  very  foggy 
days,  when  no  tests  should  be  made,  on  account  of 
the  vitiated  state  of  the  outside  air,  at  12  volumes  of 
carbonic  acid  per  10,000  of  air,  and  that  when  gas 
or  oil  is  used  for  lighting,  the  proportion  should  not 
exceed  20  volumes  after  dark  or  before  the  first  hour 
after  daylight,  the  only  exception  to  this  rule  to  be 
in  cases  where  the  extra  carbonic  acid  is  produced  in 
other  \ya)'s  than  by  respiration  or  combustion,  as  in 
breweries,  &c.  It  is  further  recommended  that 
arrangements  be  made  by  the  Factory  Department  of 
the  Hoinc  Office  for  the  analysis,  by  a  specially  quali- 
fied person  or  persons,  of  samples  of  air  colle'cted  by 
inspectors,  and  that  any  analysis  on  which  a  prosecu- 
tion immediately  depends  should  have  been  performed 
by  such  qualified  person  or  persons,  and  also  that 
arrangements  should  be  iriade  for  inspectors  of 
factories  to  have  the  use,  when  desired,  of  a  properly 
tested  portable  apparatus  for  estimating  on  the  spot 
the  proportion  of  carbonic  acid  in  air. 

Dr.  Haldane  has  devised  an  apparatus  for  the  use 
of  inspectors  of  factories,  a  specimen  of  which  has 
been  submitted  to  us  for  examination  by  Messrs. 
Miiller,  Orme  and  Co.,  of  148  High  Holborn,  and  this 
seems  to  fulfil  all  the  necessary  conditions.  A  descrip- 
tion of  it  constitutes  appendix  iii.  of  the  report  before 
us.  The  estimation  of  carbonic  acid  is  made  by 
measuring  the  contraction  in  the  volume  of  the  air 
to  be  tested  by  bringing  the  air  in  contact  with  a  10 
per  cent,  solution  of  caustic  potash  or  soda.  As  the 
volume  of  the  air  taken  for  the  test  is  only  about  20c. c, 
it  is  evident  that  special  provision  needs  to  be  made, 
and  great  care  in  manipulation  needs  to  be  exercised 
if  even  approximate  accuracy  is  aimed  at.     It  is  im- 

NO.    1763.   VOL.   68] 


possible  in  the  absence  of  the  diagrammatic  represent- 
ation of  the  apparatus  which  accompanies  the  report' 
to  explain  the  details  of  its  construction,  or  to  make 
clear  the  successive  steps  in  its  manipulation.  We 
have  had,  however,  an  opportunity  of  making  a 
number  of  experiments  with  it,  and  we  are  able  to 
state  that  the  amount  of  carbonic  acid  in  the  air  of 
an  inhabited  room  may  be  quickly  ascertained,  with 
sufficient  accuracy,  by  means  of  it.  An  intelligent 
manipulator  who  understood  the  scientific  principles 
involved  would  be  able  to  obtain  results  accurate  to 
within  about  one  part  in  10,000  with  air  containing 
ordinary  proportions  of  carbonic  acid,  and  to  about 
two  parts  with  air  so  highly  vitiated  as  to  contain, 
say,  from  30  to  50  volumes  of  carbonic  acid  per  10,000. 
A  trained  gas  analyst  would,  no  doubt,  obtain  more 
accurate  results.  A  determination  is  made  in  a  few 
minutes  when  once  the  apparatus  is  put  into  working 
order. 

Whether  experiments  of  this  kind  should  be  entrusted 
to  those  factory  inspectors  who  have  had  no  training 
in  physical  science  is  perhaps  open  to  question. 

One  possible  source  of  considerable  error  was  in- 
dicated during  the  experiments.  After  standing 
several  days  the  potash  solution  used  in  the  apparatus 
was  found  to  be  coloured  yellow,  doubtless  from  the 
action  of  the  alkali  upon  the  rubber  tubing  of  the 
apparatus.  Any  sulphur  thus  dissolved  would  form 
alkaline  sulphides  which  would  absorb  oxygen  from 
the  air  under  experiment,  and  so  vitiate  the  result. 
As  a  matter  of  fact,  the  figures  given  when  the 
apparatus  was  in  this  condition  were  wholly  untrust- 
worthy. 

The  following  experiments  may  bfe  cited  in  illus- 
tration of  the  degree  of  accuracy  w^hich  may  be 
obtained  ; — 


I.  Experiments  on  the  air  of  a  laboratory. 


Results. 
COo  per 
10.000  of 


1st  experiment. — At  about  9. 45  a.  m. ,  before 

any  burners  were  lighted  S'"^ 

T,  f  2nd.  About  twenty  minutes  later 5 '9 

2or3Bunsens        ,  '  „    than  2nd  6-3 

burning  durmg^jj^  ^^         ^_     ^^       3rd  7., 

the  whole  Ume  ^  ^jj^  ^^     ^^       4th  7*0 

oftheseexperi-    gj^^  _^     ^_       ^th  7.4 

ments.  \^^^^       ^^  ^^  ^^         ^^      _       6th  80 

II.    With  air  containing  2\- /^  volumes  of  CO^  per  lo.coo. 

1st  experiment         ...         23  3 

2nd      „         217 

III.    With  air  containing  45-2  volumes  CO^  per  10,000. 

1st  experiment         42'3 

2nd         „        4i"6 


GRXHAU  BELL'S  TETRAHEDRAL  CELL  KITES. 

IN  the  June  number  of  the  National  Geographic 
Magazine  is  a  very  interesting  and  instructive 
article  by  Dr.  Graham  Bell  on  the  tetrahedral  principle 
in  kite  structure.  The  article  itself  is  so  concise,  and 
depends  so  much  upon  illustrations  which  are  repro- 
duced to  the  number  of  twenty  in  the  text  and 
seventy  in  an  appendix,  that  an  effective  representa- 
tion of  the  contents  in  an  article  of  smaller  dimensions 
is  scarcely  possible.  Still  the  line  of  thought  that  runs 
through  the  work  which  the  article  represents  is  sa 
clear  and  so  suggestive  that  even  an  imperfect  outline 
of  it  may  be  useful.  Dr.  Bell  indicates  certain  stages 
in  the  development  of  his  ideas  as  "  milestones  "  ot 
progress,  and  since  the  ultimate  stage  of  the  develop- 
ment is  the  possibility  of  building  up  very  large  kite 
structures  by  combining  unit  cells  in  such  a  way  that 
the  proportion  of  weight  to  wing  area  in  the  structure 


348 


NA  rURE 


[August  13,  190- 


is  nearly  the  same  as  that  of  the  constituent  cell,  the 
successive  stages  are  noteworthy.  They  sketch  out  in 
a  most  interesting  manner  a  reply  to  Newcomb's 
criticism  of  the  limits  of  application  of  the  aeroplane 
based  upon  the  argument  that  increase  of  size  means 
diminished  efficiency  because,  -for  similar  structures, 
the  weight  varies  as  the  cube  while  the  area,   upon 


The  box  kite  of  triangular  section  is,  however,  not 
stiff  as  regards  longitudinal  shear,  and  the  next  "  mile- 
stone "  marks  the  reduction  of  the  triangular  or  pris- 
matic form  to  the  tetrahedron,  an  essentially  stiff 
framework  for  all  directions.  A  tetrahedron  of  rods 
with  two  adjacent  faces  covered  with  fabric  forms  a 
tetrahedral  kite  cell  which,  on  the  principle  of  projec- 


FiG.  I.— A  Winged  Tetrahedral  Cell. 

which  the  lifting  force  depends,  varies  as  the  square 
of  the  linear  dimensions. 

The  original  stage,  the  ordinary  kite,  is  a  single 
plane  structure.  The  first  step  in  advance  is  the 
Hargrave  box  kite,  with  its  upper  and  lower  aero- 
planes for  its  support,  and  side  planes  for  stability. 
,To  stiffen  the  framework  of  the  box  kite  it  must  be 
braced  longitudinally  and  transversely;  accordingly 
Graham  Bell's  development  commences  by  replacing 
the  rectangular  framework  of  the  box  kite  by  a  frame- 
w;ork  of  triangular  section    which  is  by  construction 


A  Sixty-four  celled  Tetrahedial  Kile. 

tion  before  referred  to,  is  equivalent  to  three  aero- 
planes represented  by  the  projections  of  the  covered 
sides  upon  planes  at  right  angles. 

The  further  development  of  pure  tetrahedral  con- 
struction is  obvious.  Four  cells  can  be  combined  to 
form  a  tetrahedron  of  double  linear  dimensions  without 
additional  framework;  the  weight  and  wing  area  are 
both  simply  proportional  to  the  number  of  cells,  and 
not  to  the  linear  dimensions.  For  each  set  of  four  cells 
thus  combined  there  is  an  octahedral  free  space  in  the 
interior  which  corresponds  to  the  free  space  between 
the  two  cells  of  the  Hargrave  kite.     The  tetrahedral 


Fig.  2.— a  Four-celled  Tetrahedral  Kite. 

Stiff  so  far  as  the  cross  section  is  concerned.  The 
inclined  sides  are  by  the  vector  principle  of  resolution 
of  forces  regarded  as  equivalent  to  their  geometrical 
projections,  and,  in  so  far  as  the  principle  applies,  the 
inclined  faces  represent  the  combined  effect  of  aero- 
planes of  the  area  of  the  projections.^ 

1'  This  principle  to  be  generally  applicable  would  require  the  normal  com- 
ponent of  wind  pressure  to  be  uniform  and  independent  of  the  angle  between 
the  plane  and  the  wind.  This  is  not  the  case  with  an  aeroplane  (see  Rayleigh, 
Nature,  vol.  xxv.  p.  io8)  ;  and  for  the  principle  to  be  applied  approxi- 
mately in  the  case  of  the  kites  some  convention  as  regards  the  angle  of 
exposure  of  the  aeroplanes  to  the  wind  would  be  required. 


NO.    1763,  VOL.  68] 


kites  that  have  the  largest  central  spaces  preserve  their 
equilibrium  best  in  the  air. 

Combining  four  multiple  cells  to  fill  the  outline  of  a 
tetrahedron  of  double  size,  again,  we  get  a  sixteen-cell 
kite,  and  repeating  the  process  again  a  sixty-four  cell 
kite,  occupying  a  tetrahedron  eight  times  the  dimen- 
sions of  a  single  cell.  The  building  up  of  multicellular 
kites  from  the  units  is  represented  in  the  figures  here 
reproduced  from  illustrations  in  Dr.  Bell's  article. 
Fig.  I  represents  the  unit  cell,  Fig.  2  a  combination 
of  four  cells.  Fig.  3  of  sixty-four  cells. 

The  kites  fly  with  the  points  of  the  wings  upward; 
the  line  of  junction  of  the  covered  faces  of  the  tetra- 


August  13,  1903] 


NATURE 


349 


hedron  forms  a  kind  of  keel.  No  details  as  to  the 
heights  attainable  are  given.  The  most  convenient 
place  for  the  attachment  of  the  flying  end  is  said  to 
be  the  extreme  point  of  the  bow.  If  the  cord  is  attached 
to  points  successively  further  back  on  the  keel,  the  fly- 
ing end  makes  a  greater  and  greater  angle  with  the 
horizon,  and  the  kite  flies  more  nearly  overhead;  but 
it  is  not  advisable  to  carry  the  point  of  attachment  as 
far  back  as  the  middle  of  the  keel.  A  good  place  for 
high  flights  is  a  point  half  way  between  the  bow  and 
the  middle  of  the  keel. 

"  Tetrahedral  kites  combine  in  a  marked  degree  the 
qualities  of  strength,  lightness,  and  steady  flight;  but 
further  experiments  are  required  before  deciding  that 
this  form  is  the  best  for  a  kite  or  that  winged  cells 
without  horizontal  aeroplanes  constitute  the  best 
arrangement  of  aero-surfaces. 

"The  tetrahedral  principle  enables  us  to  construct 
out  of  light  materials  solid  frameworks  of  almost  any 
desired  form,  and  the  resulting  structures  are  admir- 
ably adapted  for  the  support  of  aero-surfaces  of  any 
desired  kind,  size,  or  shape." 

The  diagrams  illustrating  the  article  show  various 
examples  of  the  formation  of  complex  kites  from  tetra- 
hedral cells.  One  form  suggested  by  Prof.  Langley's 
aerodrome,  but  different  in  construction  and  appear- 
ance, is  shown  in  Fig.  4,  reproduced  from  an  illustra- 
tion in  the  article.  That  some  of  these  complex  kites 
are  on  a  very  large  scale  is  evident  from  a  case  cited, 
in  which  an  aerodrome  kite,  which  was  struck  by  a 
squall  before  it  was  let  go,  lifted  two  men  off  their 
feet,  and  subsequently  broke  its  flying  cord,  a  Manila 
rope  of  three-eighths  inch  diameter. 

The  simplicity  of  the  construction  of  the  cells,  and 
the  obvious  possibilities  of  their  combination,  lend  an 
additional  fascination  to  a  subject  which  is  already  full 
of  interest. 


BIBLE  AND  BABEL. 

IN  the  number  of  the  Johns  Hopkins  University 
Circulars  for  June  (vol.  xxii.  No.  163),  Prof. 
Paul  Haupt  has  published  an  article  entitled  "  Bible 
and  Babel,"  referring  to  the  somewhat  heated  con- 
troversy on  Babel  and  the  Bible  which  has  raged 
recently  in  Germany,  with  which  our  readers  are  prob- 
ably familiar.  The  line  which  he  takes  up  is  briefly 
that  all  the  heterodox  views  which  were  expressed  by 
Prof.  F.  Delitzsch  in  his  famous  lecture  delivered  in  the 
august  presence  of  the  German  Emperor  had  already 
been  promulgated  by  himself.  Prof.  Haupt,  at  various 
periods  during  the  last  twenty-four  years.  Prof. 
Haupt  claims  to  have  made  correct  deductions  in  re- 
spect of  the  origins  of  the  Biblical  accounts  of  the  Crea- 
tion, the  Deluge,  &c.,  long  before  Prof.  Delitzsch 's 
lecture  was  delivered,  but  it  must  be  clearly  pointed 
out  that,  although  such  may  be  the  case,  he  was  not 
the  first,  even  twenty-four  years  ago,  to  prove  that  the 
narratives  usually  accredited  to  Moses  are  merely 
modified  recensions  which  we  owe  to  the  prophets  of 
the  captivity  in  Babylon.  Whatever  credit  is  due  either 
to  Paul  Haupt  or  'Prof.  Delitzsch  in  this  matter,  it 
must  never  be  forgotten  that  all  important  statements 
made  by  them  with  regard  to  the  Creation  and  Deluge 
tablets  are  derived  from  the  works,  writings,  and  oral 
remarks  which  were  made  by  the  late  General  Sir 
Henry  Rawlinson,  G.C.B.,  and  the  late  Mr.  George 
Smith,  of  the  British  Museum.  Both  Profs.  Delitzsch 
and  Haupt  are  skilled  elaborators,  but  in  our  opinion 
they  are  not  discoverers,  and  certainly  neither  of 
them  can  be  placed  side  by  side  with  such  publishers 
and  translators  of  text  as  the  two  famous  Englishmen 
we  have  already  mentioned.  Still  less  can  either  be 
regarded  as  the  author  of  the  heterodox  views  and 
statements  which  so  thoroughly  shocked  His  Majesty 
the  German  Emperor. 

NO.    1763,  VOL.  68] 


notes: 

In  connection  with  the  tenth  meeting  of  the  Australasian 
Association  for  the  Advancement  of  Science,  to  be  held  at 
Dunedin  next  January,  particulars  of  which  we  gave  in 
our  issue  for  May  28  (p.  85),  we  learn  from  the  Otago 
Daily  Times  that  the  colonial  Government  is  rendering  the 
Association  material  assistance.  The  New  Zealand 
honorary  secretary,  Mr.  G.  M.  Thomson,  has  received  from 
Sir  J.  G.  Ward,  Colonial  Secretary,  a  letter  which  states 
that  the  Government  will  assist  the  association  in  the 
following  respects: — (i)  A  sum  of  500/.  will  be  placed  on 
th-j  Estimates  of  the  present  year  towards  the  expenses 
of  the  January  meeting;  (2)  the  Government  printer  will 
be  instructed  to  do  all  printing  required  by  the  association 
free  of  cost  to  the  association;  (3)  railway  passes  will  be 
issued  to  visiting  members  of  the  association  ;  and  (4)  any 
assistance  that  it  may  be  in  the  power  of  the  permanent 
departments  of  the  Government  service  to  render  to  the 
association  will  be  readily  afforded  on  application  being 
made. 

An  entire  skull  (partially  restored)  of  the  remarkable 
Egyptian  Eocene  mammal  Arsinotherium  zitteli  is  now 
exhibited  in  the  central  hall  of  the  Natural  History  Museum. 
This  magnificent  specimen  was  obtained  by  Dr.  C.  W. 
Andrews  during  his  last  trip  to  the  Fayum  district,  and  has 
been  cleaned  and  restored  in  the  museum.  Behind  the 
enormous  nasal  horns  are  placed  a  pair  of  quite  small  horns, 
recalling  the  rudimentary  back-horns  of  the  giraffe.  The 
dentition,  although  including  a  full  series  of  incisors  and 
canines,  recalls  that  of  the  Proboscidea.  It  is  hoped  that 
the  skull  of  the  Siberian  rhinoceros  {Rhinoceros  antiqui- 
tatis)  recently  dug  up  in  Salisbury  Square,  B.C.,  may 
ultimately  find  a  home  in  the  museum,  since  it  is  by  far  the 
finest  example  hitherto  discovered  in  this  country. 

At  an  extraordinary  general  meeting  of  the  members 
of  the  Jenner  Institute  of  Preventive  Medicine,  held  on 
Friday  last,  the  resolution  recently  passed  on  July  22  to 
alter  the  name  of  the  institute  to  "  The  Lister  Institute 
of  Preventive  Medicine  "  was  unanimously  confirmed. 

The  fourteenth  annual  general  meeting  of  the  Institution 
of  Mining  Engineers  will  be  held  on  Wednesday,  September 
2,  in  the  University  College,  Nottingham. 

The  Amsterdam  Academy  of  Sciences  has  awarded  its 
Buis-Ballot  medal,  given  once  in  ten  years,  to  Prof.  Richard 
Assmann  and  Dr.  Arthur  Berson,  of  the  Aeronautic  Insti- 
tute at  Tegel,  near  Berlin. 

Reuter  states  that  a  scientific  expedition,  to  explore  the 
northern  parts  of  the  Pacific  Ocean,  will  leave  Stockholm 
next  April  by  railway  for  Port  Arthur  by  way  of  Siberia. 
.\t  Port  Arthur  the  expedition  will  embark  on  a  ship  under 
the  leadership  of  M.  Kolthoff,  who  will  be  accompanied 
by  five  or  six  other  Swedish  naturalists. 

Sir  Trevor  Lawrence,  president  of  the  Royal  Horti- 
cultural Society,  has  announced  that  Sir  Thomas  Hanbury, 
K.C.V.O.,  has  purchased  for  presentation  to  the  society 
the  estate  and  garden  of  the  late  Mr.  G.  F.  Wilson,  F.R.S., 
at  Wisley,  near  Woking.  The  total  area  of  the  estate  is 
60  acres. 

At  the  meeting  of  the  Wilts  County  Council  on  August  4, 
a  letter  was  read  from  Sir  Edmund  Antrobus,  the  owner  of 
Stonehenge,  to  Lord  Edmond  Fitzmaurice,  M.P.  (chairman 
of  the  council),  in  which  Sir  E.  Antrobus  said  he  was  willing 
to  sell  Stonehenge,  and  eight  acres  of  land  surrounding  it,  to 
the  nation  for  the  sum  of  50,000/.  The  council  decided  to 
send  the  letter  to  the  Chancellor  of  the  Exchequer. 


350 


NATURE 


[August  13,  1903 


Miss  Dorothy  Bate,  whose  investigation  of  the  fossil- 
iferous  caves  of  Cyprus  has  recently  created  much  interest 
among  palteontologists,  has  also  paid  attention  to  the 
birds  of  that  British  dependency,  and  has  written  a  paper  on 
the  subject  which  will  appear  in  the  next  number  of  the  Ihis. 
She  has  succeeded  in  making  some  good  additions  to  the 
late  Lord  Lilford's  "  List  of  the  Birds  of  Cyprus,"  which 
was  published  in  1889. 

Mr.  R.  C.  L.  Perkins,  who  was  employed  for  some  years 
by  the  Sandwich  Island  Exploration  Committee  of  the 
British  Association  to  make  zoological  collections  in  the 
Hawaiian  Archipelago,  has  received  an  appointment  as 
economic  entomologist  in  those  islands,  with  the  services  of 
two  assistants  at  his  disposal.  All  the  exertions  that  can 
be  made  will  be  required,  as  it  is  said  that  the  crops  in 
several  of  the  islands  are  being  completely  ruined  by  intro- 
duced insects  of  various  kinds  and  by  fungoid  diseases. 
No  better  selection  could  have  been  made  for  such  a  post, 
as  Mr.  Perkins  is  an  expert  on  Hawaiian  insects,  and  is 
still  engaged  in  work  upon  them  for  the  British  Association 
committee. 

The  manatee  which  has  lately  been  added  to  the  Zoo- 
logical Society's  living  collection  is  an  animal  of  much 
interest,  as  it  does  not  belong  to  the  ordinary  species  of 
the  American  coasts,  but  is  a  representative  of  the  smaller 
form  {Manatus  inunguis)  which  is  confined  to  the  fresh 
waters  of  the  Amazon.  Here  it  was  first  discovered  by 
the  Austrian  explorer  Natterer,  in  the  Rio  Madeira,  in 
1830,  and  designated  inunguis  from  the  complete  absence 
of  nails  on  the  hand,  which  are  always  present  in 
M.  americanus.  A  single  living  specimen  of  the  same  form 
was  previously  received  by  the  Zoological  Society  in  1896, 
and  its  anatomy  was  described  by  Mr.  Beddard  in  the  Pro- 
ceedings of  the  Zoological  Society  for  1897.  The  present 
manatee,  which  is  a  young  animal  about  three  feet  long, 
has  been  placed  in  one  of  the  tanks  in  the  reptile  house, 
and  is  fed  principally  upon  lettuce.  An  excellent  coloured 
figure  of  the  marine  manatee,  based  upon  life-sketches  made 
by  the. late  Joseph  Wolf,  will  be  found  in  the  mammal 
volume  of  Salvin  and  Godman's  "  Biologia  Centrali- 
Americana." 

On  the  night  of  August  8  a  destructive  hurricane,  which 
lasted  five  hours,  swept  over  Martinique.  The  storm 
passed  over  Fort  de  France  at  i  o'clock  in  the  morning, 
taking  a  north-westerly  direction.  The  barometer  went 
down  to  28-70  inches. 

Reports  of  the  following  earthquake  shocks  on  the 
Continent  have  appeared  in  the  daily  papers  during  the 
past  few  days : — August  9.  Lisbon,  10.8  p.m.  Three 
distinct  shocks.  Duration,  three  seconds,  two  seconds,  and 
eight  seconds  respectively.  Interval  of  two  seconds  between 
each  shock. — August  11.  Malta,  5.33  a.m.  Duration,  one 
minute.  Naples,  5.35  a.m.  Duration,  two  seconds. 
Syracuse,  5.38  a.m.  Rumbling  sounds  heard.  Ganea, 
6.9  a.m.  Duration;  thirty-two  seconds.  Direction,  north 
to  south.  Walls  of  houses  cracked.  The  shocks  were  felt 
in  almost  the  whole  of  Eastern  Sicily. 

A  LARGE  party  of  delegates  to  the  twenty-fourth  annual 
meeting  of  French  geographical  and  colonial  societies,  held 
at  Rouen  last  week,  is  paying  a  visit  to  London,  and  on 
Monday  was  received  by  the  council  of  the  Royal  Geo- 
graphical Society,  and  entertained  at  luncheon.  Twenty- 
four  French  geographical  societies,  nine  kindred  societies, 
and  three  foreign  geographical  societies  were  represented 
at  the  Rouen  congress,  and  the  members  visiting  England 
number  eighty-two.  At  the  luncheon,  in  responding  to 
NO.    1761,,   VOL.    68] 


the  toast  of  "  The  Geographical  Societies  of  France,"  pro- 
posed by  the  chairman,  Major  Leonard  Darwin,  M.  Zevort, 
rector  of  the  University  of  Caen,  and  president  of  the 
congress,  said  his  claim  to  speak  in  that  assembly  was 
that  he  was  the  rector  of  a  university,  French  in 
its  character,  founded  by  an  English  king,  that  he  re- 
presented a  city  which  was  visited  every  year  by  hundreds 
of  English  people,  and  he  was,  moreover,  the  nephew  of 
Pasteur  speaking  to  a  son  of  Darwin.  Wherever  the 
French  had  worked  and  the  English  had  followed  there 
had  been  great  progress  in  civilisation  and  in  the  peaceful 
development  of  the  human  race.  That  was  the  spirit  in 
which  the  delegates  came  to  this  country,  and  it  was  in 
that  spirit  they  were  welcomed. 

A  REPORT  by  the  director  on  the  work  in  the  engineering 
and  physics  departments  of  the  National  Physical  Labor- 
atory during  the  half  year  ended  June  30  gives  interesting 
particulars  of  the  research  work  in  progress.  In  the  wind 
pressure  research  in  the  engineering  laboratory,  the  case 
of  f^at  surfaces  exposed  to  a  perpendicular  current  of  air 
has  been  worked  out,  and  a  general  relation  established 
which  is  now  being  tested  for  the  case  of  larger  surfaces 
exposed  to  the  natural  wind.  The  case  of  parallel  plates 
at  varying  distances  apart  has  been  treated,  and  experi- 
ments are  also  in  progress  on  the  pressure  on  inclined 
surfaces.  Drawings  have  been  prepared,  and  some  pre- 
liminary tests  made  for  the  research  into  the  constants  of 
steam.  In  the  physics  department  Dr.  Harker  has  con- 
tinued his  comparison  between  the  air  thermometer,  the 
platinum  thermometer  and  the  thermojunctions,  and  the 
work  is  now  complete  for  temperatures  between  0°  C.  and 
about  1050°  C.  The  first  part  of  the  work  for  temperatures 
up  to  500°  C.  was  done  with  M.  Chappuis,  at  Sevres,  and 
the  results  have  been  published.  Dr.  Harker  has  also  con- 
structed and  subjected  to  stringent  tests  a  set  of  platinum 
thermometers  for  the  British  Association.  A  small  research 
on  the  specific  heat  of  iron  at  high  temperatures — 700°  C. 
to  1000°  C. — is  nearly  complete,  and  promises  to  be  of 
interest.  Mr.  F.  E.  Smith's  research  on  the  resistance  of 
mercury  and  the  construction  of  a  standard  mercury  resist- 
ance is  practically  complete.  The  value  of  the  specific 
resistance  of  mercury  will  probably  prove  to  be  very  close 
to  that  determined  by  the  director  and  Mr.  Fitzpatrick  in 
1888.  On  the  assumption  that  the  absolute  value  of  the 
wire  standards  in  the  laboratory  is  known,  the  length  of 
the  column  of  mercury,  i  sq.  mm.  in  section,  having  a 
resistance  of  10°  C.G.S.  units,  is  found  to  be  almost  exactly 
10629cm.  The  difference  between  Mr.  Smith's  results  and 
those  of  the  Reichsanstalt  will  not  be  more  than  some  few 
parts  in  100,000.  An  investigation  of  some  importance 
into  the  changes  in  insulating  strength  of  various  dielectrics 
due  to  continued  heating,  by  Mr.  A.  Campbell  and  Mr. 
Rayner,  undertaken  for  the  Engineering  Standards  Com- 
mittee, promises  to  lead  to  results  of  value.  In  the  metal- 
lurgical division  the  solidifying  points  and  cooling  curves 
of  a  series  of  pure  iron  carbon  alloys  have  been  determined, 
using  platinum  platinum-iridium  and  platinum  platinum- 
rhodium  thermojunctions.  The  range  of  carbon  is  from 
015  to  355  per  cent.;  the  range  of  temperature  from 
1502°  C.  to  1111°  C.  on  the  thermojunction  scale.  In 
addition  to  the  above  research  work,  nearly  600  tests  have 
been  made  during  the  half  year. 

We  have  received  from  Mr.  E.  Bohm  two  incandescent 
electric  lamps  which  are  specially  designed  to  give  good 
illumination  vertically  downwards.  In  both  lamps  the  lower 
half  of  the  bulb  is  made  of  fluted  gfass,  which,  acting  as  a 
row  of  lenses,   serves  to  concentrate  the  light  downwards ; 


August  13,  1903] 


NATURE 


351 


one  lamp  has,  in  addition,  opal  glass  for  the  upper  half  of 
the  bulb,  the  filament  being  of  the  ordinary  shape.  The 
filament  of  the  other  lamp  is  fixed  horizontally,  and  is 
zig-zag  in  shape  ;  the  upper  half  of  the  bulb  in  this  case 
is  of  clear  glass.  The  result  of  these  designs  is  to  give 
a  distribution  of  light  having  the  maximum  candle-power 
in  the  vertical  direction ;  in  one  of  the  lamps  which  we 
tested  the  vertical  candle-power  was  175,  and  the  mean 
horizontal  candle-power  10,  thus  practically  reversing  the 
values  obtained  with  ordinary  lamps.  For  situations  in 
which  good  illumination  directly  below  the  vertical  is 
specially  required,  these  patterns  of  lamps  should  prove 
useful. 

A  VERY  ingenious  electrical  type-setting  machine  is  briefly 
described  by  M.  Tavernier  in  a  recent  issue  of  the  Comptes 
rendus  of  the  Paris  Academy  of  Sciences.  The  apparatus 
is  similar  in  principle  to  the  familiar  linotype  machines,  but 
the  operations  of  typing  the  copy  and  casting  the  type  are 
separated  5  the  operator  works  at  an  electrical  typewriter, 
which  produces  a  perforated  tape,  and  at  the  same  time  an 
ordinary  typed  copy  of  the  manuscript,  which  enables  correc- 
tions to  be  made  in  the  tape  before  the  type  is  set  up.  The 
perforated  tape  is  passed  automatically  through  the  type- 
setting machine,  which  is  also  operated  electrically.  The 
advantage  of  thus  dividing  the  two  operations  is  that  the 
asting  machine  can  be  worked  at  a  uniform  maximum 
speed,  and  is  independent  of  the  skill  of  the  typist.  A 
further  modification  of  the  machine  allows  it  to  be  used 
telegraphically  ;  the  perforated  tape  produced  by  the  type- 
writer is  passed  through  a  transmitter,  which  sends  signals 
over  the  line  and  reproduces  in  a  receiving  apparatus  a 
duplicate  of  the  tape,  which  can  be  used  in  the  type-setting 
machine.  The  details  of  the  various  pieces  of  apparatus 
are  not  given,  but  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  invention 
is  likely  to  prove  of  great  utility. 

We  have  received  the  forty-sixth  volume  of  the  "  Year- 
book "  of  the  Austrian  Meteorological  Service  for  190 P. 
The  operations  of  the  central  office  include  the  usual  work 
of  a  normal  observatory,  the  control  of  about  400  stations 
of  various  classes,  and  telegraphic  weather  forecasts. 
There  are,  in  addition,  a  large  number  of  stations  dealing 
with  thunderstorms  and  hail,  but  purely  rainfall  observ- 
ations  are  now   under   the   control   of   another  department. 

\n  active  part  is  taken  in  the  international  balloon  ascents; 

■  e  have  frequently  referred  to  some  of  the  preliminary  re- 
Milts  obtained.  Another  feature  of  the  Austrian  service  is 
the  erection  of  a  number  of  stations  for  "  weather  shoot- 
ing "  for  the  dissipation  of  thunder  clouds  and  prevention 
of  damage  by  hail,  but  the  operations  hitherto  have  not 
led  to  the  hope  of  unqualified  success.  A  separate  appendix 
accompanies  the  "Year-book,"  which  includes  very  valu- 
able discussions  on  thunderstorm  observations  and  on 
i~;otherms  for  Austria,  both  papers  illustrated  by  charts. 
Ill  the  discussion  of  thunderstorms,  some  very  interesting 
and  instructive  conclusions  are  drawn  as  to  their  connec- 
tion with  geographical  features  and  the  distribution  of 
barometric  pressure.  It  may  be  interesting  to  note  here 
that  out  of  94  cases  of  damage  to  trees  by  lightning  in 
1901,  27  were  pine  or  larch,  20  oak,  17  poplars,  and  lo  pear 
trees.  The  beech  tree,  which  is  generally  supposed  to  be 
practically  free  from  lightning  strokes,  was  only  struck 
once,  but  there  were  several  other  trees  which  similarly 
escaped  damage. 

At  the  recent  congress  of  the  Royal   Institute  of  Public 

Health,    Prof.    Moore,   of   Liverpool,   read   a  paper  upon   a 

*'  Chemical  Theory  of  the  Transmission  of  Certain  Infective 

Diseases."     He   pointed   out   that    in    many   of   the   specific 

NO.    1763,   VOL.  68] 


fevers  no  micro-organism  has  been  isolated,  and  suggested 
that  in  these  a  chemical  body  of  the  nature  of  an  enzyme 
may  be  the  aetiological  agent.  To  account  for  the  repro- 
duction of  this  chemical  substance,  which  is  necessary  to 
explain  the  phenomenon  of  infection,  Prof.  Moore  supposes 
that,  by  its  action  upon  some  of  the  cells,  more  of  itself 
may  be  formed.  He  points  out  that  there  are  analogies 
to  this  action  in  the  case  of  certain  "  catalytic  "  reactions. 

A  SECOND  report  of  the  Special  Chloroform  Committee 
of  the  British  Medical  Association  has  just  been  issued. 
Mr.  Vernon  Harcourt,  F.R.S.,  describes  some  experiments 
made  to  estimate  the  amount  of  chloroform  which  may  be 
dissolved  by  the  blood,  and  an  apparatus  for  the  limitation 
and  regulation  of  chloroform  vapour  when  administered  as 
an  anaesthetic.  Dr.  Dudley  Buxton  discusses  the  clinical 
use  of  certain  inhalers  (including  Mr.  Harcourt's  form), 
and  Mr.  Walter  Tyrrell  reports  upon  the  use  of  Mr. 
Harcourt's  inhaler.  Prof.  Sherrington,  F.R.S.,  and  Mr. 
Sowton  describe  a  number  of  experiments  made  to  measure 
that  dosage  of  chloroform  under  which  the  mammalian 
heart  can,  and  cannot,  work  efficiently.  They  conclude 
that  the  heart  muscle  rapidly  takes  up  chloroform  offered 
to  it  in  the  blood-vessels  of  its  vascular  system. 

Captain  Lamb,  I.M.S.,  has  made  a  series  of  experiments 
upon  the  action  of  the  venoms  of  the  cobra  and  of  Russell's 
viper  {Daboia  Rttssellii)  upon  the  red-blood  corpuscles  and 
upon  the  blood  plasma  (Scientific  Memoirs  of  the  Govern- 
ment of  India,  New  Series,  No.  4).  Both  these  venoms  are 
shown  to  have  a  marked  haemolytic  action,  both  in  vivo 
and  in  vitro.  Cobra  venom  never  induces  intra-vascular 
clotting;  in  fact,  it. rather  diminishes  blood  coagulability, 
while  Daboia  venom  causes  extensive  intra-vascular 
clotting.  In  vitro  cobra  venom  prevents  the  clotting  of 
citrated  blood  or  plasma  which  ensues  on  the  addition  of 
a  soluble  calcium  salt;  Daboia  venom,  on  the  other  hand, 
increases  the  tendency  of  citrated  blood  and  plasma  to 
coagulate.  In  conclusion,  Captain  Lamb  considers  that  his 
experiments  do  not  support  Martin's  hypotheses  that  all 
snake  venoms  contain  at  least  two  toxic  proteids,  one  being 
a  neurotropic,  the  other  a  htemotropic,  poison,  and  that 
the  action  on  blood  coagulability  is  due  to  a  setting  free 
of  nucleo-proteids. 

The  current  issue  of  the  National  Geographic  Magazine 
contains  an  article  by  Dr.  H.  W.  Wiley,  chief  chemist  of 
the  Department  of  Agriculture,  on  "The  United  States; 
its  Soils  and  their  Products."  Little  is  said  about  the 
special  features  exhibited  by  the  soils  of  the  country,  the 
article  being,  in  fact,  a  brief  summary  of  the  acreage,  yield, 
and  value  of  the  main  crops  grown  in  the  United  States, 
useful  to  the  student  who  has  no  opportunity  of  consulting 
the  "  Year-book  "  of  the  Department  of  Agriculture.  The 
two  facts  that  are  most  striking  are  the  relatively  low 
yield  per  acre  and  the  enormous  diversity  of  the  agriculture  ; 
Dr.  Wiley,  indeed,  asserts  that  "  within  the  borders  of  the 
United  States  are  grown  every  agricultural  crop  known  to 
the  world."  The  article  is  illustrated  by  several  interest- 
ing photographs,  calculated  to  impress  the  reader  with  the 
magnitude  of  the  scale  on  which  farming  is  practised  in  the 
United  States. 

A  MOST  interesting  and  remarkable  instance  of  local 
adaptation  to  abnormal  conditions  on  the  part  of  a  mollusc 
is  recorded  by  Baron  E.  Nordenskjold  in  No.  704  of  the 
Zool.  Anzeiger.  It  appears  that  in  the  "  Chaco  "  districts 
of  South  America  a  species  of  fresh-water  limpet  (Ancylus 
moricandi)  is  found  during  the  wet  season  in  the  pools 
which  are  then  abundant  in  the  country.  During  the  dry 
season,  however,  these  pools  are  completely  desiccated,  and 


352 


NA  TURE 


[August  13,  1903 


the  whole  country  then  becomes  a  practical  desert,  over 
which  clouds  of  fine  dust  are  swept  by  the  wind.  In  order 
to  exist  during  this  season  of  drought,  the  Ancylus  closes 
up  almost  the  whole  of  the  inferior  aspect  of  its  limpet-like 
shell  by  a  growth  of  shelly  matter  continuous  with  the 
margin  of  the  latter,  leaving  only  a  small  circular  mouth 
at  one  end.  As  is  well  known,  many  land  molluscs,  more 
especially  Helix  pomatia,  are  in  the  habit  of  sealing  up  the 
apertures  of  their  shells  during  seasons  of  drought  or  heat, 
but  in  none  of  these  is  the  substance  with  which  the  mouth 
is  closed  identical  with  that  of  the  shell.  In  localities  where 
there  is  no  marked  dry  season,  the  Chaco  Ancylus  remains 
throughout  the  year  in  its  normal  condition. 

In  part  i.  of  the  general  report  and  statistics  relating 
to  mines  and  quarries  for  1902,  issued  by  the  Home  Office, 
we  note  evidence  of  a  general  increase  in  production  with 
regard  to  coal,  fire-clay,  ironstone,  gypsum,  rock-salt,  &c. 
It  is  interesting  to  find  that  gold  ore  showed  an  increase 
from  16,374  tons  in  1901  to  29,953  tons  in  1902. 

In  a  paper  on  the  diffusion  of  granite  into  schists  {Geol. 
Mag.,  May),  Mr.  E.  Greenly  suggests  that  the  granitoid 
matter  that  has  been  injected  lit  par  lit  was  intruded  while 
the  surrounding  rocks  were  at  a  high  temperature,  and 
this  view  would  help  to  explain  the  occurrence  of  lenticles 
of  granite  in  complete  isolation  from  the  parent  mass. 

A  USEFUL  map  of  Peru,  on  the  scale  of  i  :  3,000,000,  or 
an  inch  to  a  little  more  than  forty  miles,  has  been  issued 
by  Mr.  Eduardo  Higginson,  Consul  of  Peru,  Southampton. 
It  shows  the  various  ports  and  havens,  railways  completed 
and  in  progress,  telegraphs,  roads,  forests,  petroleum  de- 
posits, &c.  On  the  back  of  the  map  are  printed  numerous 
particulars  relating  to  the  country,  such  as  climate,  agri- 
culture, artesian  wells,  mineral  wealth,  manufactures,  and 
various  statistics.  Of  the  industries,  that  of  indiarubber 
is  especially  described. 

To  the  Proceedings  of  the  Geologists'  Association  for 
June  (vol.  xviii.  part  ii.),  Dr.  Catherine  A.  Raisin  con- 
tributes an  article  on  the  formation  of  Chert,  with  especial 
reference  to  the  bands  and  nodules  in  Jurassic  strata.  In 
some  cases  the  silica  may  have  originated  from  hot  springs 
aided  by  the  action  of  algae  ;  in  other  cases  silica  may  have 
been  directly  derived  from  the  sea  water,  but  more  often 
through  the  agency  of  siliceous  organisms.  Molecular 
changes  that  subsequently  took  place  in  the  rocks  have 
led  to  the  dispersal  and  concentration  of  the  silica  in 
patches  or  layers.  Mr.  Jukes-Browne  gives  an  account  of 
the  zones  of  the  Upper  Chalk  in  Suffolk. 

In  a  paper  on  "  The  Marl-Slate  and  Yellow  Sands  of 
Northumberland  and  Durham,"  Prof.  G.  A.  Lebour 
{Trans.  Inst.  Mining  Eng.)  remarks  that  these  Permian 
strata  rest  on  the  stained  edges  of  eroded  Carboniferous 
rocks.  Discussing  the  origin  of  the  yellow  sands  which 
occur  at  the  base  of  the  Permian  group,  he  is  disposed  to 
agree  with  R.  Howse  that  they  were  wind-blown,  and  that 
consequently  the  overlying  Marl-slate  may  rest  somewhat 
irregularly  upon  them.  Some  of  the  inequalities  observ- 
able between  the  divisions  are,  however,  due  to  the  fact 
that  springs  carry  away  portions  of  the  sands,  and  this 
subterranean  erosion  leads  to  subsidence  of  the  overlying 
Marl-slate  or  Magnesian  Limestone.  The  Marl-slate  is 
made  up  of  thin  limestones  and  shales,  with  marine  shells 
and  remains  of  land-plants,  as  well  as  amphibia,  and 
numerous  fishes  the  nearest  existing  analogues  of  which 
inhabit  rivers  and  lakes.  The  organic  remains  thus  indicate 
estuarine  or  lagunal  conditions. 
NO.    1763,  VOL.    68] 


A  German  Bohemian  Archaeological  Expedition  to  Asia 
Minor,  conducted  by  Drs.  J.  Juthner,  K.  Patsch  and 
H.  Swoboda,  and  Architect  F.  Knoll,  left  Konia  (Iconium) 
on  April  4  on  a  roundabout  journey  to  Isaura,  to  link  on 
with  the  work  of  the  Vienna  Academy.  They  visited 
various  towns  and  villages  between  Konia  and  the  Lake  of 
Bey  Schehir,  and  investigated  the  interesting  Hittite 
temple  at  Fassiler  previously  discovered  by  the  American 
explorer  Sterrett.  In  Kyzyldschakioj  they  made  their  most  5 
valuable  epigraphical  discovery  of  two  fragments  of  a  lime- 
stone stele,  which  is  important  since  it  bears  on  the  history 
of  the  second  century  13. c,  and  illustrates  certain  aspects 
of  Greek  public  law.  An  illustration  is  gi%-en  of  the  ruined 
gate  of  the  acropolis  of  ancient  Isaura  which  confirms  the 
statement  that  very  little  now  remains.  More  than  three 
hundred  inscriptions  were  found,  and  numerous  photographs 
were  taken  of  monuments  and  landscapes ;  the  map 
accompanying  the  report  in  Deutsche  Arbeit  (vol.  ii.  Heft 
10,  p.  784)  was  drawn  by  Prof.  Juthner. 

Prof.  James  Walker's  "  Elementary  Inorganic  Chemis- 
try," published  by  Messrs.  Geo.  Bell  and  Sons,  and  re- 
viewed in  our  issue  for  June  19,  1902,  has  been  translated 
into  German  by  Margarete  Egebrecht  and  Emil  Bose.  The 
translation  has  been  published  by  Messrs.  F.  Vieweg  and 
Son,   of   Brunswick. 

A  SECOND  edition  of  the  "  Guide  to  the  Search  Depart- 
ment of  the  Patent  Office  Library,  with  Appendices,"  has 
been  published  at  the  Patent  Otlfice,  Chancery  Lane.  The 
first  appendix  is  a  descriptive  list  of  unofficial  class-lists, 
ana  digests  of  English  and  foreign  patent  specifications, 
and  the  second  contains  a  select  dictionary  of  words  and 
phrases  associated  with  inventions  introduced  under  letters 
patent. 

We  have  received  copies  of  the  Compte  rendu  of  the  pro- 
ceedings of  the  1901  meeting  of  the  Soci^t6  Helv^tique  des 
Sciences  Naturelles,  held  at  Zofingen,  and  that  of  the  1902 
meeting  held  at  Geneva.  The  two  volumes  of  Verhand- 
liingen  and  Actes,  containing  the  papers  presented  and 
addresses  delivered  in  connection  with  the  same  meetings, 
have  also  reached  us. 

Subjects  of  scientific  interest  take  a  prominent  place  in 
the  current  issue  of  the  Century  Magazine.  Mr.  Frank 
W.  Stokes,  who  accompanied  the  Swedish  South  Polar 
Expedition  under  the  leadership  of  Dr.  Otto  Nordenskjold,  | 
contributes  an  article  entitled  "  An  Artist  in  the  Antarctic,"  '  ? 
which  is  accompanied  by  three  beautifully  coloured  plates 
by  the  author,  and  these  give  a  vivid  impression  of  the 
region  described.  M.  J.  Deniker  writes  of  Lhasa,  under 
the  title  "New  Light  on  Lhasa,  the  Forbidden  City." 
Miss  A.  K.  Fallows  explains,  in  a  well  illustrated  paper, 
the  means  adopted  to  secure  for  New  York  a  supply  of 
pure  milk. 

The  first  part  of  vol.  ii.  of  "The  Fauna  and  Geography 
of  the  Maldive  and  Laccadive  Archipelagoes  :  being  an 
Account  of  the  Work  carried  on  and  of  the  Collections  made 
by  an  Expedition  during  the  Years  1899  and  1900,"  which 
is  being  edited  by  Mr.  J.  Stanley  Gardiner,  has  been  issued 
by  the  Cambridge  University  Press.  The  first  part  of  vol.  i. 
of  this  work  was  reviewed  in  our  issue  of  April  3,  1902,  and 
the  remaining  volumes  will  be  dealt  with  after  the  publica- 
tion of  the  concluding  part.  The  present  fasciculus  contains 
reports  by  Prof.  S.  J.  Hickson,  F.R.S.,  and  Miss  E.  M. 
Pratt    on  the  Alcvonaria  of  the  Maldives,   by   Sir   Charles 


August  13,  1903] 


NATURE 


3.53 


\ 


Eliot  on  Nudibranchiata,  by  Mr.  L.  A.  Borradaile  on  the 
sponge-crabs,  and  by  Sir  John  Murray,  F.R.S.,  and  the 
editor  on  lagoon  deposits. 

The  Proceedings  of  the  Washington  Academy  of  Sciences 
for  July  18  is  made  up  of  a  full  account  of  a  meeting  held 
in  Columbia  University,  under  the  auspices  of  the  Wash- 
ington Academy,  to  commemorate  the  distinguished  services 
to  knowledge  of  the  late  Major  John  Wesley  Powell, 
together  with  a  list  of  the  251  papers  and  articles  written 
by  him  during  the  years  1867  to  1903.  Major  Powell's 
work  as  director  of  the  Bureau  of  American  Ethnology 
is  well  known  to  anthropologists,  and  his  services  to 
science  as  an  explorer,  geologist  and  organiser  are  of  the 
same  high  value.  As  an  observer  in  many  fields  of  natural 
science,  and  as  one  who  exerted  great  influence  on  scientific 
progress.  Major  Powell's  memory  will  long  be  held  in 
honour. 

Messrs.  Charles  Griffin  and  Co.,  Ltd.,  have  now  pub- 
lished a  tenth  edition  of  Mr.  Bennett  H.  Brough's  "  Treatise 
of  Mine-Surveying."  The  book  was  first  published  in  1888, 
and  was  reviewed  at  length  in  our  issue  of  August  2  of 
that  year.  The  prediction  made  on  that  occasion — "  as 
soon  as  the  book  becomes  known,  no  English-speaking 
mine-agent  or  mining  student  will  consider  his  technical 
library  complete  without  it  " — has  been  fully  justified,  as 
the  issue  of  a  tenth  and  revised  edition  shows.  Descrip- 
tions of  appliances  invented  since  the  ninth  edition  appeared 
at  the  beginning  of  last  year  have  now  been  inserted  in 
the  book,  and  among  these  additions  will  be  found  accounts 
of  Sir  Howard  Grubb's  new  sight  for  mining  dials,  of 
Gothan's  instrument  for  surveying  bore-holes,  and  of  the 
Dunbar-Scott  mine  tacheometer.  Besides  these  improve- 
ments, references  to  important  papers  lately  published  and 
recent  examinations  questions  have  been  added. 

The  current  number  of  the  Popular  Scientific  Monthly,  in 
addition  to  other  articles  of  general  scientific  interest,  re- 
prints the  Romanes  lecture  delivered  last  June  by  Sir 
Oliver  Lodge,  F.R.S.,  and  publishes  the  third  of  a  series 
of  papers  on  Hertzian  wave  wireless  telegraphy  by  Prof. 
J.  A.  Fleming,  F.R.S.  Other  papers  are  on  the  bird 
rookeries  on  the  island  of  Laysan,  and  bacteria  in  modern 
economic  agriculture.  From  tnc  columns  headed  the 
progress  of  science  we  learn  there  are  now  somewhat  more 
than  100,000  students  in  the  colleges,  universities,  and 
technical  schools  of  the  United  States,  and  somewhat  more 
than  50,000  in  the  professional  schools  of  theology,  law 
and  medicine.  In  1901,  16,513  students  graduated  from 
colleges  and  technical  schools,  and  of  these  5050  were 
women.  The  number  of  pupils  in  secondary  schools  was 
in  1901  upwards  of  600,000,  as  compared  with  less  than 
voo.ooo  in  1878. 

The  additions  to  the  Zoological  Society's  Gardens  during 
the  past  week  include  a  Vervet  Monkey  (Cercopithecus 
lalandii)  from  South  Africa,  presented  by  Mr.  —  Town- 
-hend ;  two  Malayan  Bears  {Ursus  malayanus)  from 
Malacca,  presented  by  the  Right  Hon.  Earl  of  Crawford  ; 
two  Norwegian  Lemmings  {My odes  lemmus)  from  Norway, 
presented  by  Major-General  C.  S.  Sturt ;  two  Dwarf 
<'hameIeons  {Chamaeleon  pumilus)  from  South  Africa,  pre- 
sented by  Mrs.  Mainwaring ;  four  Tuberculated  Iguanas 
d guana  tuberculata)  from  Venezuela,  three  Elephantine 
Tortoises  {Testudo  elephantina)  from  the  Aldabra  Islands, 
two  Radiated  Tortoises  (Testudo  radiata)  from  Madagascar, 
deposited ;  a  Japanese  Deer  (Cervus  sika),  born  in  the 
Gardens. 

NO.    1763,  VOL.   68] 


OUR  ASTRONOMICAL  COLUMN. 
Borrelly's  Comet  (1903  c). — The  following  elements  and 
ephemeris  for  Borrelly's  comet  have  been  computed  by  Dr. 
Aitken,  of  the  Lick  Observatory,  from  observations  made 
on  June  22  and  30,  and  July  10  (Lick  Observatory  Bulletin, 
No    47)  :- 

E/e//ienls. 
T  =  1903  August  27-6056  G.M.T. 

u  =   127°    19  2S'S] 

a  =  293    32  550^1903-0 

/•  =     84     59  45'3J 
log  ^  =  9-518126 

Ephemeris  \zh.   G.M.T. 
1903  True  a  True  6  log  A        Brightness 

h.     m.     s.  o         / 

Aug.  13-5    ...  10  54  23  ...     +39    24-1    ...      —      ...      — 

„     15  5    ...  10  48  12  ...     +37    42-9    ••■   9947    •••     6-7 

„     17-5     ...  10  42    2  ...     +35     58-0    ...      —      ...      — 

„     195    ...  10  35  58  ....  +34      7-2    ...   9-996    ...     7*4 

„     21-5    ...  10  29  54  ..      -h32      7-0    ...      —      ...      — 

„     23-5    ...  10  24    3  ...     +29    54-8    ...    0-038   ...     8-2 

„     25-5    ...  10  18  30  ...     -1-27     27-0    ...      —      ...      — 

„     27-5    ...  10  13  31  ...     +24    47-3    ...    0-074     -     7-9 

,,     29-5    ...  10    9  20  ...     +21     546    ...      —      ...      — 

,,     31-5    ...   10     5  59  ...     +18     53-8    ...    O'lOO   ...     6-2 

Projection  on  Mars. — In  the  first  Bulletin  issued  by  the 

Lowell     Observatory,     Flagstaff,     Arizona,     Mr.     Percival 

Lowell  describes  the  observations  of  a  projection  which  was 

discovered   on   the   terminator   of   Mars   by   Mr.    Slipher   at 

i5h.    34m.    (G.M.T.)    on    May    25.     Messrs.    Lowell    and 

Slipher     afterwards     alternately     observed     the     projection, 

which    lasted    for    about    thirty-one    minutes ;    the    position 

angle  varied  from  204°o  to  i99°-8,  and  the  projection  was 

variously  estimated  as  being  removed  from  the  terminator 

by  a  perpendicular  distance  of  0067-0  075  of  the  radius  of 

the    disc ;    its    length    was    i''-58,    and    it    disappeared    at 

i6h.  8m. 

The  projection  was  "  suspected  "  again  at  ish.  58m.  on 
May  27,  and,  if  really  seen,  had  moved  7°  in  latitude  and 
8°  in  longitude  during  the  twenty-four  hours'  interval. 
The  observations  lead  to  the  conclusion  that  the  projection 
was  probably  a  cloud  of  dust  about  300  miles  long,  travelling 
at  about  16  miles  an  hour  in  a  north-easterly  direction, 
and  dissipating  as  it  went. 

The  Satellite  of  Neptune. — Using  the  Crossley  re- 
flector, Prof.  Perrine  has  obtained  a  series  of  photographs 
of  Neptune's  satellite  which  cover  one  complete  revolution, 
January  4-January  16,  1902. 

The  measurements  of  forty-fi%'e  plates  show  that  a  correc- 
tion of  -f-o°S5,  with  a  probable  error  of  +o°09  in  position 
arrgle,  and  of  —  o"oo6,  with  a  probable  error  of  ±o"o20  in 
distance,  must  be  applied  to  Hall's  elements  as  published 
in  No.  441  of  the  Astronomical  Journal. 

The  observations  are  recorded  in  Bulletin  No.  39  of  the 
Lick  Observatory,  which  also  contains  a  series  of  deter- 
minations of  the  position  of  the  planet  itself,  at  certain 
times,  as  determined  from  the  same  photographs. 

The  Estimation  of  Stellar  Temperatures. — The  ques- 
tion of  the  relative  temperatures  of  the  different  types  of 
stars  is  one  of  the  most  important  in  astrophysics,  and  has 
lately  been  the  subject  of  much  discussion  in  consequence 
of  the  discovery  that  spark  lines  appear  in  the  arc  spectrum 
under  certain  special  conditions.  In  Astr.  Nach.  (No.  3882), 
after  reviewing  the  recent  contributions  to  the  discussion, 
Prof.  Kayser  suggests  a  method  of  estimating  the  tempera- 
tures of  stars  which  is  based  on  an  idea  put  forward  in 
1876  by  Sir  George  Stokes  in  a  note  appended  to  a  paper 
by  Sir' Norman  Lockyer  (Roy.  Soc.  Proc,  vol.  xxiv.  pp. 
352-4).  In  the  case  of  an  incandescent  solid  body  the 
proportion  of  the  more  refrangible  radiations  increases 
with  the  temperature,  and  Stokes  suggested  that  a  line 
spectrum  might  behave  in  the  same  manner,  so  that  at 
different  temperatures  different  lines  would  be  most  persis- 
tent. Prof.  Kayser  thinks  that,  while  this  may  not  hold 
for  the  whole  spectrum,  it  may  be  true  for  the  lines  of  a 
definite  series,  such  as  those  of  hydrogen,  or  one  of  the 
series  of  lines  of  helium.  On  this  supposition  he  has 
recently    undertaken    a    preliminary    investigation    for    the 


354 


NATURE 


[August  13,  1903 


detection  of  such  variations  in  the  spectra  of  hydrogen, 
helium,  and  lithium,  and  has  obtained  indications  that  the 
energy  of  the  shorter  waves  is  relatively  increased  with  in- 
crease of  temperature,  assuming  that  the  temperature  in 
Geissler  tubes  rises  with  increased  potential  and  current 
strength.  It  is  considered  probtible  that  further  laboratory 
experiments  combined  with  photometric  or  photographic 
estimates  of  the  intensities  of  the  stellar  lines  may  result 
in  a  fairly  accurate  knowledge  of  the  temperatures  of  some 
of  the  stars ;  great  progress  will  have  been  made  if  the 
temperatures  can  only  be  ascertained  within  one  or  two 
thousand  degrees. 

Observations  of  the  Minima  of  Mira. — In  No.  3888  of 
the  Astronomische  Nachrichten,  Prof.  A.  A.  Nijland  records 
his  observations  of  the  last  minimum  of  Mira,  which  took 
place  during  December.  Plotting  his  observations  on  a 
curve,  he  found  that  the  actual  minimum  occurred  on 
December  17,  353  days  after  the  minimum  of  December  29, 
1901,  the  magnitude  on  that  date  being  8-70  on  the  Harvard 
photometer  scale. 

The   following   table   shows   the   differences   between   the 
dates  of  minima  as  predicted  by   Guthnick  (Astronomische 
Nachrichten,  No.  3745)  and  those  actually  observed  :— 
Observed  Guthnick  O-G 

1901  Feb.    16      ...       1901  March   6     ..      - 18  days 
„     Dec.  29      ...       1902  Jan.      31     ...      -33    „ 

1902  „      17      ...         „     Dec.     28     ...      -II    ,, 

The  Size  of  Stellar  Systems. — In  an  editorial  article 
in  the  Observatory  for  August,  a  table  is  given  which  com- 
pares the  dimensions  of  various  stellar  systems  with  those 
obtaining  in  the  solar  system.  As  the  writer  states,  these 
are  not  generally  known  or  not  remembered,  therefore  he 
has  tabulated  a  few  of  the  more  interesting  and  approxi- 
mately known  data,  which  must,  however,  only  be  taken 
as  approximations  owing  to  the  uncertainty  of  the  original 
data  from  which  they  are  computed. 


Object 


Earth 

Saturn    9 '5 

Procyon     17-3 

Uranus  19*2 

Sirius     2I-I 

o  Centauri     23-3 

Castor    27-5 

Neptune    30-1 

02  Eridani      34  5 

(B  and  C) 

rj  Cassiopeioe i  447 

6  Ursse  Maj 63*0 

61  Cygni   68  o 

Polaris  !  250 


Motion  across  the  line 
Separation  of  components  j  of  sight,  in  millions  of 
miles  per  annum 


In  astro- 
nomical units 


Aldebaran. 

Eridani 

(A  and  B) 


282 

455 


In  millions 
of  miles 


93 

883 
1,608 
1,782 
1,962 
2,167 
2,557 
2,792 
3.207 

"  3.Q47 
5,860 

6.324 
23,250 
26,226 
42,315 


372 

316 
465 

140 

2,000 

580 
1,300 
1,116 

133 

170 

2,000 


Recently  Determined  Stellar  Parallaxes. — No.  10  of 
the  Publications  of  the  Groningen  Astronomical  Laboratory 
contains  the  details  of  the  observations  and  reductions  of 
parallax  for  the  stars  and  clusters  "  h  and  x  Persei,"  "  745 
Groombridge, "  and  "  61  Cygni  and  the  surrounding  stars." 
The  photographs  from  which  the  parallactic  values  were 
determined  were  obtained  by  Prof.  A.  Donner,  and  have 
been  reduced  by  Prof.  J.  C.  Kapteyn  and  Dr.  W.  de  Sitter. 

In  the  summary  given  for  the  cluster  h  and  x  Persei,  178 
stars  are  included,  and  it  will  be  possible,  when  it  has  been 
decided,  from  observations  of  their  proper  motions,  whether 
or  not  the  individual  stars  actually  belong  to  the  cluster, 
to  determine  the  parallax  of  this  cluster  with  extreme 
accuracy. 

The  parallax  of  745  Groombridge  relative  to  stars  of  the 
mean  magnitude  90    was  found  to  be  +o"o83 +  o"o24,  and 

NO.    I/63.  VOL.  68] 


on  consideration  of  the  star's  magnitude  (8-2)  and  its  annual 
proper  motion  (o"-64),  -|-o"o68  was  accepted  as  the  most 
probable  value  of  this  parallax. 

The  final  value  of  the  parallax  of  61  Cygni  relative  to 
the  four  comparison  stars  (mean  magnitude  =74)  is  given 
as  -f-o"-326±o"o35  ;  the  plates  from  which  this  result  was 
obtained  do  not  confirm  the  existence  of  any  real  difference 
of  parallax  between  the  two  components. 

No.  1 1  of  the  same  Publications  contains  a  discussion  on 
"  The  Luminosity  of  the  Fixed  Stars  "  by  Prof.  J.  C. 
Kapteyn. 


EXPERIMENTS  IN  RADIO-ACTIVITY,  AND 
THE  PRODUCTION  OF  HELIUM  FROM 
RADIUM.^ 

(i)  Experiments  on  the  Radio-activity  of  the  Inert  Gases  of 

the  Atmosphere. 
(^  F  recent  years  many  investigations  have  been  made  by 
^-^  Elster  and  Geitel,  Wilson,  Strutt,  Rutherford,  Cooke, 
Allen,  and  others  on  the  spontaneous  ionisation  of  the  gases 
of  the  atmosphere  and  on  the  excited  radio-activity  obtain- 
able from  it.  It  became  of  interest  to  ascertain  whether 
the  inert  monatomic  gases  of  the  atmosphere  bear  any 
share  in  these  phenomena.  For  this  purpose  a  small 
electroscope  contained  in  a  glass  tube  of  about  20  c.c. 
capacity,  covered  in  the  interior  with  tin-foil,  was  em- 
ployed. After  charging,  the  apparatus  if  exhausted  re- 
tained its  charge  for  thirty-six  hours  without  diminution. 
Admission  of  air  caused  a  slow  discharge.  In  similar 
experiments  with  helium,  neon,  argon,  krypton,  and  xenon, 
the  last  mixed  with  oxygen,  the  rate  of  discharge  was  pro- 
portional to  the  density  and  pressure  of  the  gas.  This 
shows  that  the  gases  have  no  special  radio-activity  of  their 
own,  and  accords  with  the  explanation  already  advanced 
by  these  investigators  that  the  discharging  power  of  the 
air  is  caused  by  extraneous  radio-activity. 

Experiments  were  also  made  with  the  dregs  left  after 
liquefied  air  had  nearly  entirely  evaporated,  and  again 
with  the  same  result ;  no  increase  in  discharging  power  is 
produced  by  concentration  of  a  possible  radio-active  con- 
stituent of  the  atmosphere. 

(2)  Experiments  on  the  Nature  of  the  Radio-active 
Emanation  from  Radium. 

The  word  emanation  originally  used  by  Boyle  ("  sub- 
stantial emanations  from  the  celestial  bodies  ")  was  re- 
suscitated by  Rutherford  to  designate  definite  substances  of 
a  gaseous  nature  continuously  produced  from  other  sub- 
stances. The  term  was  also  used  by  Russell  ("  emanation 
from  hydrogen  peroxide  ")  in  much  the  same  sense.  If 
the  adjective  "  radio-active  "  be  added,  the  phenomenon  of 
Rutherford  is  distinguished  from  the  phenomena  observed 
by  Russell.  In  this  section  we  are  dealing  with  the  eman- 
ation, or  radio-active  gas  obtained  from  radium.  Ruther- 
ford and  Soddy  investigated  the  chemical  nature  of  the 
thorium  emanation  (Phil.  Mag.,  1902,  p.  580)  and  of  the 
radium  emanation  (ibid.,  1903,  p.  457),  and  came  to  the 
conclusion  that  these  emanations  are  inert  gases  which 
withstand  the  action  of  reagents  in  a  manner  hitherto 
unobserved  except  with  the  inembers  of  the  argon  family. 
This  conclusion  was  arrived  at  because  the  emanations 
from  thorium  and  radium  could  be  passed  without  alter- 
ation over  platinum  and  palladium  black,  chromate  of  lead, 
zinc  dust,  and  magnesium  powder,  all  at  a  red-heat. 

We  have  since  found  that  the  radium  emanation  with- 
stands prolonged  sparking  with  oxygen  over  alkali,  and 
also,  during  several  hours,  the  action  of  a  heated  mixture 
of  magnesium  powder  and  lime.  The  discharging  power 
was  maintained  unaltered  after  this  treatment,  and  inas- 
much as  a  considerable  amount  of  radium  was  employed 
it  was  possible  to  use  the  self-luminosity  of  the  gas  as  an 
optical  demonstration  of  its  persistence. 

In  an  experiment  in  which  the  emanation  mixed  with 
oxygen  had  been  sparked  for  several  hours  over  alkali,  a 
minute  fraction  of  the  total  mixture  was  found  to  discharge 
an  electroscope  almost  instantly.     From  the  main  quantity 

1  By  Sir  William  Ramsay,  K.C.B.,  F.R.S.,  and  Mr.  Frederick  Soddy. 
Received  at  the  Royal  Society  July  28. 


August  i 


1903] 


NATURE 


355 


ince  to  the  bodv^ 


owing  o  e^g  oxvgen  was  withdrawn  bv  ignited  phcs- 
hairs  ot  tne?^^  visible  residue  was  left.  When,  however, 
,  °'^f°J^fc,'as  was  introduced,  so  as  to  come  into  contact 
11. i  the  top  of  the  tube,  and  then  withdrawn,  the  eman- 
ation was  found  to  be  present  in  it  in  unaltered  amount, 
it  appears,  therefore,  that  phosphorus  burning  in  oxygen 
ind  sparking  with  oxygen  have  no  effect  upon  the  gas  so 
Ml-  as  can  be  detected  by  its  radio-active  properties. 

The  experiments  with  magnesium-lime  were  more  strictly 
quantitative.  The  method  of  testing  the  gas  before  and 
after  treatment  with  the  reagent  was  to  take  i /2000th  part 
of  the  whole  mixed  with  air,  and  after  introducing  it  into 
the  reservoir  of  an  electroscope  to  measure  the  rate  of  dis- 
charge. The  magnesium-liine  tube  glowed  brightly  when 
the  mixture  of  emanation  and  air  was  admitted,  and  it  was 
maintained  at  a  red-heat  for  three  hours.  The  gas  was 
then  washed  out  with  a  little  hydrogen,  diluted  with  air 
;ind  tested  as  before.  It  was  found  that  the  discharging 
power  of  the  gas  had  been  quite  unaltered  by  this  treat- 
ment. 

The  emanation  can  be  dealt  with  as  a  gas;  it  can  be 
extracted  by  aid  of  a  Topler  pump  ;  it  can  be  condensed  in 
a  U-tube  surrounded  by  liquid  air  ;  and  when  condensed  it 
can  be  "  washed  "  with  another  gas  which  can  be  pumped 
off  completely,  and  which  then  possesses  no  luminosity  and 
piactically  no  discharging  power.  The  passage  of  the 
emanation  from  place  to  place  through  glass  tubes  can  be 
followed  by  the  eye  in  a  darkened  room.  On  opening  a 
stopcock  between  a  tube  containing  the  emanation  and  the 
pump,  the  slow  flow  through  the  capillary  tube  can  be 
noticed  ;  the  rapid  passage  along  the  wider  tubes ;  the 
delay  caused  by  the  plug  of  phosphorus  pentoxide,  and  the 
sudden  diffusion  into  the  reservoir  of  the  pump.  When 
compressed,  the  luminosity  increased,  and  when  the  small 
bubble  was  expelled  through  the  capillary  it  was  exceed- 
^  ingly   luminous.       The  peculiarities  of  the   excited   activity 

^  left  behind   on    the   glass   by   the   emanation    could   also   be 

well  observed.  When  the  emanation  had  been  left  a  short 
time  in  contact  with  the  glass,  the  excited  activity  lasts 
only  for  a  short  time ;  but  after  the  emanation  has  been 
stored  a  long  time  the  excited  activity  decays  more  slowly. 

The  emanation  causes  chemical  change  in  a  similar 
manner  to  the  salts  of  radium  themselves.  The  emanation 
pumped  off  from  50  milligrams  of  radium  bromide  after 
dissolving  in  water,  when  stored  with  oxygen  in  a  small 
glass  tube  over  mercury  turns  the  glass  distinctly  violet  in 
a  single  night ;  if  moist  the  mercury  becomes  covered  with 
a  film  of  the  red  oxide,  but  if  dry  it  appears  to  remain  un- 
attacked.  A  mixture  of  the  emanation  with  oxygen  pro- 
duces carbon  dioxide  when  passed  through  a  lubricated 
stopcock. 

(3)  Occurrence  of  Helium  in  the  Gases  Evolved  from 
Radium  Bromide. 
The  gas  evolved  from  20  milligrams  of  pure  radium 
bromide  (which  we  are  informed  had  been  prepared  three 
months)  by  its  solution  in  water  and  which  consisted  mainlv 
of  hydrogen  and  oxygen  (cf.  Gicsel,  Ber.,  1003,  347)  was 
tested  for  helium,  the  hydrogen  and  o.xygen  being  removed 
by_  contact  with  a  red-hot  spiral  of  copper  wire,  partially 
oxidised,  and  the  resulting  water  vapour  bv  a  tube  of  phos- 

Iphorus  pentoxide.  1  he  gas  issued  into  a  small  vacuum- 
tube  which  showed  the  spectrum  of  carbon  dioxide.  The 
vacuum  tube  was  in  train  with  a  small  U-tube,  and  the 
latter  was  then  cooled  with  liquid  air.  This  much  reduced 
the  brilliancy  of  the  CO.,  spectrum,  and  the  D,  line  of 
helium  appeared.  The  coincidence  was  confirmed  by  throw- 
ing the  spectrum  of  helium  into  the  spectroscope  through 
the  comparison  prism,  and  shown  to  be  at  least  within  05 
of  an  Angstrom  unit. 

The  experiment  was  carefully  repeated  in  apparatus  con- 
-.tructed  of  previously  unused  glass  with  30  milligrams  of 
radium  bromide,   probably  four  or  five  months  old,   kindly 

Ilent  us  by  Prof.  Rutherford.  The  gases  evolved  were 
passed  through  a  cooled  U-tube  on  their  way  to  the  vacuum- 
tube,  which  completely  prevented  the  passage  of  carbon 
dioxide  and  the  emanation.  The  spectrum  of  helium  was 
obtained  and  practically  all  the  lines  were  seen,  including 
those  at  6677,  5876,  5016,  4^32,  4713,  and  4472.  There 
were  also  present  three  lines  of  approximate  wave-lengths, 
bi8o,  5695,  5455,  that  have  not  yet  been  identified. 

NO.    1763,  VOL.   68] 


On  two  subsequent  occasions  the  gases  evolved  from  both 
solutions  of  radium  bromide  were  mixed,  after  four  days' 
accumulation  which  amounted  to  about  25  c.c.  in  each 
case,  and  were  examined  in  a  similar  way.  The  D,  line 
of  helium  could  not  be  detected.  It  may  be  well  to  state 
the  composition  found  for  the  gases  continuously  generated 
by  a  solution  of  radium,  for  it  seemed  likely  that  the  large 
e.xcess  of  hydrogen  over  the  composition  required  to  form 
water,  shown  in  the  analysis  given  by  Bodljinder  (Ber.,  loc. 
cit.)  might  be  due  to  the  greater  solubility  of  the  oxygen. 
In  our  analyses  the  gases  were  extracted  with  the  pump, 
and  the  first  gave  286,  the  second  292  per  cent,  of  oxygen. 
The  slight  excess  of  hydrogen  is  doubtless  due  to  the 
action  of  the  o.xygen  on  the  grease  of  the  stopcocks,  which 
has  been  already  mentioned.  The  rate  of  production  of 
these  gases  is  about  05  c.c.  per  day  for  50  milligrams  of 
radium  bromide,  which  is  more  than  twice  as  great  as  that 
found  by  Bodlander. 

(4)  Production  of  Helium  by  the  Radium  Emanation. 

The  maximum  amount  of  the  emanation  obtained  from 
50  milligrams  of  radium  bromide  was  conveyed  by  means 
of  oxygen  into  a  U-tube  cooled  in  liquid  air,  and  the  latter 
was  then  extracted  by  the  pump.  It  was  then  washed  out 
with  a  little  fresh  oxygen,  which  was  again  pumped  off. 
The  vacuum  tube  sealed  on  to  the  U-tube,  after  removing 
the  liquid  air,  showed  no  trace  of  helium.  The  spectrum 
was  apparently  a  new  one,  probably  that  of  the  emanation, 
bui-  this  has  not  yet  been  completely  examined,  and  we 
hope  to  publish  further  details  shortly.  After  standing 
from  July  17  to  21,  the  helium  spectrum  appeared,  and  the 
characteristic  lines  were  observed  identical  in  position  with 
those  of  a  helium  tube  thrown  into  the  field  of  vision  at 
the  same  time.  On  July  22  the  yellow,  the  green,  the 
two  blues  and  the  violet  were  seen,  and  in  addition  the 
three  new  lines  also  present  in  the  helium  obtained  from 
radium.     A  confirmatory  experiment  gave  identical  results. 

We  wish  to  express  our  indebtedness  to  the  research 
fund  of  the  Chemical  Society  for  a  part  of  the  radium  usefl 
in  this  investigation. 


OJV  THE  INTENSELY  PENETRATING  RAYS 

OF  RADIUM.^ 
"D  ADIUM    is    known    to    emit    three    types    of    radiation. 
These  are  : — 
(i)   The  o  rays,  very  easily  absorbed  by  solids,  and  carry- 
ing a  positive  electric  charge. 

(2)  The  j3  rays,  more  penetrating  than  these,  and  nega- 
tively charged. 

(3)  The  7  rays,  intensely  penetrating,  and  not  conveying 
an  electric  charge  at  all. 

In  a  paper  published  in  the  Vhil.  Trans,  for  1901,  I 
investigated  the  relative  ionisations  of  gases  by  the  a  and 

0  rays.  The  present  communication  may  be  regarded  as 
a  sequel  to  that  one,  and  deals  with  the  7  rays. 

The  radium  employed  was  of  activity  1000  (uranium  =1), 
and  was  contained  in  a  glass  cell,  over  which  was  cemented 
a  piece  of  thin  aluminium.  The  cell  was  placed  in  a  cavity 
in  a  block  of  lead,   and  over  it  was  placed  a  disc  of  lead 

1  cm.  in  thickness.  This  it  was  considered  would  suffice 
to  suppress  all  but  the  7  rays,  which  are  much  the  most 
penetrating. 

In  measuring  the  electrical  leakage,  the  electroscope 
method  was  employed.  The  apparatus  was  that  described 
in  a  paper  published  in  the  Philosophical  Magazine  for 
June,  p.  (i8i. 

The  radium,  covered  by  the  thick  lead,  was  placed  under 
the  apparatus,  and  the  rate  of  leak  determined  when  the 
different  gases  filled  the  testing  vessel. 

The  conditions  were,  of  course,  arranged  so  as  to  use  a 
saturating  P^M.F.  The  7  rays  are  so  penetrating  that 
there  can  be  no  question  of  their  being  appreciably  absorbed 
in  a  moderate  thickness  of  gas. 

For  the  methods  of  preparation  of  the  gases  I  must  refer 
to  the  former  paper  {Phil.  Trans.,  A.,  vol.  excvi.,  1901, 
p.  508).  , 

1  By  Hon.  R.  J.  Strutt,  Fellow  of  Trinily  College,  Cambridge.  Com- 
municated to  the  Royal  Society  by  Lord  Rayleigh,  F.R.S.  Received 
August  5. 


35^ 


NATURE 


GUST 
[AUGL- 


13'  1903 


The  results  were  as  follows ;  the  rates  of  leak  are  given 
in  scale  divisions  per  hour,  and  are  corrected  to  30  inches 
pressure  : — 


Gas 

Rate  of  Leak 

Mean 

Hydrogen 

io'4,   io"5,  io'4,  1 1 'a,  10*4, 

II-2,  986,  lO-I,   IO-2 

lO'S 

Air      

65-2,  66-6,  66-6,  60  0,  57 -o, 
61-5,  60-2,630,  58-2,  58-3, 

566,  562 

62-1 

Oxygen       

75-0,  74-2,  710,  74-1   

73-6 

Carbon  dioxide 

96-0,   95-4,  94-5,  95"i.  94'i. 

947     

95 'o 

Cyanogen   

107,  104,  106,  106        

1060 

Sulphur  dioxide 

132,  126,  134,  135        

1320 

Chloroform         

297,298,290,  327        

303-0 

Methyl  iodide    

298,  292,  310,  291        

298-0 

Carbon  tetrachloride  .. 

363,  3Si>  344,  349        

352-0 

The  following  table  gives  the  relative  ionisations,  re- 
ferred to  air  as  unity.  The  values  of  the  same  constants 
for  the  a  and  J3  rays  formerly  found  are  included,  and  also 
measurements  of  relative  ionisation  under  Rontgen  rays. 
These  latter  form  part  of  an  investigation  not  hitherto 
published. 

Relative  lontsations. 


The  determinations  for  the  7  rays  are  less  accurate  than 
the  former  ones  for  the  a  and  3  rays,  on  account  of  the 
very  much  smaller  rales  of  leak  which  have  to  be  measured. 
I  think,  if  this  be  taken  into  account,  there  is  no  reason 
to  doubt  that,  within  the  limits  of  experimental  error,  the 
7  rays  give  the  same  values  as  the  j8  rays.  These  values 
are  nearly  proportional  to  the  density  of  the  gas,  except 
in  the  case  of  laydrogen.  The  law  which  holds  in  the  case 
of  Rontgen  rays  is  totally  different. 

This  conclusion  throws  some  light  on  the  nature  of  the 
j3  rays.  The  view  seems  to  be  gaining  ground  that  these 
are  Rontgen  rays,  produced  by  the  impact  of  the  j8  rays 
on  the  radium  itself.^  This  theory  seems  to  have  much  to 
recommend  it.  The  /8  rays  should,  by  analogy  with  the 
kathode  rays  in  a  vacuum  tube,  produce  Rontgen  rays 
when  they  strike  a  solid  obstacle,  and  these  Rontgen  rays 
should  be  much  more  penetrating  than  the  ;8  rays  them- 
selves. The  7  rays  seem  at  first  sight  to  be  just  what 
should  be  expected.  But  the  present  paper  shows  that  in 
one  respect,  at  all  events,  the  7  rays  behave  quite  differ- 
ently from  Rontgen  rays,  while,  on  the  other  hand,  they 
resemble  the  a  and  /8  rays.  There  seems  to  be  a  possibility 
that  they  too  are  of  a  corpuscular  nature,  though  uncharged 
with  electricity.  This  would  account  for  the  absence  of 
magnetic  deflection. 

I  do  not  think  that  the  absence  of  conspicuous  Rontgen 
radiation  is  very  hard  to  understand,  if  we  consider  that 
the  current  emitted  in  kathode  rays  by  a  square  inch  of 
intensely  active  radium  is  only  lo-^'  amperes;  the  current 
through  a  focus  tube  is  of  the  order  10-^  amperes,  and 
probably  a  great  part  of  this  is  carried  by  the  kathode 
ravs. 


1  See,  for  instance,  Madame  Ci 
Sciences,"  1903,  p.  83. 


NO. 


'  Theses  presentees  a  la  Faculty  des 

763,  VOL.  68] 


2)  and  its  annual 
\  as   the  most 
THE  COLORATION  OF  THE  QUA  . 

TT  is  well  known  that,  in  different  districts  of  th"elative  to 
-•■  the  zebras  of  the  type  commonly  known  as  Burchel^^" 
but  which,  for  reasons  elsewhere  given,  I  propose  to  calf 
"quaggas,"  present  distinct  and  easily  determinable 
colour  variations,  sufficiently  constant  in  character  to  be 
worthy  of  nominal  recognition.  Grant's  quagga  occurs  in 
North-East  Africa,  Crawshay's  quagga  in  Nyasaland, 
Selous's  quagga  in  Rhodesia,  and  Chapman's  quagga  in 
Angola.  Still  further  south  came  Burchell's  quagga,  and 
south  of  this  again  the  two  or  more  extinct  types  which, 
as  Mr.  Lydekker  has  shown,  pass  currently  as  the  quagga 
proper. 

The  first  and  last  of  this  category  are  the  extremes  in 
pattern  variation.  Grant's  quagga  may  claim  to  rank  as  one 
of  the  most  completely  striped  of  existing  horses.  Apart 
from  the  ears,  which  are  sometimes  nearly  white,  and  the 
muzzle  and  fetlocks,  which  are  usually  black,  he  is  a  mass 
of  stripes  from  head  to  tail,  from  hoof  to  spine ;  and  in 
sharpness  of  contrast  -between  the  blackness  of  the  stripes 
and  the  whiteness  of  the  interspaces,  he  rivals  the 
Abyssinian  race  of  Gravy's  zebra  and  the  Angolan  race  of 
the  mountain  species,  while  surpassing  both  in  the  inferior 
extension  of  the  stripes  to  the  middle  line  of  the  belly. 
Place  him  alongside  Gray's  quagga,  with  his  pale  stripe- 
less  limbs,  underside  and  hind-quarters,  his  brown  and  con- 
fusedly banded  body  and  fawn-lined  neck  and  head,  and 
you  will  hardly  believe  them  to  be  the  same  species.  _  Yet 
there  is  no  avoidance  of  the  conclusion,  since  all  inter- 
mediates have  been  seen  either  as  living  specimens  or 
mounted  skins.  And  one  of  the  chief  interests  centred  in 
the  existence  of  these  intermediates  lies  in  the  progressive- 
ness  of  the  change  this  species  undergoes  as  it  passes  from 
north  to  south  over  its  geographical  area.  Even  in  British 
and  German  East  Africa  the  pale  interspaces  on  Grant's 
quagga  begin  to  be  washed  with  brown,  and  to  be  filled 
in  with  narrower  intervening  stripes.  It  will  be  difficult, 
perhaps  impossible,  to  distinguish  such  forms  from  the 
quagga  of  the  Mashonaland  plateau.  The  latter,  indeed, 
may  be  taken  as  illustrative  of  the  first  step  in  the  change 
above  alluded  to  leading  from  Grant's  to  Gray's  quagga. 
From  it  may  be  traced  a  series  of  gradations  represented 
by  the  local  races  named  after  Chapman,  Wahlberg,  and 
Burchell,  in  which  the  stripes  gradually  disappear  and  thin 
out  upwards  from  the  fetlocks  to  the  shoulders  and 
haunches,  while  those  on  the  body  lose  their  connection  with 
the  mid-ventral  band,  and,  becoming  shorter,  leave  the  belly 
unstriped.  Concomitantly  the  intervening  "  shadow  " 
stripes  increase  in  number  and  definition  as  they  extend 
forwards  towards  the  neck,  the  normal  stripes  themselves 
turn  brown,  and  the  ochre-stained  ground  colour  deepens 
in  hue.  In  the  typical  form  of  Burchell's  quagga  the 
"  shadow  "  stripes  reach  the  head,  and  the  last  of  the 
complete  stripes  is  the  one  that  extends  backwards  from  the 
stifle  -to  the  root  of  the  tail,  the  hind-quarters  and  legs 
being  practically,  and  the  belly  actually,  stripeless.  It  is 
but  a  step  from  this  to  the  extinct  Gray's  quagga,  in  which 
the  stripes  of  the  body  were  fused  together  and  blended 
to  a  great  extent  with  the  brown  of  the  intervening  areas, 
those  on  the  neck  being  exceedingly  broad  and  broken  up 
by  paler  tracts  of  hair. 

The  tendency  of  these  modifications  is  to  convert  a  striped 
and  conspicuously  parti-coloured  animal  into  one  which, 
even  at  a  short  distance,  must  have  appeared  to  be 
an  almost  uniform  brown,  paling  into  cream  on  the  under- 
side, limbs  and  back  of  the  haunches.  What  is  the  mean- 
ing of  this  change?  Inferentially  we  may  conclude  it  was 
protective  in  the  sense  of  subserving  concealment. 

The  testimony  of  observers  in  the  field  has  established 
the  truth  that  the  coloration  of  the  coat  renders  a  zebra 
invisible  under  three  conditions,  namely,  at  a  distance  on 
the  open  plain  in  midday,  at  close  quarters  in  the  dusk  and 
on  moonlit  nights,  and  in  the  cover  afforded  by  thickets. 
The  procryptic  result  is  achieved  by  the  cooperation  of 
several  factors.  The  white  stripes  blend  with  the  shafts  of 
light  sifted  through  the  foliage  and  branches  and  reflected 
by  the  leaves  of  the  trees,  and  in  an  uncertain  light  or  at 
long  range  they  mutually  counteract  each  other  and  fuse 
to  a  uniform  grey.  It  is  probable,  too,  that  the  alternate 
arrangement  of  the  black  and  white  bars  contributes  some- 
thing to  the  effect  produced,  by  imparting  a  blurred  appear- 


\ 


August  13,  1903] 


NA  TURE 


357 


dispute  that  the  arrangement  and  nature  of  the  colours  in 
the  kiang  must  render  it  practically  invisible  when  stand- 
ing in  the  desert  at  a  distance.  But  this  is  not  all.  Why 
are  the  legs,  or  at  least  the  greater  part  of  them,  and  the 
backs  of  the  thighs  up  to  the  root  of  the  tail  also  white? 
This  is  doubtless  the  reason.  When  the  kiang  rests  on  the 
ground  in  the  attitude  characteristic  of  ungulates,  with  the 
hind-quarters  depressed,  the  fore-legs  folded  and  the  hind- 
legs  tucked  in  close  to  the  body,  the  white  on  the  back  of 
the  thighs  is  brought  into  line  with  that  of  the  belly,  and 
a  continuous  expanse  of  white,  obliterating  the  shadow, 
extends  all  along  the  underside  from  the  knee  to  the  root 
of  the  tail.  So,  too,  with  the  quagga.  This,  then,  is  the 
meaning  of  the  change  in  pattern  presented  by  the  African 
species  as  it  passed  southwards  into  Cape  Colony.  In 
correlation  with  the  adoption  of  a  life  in  the  open,  a  new 
method  of  concealment  by  means  of  shadow  counteraction 
was  required,  and  was  gradually  perfected  by  the  toning 
down  of  the  stripes  on  the  upper  side  and  the  suppression 
of  those  on  the  hind-quarters,  belly  and  legs. 

The  same  alignment  of  the  white  on  the  rump  and  belly 
may  be  seen  in  many  antelopes,  like  gazelles,  and  the  co- 
operation of  the  legs  in  increasing  the  underlying  area  of 
white  is  especially  well  shown  in  the  bonte-bok. 

Now  the  rump-patches,  be  it  noted,  only  subserve  the 
purpose  here  suggested  when  the  animals  that  possess  them 
are  lying  on   the  ground.     This,   however,   is  the  time,   as 

\  A  suspici  -lus  inconstancy  about  their  coloration  inclines  m.%  to  the 
opinion  that  these  ponies  are  the  descenJants  of  "runaways." 


ance  to  the  body  and  destroying  the  evenness  of  its  surface 
owing  to  the  difference  in  light-reflecting  power  between 
hairs  of  these  hues  to  which  domestic  horses  bear  witness. 
Moreover,  the  extension  of  the  stripes  to  the  very  edge  of 
the  body  and  legs  breaks  up  the  continuity  of  the  outline, 
and  this,  I  believe,  is  the  reason  for  the  alteration  in  their 
direction  on  the  hind-quarters  and  limbs,  so  that,  except  on 
the  forehead,  the  whole  animal  is  barred  transversely  with 
reference  to  its  spinal  and  appendicular  axes. 

We  have  also  the  positive  assurance  of  observers  that  the 
asses    of    the    deserts    of    North-East    Africa    are    perfectly 
adapted   to   their   surroundings   in   colour,    and   no  one  can 
doubt   that   the  assimilation   is  equally  perfect   in   the   case 
of  the  kiang  and  Prjevalsky's  ponies  '  of  Central  Asia.     In 
the  matter  of  colouring  the  kiang  forcibly  recalls  the  typical   ! 
quagga,  despite  a  decided  difference  in  the  deepness  of  the   ! 
brown  pervading  the  upper  parts  in  the  two  species.     Not-  j 
withstanding    this    difference,    there    can,    I    think,    be    no   ; 
question  that  the  explanation  to  be  given  of  the  significance   I 
of  the  colours  of  the  kiang  applies  with  equal  truth  to  the   | 
quagga.     This  explanation  is  the  hypothesis  of  the  counter- 
action  of   light    and    shade    put    forward    by    the   American    | 
artist,  Thayer.  i 

It  would  be  hard  to  find  a  better  and  simpler  instance  of    j 
this  style  of  coloration  than  the  kiang.     The  upper  parts  on    i 
which  the  light  falls  are  of  a  rich  ruddy  hue,  darker  than 
ordinary  sand,  while  the  muzzle,  the  lower  side  of  the  head, 
the  throat  and  the  belly  are  creamy  white.      Surely   no  one 
with   a   knowledge  of   the   truth    enunc  i  riiavfr   will 


they  drowsily  rest  or  chew  the  cud,  when  concealment  is 
of  the  greatest  importance  to  ungulates,  which  are,  for 
the  most  part,  clumsy'  risers,  and  slow  at  getting  under  way. 
When  standing  and  on  the  alert,  their  need  for  conceal- 
ment, though  seldoin  absent,  is  certainly  less,  and  when 
they  are  on  the  run  all  idea  of  it  is  thrown  to  the  winds. 
It  is  then  that  the  rump-patches  act,  as  Mr.  Wallace 
suggested,  as  danger  signals  and  "  foUow-the-leader  " 
marks,  showing  the  young  and  inexperienced  which  way 
to  go,  and  helping  the  members  of  a  herd  to  foregather  in 
the  dark  when  dispersed  by  the  panic  of  a  night  attack. 

The  pattern  of  a  zebra,  in  its  entirety,  is  also  believed  by 
Mr.  Wallace  to  have  a  double  significance  analogous  to  the 
above.  It  is  known  to  be  procryptic  ;  but  he  holds  that  it 
acts  as  a  badge  of  recognition,  enabling  the  zebras  to 
distinguish  their  own  kind  amongst  the  herds  of  other  beasts 
that  may  be  feeding  in  the  same  place.  It  may  be  so  ;  for 
although  seemingly  contradictory,  the  two  explanations  are 
not  mutually  exclusive.  The  procryptic  effect  of  the  pattern 
is  largely  a  matter  of  distance  and  light.  At  close  quarters 
in  broad  daylight  a  zebra  is  conspicuous  unless  under  cover, 
and  the  colouring  is  strikingly  unlike  that  of  other  animals. 
On  the  other  hand,  it  must  be  remembered,  as  I  have  else- 
where pointed  out  (Nature,  October  ii,  1900),  that  the 
species,  like  wildebeests,  zebras,  spring-buck,  or  even 
ostriches,  which  formerly  at  all  events  fed  together  upon 
the  veldt,'  are  so  dissimilar  in  size  and  shape  that  the  need 
for  a  distinctive  type  of  coloration  to  prevent  the  postulated 
likelihood  of  specific  confusion  can  hardly  have  been  a 
sufficiently  important  factor  in  survival  to  have  guided  the 
evolution  of  the  colour  for  the  purpose  supposed.  And  since 
we  have  evidence  of  the  best  kind  that  the  pattern  of  zebras 
and  quaggas  is  procryptic,  it  seems  unnecessary  to  look 
further  for  its  explanation.  R.  I.  PococK. 


AGRICULTURAL   NOTES. 


TN  the  recently  published  number  of  the  Journal  of  the 
South-eastern  Agricultural  College,  Wye,  Mr.  Theobald 
gives  an  account  of  some  injurious  flea-beetles  (Halticae) 
which  he  has  recently  studied.  He  finds  that  the  damage 
ascribed  to  the  turnip  "  fly  "  {Phyllotreta  nemorum)  is  very 
often  due  to  related  genera.  A  troublesome  attack  of  the 
"  fly  "  at  the  College  farm  drew  attention  to  a  new  culprit, 
Haltica  olcracea,  and  in  observations  made  in  Yorkshire, 
Carnbridge,  Huntingdon,  Surrey,  Kent  and  Devon,  this 
species  was  found  to  be  much  more  destructive  than  P. 
nemorum.  The  characteristics  of  five  injurious  genera  are 
described,  and  observers  are  asked  to  collect  and  report 
upon  these  very  destructive  insects.  Mr.  Theobald's  ex- 
perience leads  him  to  remark  that  "  The  present  economic 
entomologist  relies  on  the  past  economic  entomologist,  and 
so  errors  go  on  until  they  really  seem  facts.  .  .  .  John 
Curtis  wrote  the  most  excellent  article  on  the  turnip  flea 
that  can  be  imagined,  and  we  have  all  copied  it."  Mr. 
Theobald's  request  for  "  serious  reporting  and  collecting  " 
should  appeal  to  a  wider  circle  than  is  reached  by  the  College 
Journal.  The  entomologist  is  not  the  only  worker  who 
relies  on  the  achievements  of  the  past,  nor  is  economic 
entomology  the  only  branch  of  applied  science  that  may 
learn  something  from  this  study  of  the  Halticae. 

In  the  same  number  Principal  Hall,  until  recently  head 
of  the  College,  summarises  the  results  of  manurial  experi- 
ments on  the  hop,  which  have  been  carried  on  at  various 
centres  for  from  three  to  eight  years.  He  concludes  that 
the  hop  plant  is  "  an  all-round  feeder,"  in  this  respect 
differing  from  such  crops  as  swedes,  which  depend  mainly 
on  phosphates,  and  from  potatoes,  which  must  be  liberally 
dressed  with  potassic  manures.     No  one  special  manure  can 

i  These  odd  friendships  are  a  great  puzzle  ;  but  perhaps  the  following 
sugtestions  may  throw  some  light  upon  their  occurrence  and  uie.  It  is 
unlikely  in  the  extreme  that  all  the  species  concerned  have  their  sense 
organs  developed  to  an  equal  pitch  of  excellence.  In  one  the  sense  of 
smell,  in  another  the  sense  of  sight,  in  a  third  the  sense  of  hearing  will  be 
pre-eminently  keen.  Hence  the  sensory  imperfections  of  one  species  will 
be  made  good  by  the  proficiencies  of  the  others  ;  and  each  will  be  benefited 
by  the  association.  Ostriches,  for  instance,  in  virtue  of  their  stature  and 
long  sight,  will  see  an  enemy  in  open  country  at  a  much  greater  distance 
than  will  zebras  or  gnus,  and  will  give  the  alarm  by  starting  to  run.  Zebras, 
on  the  other  band,  will  scent  a  lion  creeping  up  under  cover  long  before  the 
ostriches  will  see  him  ;  and  by  making  off  will  warn  these  birds  and  other 
duller  scented  members  of  the  incongruous  assemblage  that  danger  is  afoot. 


NO.    1763,  VOL.   68] 


358 


NATURE 


[August  13,  1903 


be  recommended  to  hop-growers ;  the  first  point  in  successful 
management  must  be  to  ascertain,  and  make  good  the 
manurial  deficiencies  of  the  particular  soil.  In  some  cases 
phosphates,  and  in  others  potash,  may  be  found  profitable 
as  an  addition  to  a  dressing  of  a  nitrogenous  manure. 
Specific  instructions  are  given  for  the  manuring  of  the 
Farnham  hop  soils. 

To  part  i.  vol.  v.  of  the  Journal  of  the  Khedivial  Agri- 
cultural Society,  one  of  the  editors,  Mr.  E.  P.  Foaden,  con- 
tributes an  article  on  "  Manures  in  use  in  Egypt."  With 
the  rapid  advances  made  in  the  material  welfare  of  the 
country,  and  the  increased  use  of  irrigation,  there  has 
been  "  an  extraordinary  increase  In  the  value  of  land," 
and  the  subject  of  suitable  manures  for  use  in  intensive 
cultivation  is  a  pressing  one.  Nile  mud,  upon  which  the 
cultivators  have  so  largely  depended  in  the  past,  has  been 
proved  by  experience  to  be  insufficient,  and  by  analysis  to 
lack  nitrogen,  though  supplying  an  abundance  of  potash  for 
most,  and  of  phosphate  for  many,  crops.  The  supply 
of  farmyard  manure  is  very  inadequate.  In  Egypt  as  in 
India,  the  lack  of  wood  leads  to  the  use  ot  dried  cow-dung 
cakes  for  fuel.  Pigeon  manure  forms  a  concentrated 
fertiliser  extensively  used  in  Upper  Egypt,  and  dried 
sewage  is  becoming  popular.  Two  interesting  natural  pro- 
ducts are  mentioned  ;  one,  Coufri,  is  a  manure  collected  on 
ancient  village  sites,  but  it  is  of  low  quality,  seldom  contain- 
ing more  than  05  per  cent,  of  nitrogen  ;  the  other,  known  as 
Marog  or  Tafia,  is  a  blue  clay  or  a  marl  found  in  hills  iM  the 
deserts  in  Upper  Egypt.  This  is  an  important  manure  in 
common  use  in  parts  of  Upper  Egypt,  and  of  great  value 
to  the  country.  Analyses  of  seven  samples  are  quoted,  arfd 
these  show  that  Marog  contains  notable  quantities  (from 
25  to  24  per  cent.)  of  nitrate  of  soda,  associated  with  which 
is  common  salt.  The  percentage  of  salt  in  the  analyses 
quoted  varies  from  6-8  to  21-5,  but  there  is  no 
constant  relation  between  the  salt  and  nitrate  of  soda.  It 
is  suggested  that  Marog  might  be  treated  so  as  to  yield 
commercial  nitrate  oi  soda.  In  its  present  crude  form  the 
heavy  cost  of  transport  prevents  the  use  of  Marog  in  Lower 
Egypt.  The  article  deals  briefly  with  common  artificial 
manures  such  as  nitrate  of  soda,  sulphate  of  ammonia  and 
superphosphate,  all  of  which  are  now  being  imported  into 
Egypt  for  application  to  cotton,  sugar-cane,  and  the  more 
valuable  cereal  and  market-garden  crops. 

When  the  "  Sale  of  Milk  Regulations  "  came  into  force 
in  September,  1901,  the  standard  of  3  per  cent,  fat  and 
85  per  cent,  non-fatty  solids  required  by  the  Board  of 
Agriculture  was  regarded  as  being  very  low,  and  the 
opinion  was  freely  expressed  that  the  milk  of  well-fed, 
healthy  cows  was  rarely  so  poor  in  quality.  It  has  since 
been  shown  that  milk  is  more  variable  in  composition  than 
was  formerly  supposed,  and  that  a  sample  representing  a 
single  milking  may  frequently  contain  a  smaller  percentage 
of  solids  than  is  required  by  the  Board's  regulations. 
When  milk  is  drawn  at  equal  intervals,  the  mixed  milk  of 
a  herd  of  cows  will  usually  be  satisfactory,  but  if  the  milk 
of  the  individual  cows  be  tested,  it  will  be  found  to  show 
wide,  and  at  present  inexplicable,  variations.  On  this 
question  some  experiments  have  recently  been  made  by 
Messrs.  Dymond  and  Bull  at  Chelmsford,  under  the  auspices 
of  the  Essex  Technical  Instruction  Committee.  The  ex- 
periment consisted  in  testing,  twice  daily,  the  milk  of  six 
shorthorn  cows  which  were  housed,  fed  and  milked  under 
careful  supervision  and  under  favourable  conditions.  Two 
of  the  cows  were  under  observation  for  short  periods  only. 
The  following  figures  show  the  number  of  times  on  which 
the  milk  of  the  others  failed  to  reach  the  standard  : — 

lbs.  analyses 

Cow     I.   ...  308     ...     206     . 

,,    II.  ...  288    ...    206    . 

„    III.   ...   16  6     ...     156     . 
„    IV.   ...   i8-8     ...     206     . 

The  first  two  animals  were  in  full  milk,  having  calved 
six  weeks  before  the  test  began  ;  the  other  cows  had  calved 
eight  months,  and  were  beginning  to  go  dry.  The  feeding 
was  varied  in  the  course  of  the  experiments,  and  on  several 
occasions  the  animals  were  exposed  to  low  temperatures, 
but  the  milk  was  little,   if  at  all,   influenced.     The  quality 


Fat  de-  Non-fatty  solids 

ficient  deficient 


8  times     . 
"7      ,. 

.     68  times 
••     52      „ 
0      ,, 

0     „ 

0      ,, 

depended  on  the  cow,  not  on  the  conditions  under  which 
she  was  kept.  The  mixed  milk  did  not  fall  below  standard 
during  the  experiments,  but  the  analyses  given  indicate 
that  when  a  herd  is  largely  composed  of  newly-calved  cows 
the  milk  may  frequently  fall  below  standard. 

An  illustrated  article  in  a  recent  number  of  the  Scientific 
American  describes  scientific  poultry  raising  as  practised  on 
the  largest  poultry  farm  in  the  States  (at  Sidney,  Ohio). 
On  this  farm  3000  Leghorns  supply  on  an  average  200 
dozen  unfertile  eggs  for  culinary  purposes  per  diem,  and 
900  Plymouth  Rocks  produce  450  eggs  daily,  which  the 
hatchery — a  building  480  feet  long — converts  into  300 
healthy  chicks.  The  chicks,  when  a  day  old,  pass  to  the 
"  nursery,"  and  spend  a  month  in  this  building,  which  is 
capable  of  holding  6000  at  a  time.  They  then  pass  to  a 
second  building,  where  they  remain  until  three  months  old. 
The  chickens  are  not  allowed  to  mix,  but  are  divided  up  into 
small  colonies,  so  that  if  anything  goes  wrong  the  mischief 
is  prevented  from  spreading.  The  hens  are  provided  with 
automatic  nests,  so  constructed  that  the  egg  is  removed  as 
soon  as  it  is  laid  ;  the  new-laid  eggs  are  thus  collected  at 
once,  and  are  washed,  dated,  and  placed  in  refrigerators 
for  transport,  so  that  they  reach  their  destination  absolutely 
fresh.  Electric  light  is  employed  in  the  testing  of  eggs, 
and  the  progressive  poultryman,  assisted  by  the  researches 
of  the  U.S.  Department  of  Agriculture,  feeds  his  fowls  on 
the  most  approved  principles.  The  net  result  of  science 
in  the  poultry  yard  is  a  "  marvellous  development  of  the 
incubator  industry  "  and  of  the  poultry  business.  It  is 
stated  that  one  town  in  Illinois  turns  out  more  than  50,000 
incubators  a  year.  Among  leading  poultry  farms  are 
mentioned  those  of  ex-President  Cleveland  and  of  President 
Diaz,  of  Mexico. 


NO.    1763,  VOL.   68] 


UNIVERSITY    AND    EDUCATIONAL 
INTELLIGENCE. 

The  Royal  Commissioners  for  the  Exhibition  of  1851 
have  made  the  following  appointments  to  science  research 
scholarships  for  the  year  1903,  on  the  recommendation  of 
the  authorities  of  the  several  universities  and  colleges.  The 
scholarships  are  of  the  value  of  150I.  a  year,  and  are 
ordinarily  tenable  for  two  years  (subject  to  a  satisfactory 
report  at  the  end  of  the  first  year)  in  any  university  at 
home  or  abroad,  or  in  some  other  institution  approved  of  by 
the  Commissioners.  The  scholars  are  to  devote  themselves 
exclusively  to  study  and  research  in  some  branch  of  science, 
the  extension  of  which  is  important  to  the  industries  of 
the  country.  The  nominating  institutions  and  the  scholars 
are  as  follows  : — University  of  Glasgow,  A.  W.  Stewart : 
University  of  St.  Andrews,  D.  McLaren  Paul ;  University 
of  Birmingham,  N.  L.  Gebhard  ;  Yorkshire  College,  Leeds, 
R.  Gaunt ;  University  College,  Liverpool,  J.  F.  Spencer ; 
University  College,  London,  H.  Bassett ;  Owens  College, 
Manchester,  L.  Bradshaw ;  Durham  College  of  Science, 
T.  P.  Black ;  University  College,  Nottingham,  G.  Tatter- 
sall  ;  University  College,  Sheffield,  Catherine  Radford ;  Uni- 
versity College  of  North  W'ales,  Bangor,  K.  J.  Thompson  ; 
Royal  College  of  Science,  Dublin,  S.  A.  Edmonds;  Queen's 
College,  Belfast,  T.  B.  Vinycombe ;  McGill  University, 
Montreal,  H.  L.  Cooke ;  University  of  Sydney,  A.  Boyd. 
The  following  scholarships  granted  in  1902  have  been  con- 
tinued for  a  second  year  on  receipt  of  a  satisfactory  report 
of  work  done  during  the  first  year  : — LIniversity  of  Edin- 
burgh, J.  K.  H.  Inglis  ;  University  of  Glasgow,  A.  Wood  ; 
University  of  Aberdeen,  A.  C.  Michie ;  University  of 
Birmingham,  J.  A.  Lloyd;  Yorkshire  College,  Leeds,  H.  D. 
Dakin ;  University  College,  Liverpool,  F.  Rogers ;  Uni- 
versity College,  London,  E.  P.  Harrison  ;  Owens  College, 
Manchester,  G.  C.  Simpson  ;  Durham  College  of  Science, 
C.  R.  Dow;  University  College,  Sheffield,  G.  B.  Water- 
house;  Queen's  College,  Gal  way,  W.  Goodwin;  University 
of  Toronto,  W.  C.  Bray ;  Dalhousie  College,  Halifax, 
Nova  Scotia,  T.  C.  Hebb ;  University  of  Melbourne, 
R  Hosking ;  University  of  New  Zealand,  M.  A.  Hunter. 
The  following  scholarships  granted  in  1901  have  been 
exceptionally  renewed  for  a  third  year  : — Yorkshire 
College,  Leeds,  R.  B.  Denison ;  University  College, 
London,  G.  Owen  ;  University  College  of  London,  Dr.  G. 
Senter ;   University  College  of  North  Wales,   Bangor,  Alice 


August  13,  1903] 


NATURE 


359 


E.  Smith ;  McGill  University,  Montreal,  R.  K.  McClung ; 
Queen's  University,  Kingston,  Ontario,  Dr.  C.  W. 
Dickson. 

The  August  number  of  the  Fortnightly  Review  contains 
the  ninth  of  the  series  of  essays  by  Mr.  H.  G.  Wells, 
entitled  "  Mankind  in  the  Making/'  the  subject  being  the 
organisation  of  higher  education.  Among  many  other  im- 
portant considerations,  the  suggestions  made  for  "  suitable 
arrangements  of  studies  that  can  be  contrived  to  supply 
the  essential  substantial  part  of  the  college  course  "  are  of 
particular  interest.  The  first  such  course  proposed  is  an 
expansion  of  the  physics  of  the  school  stage,  which  may  be 
conveniently  spoken  of  as  the  natural  philosophy  course. 
"  Its  backbone  will  be  an  interlocking  arrangement  of 
mathematics,  physics,  and  the  principles  of  chemistry,  it 
will  take  up  as  illustrative  and  mind-expanding  exercises, 
astronomy,  geography,  and  geology  conceived  as  a  general 
history  of  the  earth.  Holding  the  whole  together  will  be 
the  theory  of  the  conservation  of  energy  in  its  countless 
aspects  and  a  speculative  discussion  of  the  constitution  of 
matter."  The  second  course  "  is  what  one  may  speak  of 
as  the  biological  course.  Just  as  the  conception  of  energy 
will  be  the  central  idea  of  the  natural  philosophy  course,  so 
the  conception  of  organic  evolution  will  be  the  central  idea 
of  the  biological  course.  A  general  review  of  ihe  whole 
field  of  biology — not  only  of  the  natural  history  of  the  pre- 
sent but  of  the  geological  record — in  relation  to  the  known 
laws  and  the  various  main  theories  of  the  evolutionary 
process  will  be  taken,  and  in  addition  some  special  depart- 
ment, either  the  comparative  anatomy  of  the  vertebrata 
chiefly,  or  of  the  plants  chiefly,  will  be  exhaustively  worked 
out  in  relation  to  these  speculations."  The  other  two 
college  courses  proposed  are  named  classical  and  historical 
respectively.  Of  a  purely  mathematical  course  Mr.  Wells 
writes,  "  few  people,  however,  are  to  be  found  who  will 
defend  the  exclusively  mathematical  '  grind  '  as  a  sound 
intellectual  training,  and  so  it  need  not  be  discussed  here." 
Educationists  who  study  the  paper  will  find  in  it  much 
material  for  thought. 

The  Home  Counties  Nature-Study  Exhibition  will  be 
held  at  the  offices  of  the  Civil  Service  Commission  (formerly 
the  buildings  of  the  University  of  London),  Burlington 
Gardens,  London,  W.,  on  October  30-November  3. 

Mr.  Andrew  Carnegie  has  presented  to  Dunfermline,  his 
native  town,  the  sum  of  half  a  million  sterling  in  Steel 
Trust  bonds,  to  be  employed,  among  other  purposes,  for 
the  advancement  of  technical  education  in  the  district,  which 
is  the  centre  of  the  linen  industry  in  Scotland. 

M.  Andover  has  been  appointed  professor  of  physical 
astronomy,  and  M.  Painlev6  professor  of  general  mathe- 
matics, at  the  University  of  Paris.  M.  Pad^,  of  the  Uni- 
versity of  Poitiers,  has  been  appointed  professor  of 
mechanics  at  the  University  of  Bordeaux,  and  M.  Leboeuf 
professor  of  astronomy  at  the  University  of  Besan^on. 

The  opening  address  of  the  Edinburgh  summer  meeting 
was  delivered  on  August  4  by  Sir  John  Murray,  who  re- 
viewed the  history  of  the  meetings,  and  explained  that 
this  year  the  special  subject  for  study  was  Edinburgh  and 
its  region.  The  chief  object  of  the  course  of  study  arranged 
was  to  train  teachers  of  nature-study  in  accordance  with 
the  present  requirements  of  English  and  Scottish  schools. 
Sir  John  Murray  gave  it  as  his  opinion,  at  the  conclusion 
of  his  address,  that  ''  the  great  battles  of  the  future  would 
be  not  between  man  and  man,  but  a  struggle  for  possession 
of  the  forces  of  the  earth ;  and  no  nation  could  hope  to 
keep  in  the  forefront  if  it  were  not  continually  making 
additions  to  the  sum  total  of  human  knowledge." 

An  Agricultural  Education  Bill  was  introduced  in  the 
House  of  Commons  by  Mr.  Collings  on  August  6.  It  is 
similar  to  the  one  which  passed  the  second  reading  in  1895. 
The  object  of  the  Bill  is  to  provide  for  the  teaching  in 
elementary  schools  of  agricultural  and  horticultural  sub- 
jects, to  give  facilities  for  nature-studies,  and  generally 
to  cultivate  habits  of  observation  and  inquiry  on  the  part 
of  the  pupils.  To  this  end  the  Bill  provides  for  school 
gaidens  and  such  collections  of  objects  as  may  be  necessary 
Sor   practical   illustration.       The   education   specified   in   the 

NO.    1763,  VOL.   68] 


Bill  is  to  be  compulsory  in  all  schools  in  rural  and  semi- 
rura!  districts.  The  Bill  cannot  be  proceeded  with  this 
session. 

The  prospectus  of  the  Department  of  Education  at  Owens 
College,  Manchester,  for  the  session  1903-4,  has  now  been 
published,  and  give's  full  particulars  of  the  courses  of  train- 
ing provided  for  teachers  in  primary  and  secondary  schools. 
The  instruction  received  by  primary  school  teachers  is  for 
the  most  part  of  an  undergraduate  standard,  while  that 
for  teachers  in  secondary  schools  is  of  a  post-graduate 
character.  Special  lectures  are  provided  for  those  who  are 
already  engaged  in  teaching,  and  opportunities  will  be 
offered  of  individual  study  and  research  in  education  without 
reference  to  any  preparation  for  a  diploma  or  certificate. 
Among  the  public  lectures  arranged  in  connection  with  the 
department  are  one  by  the  new  Sarah  Fielden  professor — 
Dr.  Findlay — on  training  for  the  teaching  profession,  and 
one  by  Prof.  M.  E.  Sadler  on  the  need  for  scientific  investi- 
gation in  education. 


SOCIETIES  AND  ACADEMIES. 
London. 

Royal  Society,  June  18.  —  "Separation  of  Solids  in  the 
Surface-layers  of  Solutions  and  'Suspensions.'"  Pre- 
liminary Account.  By  W.  Ramsden,  M.A.,  M.D.,  Oxon., 
F"ellow  of  Pembroke  College,  Oxford. 

In  this  paper  it  is  shown  that  the  free  surfaces  of  a  large 
number  of  colloid  solutions  become  coated  with  solid 
particles  derived  from  the  solutions  under  conditions  ex- 
cluding evaporation,  or  chemical  change  due  to  the  gases 
in  contact  with  the  free  surfaces.  This  is  the  case  not 
only  with  proteid  solutions  of  every  kind,  but  also  with 
solutions  of  certain  aniline  dyes,  soaps,  saponin,  methyl 
orange,  colloid  ferric  hydrate,  &c.  These  surface  coatings 
give  rise  to  an  intense  viscosity  confined  to  the  surface 
layers  and  absent  from  the  bulk  of  the  solutions.  In  some 
cases  the  solid  particles  become  mutually  coherent  to  form 
a  solid  membrane,  and  then  cause  an  intense  superficial 
resistance  to  "  shear."  A  magnetised  needle  floating  on 
the  surface  of  a  colloid  solution  as  limpid  as  water  may 
be  in  some  cases  so  rigidly  fixed  that  it  rotates  the  vessel 
containing  the  solution  if  this  be  suspended  by  a  thread 
and  a  magnet  be  brought  near. 

By  simple  mechanical  means,  adapted  to  produce  heap- 
ing up  of  any  surface  coatings,  masses  of  solid  material 
can  be  separated  from  all  these  solutions — in  some  cases 
when  they  contain  only  one  part  of  dissolved  solid  in  a 
million.  Various  solids  can  in  this  way  be  completely  re- 
moved from  solution  without  filtration,  addition  of 
chemicals,  or  necessary  alteration  of  temperature.  The 
"  mechanical  coagula  "  described  by  the  author  some  years 
ago  are  simply  heaped-up  surface  membranes  of  solid 
proteid. 

These  accumulations  at  the  free  surfaces  are  explained 
by  the  observation  that  the  dissolved  substances  are  always 
such  as  possess  the  property  of  diminishing  the  surface- 
tension  of  the  free  surface  of  water.  The  most  stable 
mechanical  arrangement  of  such  solutions  must  involve  a 
relative  concentration  of  the  dissolved  substance  at  any 
surfaces  the  surface-tension  of  which  can  be  thereby 
diminished,  and  in  some  cases  the  formation  of  a  coating 
of  de-soluted  solid  completely  separating  the  solution  from 
the  adjacent  medium. 

Every  limpid  solution  capable  of  forming  unusually  per- 
sistent thin  films  or  bubbles  yields  solid  or  highly  viscous 
"  mechanical  surface  aggregates,"  and  is  therefore  re- 
garded as  having  a  surface  coating  of  solid  or  highly  viscous 
matter.  On  some  of  these  bubbles  the  presence  of  a 
coherent  surface  membrane  can  be  directly  demonstrated  by 
their  behaviour  on  collapse.  Unusual  persistence  of  a  thin 
film  derived  from  a  limpid  solution  is  invariably  associated 
with  the  presence  of  solid  or  highly  viscous  particles  on  its 
free  surfaces.  Particles  of  this  nature  and  in  this  situ- 
ation would  act  partly  by  serving  as  points  d'appui,  partly 
by  offering  mechanical  resistance  to  deformation  of  the 
surface,  and  partly,  in  virtue  of  their  effect  upon  the 
"  surface  energy,"  by  calling  out  resistance  to  such  deform- 
ation as  would  expose  a  fresh  surface  of  greater  "  surface- 
tension." 


36o 


NATURE 


[August  13,  1903 


Precisely  similar  phenomena  are  met  with  at  the  inter- 
faces of  certain  immiscible  liquids  one  of  which  is  a 
solution,  and  the  great  persistence  of  many  emulsions  is 
due  mainly  to  the  accumulation  of  solid  or  highly  viscous 
particles  at  the  interfaces  of_  the  two  liquids. 

Superficial  resistance  to  "'shear,"  the  capability,  of  yield- 
ing "  mechanical  surface  aggregates  "  and  "  coagula,"  the 
possession  of  marked  bubbling-power,  and  the  formation  of 
very  persistent  emulsions  by  certain  limpid  liquids,  are  all 
explained  as  due  to  the  accumulation  of  certain  substances 
in  a  solid  or  highly  viscous  condition  at  the  surfaces  con- 
cerned, and  to  the  physical  properties  of  the  matter  thus 
accumulated. 

Paris. 

Academy  of  Sciences,  August  3. — M.  Albert  Gaudry  in 
the  chair. — The  relations  between  multi-fluid  batteries,  by 
M  Berthelot. — Remarks  concerning  the  relations  between 
batteries  formed  of  the  same  liquids,  between  two  different 
or  identical  electrodes,  by  M.  Berthelot. — On  a  double 
carbide  of  chromium  and  tungsten,  by  MM.  Henri  Moiasan 
and  A.  Kouznetzovw.  A  double  carbide  of  chromium  and 
tungsten  of  the  formula  CW2.3C2Cr3  has  been  prepared 
by  two  different  methods.  It  is  similar  to  analogous  com- 
pounds indicated  by  MM.  Carnot  and  Goutal  as  existing  in 
metallurgical  products.  The  carbide  is  very  stable,  not 
attacked  by  acids  or  by  ordinary  reagents,  and  is  remark- 
able for  its  extreme  hardness,  scratching  quartz  and  topaz 
with  ease.  It  is  possible  that  this  compound  may  be 
formed  by  the  addition  of  tungsten  to  chrome  steels,  and 
may  be  the  cause  of  some  of  the  special  properties  of  these 
steels. — Does  arsenic  exist  in  all  the  organs  of  the  animal 
economy?  by  M.  Armand  Gautier.  A  review  of  the  work 
done  on  this  question  since  the  author's  first  memoir  in 
1899,  together  with  a  minute  study  of  the  influence  of 
arsenic  in  the  reagents  on  the  results. — The  addition  of 
hydrogen  to  aldehydes  and  ketones  by  catalysis,  by  MM. 
Paul  Sabatier  and  J.  B.  Senderens.  The  direct  action 
of  hydrogen  in  presence  of  reduced  nickel  at  a  low  tempera- 
ture readily  transforms  aldehydes  and  ketones  into  the 
corresponding  alcohols.  The  method  possesses  the  advan- 
tag;^  of  furnishing  the  alcohols  free  from  secondary  pro- 
ducts, and  in  high  yields. — The  residue  of  secular  perturb- 
ations, by  M.  Jean  Mascart. — On  quasi-periodic  functions, 
by  M.  Esclangon. — On  the  functions  of  n  variables  re- 
presented by  series  of  homogeneous  polynomials,  by  M.  H. 
Dulac- — On  the  integrals  of  S.  Lie,  by  M.  N.  Saltykow. 
— On  the  changes  in  phase  resulting  from  the  normal  re- 
flection in  quartz  on  silver,  by  MM.  J.  Mac6  de  Lepinay 
and  H.  Buisson. — A  description  of  an  instrument  designed 
to  measure  accurately  the  optical  constants  of  microscope 
objectives  and  eye-pieces,  by  M.  V.  Legrros. — On  telekine, 
by  M.  L.  Torres.  The  name  telekine  is  applied  by  the 
author  to  a  system  of  a  spring  and  governor,  controlled 
from  a  distance  by  wireless  telegraphy.  Among  the  appli- 
cations suggested  by  the  author  as  possible  are  the  direc- 
tion of  submarine  torpedoes  and  of  balloons. — New  laws  of 
tonometry,  deduced  from  Raoult's  experiments,  by  M.  E. 
Wickersheimer. — Pressure  curves  of  univariant  systems 
containing  one  gaseous  phase,  by  M.  A.  Bouzat.  Four 
groups  of  univariant  systems  are  distinguished,  for  which 
it  is  found  that  the  ratio  of  the  absolute  temperatures 
corresponding  to  a  given  pressure  in  any  two  systems  of  the 
same  group  is  constant  for  any  value  of  the  pressure.  This 
is  equivalent  to  the  proposition  that  the  variation  of 
entropy  resulting  from  the  liberation  of  one  molecule  of 
gas  under  a  given  pressure  has  the  same  value  for  all 
systems  in  one  group. — The  estimation  of  pyridine  in 
aqueous  solution,  by  M.  Maurice  Frangois.  The  method 
is  based  on  the  formation  of  the  chloroaurate, 
C3H,N.HCl.AuCl3,  and  its  insolubility  in  ether.  The 
chloroaurate  is  ignited,  and  the  amount  of  pyridine  deduced 
from  the  weight  of  gold  left. — On  secondary  amides,  by 
M.  Tarbouriech.  By  the  action  of  acid  chlorides  upon 
primary  amides  in  sealed  tubes  at  iio°-ii5°,  several  mixed 
secondary  amides  have  been  prepared,  the  physical  and 
chemical  properties  of  which  are  given. — The  reduction  of 
the  ethereal  salts  of  acids  of  complex  function,  by  MM.  L. 
Bouveault  and  G.  Blanc. — The  action  of  phenyl  hydrazine 
on  alkyl  bromides  and  iodides,  by  M.  J.  Allain  Le  Canu. 
— Thermochemical  researches  on  colouring  matters. 
Rosaniline  and  pararosaniline,   by   M.   Jules  Schmidlin. — 

NO.    1763,  VOL.  68] 


On  the  estimation  of  ammonia  in  wine  and  its  use  in 
differentiating  mistelles  from  liqueur  wines,  by  M.  J. 
Laborde. — On  the  salol  ferment  present  in  certain  samples 
of  milk,  by  M.  A.  Desmouli6re.  Remarks  on  a  paper 
on  the  same  subject  by  MM.  Miele  and  Willem. — On  the 
properties  and  chemical  composition  of  the  phospho-organic 
reserve  material  of  pl^pts  containing  chlorophyll,  by  M.  S. 
Poster nak.  It  is  shown  that  the  phospho-organic  reserve 
material  of  green  plants  possesses  characteristic  properties 
by  means  of  which  it  can  be  easily  differentiated  from  other 
phosphorus  compounds  already  known. — Excretion  in 
hydroids,  by  M.  A.  Billard. — The  mechanical  laws  in  the 
development  of  the  skull  of  Cavicornes,  by  M.  U.  Duerst. 
— The  digestive  apparatus  of  the  Silphidae,  by  M.  L. 
Bordas. — On  the  Heteropods  collected  during  the  voyages 
of  the  Hirondelle  and  the  Princesse  Alice,  made  under  the 
direction  of  the  Prince  of  Monaco,  by  M.  A.  Vayssiftre. 
— Sections  of  the  Tertiary  strata  of  Patagonia,  by  M. 
Andr6  TournouSr. — On  the  geological  constitution  of  the 
district  of  Mirsa  Matrouh,  by  M.  D.-E.  Pachundaki. 
— The  sensitisers  of  the  tubercle  bacillus,  by  MM.  J.  Bordet 
and  O.  Gengou. 

New  South  Wales. 
Royal  Society,  June  3.— Mr.  F.  B.  Guthrie,  president,  in 
the  chair. — Language  of  the  Bungandity  Tribe,  South 
Australia,  by  Mr.  R.  H.  Mathews.  The  paper  dealt  with 
the  grammatical  structure  of  the  aboriginal  tongues  of  the 
tribe.  The  author  also  briefly  referred  to  the  social  organisa- 
tion of  South  Australian  tribes  from  the  Lake  Eyre  basin 
to  Port  Lincoln  and  Mount  Gambier. — Notes  on  tide 
gauges,  with  description  of  a  new  one,  by  Mr.  G.  H. 
HalliKan.  The  author  gave  a  brief  history  of  the  develop- 
ment of  the  automatic  tide  recorders,  and  exhibited  a  new 
gauge  of  his  own  design. 


CONTENTS.  PAGE 

The  University  in  the  Modern  State.     V 337 

The   Spectroscope   in  Astronomy.     By  Prof.   R.  A. 

Gregory 338 

The  Germinal  Layers  of  the  Vertebrata 341 

Psychological  Studies.     By  W.  McD 342 

Our  Book  Shelf:— 

The  Curaior  :   "  A  Gloucestershire  WiM  Garden"  .    .  342 

"  Geographen-Kalender  "        343 

Mell  :   "  Biological  Laboratory  Methods "    .        .    .    .  343 
Dixie:    "  Ijian  ;   or,    the    Evolution    of    a   Mind"; 

*'  Isola  ;  or,  the  Disinherited  " 343 

Letter  to  the  Editor  :— 

Radio-active  Gas  from  Bath  Mineral  Waters.  — H.  S. 

Allen 343 

The  Southport  Meeting  of  the  British  Association.  344 
The    Centenary    of     Heidelberg    University.      By 

M.  W 345 

British  Medical  Association  Swansea  Meeting.     By 

F.  W.  T 346 

Ventilation  of  Factories  and  Workshops 346 

Graham  Bell's  Tetrahedral  Cell  Kites.     {Illustrated.)  347 

Bible  and  Babel 349 

Notes 349 

Our  Astronomical  Column  : — 

Borrelly's  Comet  (1903  6') 353 

Projection  on  Mars 353 

The  Satellite  of  Neptune 353 

The  Estimation  of  .Stellar  Temperatures 353 

Observations  of  the  Minima  of  Mira 354 

The  Size  of  Stellar  Systems 354 

Recently  Determined  Stellar  Parallaxes        354 

Experiments  in  Radio-Activity,  and  the  Produc- 
tion of  Helium  from  Radium.  By  Sir  William 
Ramsay,    K.C.B.,    F.R.S.,    and    Mr,    Frederick 

Soddy 354 

On  the  Intensely  Penetrating  Rays  of  Radium,    By 

Hon.  R.  J.  Strutt 355 

The  Coloration  of  the  Quaggas.      {IlhisiratedA     By 

R.  I.  Pocock 356 

Agricultural  Notes 357 

University  and  Educational  Intelligence 358 

Societies  and  Academies 359 


NATURE 


361 


THURSDAY,   AUGUST  20,    1903. 


RIVER  IMPROVEMENT. 
The  Improvement  of  Rivers.  A  Treatise  on  the 
Methods  Employed  for  Improving  Streams  for  Open 
Navigation,  and  for  Navigation  by  means  of  Locks 
and  Dams.  By  B.  F.  Thomas  and  D.  A.  Watt, 
U.S.  Assistant  Engineers,  Members  Am.  Soc.  C.E. 
Pp.  xiv  +  356.  (New  York:  John  Wiley  and  Sons; 
London:  Chapman  and  Hall,  Ltd.,  1903.)  Price 
255.  6d.  net. 

IN  their  preface  the  authors  state  that  they  know 
of  no  recent  book  which  treats  of  the  improvement 
of  rivers  except  in  a  general  way,  possibly  because  they 
seem  not  to  be  aware  of  the  existence  of  a  book, 
"Tidal  Rivers,"  published  in  1893,  and  have  not 
apparently  heard  of  the  issue  of  a  second  edition  in 
1896,  rewritten  and  enlarged,  of  "  Rivers  and  Canals," 
from  the  first  edition  of  which,  published  in  1882,  they 
quote  a  long  extract  on  the  principles  which  should 
govern  the  improvement  of  tidal  rivers.  Undoubtedly, 
if  the  authors  of  these  two  books  had  confined  their 
attention  to  the  rivers  of  the  United  Kingdom,  there 
would  have  been  little  matter  in  them  properly  applic- 
able to  American  practice,  owing  to  great  differences 
in  the  phvsical  conditions  of  the  two  countries ;  but 
both  these  books  range  over  a  very  wide  field,  and 
deal  with  the  improvement  of  rivers  in  various  parts 
of  the  world,  including,  of  course,  rivers  in  the  United 
States.  Though,  however,  there  is  not  such  a  com- 
plete dearth  of  books  describing  the  methods  of  im- 
provement of  rivers  with  extensive  basins,  as  the 
authors  intimate  in  their  preface,  and  on  account  of 
which  they  express  the  hope  that  their  book  will  supply 
a  much  needed  want,  it  is  certain  that  the  detailed 
descriptions  of  American  methods  and  experience  re- 
lating to  the  regulation  and  canalisation  of  large  non- 
tidal  rivers,  will  be  of  great  service,  not  merely  to 
those  engaged  in  such  works  in  the  United  States,  but 
also  to  all  engineers  who  have  to  deal  with  large 
problems  of  river  improvement  in  countries  containing 
vast  drainage-areas,  as  met  w^ith  in  eastern  Europe, 
Asia,  Africa,  and  Australia,  as  well  as  in  North  and 
South  America. 

The  largest  river-basin  of  the  United  Kingdom,  that 
of  the  Thames,  with  an  area  of  only  5244  square  miles, 
owing  to  the  comparatively  restricted  extent  of  the 
British  Isles,  sinks  into  insignificance  when  compared 
with  the  Mississippi,  having  the  largest  drainage-area 
of  the  rivers  of  North  America,  amounting  to  1,244,000 
square  miles,  which,  in  its  turn,  is  exceeded  by  two 
river-basins  in  South  America,  namely,  the  La  Plata 
with  a  basin  of  1,600,000  square  miles,  and  the 
Amazon  with  a  basin  of  about  2,250,000  square  miles, 
the  largest  in  the  world.  Accordingly,  there  is  little 
scope  in  the  United  Kingdom  for  regulation  works, 
and  even  for  canalisation,  which  have  enabled  inland 
navigation  to  be  considerably  improved  and  extended 
along  the  large  rivers  of  North  America.  On  the 
other  hand,  there  have  not  been  the  same  opportunities 
in  America  for  the  great  increase  in  depth  of  small 
tidal  rivers,  by  dredging  and  training  works,  affording 

NO.   1764,  VOL.  68] 


access  to  seaports,  as  has  been  effected  in  Great  Britain 
in  the  Tyne,  the  Clyde,  and  the  Tees,  though  access 
for  sea-going  vessels  has  been  extended  from  Quebec 
to  Montreal  by  dredging,  in  the  St.  Lawrence ;  whilst 
the  most  important  works  carried  out  in  the  United 
States  at  the  outlet  of  a  river,  are  the  parallel  jetties 
which  were  constructed  several  years  ago  in  extension 
of  the  South  Pass  of  the  tideless  and  deltaic  Mississippi, 
across  the  bar  encumbering  its  mouth,  in  order  to 
concentrate  the  scour  over  the  bar  and  thus  deepen  the 
outlet  channel. 

The  authors  deal  very  briefly  with  the  improvement 
of  river  outlets  in  a  single  chapter  of  only  ten  pages, 
stating  that  this  important  subject  would  require  a 
volume ;  and  after  quoting  at  full  length  the  principles 
laid  down  by  an  English  engineer  for  the  improvement 
of  tidal  and  non-tidal  river  outlets,  and  alluding  to 
the  experiments  with  working  models,  carried  out  by 
the  same  engineer,  on  the  effects  of  training  works 
in  tidal  estuaries,  they  refer  to  the  method  of  improve- 
ment by  jetties,  and  conclude  with  a  short  account  of 
the  jetty  works  completed  at  the  outlet  of  the  South 
Pass  in  1879,  and  those  authorised  last  year  for  obtain- 
ing a  navigable  depth  of  35  feet  at  the  outlet  of  the 
South- W^est  Pass  of  the  Mississippi.  The  book, 
accordingly,  really  relates  to  the  improvement  of  the 
inland  portions  of  large  rivers  for  navigation  by 
regulation  works  or  canalisation,  in  which  the  authors, 
as  assistant  engineers  in  the  Government  Department 
of  the  United  States,  which  has  control  of  all  the 
rivers,  have  wide  practical  experience,  and  for  which 
the  book  furnishes  a  very  valuable  guide.  This  large 
quarto  volume,  with  349  pages  of  text,  and  illustrated 
by  numerous  pages  of  drawings,  diagrams,  and  photo- 
graphic reproductions  dispersed  throughout  the  book, 
and  eighteen  plates  of  detailed  drawings  at  the  end, 
together  with  a  few  blocks  in  the  text,  deals  with  the 
improvement  of  rivers  in  three  distinct  parts ;  the 
general  characteristics  of  rivers  and  their  surveys  being 
considered  in  the  first  part,  the  improvement  of  open 
rivers  in  the  second  part,  and  the  improvement  of  rivers 
by  canalisation  in  the  third  part. 

The  first  part  is  divided  into  five  short  chapters, 
occupying  only  forty  pages  altogether,  treating 
respectively  of  introductory  matters,  the  characteristics 
of  rivers,  preliminary  examinations  and  surveys,  topo- 
graphical surveys  and  levelling,  and  hydrographic 
surveys.  This  part  is  mainly  concerned  with  the  pre- 
liminary data  which  require  to  be  obtained  before 
undertaking  works  of  improvement,  namely,  the 
physical  features  of  the  river,  consisting  of  the  amount 
of  the  rainfall  and  the  size  of  the  river-basin,  the  fall 
and  nature  of  the  river-bed,  the  sediment  brought 
down,  shoals,  bars,  and  changes  in  water-level ;  next, 
surveys  of  the  course  of  the  river;  and,  lastly,  cross- 
sections  of  the  channel,  and  measurements  of  the  dis- 
charges over  weirs  and  in  the  unimpeded  channel. 

The  second  part  is  divided  into  seven  chapters,  and 
covers  ninety-one  pages,  dealing  successively  with  the 
"  Removal  of  Bars  and  other  Obstructions," 
"  Regularisation,"  *'  Dykes  and  their  Effects,"  "Pro- 
tection of  Banks,"  "  Levees,"  "  Storage  Reservoirs," 
and  "  Improvement  of  River  Outlets."  The  first  of 
these  chapters  relates  to  the  various  devices  attempted 


362 


NATURE 


[August  20,  190^ 


for  stirring  up  the  materials  of  bars  and  shoals  so 
as  to  effect  their  removal  by  the  current,  the  different 
types  of  dredgers  and  their  capabilities,  and  the  clear- 
ing away  of  trunks  of  trees,  termed  snags,  and  wrecks 
from  the  navigable  channel.  The  most  interesting 
work  in  this  respect  is  the  formation  each  year,  during 
the  low  stage  of  the  Mississippi,  of  a  channel  for 
navigation,  about  250  feet  wide  and  9  feet  deep,  across 
sandy  shoals  in  certain  places  by  suction  dredgers, 
the  efficiency  of  which  is  increased  by  stirring  up  the 
sand  with  water-jets ;  and  in  1899  five  of  these  dredgers 
cut  about  62  miles  of  channel  at  the  average  rate  of 
105  lineal  feet  per  hour.  The  second  chapter  of  this 
part  lays  down  the  general  principles  on  which  the 
regulation  of  river,  channels  is  based,  with  the  object 
of  obtaining  greater  uniformity  of  depth ;  whilst  the 
following  chapter  describes  the  construction  of  spur 
and  longitudinal  dykes,  which  are  sometimes  sub- 
merged, by  which  the  regulation  is  effected,  a  system 
which  has  been  successfully  applied  to  several  of  the 
larger  rivers  of  Europe,  as  well  as  in  America. 

The  protection  of  banks  aims  mainly  at  the  preven- 
tion of  prejudicial  changes  in  the  course  of  a  river  by 
the  erosion  of  the  concave  banks  in  flood-time ;  and  it 
is  accomplished  by  pitching,  rubble  stone,  fascines, 
brush  mattresses,  or  occasionally  submerged  spurs. 
Levees,  consisting  of  eartheri.  embankments,  formed 
along  the  banks  of  a  river  to  prevent  the  river  from 
inundating  the  riparian  lands  in  flood-time,  are  rather 
works  for  the  protection  of  property  than  for  river 
improvement;  but  to  effect  their  purpose  they  must 
be  watertight,  continuous,  and  have  their  tops  above 
the  highest  floods,  which  necessarily  have  their  water- 
level  raised  by  being  confined  within  the  banks. 
Several  rivers  in  Europfe  have  been  controlled  by  em- 
bankments, notably  the  Po,  the  Loire,  and  the  Theiss ; 
and  levees  have  been  extensively  carried  out  on  the 
Mississippi  below  Cairo  and  some  of  its  tributaries, 
the  total  expenditure  on  these  works  in  the  United 
States  being  estimated  at  about  10,000,000^,  up  to  the 
present  time,  for  a  length  of  1436  miles ;  whilst  con- 
siderable additions  to  the  Mississippi  levees  are  pro- 
jected. These  embankments,  however,  are  liable  to 
be  occasionally  overtopped  and  breached  by  an  ex- 
ceptional flood;  and  in  alluvial  plains,  as  in  the  case 
of  the  Mississippi,  they  are  exposed  to  undermining 
by  changes .  in  the  course  of  the  river,  in  spite  of 
regulating  works ;  and  the  rush  of  vvater  through  the 
gap  formed  in  the  bank  produces  considerable  devasta- 
tion over  the  adjacent  low-lying  lands.  Rivers  bring- 
ing along  large  quantities  of  detritus  in  their  torrential 
flow  down  steep  mountain  slopes,  and  abruptly 
emerging  into  flat  plains,  are  liable  to  raise  their  beds 
by  the  deposit  of  sediment,  owing  to  loss  of  velocity, 
when  confined  within  embankments,  a  result  which 
occurs  in  the  Yellow  River  of  China  and  some  Japanese 
rivers;  and  under  such  conditions,  when  the  embank- 
ments are  successively  raised  to  compensate  for  the 
rising  of  the  river-bed,  a  terrible  catastrophe  is  a  mere 
question  of  time,  due  to  the  precipitation  of  the  raised 
and  imprisoned  river  through  a  weak  place  in  the 
embankments,  with  irresistible  force  and  rapidity,  into 
the  plains  below. 

The    chapter    on    "  Storage    Reservoirs  "    consists 

NO.   1764,  VOL.  68] 


almost  entirely  of  extracts  from  a  report  by  Captain 
Chittenden  on  "  Reservoir  Sites  in  Wyoming  and 
Colorado,"  a  method  of  compilation  employed  in 
several  of  the  earlier  chapters,  though  to  a  minor 
extent,  and  also  in  the  following  chapter  on  river  out- 
lets, already  referred  to.  Reservoirs  would  be  valuable 
in  river  valleys  in  serving,  like  lakes,  for  regulating 
the  flow  of  rivers  by  reducing  the  flood  discharge  and 
augmenting  the  low-water  flow.  It  is,  however,  only 
under  exceptional  conditions  that  reservoirs  can  be 
formed  extensive  enough,  at  a  reasonable  cost,  to 
increase  materially  the  flow  of  a  river  at  its  low  stage ; 
but  this  has  been  accomplished  by  damming  the  out- 
lets of  some  lakes  near  the  sources  of  the  Volga  and 
Msta  in  Russia,  extending  the  navigable  period  of 
those  rivers  by  nearly  three  months;  whilst  a  similar 
improvement  has  been  effected  in  the  Upper  Mississippi 
by  raising  the  water-level  of  several  lakes  near  the 
head-waters  of  the  river,  a  system  which  might  be 
considerably  extended  in  this  case,  owing  to  the 
immense  number  of  lakes  existing  near  its  sources. 
The  formation  of  reservoirs  at  intervals  along  a  river 
valley  would  greatly  reduce  the  flood  discharge  by 
impounding  the  flood-waters,  but  the  conditions  are 
rarely  favourable;  and  the  cost  of  construction,  and 
the  extent  of  land  submerged,  present  insuperable 
obstacles  to  the  adoption  of  this  system,  merely  for 
the  mitigation  of  floods,  in  the  great  majority  of  cases. 
Several  reservoirs,  however,  have  been  constructed  in 
Europe  for  storing  up  water  for  water-power  for  in- 
dustrial purposes,  as  well  as  for  the  mitigation  of 
floods,  with  successful  results,  as,  for  instance,  the 
Furens  and  Ternay  reservoirs  in  France,  and  the 
Dahlhausen  reservoir  on  the  Wappen  in  Germany,  the 
provision  for  floods  being  effected  by  keeping  the 
reservoir  drawn  down  to  a  definite  extent  below  its 
full  water-level  for  iheir  reception. 

The  third  part,  relating  to  the  canalisation  of  rivers, 
occupies  one  hundred  and  forty-one  pages,  or  rather 
more  than  half  the  regular  text  of  the  book,  and  is 
divided  into  ten  chapters,  the  three  first  dealing  with 
locks  and  lock  gates,  the  fourth  with  fixed  dams  on 
rivers,  and  the  remainder  with  the  various  types  of 
movable  weirs,  which  constitute  the  more  novel  and 
most  interesting  portion  of  the  subject.  Though  the 
first  movable  weir  appears  to  have  been  the  bear-trap 
weir  erected  in  1818  across  the  Lehigh  River  in  the 
United  States,  consisting  of  two  gates  or  shutters 
turning  on  horizontal  axes  on  the  sill,  and  one  resting 
on  the  edge  of  the  other,  the  principal  types  of  movable 
weirs  were  gradually  introduced  in  France  between 
1834  and  1885;  and  most  of  these  French  forms  have 
been  reproduced,  on  a  larger  scale,  on  some  of  the 
rivers  of  the  United  States ;  whilst  the  American  bear- 
trap  weir  was  adopted,  with  improvements,  at  Laneu- 
ville-au-Pont  on  the  River  Marne,  in  France,  about  the 
middle  of  the  nineteenth  century. 

The  object  of  these  movable  weirs  is  to  leave  the 
channel  of  a  river  quite  unimpeded  in  flood-time  for 
the  passage  of  the  flood  discharge,  and  occasionally  of 
vessels  when  the  lock  is  submerged,  whilst  retaining 
the  water-level  of  the  river  above  it  at  a  sufficient 
height  for  navigation  in  dry  weather;  and  the 
three   chief   French   types   are   the   Needle   Weir,    the 


August  20,  1903] 


NATURE 


;63 


Chanoine  Shutter  Weir,  and  the  Drum  Weir.  The 
needle  weir  consists  of  a  series  of  wooden  spars  resting 
against  a  bar  at  the  top  across  the  weir,  carried  on 

(a  row  of  iron  frames  providing-  a  foot-bridge,  and 
against  a  sill  at  the  bottom,  though  of  late  years  sliding 
panels  or  rolling-up  curtains  have  been  often  substi- 
tuted for  the  spars  or  needles ;  and  this  type  of  weir 
has  been  adopted  for  the  first  time  in  the  United  States 
for  a  weir  across  the  Big  Sandy  River  at  Louisa,  in 
Kentucky,  with  large  inverted  V-shaped  frames  placed 

8  feet  apart,  and  lying  one  inside  the  other  when 
lowered  on  the  apron  in  flood-time,  and  closed  by 
needles  having  the  exceptional  dimensions  of  12  inches 
width,  14  feet  length,  and  8^  inches  thickness  at  the 
bottom  and  45  inches  at  the  top.  which  are  handled  by 

i  a  floating  derrick.  The  frame  weir  suspended  from  an 
I  overhead  bridge,  so  that  all  the  movable  parts  can  be 
raised  out  of  the  river  in  flood-time,  as  resorted  to  on 
the  Lower  Seine  at  Poses  and  Port-Mort,  and  the 
barriers  substituted  for  needles,  are  described  and 
illustrated  in  the  book,  but  have  not  hitherto  been 
adopted  in  the  United  States. 

The  Chanoine  shutter  weir  is  composed  of  a  series 
of  shutters  supported  centrally  on  a  trestle,  and  turn- 
ing on  a  horizontal  axis,  the  trestle  being  maintained 
in  an  upright  position  by  a  prop,  resting  at  its  lower 
extremity  in  a  cast-iron  shoe  fixed  to  the  apron  when 
the  river  is  closed;  and  the  weir  is  opened  by  with- 
drawing the  props  from  their  shoes,  causing  the  trestles 
to  fall  flat  on  the  apron,  with  the  shutters  on  top  of 
them  in  a  horizontal  position.  Owing  to  the  rapidity 
\.  with  which  it  can  be  opened,  this  type  of  weir  is 
advantageous  for  rivers  subject  to  sudden  floods ;  and 
it  has  been  adopted  in  the  United  States  across  the 
deep  navigable  passes  on  the  Ohio  and  Kanawha 
Rivers,  where  shutters  somewhat  larger  than  the 
biggest  in  France  have  been  erected. 

The  drum  weir  consists  essentially  of  an  upper  and 
an  under  paddle  revolving  on  a  central  horizontal  axis, 
the  row  of  upper  paddles  forming  the  weir;  and  the 
under  paddles,  revolving  in  the  quadrant  of  a  hori- 
zontal cylinder  forming  the  drum,  are  made  to  close  or 
open  the  weir  by  altering  the  water-pressure  on  their 
two  sides  in  the  drum,  so  that  when  the  head  of  water 
from  the  upper  pool  presses  on  the  upstream  side  of 
the  under  paddles,  the  upper  paddles  rise  against  the 

[current  of  the  river.  In  spite  of  the  perfect  control 
of  this  weir  which  the  under  paddles  afi"ord,  the  deep 
foundations  required  for  these  paddles  below  the  sill, 
exceeding  the  height  of  the  weir  above  it,  have 
hindered  its  general  adoption ;  and  since  the  comple- 
tion, in  1867,  of  a  series  of  these  weirs  in  the  canalisa- 
tion of  the  Marne,  a  tributary  of  the  Seine,  they  have 
only  been  used  in  Europe  for  timber  passes  at  the  side 
of  the  weirs  erected  across  the  River  Main  for  canal- 
ising  it   in    1883-6,    and   across    the   navigable   pass, 

9  feet  in  depth,  of  the  Spree  at  Charlottenburg.  A 
modified  form  of  drum  weir  has  been  quite  recently 
constructed  in  timber  across  the  Osage  River  in 
Missouri,  in  which  the  paddles  are  replaced  by  a 
sector  of  a  cylinder  which  fits  exactly  in  the  drum 
when  lowered,  and  closes  the  weir  when  raised.  The 
old  bear-trap  weir  fell  into  oblivion  for  many  years 
in  America;  but  within  the  last  few  vears  some  weirs 


NO.    1764,  VOL,  68] 


of  this  type,  of  improved  design,  have  been  constructed ; 
and  two,  placed  alongside  a  new  weir  near  Beaver 
on  the  Ohio  River,  each  120  feet  long  and  13  feet  high, 
serve  for  the  passage  of  drift  and  for  regulating  the 
discharge.  * 

Another  peculiar,  novel  type  of  weir,  also  forming 
part  of  the  new  weir  across  the  Ohio,  consists  of  a 
series  of  A-shaped  frames,  which,  as  in  other  frame 
weirs,  can  be  lowered  flat  on  the  bed  of  the  river  in 
flood-time ;  but  it  difi'ers  from  ordinary  frame  weirs 
in  the  frames  themselves  forming  the  barrier  for 
closing  the  weir,  by  being  constructed  with  a  widened 
plated  upstream  leg  touching  the  plates  of  the  legs  of 
the  adjacent  frames  when  standing  upright,  besides 
furnishing  a  support  for  the  foot-bridge  along  the  top 
of  the  weir. 

The  book  concludes  with  three  appendices,  giving 
the  dimensions  of  various  locks  and  weirs  in  the  L'nited 
States,  the  standard  specifications  adopted  for  certain 
river  works  and  materials,  and  laws  for  protecting  the 
waterways  in  the  United  States.  Altogether,  the  book 
alTords  a  large  amount  of  information  about  works 
carried  out  on  rivers  under  Government  in  the  United 
States ;  whilst  in  some  of  the  chapters,  such  as  those 
on  levees,  storage  reservoirs,  and  more  especially  those 
on  movable  weirs,  interesting  particulars  are  also  given 
of  European  works. 


■THE  FISHERMAN  IN  AMERICA. 

Bass,  Pike,  Perch,  and  Others.  By  James  A.  Hen- 
shall.  Pp.  xix  +  410.  (New  York:  the  Macmillan 
Company;  London  :  Macmillan  and  Co.,  Ltd.,  1903.) 
Price  Ss.  6d.  net. 

Big  Game  Fishes  of  the  United  States.  By  Chas.  F. 
Holder.  Pp.  xiv  +  435.  (New  York:  The  Mac- 
millan Company;  London:  Macmillan  and  Co., 
Ltd.,  1903.)     Price  85.  6d.  net. 

THESE  two  volumes  of  the  "  American  Sports- 
man's Library  "  deal  with  the  fishes  of  the 
United  States,  other  than  salmon,  trout,  and  char, 
from  the  sportsman's  point  of  view.  Although  the 
same  ground  is  to  a  certain  extent  covered  by  both, 
Dr.  Henshall  has  to  deal  with  numerous  species  in- 
habiting both  fresh  and  salt  water,  while  Mr.  Holder's 
volume  confines  itself  to  a  coriiparatively  small  num- 
ber of  marine  species,  and  this  naturally  results  in  the 
adoption  of  a  diff^erent  method  of  treating  the  subject 
by  the  two  authors;  this  much  they  have  in  common, 
that  both  have  produced  books  which  give  the  angler 
information  as  to  the  tackle  to  be  employed  for  each 
species  and  the  places  in  which  to  employ  it,  and  at 
the  same  time  illustrate  their  remarks  with  excellent 
personal  observations  on  the  habits  of  the  fish  with 
which  they  deal. 

The  first  book  under  notice  combines  in  a  greater 
degree  than  almost  any  other  work  of  which  we  are 
aware,  systematic  ichthyology  and  directions  to  the 
fisherman ;  the  author  has  adopted  the  classification  of 
Jordan  and  Evermann's  "  Fishes  of  North  and  Middle 
America,"  and  his  specific  descriptions  and  most  of  his 
nomenclature  are  taken  from  that  standard  work,  with 
the  addition  of  useful  observations  of  his  own  upon  the 


364 


NATURE 


[August  20,  1903 


specific  differences  between  allied  species.  While 
welcoming  the  restoration  of  Esox  as  a  generic  name 
for  the  pike — in  consonance  with  Jordan  and  Ever- 
mann's  own  most  recent  work— one  rather  regrets 
that  the  author  has  not  reconsidered  the  reasons  which 
have  caused  American  writers  to  separate  the  gray- 
lings from  the  Salmonidae  as  a  separate  family,  and 
to  substitute  Stizostedium  for  the  Lucioperca  of 
European  authors. 

The  reader  of  this  book  is  immediately  struck  by 
the  great  difference  between  the  American  and 
European  fish  fauna  as  viewed  by  the  fisherman ; 
among  fresh-water  forms  the  only  Cyprinoid  fish  con- 
sidered in  any  other  light  than  as  prospective  bait  is 
the  introduced  Cyprinus  carpio,  while  the  place  occu- 
pied in  England. by  Cyprinoids  is  taken  by  numerous 
species  of  Percidae  and  Centrarchidae,  the  only  repre- 
sentatives of  which  in  our  waters  are  the  common  perch 
and  the  ruff.  From  the  angler's  point  of  view  this  is 
no  slight  gain,  especially  as  some  of  the  Centrarchidae, 
notably  the  two  species  of  "  Black  Bass,"  attain  a 
large  size  and  rise  freely  to  an  artificial  fly.  Justice 
is  also  done  to  the  merits  of  the  grayling,  but  hardly, 
we  think,  to  the  views  of  either  English  anglers  or 
poets  respecting  it.  Among  the  marine  fishes,  again, 
our  American  friends  have  very  many  Serranoid  and 
Scisenoid  fishes  to  set  against  our  bass,  and  numerous 
Sparoids  where  we  have  but  one  sea  bream  that  can 
be  considered  an  "  angler's  fish,"  but  we  find  the  grey 
mullets  only  mentioned  as  bait  for  other  fish,  and  no 
species  of  Gadoid  even  mentioned.  Mr.  Holder  is 
surely  right,  and  the  coalfish  (the  "  pollack  "  of 
American  writers)  has  not  5'et  met  with  the  recognition 
it  deserves  as  a  sporting  fish. 

It  is,  perhaps,  hypercritical  and  unfair  to  complain 
of  such  a  matter,  but  Dr.  Henshall's  language, 
especially  in  dealing  with  technical  descriptions  of 
tackle  and  gear,  is  not  very  intelligible  to  an  English- 
man, more  especially  when  the  great  differences  be- 
tween English  and  American  rods  and  lines  are  taken 
into  account;  it  is  a  little  startling  to  find  an  eight 
ounce  rod  recommended  for  pike  fishing  and  puzzling 
to  find  no  details  as  to  the  length  and  build  of  such  a 
rod.  A  "  chlorinated  sea  breeze  "  is  apparently  a 
special  product  of  the  western  Atlantic,  like  the 
author's  Bahama  negro,  for  whose  observations  on 
fishes  and  their  ways  all  Dr.  Henshall's  readers  will 
be  grateful. 

We  are  reminded  of  .a  certain  traveller's  tale  about 
a  "  mixed  bag  of  wild  fowl  and  hippopotami  "  when 
dealing  with  Mr.  Holder's  "  Big  Game  Fishes," 
almost  on  the  same  line  with  Dr.  Henshall's  work; 
we  pass  from  the  grayling  and  the  perch  to  the  huge 
Serranoids  of  the  Florida  and  California  reefs,  the 
tarpon,  and  the  pelagic  Scombridse,  the  weights  of 
which  are  reckoned  by  the  hundredweight,  and  we 
pass,  too,  to  descriptions  of  some  of  the  most  exciting 
fishing  man  can  want.  Unfortunately,  the  English  sea 
fisherman  must  content  himself  with  smaller  game  (un- 
less he  chooses  to  fish  for  the  blue  sharks,-  which  are 
common  enough  off  our  western  shores  in  the  late 
summer),  but  a  work  like  this  should  find  readers 
outside  the  United  States;  the  tunny  and  the  albacore 
;>re  within  reach  of  British  fishermen  in  the 
NO.    1764,  VOL.  68] 


Mediterranean,  the  American  tarpon  has  its  counter- 
part in  the  Indian  Ocean,  and  hugis  Serranoids  are 
not  confined  to  American  waters.  If  English  or 
colonial  readers  should  feel  encouraged  to  try  their 
hands  at  "big  game  fishing,"  they  will  find  in  Mr. 
Holder's  book  all  the  information  they  can  desire  as 
to  the  necessary  tackle  and  baits  to  use,  and  the  kind 
of  place  in  which  to  use  them,  and  if  Mr.  Holder's 
descriptions  of  this  exciting  form  of  sport  do  not  en- 
courage them  to  try  their  hands  at  it,  we  really  do 
not  know  what  will. 

In  marked  contrast  to  Dr.  Henshall,  Mr.  Holder 
gives  no  specific  descriptions  of  the  fish  he  deals  with, 
and  his  only  attempt  at  systematic  or  anatomical  de- 
tail in  his  introductory  chapter  is  not  very  happy ;  no 
reason  is  given  for  terming  the  shark  "  not  a  true 
fish,"  and  to  dismiss  so  important  a  structure  from  a 
systematic  point  of  View  as  a  fish's  pectoral  arch  by 
saying  that  "  many  of  the  corresponding  bones  among 
higher  animals  are  seen,  as  a  pectoral  arch,  scapula, 
clavicle,  ulna,  and  radius,"  is  neither  useful  nor 
accurate. 

The  printing  and  get  up  of  both  books  is  excellent, 
and  both  are  well  illustrated,  the  one  in  black  and 
white,  the  other  in  colours ;  the  only  fault  to  be  found 
is  that  the  process  blocks  of  fishes  have  lost  in  clear- 
ness by  being  printed  on  rather  too  rough  a  paper,  and 
that  the  figure  of  Pseuflopleuronectes  in  Dr.  Hen- 
shall's book  is  printed  upside  down;  there  are  also  in 
Mr.  Holder's  book  certain  references  to  a  non-existent 
Fig.  9,  which  are  apparently  due  to  an  oversight. 
The  index  in  each  case  is  very  good.  L.  W.  B. 

TECHNICAL   PHYSICS. 
Lehrbuch  der  technischen  Physik.     By  Prof.  Dr.  Hans 
Lorenz.        Erster     Band.        Technische     Mechanik 
Starrer       Systeme.       Pp.        xxiv  +  625.       (Munich: 
Oldenbourg,    1902.) 

THIS  book  is  interesting  as  the  work  of  an  engineer 
who  is  also  a  professor  in  one  of  the  leading 
universities  of  Germany,  where  it  is  generally  conceded 
that  the  science  and  practice  of  technical  education 
are  best  understood,  and  have  led  in  modern  times  to 
the  most  striking  practical  and  commercial  develop- 
ments. The  author  rightly  considers  the  fundamental 
principles  of  mechanics  to  be  the  groundwork  of  all 
physics,  and  has  chosen  mechanics  as  the  subject  of 
his  first  volume. 

The  most  striking  features  of  the  book,  as  a  whole, 
are  the  rigorous  mathematical  method  of  treatment 
adopted,  the  generality  of  the  principles  discussed,  and 
the  logical  order  of  the  arrangement.  In  an  English 
'*  technical  "  text-book  we  should  rather  expect  to  find 
the  practical  applications  in  the  foreground,  and  the 
general  mathematical  treatment  of  the  principles 
either  absent,  or  introduced  only  so  far  as  was  neces- 
sary for  purposes  of  calculation,  and  not  as  .  the 
groundwork  of  the  whole  arrangement.  Owing  to  the 
difficulty  which  many  students  find  in  appreciating 
general  mathematical  reasoning,  we  are  inclined  to 
make  the  mathematics  as  concrete  and  "  practical  " 
as  possible,  and  to  restrict  it  to  the  immediate  appli- 
cations required  for  illustrations.  No  doubt  this  may 
produce  the  best  results,  on  the  whole,  in  the  case  of 


August  20,  1903] 


NATURE 


365 


students  whose  abilities  and  opportunities  are  limited; 
but  such  students  will  probably  not  possess  sufficient 
g^rasp  of  the  mathematical  principles  to  enable  them 
to  apply  their  knowledge  to  any  new  problem.  Their 
training  is  "  technical  "  in  the  English  sense  of  the 
term.  It  may  be  questioned  whether  the  German  view 
of  technical  physics,  as  understood  by  the  author  of 
the  present  work,  is  not  really  the  wiser  and  the  more 
likely  to  lead  to  sound  educational  and  commercial 
progress  in  the  end. 

The  book  begins  with  a  general  chapter  on  the 
geometry  of  motion.  The  idea  of  time  is  introduced 
in  the  next  chapter  on  velocity  and  acceleration.  This 
is  followed  by  a  chapter  on  relative  motion,  treating 
the  usual  examples,  such  as  projectiles,  planets,  pen- 
dulum, oscillations,  &c.,  in  a  very  general  manner. 
In  chapter  iv.  we  have  mass  and  force  introduced 
together  with  friction,  damped  oscillations,  impact, 
work,  and  kinetic  energy.  In  chapters  v.  and  vi.  we 
have  a  general  discussion  of  the  equations  of  motion 
in  a  plane,  and  in  three  dimensions,  respectively,  with 
a  number  of  important  applications,  such  as  the  theory 
of  the  precession  of  the  earth's  axis,  the  centrifugal 
governor,  and  the  theory  of  models  and  dimensions. 
The  book  concludes  with  a  historical  survey  of  the 
*  evolution  of  mechanical  science  divided  into  three 
sections  : — (i)  before  Newton,  (2)  from  Newton  to 
Lagrange,  (3)  the  later  development  of  technical 
mechanics.  This  historical  excursus  would  be  un- 
necessary, from  the  teacher's  point  of  view,  for  the 
mere  inculcation  of  the  principles  of  the  subject,  and 
would  interfere  with  the  logical  order  of  ideas.  But 
from  the  student's  point  of  view  such  a  historical 
survey  is  not  only  extremely  interesting,  but  also  most 
instructive.  Correct  ideas  can  only  be  appreciated  in 
their  true  significance  by  contrast  with  incorrect  con- 
ceptions, such  as  abound  in  the  earlier  history  of  the 
subject;  and  the  methods  and  principles  at  which  we 
have  arrived  at  the  present  stage  of  progress  are  not 
in  all  probability  the  best  expression  of  the  science, 
but  are  the  outcome  of  an  intricate  process  of  evolu- 
tion along  certain  lines.  To  appreciate  them  fully  it 
is  necessary  to  know  something  of  the  manner  in 
which  they  have  been  evolved. 

It  is  probable  that  the  English  engineer  would  hesi- 
tate before  devoting  much  time  to  the  study  of  a 
foreign  text-book  which  at  first  sight  is  of  so  "  un- 
practical "  a  nature.  But  the  mere  existence  of  the 
book  in  its  present  form  suggests  a  lesson  which  our 
technical  educators  may  have  yet,  in  some  cases,  to 
learn.  H.  L.  C. 


OVR    BOOK  SHELF. 

An  Introduction  to  Botany.     By  W.  C.  Stevens.     Pp. 

428;  with  preface  and  index  and  key,    121   pp.  and 

index.     (New  York  and  London  :  D.  C.  Heath  and 

Co.,   1903.)     Price  6s. 

Among  the  numerous  works  professing  to  guide  the 

elementary    student    through    the    mazes    of    botanical 

science,  this  may  claim  several  advantages,  inasmuch 

as  the  greater  part  of  the  book  is  based  on  a  sound 

(  onception  of  the  method  best  suited  for  the  purpose 

nf  training  the  beginner  to  observe  and  think  for  him- 

M'lf.     It  is  the  method  which  Huxley  worked  so  hard 

i'>    introduce    into     this     country     many    years    ago, 

namely,    that  of  encouraging   the   student   to   invcsti- 

NO.  .1764,  VOL.  68] 


gate  first,  and  then  telling  him  more  about  the  things 
he  has  seen,  keeping  the  opinions  and  records  of  others 
in  the  background  until  he  has  acquired  a  stock  of 
his  own  knowledge  to  work  upon. 

On  the  whole  the  purpose  of  the  book  is  carried 
out,  but  the  figures  are  often  very  poor,  and  the  part 
dealing  with  systematic  botany  frankly  returns  to  the 
old  lines,  and  is,  moreover,  only  suited  to  American 
students.  Why  this  part  should  be  separately  paged 
is  not  clear;  it  necessitates  a  second  index,  and  makes 
the  book  somewhat  cumbrous.  English  students  will 
find  far  better  exercises  in  the  use  of  analytical  keys 
and  floristic  work  generally  in  Hooker  and  Bentham's 
well-known  "  Flora." 

Kant's  Lehre  vom  Glauben.     By  Ernst  Sanger.     Pp. 

xvii+170.     (Leipzig:   Verlag  der  Durr'schen  Buch- 

handlung,  1903.)  Price  3  marks. 
Kant's  philosophy  has  found,  and  continues  to  find, 
various  application  and  still  more  various  interpret- 
ation. The  diversity  of  commentaries  has  led,  in  some 
quarters  especially,  to  a  feeling  that  Kant  has  re- 
ceived enough  development,  that  in  some  cases  the 
development  has  been  too  much  controlled  by  the  ideas 
of  later  systems,  that,  in  fact,  we  must  go  back  to 
Kant  and  define  more  clearly  our  ideas  of  what  he 
really  said.  The  present  essay  is  obviously  designed 
to  assist  that  process.  If  we  except  the  last  section, 
which  makes  reference  to  the  relation  between  Kant's 
doctrine  and  theology,  the  entire  essay  is  confined  to 
collecting  Kant's  statements  and  piecing  together  his 
doctrine  of  belief  from  the  original  sources.  The 
author  has  clearly  spared  no  pains  to  make  his  collec- 
tion of  passages  complete,  nor  has  he  failed  to  point 
out  the  significance  of  Kant's  distinctions  or  his 
variations  in  the  use  of  terms.  For  the  purpose  in- 
dicated, it  was  necessary  to  follow  the  historical  order; 
the  result  is  a  monograph  not,  perhaps,  eminently 
readable,  but  deserving  study.  Though  the  author's 
reference  seems  to  be  especially  to  that  scientific 
theology  which  ever  finds  it  a  primary  duty  to  accept 
or  answer  Kant,  his  essay  cannot  fail  to  be  of  value 
to  all  interested  in  philosophy.  His  remarks  on  the 
various  passages  show  clearly  how  the  doctrine  of 
belief  runs  through  all  Kant's  work,  and  how  its 
elucidation  throws  light  on  the  structure  and  purpose 
of  all  his  writings.  An  introduction  by  Prof.  ur. 
Hans  Vaihinger  will  doubtless  appear  to  many  an 
adequate  recommendation.  G.  S.  B. 

Elementary  Physics.  Practical  and  Theoretical. 
'  Second   Year's   Course.     By   John   G.    Kerr,    M.A., 

LL.D.,    and   John    N.    Brown,    A.R.C.Sc.    (Lond.). 

Pp.    169.     (London:   Blackie  and  Son,   Ltd.,   1903.) 

Price  2i-. 
Th»^.  practical  exercises  here  brought  together  are  in- 
tended for  young  students  who  have  already  had  a 
year's  work  in  experimental  physics.  Dynamics,  heat 
and  light  are  the  only  branches  of  the  subject  drawn 
upon,  and  presumably  the  learner  is  expected  to  wait 
until  his  third  year  before  he  may  hope  to  become 
acquainted,  from  his  own  experiments,  with  the  funda- 
mental principles  of  sound,  electricity,  and  magnetism. 
The  exercises  are  well  arranged  and  the  instructions 
given  are  sensible  and  helpful,  and  show  that  the 
authors  are  teachers  of  experience.  The  student  is 
more  likely  to  obtain  good  results  if  a  simple  sighting 
apparatus  is  used  in  counting  vibrations  of  the  pendu- 
lum, but  no  instructions  appear  to  be  given  as  to  the 
use  of  one.  On  p.  64  the  student  is  told  to  hang  a 
50-gram  weight  to  a  thread  for  use  in  his  experiment, 
which  necessitates  handling  the  weight,  a  bad  habit 
which  the  teacher  should  discourage  as  much  as 
possible.  A  want  of  uniformity  in  the  spelling  of 
gram  should  be  corrected  in  the  next  edition.  But, 
on  the  whole,  the  book  is  likely  to  prove  useful. 


366 


NATURE 


[August  20,  1903 


Among  the  Night  People.  By  Clara  Dillingham 
Pierson.  Pp.  xi  +  221.  (London:  John  Murray, 
1903.)  Price  55. 
This  is  an  American  book,  for  American  children,  and 
about  American  nocturnal  animals ;  but,  if  we  are  not 
mistaken,  it  will  interest  English  children  too,  and 
may  be  of  no  small  value  in  letting  them  into  some  of 
the  secrets  of  the  life  of  "  the  Night  People  "  of  the 
world  in  general.  It  consists  of  a  series  of  stories  or 
sketches  of  the  doings  of  raccoons,  musk-rats,  skunks, 
mice,  weasels,  foxes,  moths,  fireflies,  &c.,  told  with- 
out any  affectation  in  simple  language,  and  with  an 
evidently  real  knowledge  of  the  habits  and  character- 
istics of  these  creatures,  and  with  a  gentle  humour 
which  aptly  conceals  the  instruction  conveyed.  The 
animals  are,  of  course,  humanised  to  some  extent,  and 
talk  the  language  of  human  beings,  but  this  is 
managed  with  such  skill,  that  the  animal  character- 
istics are  quite  adequately  retained.  A  good  example 
is  the  story  of  the  inquisitive  weasel,  where  a  phleg- 
matic black-tailed  skunk  is  made  to  play  with  most 
amusing  effect  on  the  lively  curiosity  of  these  little 
animals,  which  are  the  same  all  the  world  over.  The 
illustrations  of  scenes  in  the  dark,  by  Mr.  F.  C. 
Gordon,  are  very  happily  conceived  and  executed. 

Qualitative  Chemicai  Analysis.  By  John  B.  Garvin, 
B.S.  Pp.  viii  +  241.  (Boston:'  Heath  and  Co., 
1902.)  Price  35.  6d. 
It  is  rare  in  these  degenerate  days  to  find  an  enthusiast 
for  the  teaching  of  qualitative  analysis,  who  regards 
it  as  "a  source  of  joy  to  the  majority  of  normal 
minds,"  and  as  affording  "  the  keenest  delight  and 
satisfaction."  For  analysis,  as  it  is  taught,  is  usually 
an  arid  tract,  which  the  student  is  compelled  to  traverse 
on  the  way  to  earning  a  grant  or  receiving  a  degree, 
not  a  fertile  country  which  he  can  cultivate  with  profit 
and  pleasure.  Yet  one  is  bound  to  confess  that  these 
pages  reflect  the  author's  interest  in  his  subject,  and 
leave  the  impression  that,  in  the  hands  of  such  a 
teacher,  analysis  might  possess  the  attributes  he 
describes.  This  is  effected  by  making  the  student  dis- 
cover and  tabulate  the  reactions  for  himself._  Thus, 
the  mere  mechanical  following  of  directions  is, 
to  a  great  extent,  avoided,  and  the  student  is  freed 
from  the  burden  of  making  his  own  observations 
correspond  with  the  printed  information  in  his  text- 
book. For  an  elementary  book  the  subject  is  very 
fully  treated.  It  is  not  intended  to  be  used  without 
some  assistance  from  the  demonstrator,  and  conse- 
quently many  details  of  manipulation  are  suppressed. 

J.  B.  C. 

British  Rainfall,  1902.  Compiled  bv  H.  Sowerby 
Wallis  and  Dr.  H.  R.  Mill.  Pp.  Ixxvi  +  250. 
(London  :  E.  Stanford.)  Price  los. 
This  valuable  work,  which  has  appeared  yearly  since 
i860,  is  perhaps  better  known  to  the  scientific  world 
than  any  other  work  on  meteorological  subjects ;  it 
has  become  a  unique  and  indispensable  epitome  of 
reference  on  all  questions  relating  to  the  distribution 
of  rain  over  the  British  Islands.  Each  year  adds  to 
its  importance,  owing  to  the  longer  period  over  which 
the  averages  extend,  and  the  nearly  constant  addition  to 
the  number  of  stations  dealt  with.  These  now  amount 
*o  about  3500,  and  have  increased  40  per  cent,  during 
trte  last  fifteen  years.  It  is  highly  creditable  to  the  com- 
pilers that  they  have  been  able  to  issue  the  volume 
six  months  after  the  close  of  the  year,  within  which 
time  every  record  has  been  carefully  revised  prior  to 
publication.  In  addition  to  the  usual  tables,  the 
present  volume  contains  an  exhaustive  discussion  of 
the  rainfall  at  Camden  Square  for  the  forty-five  years 
1858-1902,  by  Mr.  H.  Sowerby  Wallis.  Illustrations 
and  notes  upon  the  unusual  occurrences  of  the  year 
1902  greatly  enhance  the  usefulness  of  the  volume. 
NO.   1764.  VOL.  68] 


LETTERS    TO    THE    EDITOR. 

[The  Editor  does  not  hold  himself  responsible  for  opinions 
expressed  by  his  correspondents.  Neither  can  he  undertake 
to  return,  or  to  correspond  with  the  writers  of,  rejected 
manuscripts  intended  for  this  or  any  other  part  of  Nature. 
No  notice  is  taken  of  anonymous  communications.] 

The  Amount  of  Emanation  and  Helium  from  Radium. 

In  connection  with  the  very  striking  experiments  de- 
scribed by  Sir  William  Ramsay  and  Mr.  Soddy  in  Nature 
of  August  13,  in  which  they  have  observed  the  presence  of 
helium  in  the  gases  obtained  from  radium  bromide  and 
also  the  production  of  helium  by  the  emanation  of  radium, 
it  may  be  of  interest  to  give  some  calculations  of  the 
probable  amount  of  emanation  and  of  helium  produced  by 
radium  on  the  disintegration  hypothesis,  recently  put  for- 
ward by  Mr.  Soddy  and  myself  to  explain  the  phenomena 
of  radio-activity. 

A  method  of  calculation  has  already  been  indicated  by 
us  {Phil.  Mag.,  May),  but  the  data  on  which  it  was  based 
are  somewhat  imperfect.  A  more  accurate  estimate  can 
be  made  from  the  data  of  the  amount  of  heat  liberated  by 
radium,  recently  measured  by  Curie  and  Laborde. 

I  have  shown  that  the  o  or  easily  absorbed  rays  from 
radium  consist  of  a  stream  of  positively  charged  bodies,  of 
mass  about  twice  that  of  the  hydrogen  atom,  projected 
with  a  velocity  of  about  2-5x10^  cm.  per  sec.  These  re- 
sults have  been  recently  confirmed  by  Des  Coudres.  These 
a  bodies  are  expelled  trom  every  part  of  the  mass  of  radium, 
but  in  consequence  of  the  ease  with  which  they  are 
absorbed,  only  a  small  proportion  of  them  escapes  into  the 
air.  This  self-bombardment  of  the  radium  probably  gives 
rise  to  a  large  proportion  of  the  heat  which  keeps  the 
radium  at  a  temperature  above  that  of  the  surrounding 
atmosphere.  Assuming  for  the  moment  that  all  of  the  heat 
is  supplied  by  this  continuous  bombardment,  an  estimate 
can  readily  be  made  of  the  number  of  o  bodies  projected 
per  second  from  one  gramme  of  radium. 

The  kinetic  energy  of  each  projected  body  is  5X10-^ 
ergs.  Since  this  energy  is  transformed  into  heat  in  the 
mass  of  radium,  the  number  of  bodies  projected  to  give 
an  emission  of  heat  of  100  gr.  cals.  per  hour — the  amount 
determined  by  Curie  and  Laborde — can  be  shown  to  be 
2-4x10"  per  second.  Now  Townsend  has  shown  from 
experimental  data  that  Ne  =  i-22  x  10'",  where  N  is  the 
number  of  atoms  in  i  c.c.  of  gas  at  standard  pressure  and 
temperature,  and  e  is  the  charge  carried  by  an  ion.  The 
latest  value  of  e,  found  by  J.  J.  Thomson,  is  3-4x10-",  so 
that  N=3-6x  10". 

If  the  a  bodies  after  expulsion  can  exist  in  the  gaseous 

form,  the  volume  of  the  gas  produced  (at  standard  pressure 

^   .      ,         2-4x10"     .  , 

and  temperature)  is  thus  :jT6  ~j^=6-7X  io-°  c.c.  per  sec. 

or  0-2I  c.c.  per  year.  Allowing  a  wide  margin  for  the 
possibility  that  only  one-tenth  of  the  heat  emitted  by  radium 
is  due  to  the  kinetic  energy  of  the  projected  bodies,  the 
volume  of  the  a  particles  should  lie  between  0-021  c.c.  and 
0-21  c.c.  per  year  for  each  gramme  of  radium. 

The  determination  of  the  mass  of  the  a  body,  taken  in 
conjunction  with  the  experiments  on  the  production  of 
helium  by  the  emanation,  supports  the  view  that  the  a 
particle  is  in  reality  helium.  In  addition,  the  remarkable 
experiment  of  Sir  William  and  Lady  Huggins  in  which 
they  found  that  the  spectrum  of  the  phosphorescent  light 
of  radium  consisted  of  bright  lines,  some  of  which  within 
the  limit  of  error  were  coincident  with  the  lines  of  helium 
in  the  ultra-violet,  strongly  supports  such  a  view.  For  as 
a  consequence  of  the  violent  expulsion  of  the  a  particle,   it 


August  20,  1903] 


NATURE 


367 


is  to  be  expected  that  it  would  be  "set  into  powerful  vibra- 
tion and  gi«7e  its  characteristic  spectrum. 

In  the  experiments  of  Sir  William  Ramsay  and  Mr. 
Soddy  30  milligrammes  of  radjum  bromide,  probably  about 
four  months  old,  were  used.  If  the  o  body  is  helium,  the 
amount  of  helium  liberated  by  solution  of  the  radium  in 
water  must  have  been  between  000017  and  00017  c.c, 
assuming  that  all  of  the  helium  produced  was  occluded  in 
the  mass  of  the  substance. 

There  is  evidence  of  at  least  five  distinct  changes  occur- 
ring in  radium,  each  of  which  is  accompanied  by  the  ex- 
pulsion of  an  o  particle.  One  of  the  products  of  these 
changes  is  the  radium  emanation.  It  is  of  interest  to 
calculate  the  volume  of  the  emanation  occluded  in  radium 
when  in  a  state  of  radio-active  equilibrium.  Taking  as  the 
simplest  hypothesis  that  one  a  particle  is  projected  at  each 
liange,  the  number  of  atoms  of  the  emanation  produced 
))t<r  second  is  1/5  of  the  number  of  o  particles,  i.e. 
1-3x10-*  c.c.  When  radio-active  equilibrium  is  reached,  it 
has  been  shown  that  463,000  times  the  amount  of  emanation 
produced  per  second  is  stored  up  in  the  radium.  This 
corresponds  to  6x10-*  c.c.  The  maximum  amount  of 
emanation  to  be  obtained  from  one  gramme  of  radium 
thus  probably  lies  between  6x10-*  c.c.  and  6x10-*  c.c. 

The  radium  emanation  is  the  active  principle  of  radium, 
for  about  \  of  the  activity  of  radium  is  due  to  it.  Thus 
a  large  proportion  of  the  radiations  from  radium  is  a  direct 
result  of  the  changes  occurring  in  the  very  minute  amount 
of  matter  constituting  the  radium  emanation.  If  ever  i  c.c. 
of  the  radium  emanation  can  be  collected  at  one  spot,  it 
will  exhibit  some  remarkable  properties.  The  powerful 
radiations  from  it  would  heat  to  a  red  heat,  if  they  would 
not  melt  down,  the  glass  tube  which  contains  it.  This 
very  rapid  emission  of  energy,  in  comparison  with  the 
amount  of  matter  producing  it,  would  continue  for  several 
flays  without  much  change,  and  would  be  appreciable  after 
a  month's  interval.  The  very  penetrating  rays  from  it 
would  light  up  an  X-ray  screen  brilliantly  through  a  foot 
of   solid   iron.  E.    Rutherford. 

Hpttws-y-Coed,  August  15. 

Summer  Lightning. 
Although  a  good  deal  has  been  written  on  the  subject 
of  "summer  lightning,"  it  may  not  be  superfluous  to 
describe  a  display  of  the  phenomenon  which  occurred  here 
last  evening  on  a  scale  far  surpassing  anything  which  it 
had  been  my  good  fortune  to  witness  before.  There  had 
been  several  thunderstorms  in  the  district  during  the  previous 
fi%e  or  six  days,  and  a  few  peals  were  heard  and  heavy  rain 
fell  in  the  early  afternoon  of  the  day  before  (August  13). 
Rut  the  sky  cleared  rapidly  thereafter,  and  the  evening  and 
night  of  that  day  were  cloudless,  every  peak  and  crest 
standing  out  sharply  defined  in  the  clear  air.  Yesterday 
was  still  fine,  but  warmer  and  less  bracing  than  visitors 
here  expect.  Late  in  the  afternoon  wisps  of  white  mist 
began  to  gather  round  the  summit  of  the  Jungfrau,  and 
streaks  of  thin  cloud  took  shape  in  the  higher  air  above 
the  great  mountain  ridge  that  extends  from  the  Silberhorn 
to  the  Breithorn.  About  8  p.m.  I  noticed  a  faint  quivering 
light  overhead,  supplemented  by  occasional  flashes  of 
greater  brilliance  and  different  colour.  These  manifest- 
iitions  rapidly  increased  in  distinctness,  and  continued  to 
[)iay  only  along  the  opposite  mountain-ridge,  not  extend- 
ing into  the  regions  beyond,  so  far  as  these  could  be  seen 
from  here,  though  I  have  since  learnt  that  an  independent 
-.nries  of  flashes  was  seen  around  the  Schillhorn  on  this 
-ide  of  the  valley.  Not  a  single  peal  of  thunder  was  at 
any  time  audible.  A  long  bank  of  cloud  formed  at  a  higher 
level  than  the  summits  of  the  mountain-ridge,  and  at  some 
distance  on  the  further  side  of  it,  so  that  the  stars,  else- 
where brilliant,  were  hidden  along  the  strip  of  sky  above 
the  crest. 


NO.    1764,  VOL.  68] 


As  one  watched  the  display  it  was  easy  to  distinguish 
more  definitely  the  two  kinds  of  discharge.  One  of  them 
took  the  form'  of  a  faintly  luminous  reddish  or  pink  light, 
which  shot  with  a  tremulous  streamer-like  motion  in  hori- 
zontal beams  that  proceeded  apparently  from  left  to  right, 
as  if  their  starting  point  lay  somewhere  about  the  back 
of  the  Jungfrau.  These  streamers  so  closely  resembled 
the  aurora  borcalis  that,  had  they  appeared  alone,  one 
would  have  been  inclined  to  wonder  whether  the  "  northern 
lights  "  had  not  here  made  an  incursion  into  more  southern 
latitudes.  So  feeble  were  they  when  they  sped  across  the 
clear  sky  that  the  stars  were  clearly  visible  through  them. 
Sometimes  they  quivered  on  the  far  side  of  the  cloud, 
lighting  up  its'  edges  and  shooting  beyond  it  across  the 
still  unclouded  blue.  At  other  times  they  appeared  on  this 
side  of  the  cloud,  and  showed  the  dark  outline  of  the 
mountains  in  clear  relief  against  the  luminous  background. 
They  so  rapidlv  succeeded  each  other  that  they  might  be 
said'  to  be  continuous,  a  faint  pinkish  luminosity  seeniing 
to  remain  always  visible,  though  pulsating  in  rapid  vibra- 
tions of  horizontal   streamers. 

The  brighter  discharges  were  not  only  far  more  brilliant, 
but  much  more  momentary.  They  had  a  paie  bluish-white 
colour,  and  came  and  went  with  the  rapidity  of  ordinary 
lightning.  But  they  were  clearly  connected  with  the 
mountains,  and  not  reflections  from  a  series  of  distant 
flashes.  Sometimes  they  arose  on  the  other  side  of  the 
great  ridge,  allowing  its  jagged  crest  to  be  seen  against 
the  illuminated  surface  of  the  cloud  beyond,  but  leaving  all 
the  precipices  and  slopes  on  this  side  in  shade.  In  ether 
cases  thev  clearlv  showed  themselves  on  this  side  of  the 
mountains,  lighting  up  especially  the  snow-basins  and 
glaciers  with  the  dark  crags  around  them.  Nothing  of 
the  nature  of  forked  lightning  was  observed  among  them. 
In  one  instance  the  flash  or  horizontal  band  of  vivid  light, 
a  mile  or  two  in  length,  seemed  to  shoot  upward  from  the 
slope  at  the  base  of  the  precipices  of  the  Silberhorn,  as  if 
it  sprang  out  of  the  ground,  having  a  sharply  defined  and 
brilliant  base,  rapidly  diminishing  in  intensity  upward, 
and  vanishing  before  reaching  half-way  up  to  the  crest. 

But  the  most  singular  feature  of  the  mere  brilliant  white 
discharges  was  to  be  seen  when  one  of  the  great  couloirs 
of  snow  or  a  portion  of  a  glacier  remained  for  a  minute  or 
two  continuously  lu'ninous  with  a  faint  bluish-white  light. 
After  an  interval  the  same  cr  another  portion,  perhaps 
several  miles  distant,  would  gleam  out  in  the  same  way. 
Mv  first  impression  was  that  this  radiance  could  only  be  a 
reflection  from  some  illuminated  part  of  the  cloud.  But  I 
could  not  satisfy  myself  of  the  existence  of  any  continuously 
bright  portions"  of  "the  cloud.  Moreover,  the  luminosity  of 
the  snow  and  ice  remained  local  and  sporadic,  as  if  the 
beam  of  a  search-light  had  been  directed  to  one  special 
part  of  the  mountain  declivity,  and  then  after  a  while  to 
another.  While  watching  one  of  these  patches  of  illumin- 
ation, I  noticed  a  bright  point  of  light  at  the  top  of  one 
of  the  basins  of  neve  on  the  slopes  of  the  Mittaghorn.  It 
quickly  vanished,  but  soon  reappeared,  and  then  as  rapidly 
was  lost  again.  I  thought  that  it  was  probably  a  star 
briefly  exposed  through  rifts  in  the  cloud,  though  its  posi- 
tion seemed  rather  below  that  of  the  mountain-crest.  Half 
an  hour  later,  however,  a  similar  bright  light  appeared 
about  the  same  place,  more  diffused  than  the  first,  and 
having  a  somewhat  elongated  shape.  Whether  it  was  really 
a  star  seen  through  the  distorting  medium  of  a  wreath 
of  mist,  or  a  form  of  St.  Elmo's  fire  clinging  to  some  peak 
on  the  precipice,  could'  not  be  ascertained  from  its 
momentary  visibility. 

I  learnt  this  morning  that  other  observers  who  could 
watch  at  the  same  time  the  mountain  ridjjes  on  each  side 
of  the  Lauterbrunnen  valley  noticed  that  sheet-lightning 
was  also  playing  about  the  Schilthorn,  but  quite  indepen- 
dently of  that  on  the  Jungfrau  range,  the  one  mountain 
being  dark,  while  the  other  was  illuminated.  The  distance 
of  the  two  electric  centres  from  each  other  is  between  five 
and  six  miles.  The  whole  display  last  evening  afforded  an 
admirably  complete  demonstration  of  the  erroneousness  of 
the  notion  formerly  prevalent  that  summer  lightning  is 
only  the  reflection  of  distant  ordinary  lightning,  and  of  the 
truth  of  the  more  recent  views  as  to  the  nature  of  the 
phenomenon. 

I  may  add  that,  as  the  lightning  increased,  the  air,  which 


368 


NATURE 


[August  20,  1903 


had  previously  been  nearly  calm,  freshened  into  a  strong 
breeze,  which  blew  fro;n  the  south-west  down  the  valley, 
but  died  down  after  the  illumination  faded  away.  The 
cloud  above  the  mountain  began  to  assume  irregular  dark 
cumulus  shapes,  and  the  sky  became  generally  overcast. 
Early  this  morning  rain  was  falling  heavily.  The  moun- 
tains have  been  all  day  shrouded  in  dripping  cloud,  and  the 
deluge  still  continues.  Arch.  Geikie. 

Miirren,  August  15. 


A  Mirage  at  Putney. 

Perhaps  the  phenomenon  of  mirage  is  not  sufficiently 
rare  in  England  to  make  its  occurrence  noteworthy,  but 
I  should  like  to  mention  a  singularly  beautiful  example 
that  I  noticed  on  Sunday  last  (August  16).  I  was  riding 
on  my  bicycle  along  the  Upper  Richmond  Road  towards 
the  west,  and  against  a  fairly  steady  breeze,  and  had 
arrived  at  that  part  of  the  road  lying  between  the  railway 
bridge  and  the  Putney  High  Street — about  opposite  house 
No.  no — when  I  noticed  that  the  road  beyond,  some  fifty 
yards  in  front  of  me,  was  apparently  flooded  ankle  deep 
in  water.  I  was  somewhat  disconcerted  at  the  prospect  of 
riding  through  such  a  quantity  of  water,  but  I  found  to 
my  astonishment  that  when  I  arrived  at  the  supposed  lake 
the  road  was  perfectly  dry.  I  thereupon  turned  and  rode 
back  to  my  previous  station,  and,  dismounting,  watched  the 
phenomenon  for  some  while.  To  assure  myself  that  it  was 
no  personal  illusion  upon  my  part,  I  directed  the  attention 
of  a  passing  stranger  to  the  scene,  and  he  was  impressed 
as  I  had  been.  I  should  mention  that  the  road  sloped 
slightly  downhill  from  me,  and  the  sun  was  high  (12.50 
p.m.)  above  on  my  left.  The  line  of  sight  must  therefore 
have  met  the  dividing  surface  between  the  layers  of  hot 
and  cold  air  lying  above  the  wooden  paving  almost  at 
grazing  incidence.  The  surface  of  the  "  water  "  was  still, 
and  the  reflection  of  the  gay  dresses  and  sunshades  of  the 
ladies  just  from  church  was  remarkably  and  beautifully 
cle^r.  H.  E.  Wimperis.    • 

London,  S.W.,  August  17. 

THE    SOUTHPORT    MEETING    OF   ^FHE   • 

BRITISH   ASSOCIATION. 

Sectional  Arrangements. 

'yHE  arrangements  of  the  various  sections  of  the 

-■■       British  Association  for  the  forthcoming  meeting 

at    Southport    have    now    been    practically    completed. 

The  following  summary  shows  the  chief  points  of  the 

programmes,  so  far  as  they  are  at  present  known  :— 

Mathematical  and  Physical  Sciences. -^The  phvsical 
portion  of  Section  A  will  be  mainly  occupied  iii'  dis- 
cussmg  three  questions  of  considerable  interest  to 
physicists  at  the  present  time.  The  nature  of  the 
emanations  from  radio-active  substances  will  be  intro- 
duced as  one  of  the  subjects  for  discussion  by  Prof. 
Rutherford,  of  Montreal,  and  it  is  expected  that  several 
visitors  from  the  Continent  will  take  part.  Mr. 
Swinburne  will  introduce  a  discussion  of  the  method  of 
treatment  of  non-reversible  processes  in  thermo- 
dynamics, in  which  Prof.  Perry  and  others  will  have 
something  to  say,  and  Prof.  Henrici  will  direct  atten- 
tion to  the  desirability  of  introducing  vectorial  methods 
into  physics  to  a  much  larger  extent  than  has  been 
done  hitherto.  The  fact  that  the  International 
Meteorological  Congress  meets  at  Southport  under  the 
presidency  of  Prof.  Mascart,  of  Paris,  at  the  same  time 
as  the  Association,  will  make  the  work  in  the  depart- 
ment of  Section  A  devoted,  to  meteorology  and 
astronomy  of  special  importance  this  vear.  Contribu- 
tions to  the  proceedings  of  the  department  have  been 
promised  by  several  of  the  members  of  the  congress, 
including  Hildebrandsson,  Paulsen,  and  Pernter,  and 
Sir  Norman  Lockyer  will  discuss  the  agreement  in  time 
between  certain  solar  and  terrestrial  phenomena. 
Papers  have  been  promised  bv  Prof.  Turner,  Dr. 
W.  J.  S.  Lockyer,  the  Rev.  A.  L.  Cortie  and  Mr.  Hinks, 
and  there  will  be  an  exhibition  of  photographs  from 
the  Yerkes  Observatory. 

NO.    1764,  VOL.   68] 


Chemistry. — In  his  opening  address  to  the  section, 
the  president.  Prof.  W.  N.  hartley,  F.R.S.,  proposes 
to  give  a  brief  account  of  twenty-five  years'  work  in 
spectroscopy  applied  to  the  investigation  of  the  com- 
position and  constitution  of  terrestrial  substances,  both 
organic  and  inorganic,  and  to  review  the  present  posi- 
tion of  spectroscopy  chiefly  in  relation  to  chemical 
theories,  indicating  where  it  may  be  usefully  and 
profitably  extended.  The  following  papers  will  be 
read  : — "  Dynamic  Isomerism,"  by  Dr.  T.  M.  Lowry ; 
"  Hydroaromatic  Compounds,"  by  Dr.  A.  VV. 
Crossley;  "  The  Cause  of  the  Lustre  produced  during 
the  Mercerising  of  Cotton,"  by  Mr.  J.  Hiibner  and 
Prof.  W.  J.  Pope,  F.R.S.  ;  "  Mutirotation,  and  the 
Glucoside  Formula  of  Glucose,"  by  Dr.  E.  F.  Arm- 
strong; "A  Contribution  to  the  Constitution  of  the 
Disaccharides,"  by  Mr.  T.  Purdie,  F.R.S.,  and  Dr. 
J.  C.  Irvine;  "  Some  Derivatives  of  Fluorine,"  by  Miss 
Ida  Smedley ;  "  Fluorescence  as  Related  to  the  Consti- 
tution of  Organic  Substances,"  bv  Dr.  J.  T.  Hewitt; 
"The  Cholesterol  Group,"  by  Dr.  R.  H.  Pickard ; 
"  On  Essential  Oils,"  by  Dr.  6.  Silberrad ;  "  Freezing 
Point  Curves  of  Binary  Compounds,"  by  Dr.  J.  C. 
Philip;  "Action  of  Diastase  on  the  Starch  Granules 
of  Raw  and  Malted  Barley,"  by  Mr.  A.  R.  Ling; 
"Action  of  Malt  Diastase  on  Potato  Starch  Paste," 
part  i.,  by  Mr.  B.  F.  Davis  and  Mr.  A.  R.  Ling; 
"Action  of  Malt  Diastase  on  Potato  Starch  Paste," 
part  ii.,  by  Mr.  A.  R.  Ling;  "Some  Properties  of 
Sodium,  Hydride,"  by  Mr.  A.  Holt;  "On  a  Method 
of  Separating  Cobalt  and  Nickel  and  the  Volumetric 
Determination  of  Cobalt,"  by  Mr.  R.  L.  Taylor;  "  The 
Influence  of  Small  Quantities  of  Water  in  bringing 
about  Chemical  Reaction  between  Salts,"  by  Dr. 
E.  P.  Perman ;  "  Sur  le  Spectre  du  Silicium  "  and 
"  Sur  les  Procedes  de  Photographic  Spectrales  applic- 
ables  a  la  Pratique  des  Laboratoires  de  Chimie,"  by 
M.  le  Comte  Arnaud  de  Gramont.  Dr.  W.  A.  Bone 
will  open  a  discussion  on  the  general  subject  of  com- 
bustion by  a  paper  on  the  combustion  of  methane  and 
ethane. 

Geology. — The  following  papers  have  been  promised 
in  this  section  : — "  On  the  Disturbance  of  Junction- 
beds  from  DifTerential  Shrinkage  during  Consolida- 
tion," by  Mr.  G.  VV.  Lamplugh ;  "On  the  Igneous 
Rocks  of  Weston-super-Mare,"  by  Mr.  William 
Boulton ;  "On  the  Igneous  Rocks  of  the  Berwyn 
Mountain,"  by  Mr.  T.  H.  Cope  and  Mr.  J.  Lomas ; 
"  On  the  Recent  Work  of  the  Geological  Survey,"  by 
Dr.  J.  J.  H.  Teall,  F.R.S.  ;  "  Lower  Ordovician  Rocks 
in  the  Neighbourhood  of  Snov^'don  and  Llanberis," 
by  Mr.  W.  G.  Fernsides;  (i)  "On  the  Origin  of 
Certain  Quartz  Dykes  at  Foxdale,  Isle  of  Man,"  (2) 
"On  some  Glacial  Lakes  in  Switzerland,"  (3)  "On 
the  Geology  of  the  Country  Around  Southport,"  by 
Mr.  J.  Lomas;  "  On  the  Porosity  of  Rocks,"  by  Mr. 
C.  C.  Moore;  "  Notes  on  Sarsen  Stones,  with  Special 
Reference  to  the  Stones  at  Stonehenge,"  by  Mr.  H.  W. 
Monckton ;  "On  the  Geology  of  Martin  Mere,"  by 
Mr.  H.  Brodrick;  (i)  "On  the  Origin  of  Eruptive 
Rocks,"  (2)  Observations  on  the  Metalliferous  De- 
posits of  the  South  of  Scotland,"  by  Mr.  J.  G.  Good- 
child;  (i)  "On  the  Origin  of  the  Drift  Deposits  of 
Lancashire  and  Cheshire,"  (2)  "  On  the  Striation  of 
Boulders  on  Modern  Beaches,"  (3)  "  Observations  upon 
the  Evidences  for  the  Former  Existence  of  Glacier- 
Lakes  in  N.  England  and  S.  Scotland,"  by  Mr.  P.  F. 
Kendall.  Dr.  A.  Smith  Woodward,  F.R.S.,  has  pro- 
mised a  paper,  but  the  title  is  not  yet  known.  There 
will  also  be  the  first  report  of  the  committee  appointed 
at  Belfast  to  report  upon  the  fauna  and  flora  of  the 
Trias  of  the  British  Isles.  The  greater  part  of  this 
first  report  is  furnished  by  Mr.  Beasley,  and  deals  with 
footprints. 


August  20,  1903] 


NATURE 


369 


Zoology. — There  is  promise  of  an  interesting  meet- 
ing in  Section  D.  The  most  important  event  will  be 
the  open  discussion  on  certain  problems  of  fertilisa- 
tion, in  which  it  is  anticipated  that  some  prominent 
botanists  will  take  part.  Several  papers  dealing  with 
the  morphology  of  Coelenterata  have  been  promised, 
including  one  by  Mr.  Duerden  on  corals,  and  one  on 
the  physiology  of  digestion  in  .Mcvonarians  by  Miss 
Edith  Pratt.  Mr.  Crossland  has  promised  an  address 
on  his  dredging  experiences  in  Zanzibar;  Prof. 
Mcintosh  will  read  papers  on  a  comparison  of  the 
terrestrial  and  marine  fauna  and  on  variation  in 
Ophiocoma.  Among  other  papers  that  will  probably 
l)rove  to  be  of  considerable  interest,  there  is  one,  by 
Mr.  M.  D.  Hill,  on  the  nuclear  changes  in  the  egg  of 
Alcyonium.  The  president's  address  will  deal  partly 
with  the  question  of  the  influence  of  the  environment 
in  the  production  of  variations. 

Engineering. — In  this  section,  after  the  president's 
address  on  Thursday,  September  lo,  a  paper  bv  Mr. 
T.  Clarkson  on  steam  driven  motor-cars  will  be  dealt 
with.  Friday,  September  ii,  will  be  mostlv  devoted 
to  a  discussion  on  the  problem  of  modern  street  traflfic, 
which  will  be  opened  by  Colonel  Crompton,  R.E.  If 
time  permit,  other  papers  will  be  taken  on  Friday.  On 
'■^londay  and  Tuesday,  September  14  and  15,  the 
1  lowing  papers  will  be  discussed  : — Refuse  de- 
structors, by  Mr.  \V.  F.  Goodrich;  natural  gas  in 
Sussex,  by  Mr.  R.  Pearson ;  water  supply  of  south- 
w  est  Lancashire,  by  Mr.  T.  Parry ;  balancing  of  Man- 
chester engines,  by  Prof.  Perry ;  balancing  of  alter- 
nators, by  Mr.  B.  Hopkinson  ;  gas  engine  explosions, 
''\-  Mr.  H.  L.  Wimperis;  rainfall  at  Seathwaite,  by 
i  )r.  Mill;  and  (i)  cast  iron  used  for  springs;  (2)  alloys 
1st  in  water-cooled  moulds;  (3)  effect  of  varving 
-tresses  on  steel,  by  Captain  H.  R.  Sankey.  Several 
other  papers  will  also  be  taken,  but  the  final  arrange- 
ments are  not  yet  completed  for  these. 

Anthropology. — The  address  of  the  president.  Prof. 
j.  Symington,  F.R.S.,  will  deal  mainly  with  the  signi- 
ticance  of  variations  in  cranial  form,  and  will  discuss 
the  view  recently  revived  by  Prof.  Schvvalbe  that  the 
Neanderthal  skull  belongs  to  a  distinct  species  of 
Homo,  not  Homo  sapiens.  It  will  also  consider  the 
relation  between  the  external  and  internal  form  of  the 
cranial  wall.  Among  the  papers  accepted  in  phvsical 
anthropology  are  the  following  :— A  study  of  the  skulls 
from  Round  Barrows,  in  Yorkshire,  bv  Dr.  W.  Wright ; 
papers  on  skulls  frorn  the  Malay  Peninsula,  by  Mr. 
N.  Annandale;  and  on  the  physical  character  of  the 
Andamanese,  by  Dr.  Garson ;'  a  note  on  Grattan's 
craniometrical  methods,  by  Prof.  Svmington ;  a  paper 
on  the  papillary  ridges  of  the  hand,  bv  Dr.  E.  J. 
Eyatt;  another,  by  Mr.  D.  MacRitchie,  on  a  Mongo- 
loid type  in  N.W.  Europe;  and  important  reports  on 
Dr.  C.  S.  Myers's  work  on  the  rank  and  file  of  the 
Egyptian  Army,  on  Dr.  W.  H.  R.  Rivers's  researches 
among  the  Todas,  and  on  Mr.  Duckworth's  investi- 
gations among  the  ancient  and  modern  populations 
of  Crete.  The  coinmittee  on  anthropometric  methods 
has  a  valuable  report,  and  that  on  the  teaching  of 
anthropology  will  probably  report  ad  interim. 
Archaeology  is  unusuallv  well  represented.  Mr. 
Arthur  Evans,  Mr.  R.  C.'  Bosanquet,  and  Mr.  J.  L. 
Myres  offer  reports  on  this  vear's  excavations  in  Crete; 
Prof.  Flinders  Petrie  and  Mr.  J.  Garstang  on  recent 
work  in  Egypt;  Mr.  G.  Clinch  on  a  megalith  at 
Coldrum,  in  Surrey,  which  illustrates  certain  points  i 
in  Stonehenge;  Mr.  Annandale  on  stone  implements  | 
from  Iceland;  Dr.  C.  S.  Mvers  on  the  ruins  of  Kharga  j 
in  the  Great  Oasis ;  Mr.  T.  Ashbv  on  Roman  work  at  ' 
Caerwent;  and  Mr.  Garstang  on  Ribchester ;  while  ! 
the  usual  report  ort  Silchester  excavation  rnay  be  1 
expected  to  lead  to  some  discussion.  Prof.  R.  S.  , 
NO.    1764,  VOL.  68] 


Conway  offers  an  analysis  of  ancient  Italian  place- 
names,  as  illustrating  the  early  languages.  Prof. 
Ridgeway  has  a  paper  on  the  origin  of  jewellery,  and 
Mr.  E.  Lovett  on  the  origin  of  the  brooch.  General 
ethnography  (with  the  exception  of  Dr.  Rivers's  work 
on  the  Todas),  and  folklore  and  comparative  religion 
(apart  from  Mr.  W.  Crookes's  paper  on  Islam  in 
modern  India)  are  as  yet  poorly  represented,  but  this 
defect  will  probably  be  made  good  before  long. 

Botany. — In  the  botanical  section  the  address  of  the 
president  will  deal  with  the  nature  and  geographical 
distribution  of  floras  subsequent  to  the  Coal  period; 
the  gradual  progress  of  vegetation  from  the  Lower 
Carboniferous  period  through  the  Coal  age  up  to  the 
Lower  Cretaceous  formations  will  be  discussed,  greater 
prominence  being  given  to  the  Mesozoic  floras.  Miss 
Ethel  Sargant  will  open  a  discussion  on  the  evolution 
of  the  Monocotyledons,  and  Prof.  J.  B.  Farmer  will 
give  a  semi-popular  lecture  on  Epiphytes.  Mr.  \V. 
Bateson  will  give  an  account  of  the  new  discoveries 
in  heredity.  Miss  E.  R.  Saunders  will  describe  the 
results  of  some  cross-breeding  experiments  with 
plants,  and  Mr.  C.  C.  Hurst  will  describe  some  recent 
experiments  on  the  hybridisation  of  orchids.  Other 
papers  will  include  an  account  of  important  recent 
advances  in  our  knowledge  of  algae,  by  Messrs. 
Tansley  and  Blackman ;  the  sandhill  and  saltmarsh 
vegetation  of  Southport,  by  Dr.  Otto  V.  Darbishire ; 
on  the  seedlings  of  some  grasses,  by  Miss  Sargant 
and  Miss  Robertson  ;  on  willow  canker,  by  Prof.  T. 
Johnson  ;  and  on  some  experiments  with  the  staminal 
hairs  of  Tradescantia,  by  Mr.  Harold  Wager.  It  is 
expected  that  a  number  of  foreign  botanists  will  be 
present  at  the  meeting. 

Educational  Science. — The  organising  committee  of 
this  section  has  decided  to  continue  the  procedure 
adopted  at  previous,  meetings,  namely,  to  confine  the 
discussions  to  a  few  broad  subjects.  It  is  proposed 
to  devote  two  days  (September  10  and  11)  to  an 
organised  discussion  of  school  curricula,  based  on  a 
series  of  short  papers  contributed  bv  Prof.  John  Adams, 
Prof.  H.  E.  Armstrong,  F.R.S.,  Miss  S.  A.  Burstall, 
Mr.  G.  F.  Daniell,  Mr.  W.  E.  Fletcher,  Mr.  T.  E. 
Page,  Mr.  J.  L.  Paton,  and  Prof.  Michael  E.  Sadler.  A 
joint  meeting  with  the  Geographical  Section  will  be 
held  to  discuss  the  "Teaching  of  Geography."  The 
discussion  will  be  opened  by  Mr.  H.  J.  Mackinder, 
and  he  will  be  followed  by  several  gentlemen  who 
have  devoted  special  attention  to  this  important  branch 
of  school  work.  In  addition  to  these  subjects,  there 
will  also  be  discussions  on  the  reports  of  committees 
on  : — (a)  "  The  Conditions  of  Health  Essential  to  the 
Carrying  on  of  the  Work  of  Instruction  in  Schools  "; 
(h)  "  The  Teaching  of  Natural  Science  in  Elementary 
Schools  ";  (r)  "  The  Influence  Exercised  by  Universi- 
ties and  Examining  Bodies  on  Secondary  School 
Curricula,  and  also  of  the  Schools  on  Universit>'  1 
Requirements";  (d)  "The  Teaching  of  Botany  in 
Schools." 


A'.4T/r£:S  AND  CUSTOMS  OF  CHUTIA 
NAGPORE.^ 
T^HIS  bright  and  picturesque  book,  which  should 
^  be  widely  read,  gives  in  its  text  and  illustrations 
a  vivid  picture  of  the  eastern  side  of  Chota,  called  by 
the  natives  Chutia  Nagpore,  the  motherland  (Chut)  of 
the  Nagas,  who  were  Naga-Kushikas,  sons  of  the 
Naga  Cobra  and  the  tortoise.  But  I  hope  that  its 
interesting  description  of  the  country,  its  inhabitants 
and  their  festivals,  and  its  glimpses  into  the  traditional 
history  of  the  past,  especially  those  given  in  chap.  v. 
of  the  Santal  birth  legends,  are  only  a  prelude  to  works 

'  "  Chota  NagPore  :  a  little  known  Province  of  the  Empire."  By  F.  B. 
Bradley  Birt.  Pp.  xiv+310.  (London:  Smith,  Elder  and  Co.,  1903.) 
Price  12S.  6d.  net. 


370 


NATURE 


[August  20,  1903 


of  deeper  research,  in' which  the  present  author  and 
others  Hving  in  Chutia  Nag-pore  may  try  to  disentomb 
from  below  the  present  surface  the  ancient  history  of 
the  country  which  was  once  the  treasury  of  the  Naga 
rulers  of  India,  and  will  undoubtedly  be  in  the  future 
its  richest  manufacturing-  province.  It  contains  about 
5000  square  miles  of  coal-fields,  only  worked  on  its 
eastern  rim,  inexhaustible  supplies  of  iron  ore,  red  and 
brown  haematite,  mag-netite  and  limestone,  immense 
wealth  in  other  minerals,  and  in  the  remote  past  the 
gold  of  its  g-old-bearing  river-sands  and  its  diamonds 
filled  the  coffers  of  the  Naga-Kushika  kings.  The 
central  mountain  of  their  realm  was  Parisnath,  de- 
scribed in  chap,  vi.,  which  was  first  the  Marang  Buru 
or  Great  Mother  Hill  of  the  Mundas  and  Santals.  The 
Kushikas  called  it  Mandara,  the  revolving  mountain, 
and  it  was  finally  consecrated  as  the  sacred  mountain 
in  the  east  of  the  trading  Jains  of  the  west,  who  gave 


There  the  seasonal  dances  are  held,  a  separate  step 
and  figure  being  set  apart  for  each  season,  and  thither 
in  the  primitive  age  the  women  of  each  village  invited 
to  these  dances  the  men  of  one  adjoining  it  in  the 
same  province  or  Parha,  and  there  the  children  ot 
each  village  were  begotten  as  the  offspring  of  the 
mother  trees  of  the  sacred  grove.  Their  Spartan 
education,  in  separate  establishments  for  each  sex,  by 
the  women  and  men  of  each  village  to  whom  their 
mothers  were  sisters,  still  exists  among  the  Ooraons 
of  Chutia  Nagpore,  the  Nagas  of  Assam,  the  islanders 
of  Melanesia  in  the  Indian  Archipelago,  and  other 
races.  They  were  taught  to  repeat  the  national 
educational  and  historical  stories,  and  made  thorough 
proficients  in  all  their  tribal  duties. 

We  can  trace  in  Chutia  Nagpore  the  stages  ot 
advance  from  the  simple  primitive  villages  of-  the 
Mundas  and  Marvas  to  the  elaborate  Ooraon  villages 


it   its   present   name   of    the    Lord   (nath)    of    Traders 
(Panris). 

The  history  of  the  country  told  in  the  legends,  ritual 
and  customs  of  its  numerous  tribes,  takes  us  back 
through  layer  after  layer  of  deposit  beneath  the  surface 
of  to-day  to  the  first  age  of  Indian  village  life  surviving 
in  Jushpore  and  Sirgoojya  among  the  Korwas,  who 
are  nomad  agriculturists  living  in  rude  huts  of  tree 
branches  in  forest  encampments,  vacated  every  two  or 
three  years.  Their  women  add  to  the  tribal  food  they 
collect  in  the  woods  and  the  animals  killed  by  the  men 
of  the  tribe,  the  produce  of  the  crops  they  sow  in  their 
clearing  until  the  soil  is  exhausted.  Their  successors 
were  the  Mundas  and  Marya  or  tree  (marom)  Gonds, 
living  in  permanent  villages  under  the  shade  of  the 
Sarna  or  village  grove  of  old  forest  trees  left  standing 
in  the  ring  of  cleared  rice  land,  the  Gond  tribal  sacred 
snake.  Beside  the  Sarna  is  the  Akhra  or  dancing- 
ground,  well  depicted  in  the  illustration  here  repro- 
duced of  Girls  and  Musicians  at  a  Santal  dance  (p.  128). 

NO.    1764,  VOL.  68] 


with  allotments  for  village  servants,  in  which  the  lands 
are  divided  into  Manjhus  or  Lord's  land,  the 
Bhuinhiari  land  of  privileged  tenants  eligible  as  Head- 
man, Pahn  or  Village  Priest,  and  Mahto  or  Accountant 
and  the  land  of  ordinar\^  tenants,  whose  duty  it  is  to 
till  the  landlord's  Manjhus  land.  We  can  further 
study  local  history  in  the  ritual  customs  and  traditions 
of  the  laughter-loving  and  indomitably  independent 
Mundas  and  Ho  Kols,  the  Irish  of  India,  of  the  silent 
and  dogged  Bhuyas,  the  musical  Ooraons,  forming 
a  mixture  of  these  two  types,  in  the  farming  skill  of 
the  Kaurs  and  the  feudal  customs  of  the  Chiroos  and 
Kharwars,  the  ancestral  rulers  of  Magadha,  who 
attached  Chutia  Nagpore  to  their  confederacy  and 
ended  the  chain  of  aboriginal  rulers,  in  which  Mundas, 
Bhuyas,  Gonds,  Ooraons,  and  Kaurs  were  the  suc- 
cessive links. 

The  three  last,  Ooraons,  Kaurs^  and  Chiroo-Khar- 
wars,  were  the  sons  of  the  barley  as  their  predecessors 
were  sons  of  the  rice.     Their  national  birthday  is  the 


August  20,  1903] 


NATURE 


2>7i 


July-August  festival  of  the  Kurum,  when  they  dance 
round  the  national  mother,  the  kurum  almond  tree 
{Nauclea  Parvifolia),  wearing  barley  shoots  in  their 
hair,  and  the  festival  corresponds  to  the  Hindu  Nag 
Punchami,  the  five  mother  snakes  held  in  the  same 
month.  The  union  of  the  rice-eating  sons  of  the  south 
w^ith  the  northern  eaters  of  barley  is  marked  by  the 
Magh  festivals  of  January-February  (p.  102)  in  Chutia 
Nagpore,  and  the  Magh  festival  of  Puryag  at  the  junc- 
tion of  the  Jumna  and  Ganges,  where  the  union  with 
the  men  of  the  south  of  the  Kushika  Gonds,  who  came 
down  the  Jumna,  is  celebrated  by  the  offering  as 
sacrifices  of  living  victims  brought  in  by  the  northern 
people  as  additions  to  the  southern  ritual,  in  which  the 
only  sacrifices  had  been  the  first  fruits  of  the  soil 
offered  by  the  primitive  villagers,  and  the  fowls  slain 
by  the  Munda  sun  worshippers. 

It  was  the  castes  who  form  the  northern  stratum  of 
the  community  who  began  the  custom  of  wedding 
brides  and  bridegrooms  to  mahua  and  mango  trees, 
while  almost  all  castes  still  retain  the  leafy  marriage 
bower  in  which  weddings  are  celebrated  as  a  reminis- 
cence of  their  ancestors,  who  were  sons  of  the  tree 
before  the  northern  growers  of  oil-seeds,  barley,  and 
other  crops  of  Asia  Minor  substituted  individual 
marriages  for  village  unions. 

The  last  stage  in  primitive  national  history  is  that 
of  the  race  of  the  trading  Jains  of  the  Bronze  age,  and 
its  length  is  marked  by  the  vast  excavations  they  have 
made  in  the  copper  hills  of  Lando  in  Seraikela  and 
Baragunda,  under  Parisnath.  They  formed  the  port 
of  Tamluk,  called  Tamra-lipti  or  Copper-port,  and 
have  left  lasting  memorials  of  their  rule  in  the  ruins 
of  their  capital  at  Dalmix  on  the  Subanrikha,  their 
temples  at  Telkupi  (p.  177),  and  along  the  ancient  road 
to  Orissa,  and  in  the  establishment  of  the  brass-ware 
industry  of  Manbhum,  which  supplied  the  brass 
vessels  looked  on  as  sacred  in  modem  Hindu  domestic 
ritual.  J-  F.  Hewitt. 


THE   SEISMOLOGICAL    CONGRESS    IN 
ST  R  ASS  BURG. 

TN  July  of  last  year  the  British  Government  received 
■■•  an  official  invitation  from  Germany  to  take  part 
in  a  conference  the  object  of  which  was  to  establish 
an  international  inquiry  about  earthquakes.  The 
meetings  of  this  conference,  which  took  place  in 
Strassburg — July  23  to  28 — usually  commenced  at  9 
or  10  a.m.,  and  concluded  at  about  5  or  6  in  the 
afternoon.  The  proceedings  were  reported  at  length 
in  the  Strassburger  Korrespondenz  and  other  papers. 

At  the  opening  ceremony  the  chair  was  occupied  by 
His  Highness  Prince  Hohenlohe-Langenburg,  his 
supporters  being  representatives  of  the  Imperial 
Government  and  other  officials.  Twenty-five  States 
or  countries  were  represented,  but  the  total  number  of 
delegates  and  guests  who  were  at  liberty  to  take  part 
in  the  proceedings  up  to  the  time  when  final  votes  were 
demanded  seems  to  have  been  exactly  one  hundred. 
As  sixty-two  of  these  were  Germans,  it  can  be  easily 
imagined  that  German  language  and  German  in- 
fluence preponderated  in  debates,  and  although  ulti- 
mate results  were  arrived  at  by  the  single  voices  of 
separate  countries,  when  Great  Britain  and  her 
colonies,  like  the  German  Empire,  had  each  one  vote 
only,  it  is  difficult  to  suppose  that  these  results  are  en- 
tirely free  from  German  bias. 

France  was  not  officially  represented.  When  we 
consider  the  powerful  influence  exercised  by  this 
country  upon  the  progress  of  science,  the  impetus 
given  to  seismology  by  Perrey,  Montessus  and  other 
workers,  together  with  the  desirability  of  establishing 
NO.   1764,  VOL.  68] 


stations  in  French  colonies,  a  feeling  of  regret  arises, 
that  so  important  a  State  was  unable  to  assist  the  con- 
gress. Whether  this  would  have  been  the  case  had 
the  same  been  held  in  some  other  town  than  Strassburg 
is  a  matter  for  conjecture.  The  chief  results  arrived 
at  were  as  follows  : — 

A  central  association  is  to  be  formed  with  its  head- 
quarters in  Strassburg.  Each  contributing  country 
will  be  represented  by  one  member  on  a  governing 
committee  which  elects  a  president,  a  chief  for  the 
central  office,  and  a  general  secretary.  The  chief  will 
reside  in  Strassburg,  but  it  was  decided  that  the  presi- 
dent and  secretary  should  be  elected  from  outside 
Germany.  Although  it  is  desirable  that  these  officers 
should  represent  different  nationalities,  it  is  also 
desirable  that  the  chief  of  the  central  office  and  his 
secretary  should  reside  at  the  central  office. 

It  was  suggested  that  the  work  of  the  association 
should  be  as  follows  : — 

(i)  To  make  observations  after  a  common  plan 
approved  by  the  association.  Inasmuch  as  there  now 
exists  in  connection  with  the  British  Association,  in 
Italy,  in  Japan,  and  in  other  countries  established 
systems  for  seismic  observations,  which  on  account  of 
the  expenditure  it  would  involve  and  for  other  reasons 
could  not  be  reduced  to  a  common  plan,  and  further, 
that  as  direction  from  a  centre  would  destroy  incentive 
to  investigation,  this  proposition  was  abandoned. 

(2)  To  carry  out  experiments  on  important  matters. 

(3)  To  establish  and  support  observatories. 

(4)  To  collect,  study,  and  publish  reports  or 
rdsumes  of  the  same. 

The  detailed  investigations  referred  to  in  the 
second  suggestion  are  not  unlike  headings  for 
chapters  in  a  treatise  on  seismology.  This  work, 
and  that  embodied  in  the  third  and  fourth  proposals, 
are  for  the  first  twelve  years  to  be  carried  out 
at  a  cost  of  loooL  per  annum,  and  this  sum  is  ta 
include  a  salary  for  the  general  secretary.  The  con- 
tributions to  this  inadequate  sum  are  to  be  apportioned 
amongst  the  cooperating  States  according  to  popula- 
tion, the  British  contribution  to  be  \6ol.  per  year. 
Whether  the  British  and  other  Governments  will  take 
part  in  the  scheme  remains  to  be  seen.  Assuming 
that  they  do,  inasmuch  as  loooZ.  per  year  is  far  too 
small  an  amount  to  meet  expenses  connected  with  the 
proposed  programme,  it  seems  likely  that  the  central 
office  at  Strassburg,  in  its  early  days  at  least,  will  be- 
come a  depdt  from  which  reports  are  issued  and  a 
distributing  centre  for  earthquake  registers  and  other 
materials  bearing  upon  recent  seismological  research. 
This  in  itself  is  a  work  of  a  magnitude  not  generally 
realised,  a  mere  catalogue  of  earthquakes  which  have 
been  recorded  during  ten  years  in  Japan,  for  example, 
making  in  itself  a  volume  of  1000  pages.  To  reduce 
publications  of  this  description,  written  in  Chinese 
characters,  to  a  form  in  which  European  investigators 
might  wash  to  see  them  would  be  a  labour  which 
but  few  would  undertake.  Yet  Germany  offers  men 
who  are  willing  to  face  such  labours',  whilst  her 
Imperial  Government  asks  the  civilised  world  to  co- 
operate in  carrying  out  the  gigantic  task.  Now  at  the 
eleventh  hour,  in  the  name  of  science  and  because 
other  nations  are  apparently  unprepared  or  indifferent 
to  the  advantages  of  centralisation,  it  seems  likely 
that  the  seismological  work  of  all  countries  is  to  be 
swept  into  one  great  net. 

Germany  has  but  few  observing  stations  and  no 
organised  system  for  seismological  investigations  of  her 
own,  yet  she  is  willing  to  take  beneath  her  aegis 
the  organisations  of  the  w'orld.  Whether  it  be  in  the 
relief  of  a  beleaguered  city  or  in  the  study  of  an  obscure 
science,  Germany  desires  to  take  the  lead.  To  turn 
the  eyes  of  the  world  towards  Berlin  as  the  centre  of 


372 


NATURE 


[August  20,  1903 


all  learning  t.urns  the  steps,  of  students  in  the  same 
direction,  and  a  .Government  which  fosters  such  a 
policy  is  deserving  of  its  country.  Germany  has 
offered  to  take  upon  her  shoulders  a  burden  which 
others  shirk,  and  if  this  can  be  achieved  to  the  satis- 
faction of  those  concerned,  she  deserves  great  praise. 

While  this  no  doubt  is  one  view  of  the  situation,  it 
must  not  be  overlooked  that  Governments,  particularly 
those  that  do  not  feel  justified  in  giving  support  to 
seismological  investigation  within  their  own  territory, 
may  hesitate  in  offering  support  to  such  investigation 
in  a  foreign  State.  To  suggest  that  a  powerful 
empire  needed  looo^  a  year  to  carry  on  the  proposed 
work  would  be  v^anting  in  good  taste.  Neither  can  it 
be  suggested  that  delegates  at  the  conference  have 
carried  away  with  them  the  impression  that  they  are 
to  receive  something  greater  than  a  nuid.  pro  quo. 
Should  the  proposed  convention  be  ratified,  what  they 
may  possibly  discover  is  that  a  birthright  has  been  ex- 
changed for  a  mess  of  pottage,  and  for  a  period  of 
twelve  long  years  a  suzerainty  has  to  be  acknow- 
ledged. Truly  enough  the  movement  is  called  inter- 
national, but  at  the  same  time  it  bears  the  character 
of  absorption  and  crystallisation  at  a  centre,  and  it  is 
not  every  country  that  will  care  to  add  to  its  neigh- 
bour's prestige  at  the  expense  of  its  own,  plav  second 
fiddle,  and  pay  for  the  privilege.  That  sei'smologv 
will  benefit  by  cooperation  there  is  but  little  doubt, 
but  whether  Germany  can  carry  out  what  has  been 
proposed,  and  whether  the  scheme  has  been  presented 
in  its  best  form  are  matters  open  to  discussion. 


NOTES. 

We  are  informed  that  Mr.  A.  S.  le  Souef  has  been 
appointed  director  of  the  zoological  garden  at  Sydney  in 
succession  to  the  late  Mr.  Catlett.  Mr.  Dudley  le  Souef, 
his  elder  brother,  has  been  director  of  the  gardens  of  the 
Zoological  and  Acclimatisation  Society  at  Melbourne  for 
several  years,  and  a  younger  brother  is  director  of  the 
newly  established  garden  at  Perth,  in  Western  Australia, 
so  that  the  three  brothers  occupy  three  corresponding  posi- 
tions in  the  three  Australian  capitals. 

For  the  study  of  bird  migration,  Mr.  W.  Eagle  Clarke, 
assistant  keeper  in  the  Natural  History  Department  of  the 
Edinburgh  Museum  of  Science  and  Art,  has  obtained  per- 
mission from  the  Elder  Brethren  of  Trinity  House  to 
spend  a  month  upon  the  Kentish  Knock  Lightship, 
situated  off  the  mouth  of  the  Thames,  and  about  twenty-one 
miles  from  the  nearest  point  of  land.  The  position  of  the 
vessel  affords  exceptional  opportunities  for  observing  the 
east  to  west  autumnal  movements  of  birds  across  the 
southern  waters  of  the  North  Sea. 

The  meeting  this  year  of  the  French  Association  for 
the  Advancement  of  Science  was  held  at  Angers  under  the 
presidency  of  M;  Emile  Levasseur,  who,  in  his  presidential 
address,  dealt  with  one  of  those  economic  questions  around 
which,  at  the  present  time,  many  controversies  are  being 
raised.  "Wages,"  said  M.  Levasseur,  "have  furnished 
the  material  for  hundreds  of  volumes  and  millions  of 
fugitive  leaflets  which  daily  discuss  the  subject  in  all 
civilised  countries,"  and  he  went  on  to  devote  his  address 
to  a  consideration  of  three  main  questions  affecting  the 
wage-earner.  These  may  be  stated  in  the  following  words. 
"What  causes  determine  the  rate  of  wages?"  "Have 
wages  increased?"  "Is  the  wage-earner  a  permanent 
factor  in  the  organisation  of  labour?"  In  discussing  the 
first  question,  the  president  recognised  a  number  of  causes 
for  the  variations  in  the  rate  of  wages  ;  among  these  factors 
NO.    1764,  VOL.  68] 


are  the  productivity  of  the  worker,  the  cost  of  living  for 
the  workman  and  his  family,  the  general  prosperity  of  the 
country,  the  special  abundance  of  capital  in  each  industry, 
the  opposition  between  workers  and  employers,  and  political 
institutions  and  customs.  After  examining  his  second 
question,  M.  Levasseur  concluded  that  wages  have  risen 
in  F"rance  and  in  other  civilised  countries,  and  that  the 
cause  of  it  is  the  growth  of  riches,  the  progress  of  in- 
dustry, the  development  of  machinery,  and  the  greater  in- 
dividual and  collective  value  of  the  worker.  The  grants 
for  scientific  research  made  by  the  association  amount  this 
year  to  about  760/.,  and  this  sum  was  divided  among  some 
fifty  recipients,  including  certain  scientific  associations  as 
well  as  men  of  science. 

A  Reuter  telegram  from  Buenos  Ayres  states  that  severe 
shocks  of  earthquake  were  felt  on  August  12  at  Mendoza. 
A  number  of  houses  and  the  tower  of  a  church  were  de- 
stroyed. 

Vesuvius  is  in  a  state  of  active  eruption.  The  Rome 
correspondent  of  the  Daily  Chronicle  says  a  stream  of  boil- 
ing lava  is  flowing  in  a  north-easterly  direction  towards 
San  Giuseppe  and  the  village  of  Ottajano,  and  has  already 
reached  a  length  of  800  metres. 

A  severe  hurricane  passed  over  the  island  of  Jamaica 
during  the  night  of  August  10-11,  causing  serious  damage 
and  loss  of  life.  On  August  8  the  U.S.  Weather  Bureau 
notified  its  local  agent  at  Kingston  that  a  disturbance 
north-east  of  Barbados  was  moving  to  the  north-west  over 
the  Windward  Islands,  and  would  probably  develop  a 
dangerous  strength.  Little  notice,  however,  was  taken  of 
the  warning.  The  storm  was  most  severe  in  the  early 
morning  hours  of  August  11,  and  the  whole  of  the  eastern 
and  north-eastern  half  of  Jamaica  has  been  desolated  by  it. 

The  preliminary  international  conference  on  wireless 
telegraphy  came  to  an  end  on  August  13.  The  results  of 
the  conference  have  been  embodied  in  draft  regulations  for 
the  control  of  wireless  telegraphy  which  it  is  proposed  to 
submit  to  the  various  Governments  concerned.  A  further 
conference  may  then  be  summoned  to  enter  into  an  inter- 
national convention  based  on  these  regulations  ;  it  is  said 
that  Germany  intends  before  long  to  invite  the  European 
sea  Powers  and  the  United  States  to  take  part  in  a  more 
general  conference  with  this  object.  The  conclusions  at 
which  the  delegates  at  the  preliminary  conference  arrived 
have  not  yet  been  made  public. 

An  instance  of  the  practical  advantages  of  wireless  tele- 
graphy at  sea  -was  given  by  the  Observer  last  Sunday.  A 
gentleman  crossing  to  New  York  by  the  Campania  dis- 
covered in  the  middle  of  the  voyage  that  he  had  not 
sufficient  money  to  pay  his  customs  dues  on  arrival,  nor 
did  he  know  anyone  on  board  from  whom  to  borrow.  He 
remembered,  however,  that  his  mother  was  crossing  from 
New  York  by  the  Lucania,  and  the  two  vessels  having  got 
into  communication  by  wireless  telegraphy,  he  transmitted 
a  request  to  her  to  pay  the  purser  loL,  asking  him  to 
advise  the  purser  of  the  Campania  to  pay  the  sum  to  him. 
The- transaction  was  successfully  accomplished  within  an 
hour;  it  seems  that  with  the  spread  of  wireless  telegraphy 
on  ships,  all  the  business  that  we  are  accustomed  to  trans- 
act on  land  will  be  able  to  be  carried  on  with  equal  facility 
at  sea. 

An  account  of  some  further  experiments  on  the  heat 
radiating  power  of  radium,  carried  out  by  M.  Curie  in  con- 
junction with  Prof.  Dewar  at  the  Royal  Institution  at  the 
time  of  M.  Curie's  lecture  last  June,  is  given  in  the  Times 
of  August   13.     The  facilities  for  accurate  research  at  low 


August  20.  1903] 


NATURE 


373 


temperature  which  Prof.  Dewar  has  developed  at  the  Royal 
Institution  laboratories  enabled  some  careful  experiments 
to  be  mftde.  It  was  found  that  the  heat  radiating  power  of 
radium  bromide  is  not  diminished  at  the  temperature  of 
liquid  ai\r,  and  is  actually  greater  at  the  temperature  of 
liquid  hydrogen.  It -is  stated  that  the  experiments  leave 
no  room  for  doubt  that  the  rate  of  emission  of  heat  by 
radium  is  greater  at  the  temperature  of  liquid  hydrogen 
than  at  any  temperature  from  that  of  liquid  air  up  to  that 
of  an  ordinary  room.  The  experiments  also  showed  that 
the  radiating  power  of  a  salt,  or  solution  of  a  salt,  of 
radium  increases  for  about  a  month  after  its  preparation 
a  maximum  at  which  it  then  apparently  remains 
itionary. 

Ihe  fire  which  occurred  last  week  on  the  Paris  Metro- 
litan  Railway  is  probably  the  most  disastrous  which  has 
.ken  place  in  connection  with  electric  traction.  In  addi- 
rion  to  the  sympathy  one.  feels  for  the  unfortunate  victims 
and  their  relatives,  the  accident  is  to  be  especially  re- 
i,^retted  as  tending  to  discredit  a  system  of  transit  which 
was  becoming  increasingly  popular  in  this  country.  But 
although  the  fire  was  apparently  started  by  the  fusing  of 
an  electric  wire,  the  terrible  results  which  followed  can  in 
no  way  be  charged  to  the  account  of  electric  traction,  nor 
indeed  to  the  system  of  underground  railways.  So  far 
as  one  can  judge  by  what  is  as  yet  known,  there  seem  to 
have  been  serious  mistakes  made  after  the  fire  had  been 
first  noticed,  and  finally  a  panic  resulted  with  its  attendant 
dangers.  But  for  this  the  accident  might  have  been 
followed  by  little  serious  result ;  it  is  safe  to  say  that  in 
all  accidents  of  this  kind  the  best  that  any  system  can  do 
-  to  safeguard,  as  far  as  possible,  against  the  occurrence 
a  panic,  for  once  this  occurs  the  result  is  in  no  way 
<-(nnmensurable  with  the  original  accident,  and  whatever 
precautions  for  safety  may  exist  they  are  rendered  in- 
operative. 

The  Antarctic  relief  ship  Terra  Nova  will  leave  Dundee 
on  August  21.  The  vessel  will  proceed  to  Hobart,  where 
she  will  be  joined  by  the  Morning.  Captain  McKay  will 
command  the  Terra  Nova  and  Captain  Colbeck  the  Morn- 
ing. Each  vessel  will  carry  instructions  in  duplicate  for 
Captain  Scott,  upon  whom  the  supreme  command  will 
devolve  when  communication  has  been  established.  A 
Globe  correspondent  states  that  the  French  Antarctic  Ex- 
pedition has  sailed  from  Havre  under  the  leadership  of 
'  .  Charcot.  The  first  task  to  be  undertaken  by  the  ex- 
lition  will  be  that  of  finding  the  Swedish  Antarctic  Ex- 
pedition under  Nordenskjold,  which,  it  is  supposed,  is  fast 
in  the  ice  off  Graham's  Land.  If  Nordenskjold  should  be 
found,  then  a  voyage  will  be  made  into  the  Antarctic 
•  an,  mainly  for  purposes  of  scientific  research,  as  the 
, sedition  will  not  try  to  establish  an  "  Antarctic  record." 
l)r.  Charcot  is  taking  out  five  men  of  science,  and  pro- 
visions for  twenty-eight  months,  as  the  expedition  will  be 
absent  nearly  two  years.  A  Reuter  message  from  Stock- 
holm reports  that  the  Swedish  expedition  for  the  relief  of 
Dr  Otto  Nordenskjold 's  South  Polar  Expedition  sailed 
m  there  on  August  17  on  board  the  Frithjof. 

I  HE  recent  serious  floods  in  Silesia  have  raised  an  interest- 
iiij  point  as  to  the  relation  between  them  and  deforestation. 
!   i-'   rivers   which    inundated    Silesia   have   their   origin    in 
-tria,  and  it  appears  from  a  Berlin  message  in  Monday's 
rning  Post  that   the   Prussian   authorities   are    informed 
experts   that    the   overflows   are   due   principally    to   the 
Testation    of    the   Austrian    highlands,    which    have    be- 
ne  so   barren  of  timber   that   the   rivers   no   longer   lose 
NO.    1764,  VOL.   68] 


the  large  quantity  of  water  which  the  trees  formerly 
absorbed.  Prussia  has  concluded,  therefore,  that  until  the 
Austrian  highlands  are  retimbered  the  flood  danger  in 
Silesia  cannot  be  eradicated,  and  heavy  relief  expenditure, 
such  as  the  500,000/.  just  granted,  will  be  wasted. 

We  learn  from  Science  that  it  is  proposed  to  celebrate 
the  seventieth  birthday  of  Prof.  August  Weismann,  which 
will  occur  on  January  17,  1904.  The  committee  has  decided 
to  have  prepared  for  that  time  a  portrait  bust  of  Prof. 
Weismann,  which  shall  be  deposited  at  the  Zoological 
Institute  of  the  University  of  Freiburg  with  appropriate 
festivities.  It  invites  cooperation  in  this  undertaking,  not 
only  from  those  who  owe  scientific  stimulus  to  Prof.  Weis- 
mann and  have  been  guided  by  him  into  zoological  activity, 
but  also  from  all  colleagues  who  desire  to  join  in  honour- 
ing Prof.  Weismann  for  his  work.  Contributions  may  be 
sent  to  the  Deutsche  Bank,  Leipzig,  for  the  account  of 
Prof.  Zur  Strassen,  who  is  treasurer. 

The  first  International  Exhibition  of  Industrial  Art  for 
Metal  or  Stone  Products  will  be  held  at  St.  Petersburg 
in  November  next.  The  exhibition  has  the  object  of  making 
the  public  acquainted  with  the  progress  attained  by  Russian 
and  foreign  industry  in  the  artistic  finish  of  metal  and 
stone  products. 

The  Liverpool  School  of  Tropical  Medicine  has  decided, 
with  the  cooperation  of  the  Government  of  the  Congo  Free 
State,  to  dispatch  a  trypanosoma  expedition  to  the  Congo 
Free  State  in  September.  The  objects  of  the  expedition 
will  be  to  report  on  the  sanitary  conditions  of  Boma, 
Leopoldville,  and  other  centres  visited,  and  to  recommend 
improvements  of  existing  sanitary  conditions ;  to  continue 
th'-,  work  of  trypanosomiasis,  human  and  animal,  including 
the  occurrence  and  distribution  of  trypanosoma  in  the 
Congo,  the  carriers  of  the  parasite,  and  the  relation  of 
trypanosoma  to  sleeping  sickness.  Major  Ross,  of  the 
Liverpool  School,  has  received  a  letter  from  Major  Penton, 
the  principal  medical  officer  of  the  Sudan,  testifying  to  the 
success  of  the  measures  taken  against  mosquitoes  for  the 
prevention  of  malaria.  Ismailia  has  been  found  by  Major 
Penton  to  be  practically  free  from  mosquitoes,  and  to  show 
a  striking  improvement  as  regards  malarial  fever. 

The  committee  of  the  National  Physical  Laboratory 
announces  that  it  is  prepared  to  test  the  accuracy  of 
the  pipettes,  measuring  glasses,  and  test-bottles  used  in  the 
Lister-Gerber  and  other  methods  of  testing  milk.  The 
fees  charged  are  very  moderate,  and  in  view  of  the  in- 
creasing attention  that  is  being  bestowed  upon  our  milk 
supplies,   these  facilities  should  be  largely  made  use  of. 

In  addition  to  the  usual  circulars  respecting  the  close 
seasons  for  the  salmon  and  other  fisheries,  the  Fish- 
mongers' Company  has  issued  a  notice  with  regard  to  the 
opening  of  the  oyster  season.  It  is  pointed  out  that  the 
various  oyster  beds,  pits  and  layings  round  the  coasts  have 
been  inspected,  and  all  those  proved  to  be  polluted  With 
sewage  have  been  closed,  and  no  oysters  from  these  places 
will  knowingly  be  allowed  to  be  sold  until  they  have  been 
proved  to  be  safe  and  wholesome.  The  cooperation  of  the 
medical  and  sanitary  authorities  in  this  matter  is  invited. 

The  July  number  of  the  Journal  of  Hygiene  (No.  3,  vol. 
iii.)  contains  several  papers  of  considerable  interest.  Drs. 
Newsholme  and  Stevenson  describe  the  graphic  method  of 
constructing  a  "  life  table,"  and  Mr.  Hayward  gives  a  new 
"  life  table  "  for  England.  Dr.  Meredith  Richards  dis- 
cusses the  factors  which  determine  the  incidence  of  infantile 
diarrhoea,    and    concludes    that    artificial    feeding    and    in- 


374 


NATURE 


[August  20,  1903 


sanitary  milk  supply  are  the  most  important.  Dr.  Fremlin 
describes  the  cultivation  of  the  nitroso-bacterium,  and  Dr. 
Durham  a  new  diluting  pipette.  Dr.  Haldane  finds  that 
the  presence  of  sulphur  in  coal-gas  is  the  principal  factor 
in  vitiating  the  air,  and  Dr.  Savage  has  investigated  the 
relation  between  the  pathogenicity  of  bacillus  coli  in  drink- 
ing water  and  purity.  Dr.  Graham-Smith  describes  further 
researches  upon  factors  which  may  modify  the  biological 
or  precipitin  test  for  blood. 

Dr.     Roberto    Borola,    of  Pavia,    contributes    to    the 

Lombardy    Rendiconti,    xxxvi.  12,    a    note    on    the    metric 

properties  of  quadric  surfaces  in   non-Euclidean   geometry, 

dealing  with  circular  sections,  foci,  and  confocal  and  con- 
cyclic  systems  of  quadrics. 

An  interesting  extension  of  the  use  of  Green's  functions 
to  the  mathematical  theory  of  conduction  of  heat  is  given 
by  Prof.  H.  S.  Carslaw,  of  Sydney,  in  the  Proceedings  of 
the  Edinburgh  Mathematical  Society,  xxi.  The  use  of 
Green's  functions  has  hitherto  been  mainly  confined  to  the 
theory  of  the  potential,  although  their  use  in  connection 
with  heat  conduction  has  been  mentioned  by  Minnigerode 
and  Betti.  Prof.  Carslaw  now  shows  how  the  functions  in 
question  can  be  obtained  by  means  of  contour  integrals,  and 
a  general  method  applied  to  the  solution  of  problems  which 
are  usually  solved  by  independent  methods. 

"  Red  rain  "  forms  the  subject  of  a  paper  by  Messrs.  F. 
Chapman  and  H.  J.  Grayson  in  the  Victorian  Naturalist 
for  June.  The  occurrence  of  dust-laden  showers  is  not  in- 
frequent in  Australia,  but  one  of  the  most  remarkable 
showers  of  this  kind  occurred  on  February  14  of  this  year. 
The  writers  describe  analyses  of  samples  of  sediment 
collected  from  this  shower  at  Camberwell  and  St.  Kilda, 
and  they  compare  the  substances  observed  with  the  minerals 
contained  in  the  dust  commonly  present  on  the  roof  of  the 
National  Museum,  Melbourne.  A  sample  collected  in  a 
second  shower  of  "  red  rain  "  at  St.  Kilda  on  March  28 
was  also  examined.  The  latter  sediment  was  remarkable 
for  the  number  of  diatoms  it  contained,  and  the  authors 
enumerate  a  list  of  the  forms  found,  including  about  twenty- 
five  species. 

The  coefficient  of  thermal  surface-conductivity  across  the 
surface  of  separation  of  a  solid  and  a  fluid  is  a  quantity 
the  determination  of  which  is  of  considerable  importance, 
especially  in  connection  with  the  construction  of  boilers. 
In  the  Zeitschrift  of  the  German  Engineers'  Association, 
Mr.  L.  Austin  describes  experiments  made  at  Charlotten- 
burg  on  this  subject,  giving  the  following  results  : — From 
metal  to  water  at  the  boiling  point  the  resistance  is  equiva- 
lent to  a  thickness  of  1-2  to  2cm.  of  iron,  but  is  reduced 
by  stirring  by  an  amount  equivalent  to  about  o-75cm.  of 
iron.  The  resistance  increases  as  the  temperature  falls, 
reaching  a  maximum  of  locm.  of  iron,  which  is  reduced 
by  icm.  by  stirring.  For  flow  of  heat  from  water  to  metal, 
the  resistance  appears  greater  than  for  the  reverse  flow  if 
th^  water  is  undisturbed,  and  about  the  same  when  tke 
water  is  stirred. 

The  Atti  dei  Lincei,  xii.  10,  contains  a  brief  account  of 
experiments  in  syntonic  wireless  telegraphy  carried  out  at 
Spezia  under  the  direction  of  th-^  Minister  of  Marine.  At 
'-an  Vito  two  Marconi  apparatus  of  frequencies  "  A  "  and 

B"  were  connected  with  the  same  antenna,  and  com- 
munication was  carried  on  simultaneously  with  Palmaria 
and  Leghorn  at  distances  of  respectively  5  and  70  kilo- 
metres. 

NO.    1764,  VOL.  68] 


In  the  Atti  dei  Lincei,  xii.  11,  Prof..  G.  Agamennone 
directs  attention  to  an  interesting  contribution  to  our 
knowledge  of  terrestrial  magnetism  in  the  form  of  a  dis- 
course by  Father  Francesco  Eschinardi,  published  in  1681, 
in  which  he  makes  mention  of  a  sudden  change  in  the 
magnetic  declination  at  Rome  from  about  3°  to  5°  W., 
which  occurred  towards  the  end  of  October  of  the  previous 
year.  This  the  writer  attributed  to  the  effect  of  earth- 
quakes in  Spain  and  Malaga. 

The  annual  list  of  new  garden  plants  ■of  the  year  1902, 
which  is  issued  as  an  appendix  to  the  Kew  Bulletin,  has 
been  received. 

A  record  of  plants  collected  in  the  northern  region  of 
Yucatan  is  commenced  in  the  Publications  of  the  Field 
Columbian  Museum.  The  first  fascicle,  vwhich  treats  of 
the  ferns  included  in  the  Polypodiacese  and  Schizaeaceae, 
and  the  monocotyledonous  orders  Gramineae  and  Cyperaceae,. 
is  the  joint  work  of  Mr.  C.  F.  Millspaugh  and  Miss  Chase. 

The  question  of  shade  for  coffee  and  cocoa  plants  is  dis- 
cussed in  the  Jamaica  Bulletin  of  the  Department  of  Agri- 
culture, where  it  is  pointed  out  that  in  many  cases  it  is 
the  bacteria  working  in  the  soil,  and  not  the  plants  which, 
require  the  shade.  The  choice  of  leguminous  plants  for  the 
purpose  is  a  wise  one,  as  the  nitrogenous  contents  of  the 
soil  are  thereby  increased.  An  article  by  Mr.  Cousins,, 
contrasting  the  constituents  of  four  definite  phosphatic 
fertilisers,  serves  to  point  the  absurdity  of  an  indiscriminate 
application  of  commercial  fertilisers  without  taking  into 
consideration  the  nature  of  the  soil. 

Whatever  may  be  the  outcome  of  the  present  political 
question  of  fiscal  reciprocity  towards  our  colonies,  there 
can  be  no  doubt  about  the  advantages-  of  a  closer  connection 
between  them  and  the  mother  country.  To  further 
this  object  a  scientific  and  technical  department  of  the 
Imperial  Institute  was  established,  and  a  laboratory  was 
provided  wherein  samples  of  raw  material  from  the 
colonies  can  be  analysed  and  reported  upon  by  experts, 
as  has  long  been  done  for  vegetable  products  at  Kew. 
It  the  second  number  of  the  Bulletin  of  the  Imperial  Insti- 
tute, there  appears  an  account  of  recent  investigations 
undertaken  by  Dr.  Dunstan  and  his  assistants.  These 
include  the  examination  of  rubbers  from  Africa,  oil  shale 
from  Natal,  iron  ore  from  a  district  in  the  Bombay  presi- 
dency, and  other  products.  Also  there  are  added  special 
notices  on  various  industries  which  are  receiving  attention 
in  our  dependencies  and  those  of  other  European  States. 

In  vol.  ii.  of  Marine  Investigations  in  South  Africa 
Mr.  R.  Kirkpatrick,  of  the  Natural  History  Museum,  con- 
tinues his  descriptions  of  the  sponges,  naming  some  new 
genera  and  species. 

The  nature  of  the  so-called  terminal  buds  of  fishes — 
organs  scattered  over  the  skin  of  the  head  in  certain 
teleosts  and  ganoids,  and  at  one  time  regarded  as  tactile 
in  function — forms  the  subject  of  an  article  by  Mr.  C.  J. 
Herrick,  published  in  vol.  xii.  of  the  Journal  of  Comparative 
Neurology.  It  is  inferred  that  these  structures  have  no 
connection  with  the  lateral  line  system,  but  are  intimately 
related  to  the  taste-buds  of  the  mouth. 

The  July  issue  of  the  Emu  contains  a  number  of 
interesting  articles  devoted  wholly,  or  chiefly,  to  orni- 
thology. In  treating  of  New  Zealand  cormorants.  Captain 
F.  W.  Hutton  suggests  that  one  group  of  these  birds 
reached  New  Zealand  from  South  America,  and  that,  after 
considerable  modification  in  the  Antipodes,  their  descend- 
ants returned  to  their  ancestral  home,  whence  some  found 


August  20,  1903] 


NATURE 


375 


their  way  to  Kerguelen  Island.  This,  it  is  argued,  in- 
dicates that  islands  were  formerly  more  numerous  in  the 
Antarctic  than  at  present.  Among  the  illustrations  in  the 
number  before  us,  one  plate  shows  a  native  high  up  in  a 
gum-tree  taking  the  nest  of  the  white-tailed  cockatoo,  and 
a  second  the  countless  swarms  of  sooty  terns  which  haunt 
the  Great  Barrier  Reef  in  the  breeding  season. 

In  an  article  entitled  "The  Genesis  of  the  Kangaroo," 
a  correspondent  of  the  Newcastle  Daily  Journal  of  August  4 
seeks  to  obtain  credence  for  a  view,  current  among 
Australian  settlers,  as  to  the  early  stages  of  development 
in  these  animals.  Briefly  stated,  this  view  is  to  the  effect 
that  "  after  impregnation,  the  mingled  germs  find  their 
way  from  the  womb,  or  receptacle  answering  to  such, 
through  a  duct  or  channel  straight  to  the  point  of  the 
teats,"  and  that  consequently  the  whole  of  the  development 
takes  place  while  the  embryo  is  attached  to  the  summit  of 
the  nipple.  Nothing  is  said  with  regard  to  the  position  of 
the  mysterious  duct  or  channel  alluded  to  in  the  quotation, 
while  the  commonly  accepted  view,  namely,  that  the  mother 
transfers  the  embryo  from  the  vagina  to  the  nipple,  is  dis- 
missed with  the  statement  that  this  is  nol  supported  by 
direct  observation.  Apparently  the  author  is  unacquainted 
with  a  note  published  some  years  ago  in  the  Zoologist  (and 
referred  to  in  our  columns  at  that  time),  in  which  Mr.  D. 
le  Souef  describes  this  transference  in  considerable  detail, 
and  states  that  it  is  effected  solely  by  the  maternal  lips. 

The  report  of  the  British  Museum  for  the  year  ending 
on  .March  31  last  has  been  published  as  a  Blue-book.  In 
the  natural  history  section  the  director  records  an  increase 
in  the  number  of  visitors,  and  likewise  in  the  list  of 
donations.  Attention  is  directed  to  the  completion  of  the 
Nile  Fish  Survey,  and  to  Dr.  Andrews's  geological  e.x- 
plorations  in  Egypt,  funds  for  which  have  been  generously 
provided  by  Mr.  W.  E.  de  Winton.  It  is  satisfactory  to 
learn  that  the  whole  of  the  collections  to  be  made  by  the 
National  Antarctic  Expedition  are  to  come  to  the  museum, 
and  that  the  trustees  have  agreed  to  publish  an  account 
of  the  natural  history  results  of  the  voyage.  As  regards 
the  new  section  of  economic  zoology,  a  summary  is  given 
of  work  accomplished  in  advising  the  Board  of  Agriculture 
in  regard  to  insect  ravages  and  kindred  subjects,  and  of 
visits  paid  in  connection  with  the  Board.  A  long  list  of 
correspondence  in  connection  with  mosquitoes  and  malaria 
indicates  the  energy  with  which  these  investigations  are 
being  pushed.  Some  progress  has  been  made  with  the  ex- 
hibition of  economic  zoology  in  the  north  hall,  and  collec- 
tions of  insects  affecting  economic  products  have  been 
received  from  various  parts  of  the  world. 

Dr.  Henry  Hoek,  of  Davos,  has  issued  separate  copies 
of  a  detailed  paper  on  the  geological  structure  of  the  central 
"  Plessurgebirge  "  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Arosa  (Berichte 
der  Naturforschenden  GeseUschaft  zu  Freiburg-im-Breisgau). 
Inspired  by  Prof.  G.  Steinmann,  the  author  has  sought 
to  work  out  in  detail  the  complex  features  of  the  district, 
which  is  well  known  in  its  general  aspect  to  visitors  to 
the  Engadine.  In  so  doing,  he  gives  considerable  credit 
to  the  observations  of  the  English  geologist,  the  late  Mr. 
A.  V.  Jennings.  The  overfolding  and  repetition  of  strata 
by  thrust-faults  are  well  shown  in  numerous  sketches  and 
diagrams,  and  plate  xiv.  gives  us  a  broad  landscape,  with 
the  geology  marked  out  on  it  in  the  clear  and  effective 
manner  of  Murchison  and  the  early  authors.  Dr.  Hoek 
concludes  by  supporting  the  views  of  Steinmann  and 
Jennings  in  opposition  to  those  of  Rothpletz  and  Lugeons, 
and  affirms  that  the  main  range,  including  the  Briigger- 
NO.    1764,  VOL.  68] 


horn  and  the  Hornli,  is  a  mountain-mass  of  eastern  Alpine 
type,  pushed  up  from  the  south-east  over  a  "  Vorland  "  of 
Flysch.  This  Flysch,  it  is  argued  with  reason,  is  entirely 
of  Cainozoic  age,  and  the  mass  of  older  rocks  has  been 
pushed  across  it  for  a  distance  of  some  4  kilometres. 

Prof.  L.  Plate's  memoir  "  Uber  die  Bedeutung  des 
Darwin 'schen  Selectionsprincips,"  which  was  reviewed  in 
Nature  of  May  16,  1901  (vol.  Ixiv.  p.  49),  has  reached  a 
second  edition.  The  new  edition  contains  nearly  one  hun- 
dred pages  more  than  were  included  in  the  original  work, 
and  the  words  "  und  Probleme  der  .Artbildung  "  have  been 
added  to  the  title. 

The  sixth  edition  of  Prof.  R.  Hertwig's  "  Lehrbuch  der 
Zoologie  "  has  been  published  by  Herr  Gustav  Fischer, 
Jena.  The  work  originally  appeared  in  189 1,  and  was 
favourably  noticed  in  these  columns  (vol.  xlviii.  p.  173). 
The  present  edition  has  been  enriched  with  many  new 
illustrations,  and  the  text  has  been  revised  in  the  light  of 
recent  theory  and  investigation  in  zoological  science. 

Two  useful  volumes  have  been  published  by  the  Treasury 
Department  of  the  United  States  Coast  and  Geodetic 
Survey.  One  is  a  list  and  catalogue  of  the  publications 
issued  by  the  survey  from  1816-1902,  and  has  been  com- 
piled by  Mr.  E.  L.  Burchard  ;  the  other  is  a  second  edition 
of  a  bibliography  of  geodesy,  by  Prof.  J.  H.  Gore.  This 
bibliography  has  been  carefully  revised  to  1902,  and  deals 
with  all  books  and  papers  on  the  subject  in  every  language. 

The  "  List  of  Publications  of  the  Smithsonian  Institu- 
tion, 1846-1903,"  by  Mr.  William  J.  Rhees,  a  copy  of  which 
has  been  received  from  the  institution  at  Washington,  will 
prove  of  great  assistance  to  all  readers  who  have  access 
to  the  volumes  indexed.  The  "  list  "  consists  of  two 
parts ;  the  first  is  a  complete  list  of  Smithsonian  publica- 
tions in  numerical  order,  which  is  also  approximately 
chronological ;  the  second  part  contains  a  list  of  publica- 
tions, available  for  distribution,  arranged  under  subjects 
and  authors.  In  this  list  are  included  the  papers  and 
addresses  by  eminent  men  of  science  which  have  appeared 
in  the  appendices  to  the  annual  reports  of  the  Smithsonian 
Institution. 

The  extension  section  of  the  Manchester  Microscopical 
Society  has  issued  a  revised  list  of  fifty-four  lectures 
arranged  for  delivery  by  its  members  during  the  coming 
winter.  The  work  of  lecturing  is  voluntary  and  gratuitous 
on  the  part  of  the  members,  but  hire  of  slides,  travelling, 
and  out-of-pocket  expenses  are  charged.  The  purpose  of 
the  lectures  is  to  bring  scientific  knowledge,  in  a  popular 
form,  before  societies  unable  to  pay  large  fees  to  pro- 
fessional lecturers,  but  in  all  cases  where  lectures  are  given 
before  societies  which  are  commercial  undertakings,  or  are 
subsidised  by  grants,  a  fee  is  charged.  The  subjects  of  the 
lectures  are  varied  and  well  chosen,  and  this  pioneer  work 
of  the  Manchester  scientific  workers  deserves  wide  appreci- 
ation. 

We  have  received  a  reprint  of  an  article,  from  vol.  ix. 
of  the  decennial  publications  of  the  University  of  Chicago, 
on  "  New  Instruments  of  Precision  from  the  Ryerson 
Laboratory,"  by  Mr.  R.  A.  Millikau.  The  instruments  de- 
scribed are  a  substitute  for  Atwood's  machine,  a  Young's 
modulus  apparatus,  a  "  moment  of  inertia  "  machine,  and 
a  vapour-tension  device.  The  pieces  of  apparatus  are  in- 
genious and  likely  to  prove  useful  in  the  teaching  of 
practical  physics,  but  two  at  least  can  hardly  be  described 
as  new.  The  substitute  for  Atwood's  machine  is  merely 
a  slightly  modified  form  of  the  familiar  smoked  glass  plate 


376 


NATURE 


[August  20,  1903 


falling  in  front  of  a  vibrating  tuning  fork  to  which  a 
suitable  style  is  attached.  It  may  interest  Mr.  Millikau 
to  know  that  this  device  has  been  used  by  students  at 
the  London  Royal  College  of  Science  for  the  last  twenty 
years.  Similarly  the  vapour-tension  device  is  an  improved 
form  of  the  bent  tube  with  the  shorter  limb  closed  and 
with  mercury  in  the  bend  which  has  long  been  used  in 
laboratories  in  this  country  for  the  determination  of  boil- 
ing points. 

The  additions  to  the  Zoological  Society's  Gardens  during 
the   past    week    include    an    Anubis    Baboon    {Papio    anubis) 
from  West  Africa,  presented  by  Mrs.  J.  B.  Ward  ;  a  White- 
crowned     Mangabey     (Cercocebus     oethiops)     from     West 
Africa,    presented    by    Mrs.    Stevenson ;    a    Green    Monkey 
(Cercopithecus  callitrichus)  from  W'est  Africa,  presented  by 
Mr.   F.  W^  A.  Jackson,   R.A.  ;  a  Black   Rat  {Mus  rattus), 
British,  presented  by  Mr.  Oswald  M.  Courage  ;  six  English 
Vipers   {Vipera   berus)   from    Dorset,    presented   by   Mr.    A. 
Old ;    two    Slender    Loris    (Loris    gracilis)    from    Ceylon,    a 
Black    Hornbill    {Sphagolobus    atratus)    from    West   Africa, 
three    Westerman's    Eclectus    (Eclectus    westermani)    from 
Moluccas,    ten    Common    Skinks    (Scincus    officinalis)    from  j 
North     Africa,     deposited ;     a     New     Zealand     Parrakeet  j 
(Cyanorhamphns  novae-zealandiae),  a  Golden-headed  Parra-  ', 
keet   (Cyanorhamphus    auriceps)    from    New    Zealand,    pur-  j 
chased;   a   Garnett's   Galago  {Galago   garnetti)   from   East  1 
Africa,    a    Stanley    Crane    {Anthropoides    paradisea)    from   ' 
South  Africa,  received  in  exchange.  1 


OVR  ASTRONOMICAL   COLUMN. 

The  Spectrum  of  Comet  1903  c. — On  July  14  and  15 
Dr.  Curtis,  of  the  Lick  Observatory,  found  that  the  visual 
spectrum  of  this  comet  consisted  of  a  strong  continuous 
spectrum,  and  the  three  characteristic  cometary  bands,  that 
at  A.  4770  being  by  far  the  brightest.  He  tried  to  photo- 
g-raph  the  spectrum  by  giving  a  six  hours'  exposure  with 
the  36-inch  telescope,  but  obtained  no  result,  the  intrinsic 
brightness  of  the  comet  being  too   small. 

Prof.  Perrine,  using  a  small  slit  spectroscope  with  the 
Crossley  reflector,  obtained  a  spectrum  with  four  hours' 
exposure,  and  found  that  it  contained  the  five  bands 
obtained  by  Campbell  in  Comet  b  1893  (Rordame)  and  in 
Comet  h  1894  (Gale),  viz.  388,  409,  421,  436  and  473.  The 
bands  obtained  by  Perrine  also  agree  in  brightness  with 
those  previously  photographed,  with  the  exception  of  that 
at  \  420,  which  was  one  of  the  brightest  bands  in  the 
former  comets,  but  is  very  weak  in  this  one  (Lick  Observ- 
atory Bulletin,  No.  47).     ' 

The  Spectroscopic  Binary  ;8  Scorpii. — Working  with 
the  new  spectrograph  of  the  Lowell  Observatory,  Mr. 
\.  M.  Slipher  has  determined  that  the  spectroscopic  binary 
J8  Scorpii  has  a  very  wide  range  of  velocity,  extending  over 
250km.  from  —109km.  to  -f-146;  these  variations  are 
satisfied  by  a  period  of  6d.   2ih. 

The  spectrum  of  each  of  the  components  is  of  the  Orion 
type,  and  the  velocity  determinations  were  made  from 
measurements  of  the  lines  H^,  A  4388,  and  A.  4472  (Lowell 
Observatory  Bulletin,  No.   i). 

Effects  of  Absorption  on  the  Resolving  Power  of 
Spectroscopes. — In  a  mathematical  discussion  of  the 
manner  in  which  the  absorption  of  a  train  of  prisms  affects 
the  resolving  power  of  a  spectroscope.  Prof.  Wadsworth, 
of  the  Allegheny  Observatory,  has  found  that  for  small 
absorption  values  the  actual  resolving  power  is  practically 
identical  with  its  theoretical  value,  but  as  the  absorption 
increases  a  most  important  diminution  of  the  resolving 
power  takes  place.  So  rapid  is  this  diminution  that  in 
several  actual  instruments  now  in  use,  which  were  designed 
to  give  great  resolution,  this  end  has  been  defeated  bv  the 
high  absorptive  power  of  the  dense  flint  prisms  used  in 
their  prism-trains.  Thus  in  the  Young  spectroscope,  the 
theoretical    resolving    power    in    the    neighbourhood    of    the 

NO.    1764.  VOL.  6^'] 


H  and  K  lines  is  300,000,  whilst  the  practical  power  is 
only  about  57,000,  actually  less  than  that  which  an  instru- 
ment one-fourth  the  size  would  possess. 

Prof.  Wadsworth  summarises  the  results  of  his  discussion 
in  the  following  statements.  "It  is  at  once  evident  from 
these  results  that  if  high-power  prism  spectroscopes  are  to 
be  used  in  the  investigation  of  the  photographic  region  of 
th.»  spectrum,  the  use  of  extra  dense  flint  glass,  so 
commonly  employed  in  the  past,  must  be  avoided,  not  only 
on  the  score  of  light-efliciency,  but,  as  now  appears,  on  the 
score  of  photographic  resolving  power  and  purity  as  well. 
The  use  of  lighter  flint  reduces  the  theoretical  resolving 
power  of  any  given  prism  train  by  decreasing  the  value 
of  the  dispersion  coefficient,  but  this  may  be  easily,  and 
even  advantageously,  compensated  by  increasing  the  re- 
fracting angle  of  the  prisms." 

Many  new  spectroscopes  have  been  designed  on  the 
principle  enunciated  above,  amongst  others  those  of  the 
Allegheny,  Lowell,  and  Philadelphia  Observatories  may  be 
mentioned  (Miscellaneous  Scientific  Papers  of  the  Allegheny 
Observatory,  No.  11). 

A  New  Circumzenithai.  Apparatus. — A  novel  apparatus 
for  determining  zenith  distances  has  been  devised  by 
Fr.  Nusl  and  M.  J.  J.  Fric,  of  Prague,  and  is  described 
and  illustrated  in  a  Bulletin  International  de  I'Academie  des 
Sciences  de  Boheme. 

The  accompanying  diagram  shows  the  essential  features 
of  the  apparatus.  When  the  star  E  approaches  the  altitude 
i8o-a  it  forrtis,  at 
the  focus  of  the 
telescope  O,  two 
images,  one  of 
which  has  been  re- 
flected directly  from 
the  face  AC  of  the 
prism  ACB,  the 
other  from  the  face 
CB  after  reflection 
from  the  surface  of 
a  bath  of  mercury 
HH  ;  these  two 
images  coalesce  at 
the  moment  that 
the  star  crosses  the 
zenith  circle  at  alti- 
tude i8o-a,  and  tha  c 
moment  is  chrono- 
graph i  c  a  1 1  y  re- 
corded. Numerous  improvements  have  been  made  on  the 
original  design,  the  chief  of  which  consists  in  sub- 
stituting two  mirrors  inclined  to  each  other  at  the  angle  a 
in  place  of  the  prism  shown  here,  and,  by  inserting  small 
prisms,  the  star  images  are  observed  as  sharply  defined 
horizontal  lines.  Using  a  telescope  of  350mm.  focal  length 
and  40mm.  aperture,  with  a  50  eye-piece,  a  determination 
of  time  correct  to  +005S. — oo6s.  may  be  made,  and  by 
observations  of  three  stars  a  determination  of  latitude 
correct  to  ±o"-22  is  easily  performed. 

The  Secchi  Commemoration. — The  twenty-fifth  anni- 
versary of  the  death  of  Padre  Angelo  Secchi  was  com- 
memorated at  the  Collegio  Romano  last  spring,  when  an 
address  was  read  by  Prof.  Elia  Millosevich.  This  has  since 
been  published,  with  a  portrait  of  Secchi,  by  the  Press  of 
the  Lincei  Academv. 


THE  NEW  YORK  ZOOLOGICAL  SOCIETY.* 
A  LTHOUGH  the  preservation  of  the  native  animals  of  the 
-^  United  States  is  one  of  the  avowed  objects  of  the  New 
York  Zoological  Society,  the  establishment  of  small  parks, 
where  the  larger  species  can  live  and  multiply  under  con- 
ditions approximating  as  nearly  as  may  be  to  their  natural 
surroundings,  has  been  specially  undertaken  by  the  sister 
society  at  Washington.  And,  so  far  as  we  gather  from  the 
report  before  us,  the  authorities  at  New  York  are  direct- 
ing their  attention  to  the  exhibition  of  animals  from  all 
parts  of  the  world  on  an  equal  footing.  Considering  that 
the  year  (1902)  to  which  the  report  relates  is  only  the  fourth 
Seventh  Annual  Report  of  the   New  York  Zoological  Socleiy."     Pp. 


205  ;  illustrated.     (Nev 


.eport  I 
York, 


1903-) 


August  20,  1903] 


NATURE 


377 


in  the  development  of  the  Zoological  Park  and  of  the 
serious  work  of  the  society,  all  concerned  are  to  be  heartily 
congratulated  on  the  progress  that  has  been  made  up  to 
date,  and  the  promise  of  rapid  advance  in  the  near  future. 
A  gratifying  feature  in  the  year's  record  was  the  trans- 
ference of  the  New  York  Aquarium  to  the  management  of 
the  society,  since,  as  we  are  told  in  the  report,  this  was 
made  spontaneously  by  the  municipality  without  any 
suggestion  on  the  part  of  the  governing  body.  The  society 
has  organised  the  administration  of  the  aquarium  on 
practically  the  same  basis  which  has  been  found  so  effective 
in  the  case  of  the  Zoological  Park,  with  a  director  and 
council  who  secure  the  best  expert  advice  obtainable.  As 
regards  the  general  progress  of  the  park,  the  report  records 
the  completion  of  a  lion  house,  and  the  issue  of  a  contract 
for  a  building  devoted  to  the  exhibition  of  antelopes.  The 
executive  committee  states,  however,  that  if  the  menagerie 
is  to  equal  the  best  European  institutions  of  a  like  nature, 
even,  greater  efforts  in  the  way  of  new  buildings  must  be 
made  in  the  future. 

Judging  from  the  excellent  reproductions  of  photographs 
with  which  the  report  is  illustrated,  the  larger  mammals 
are  allotted  ample  space,  and  enjoy,  whenever  practicable, 
surroundings  suitable  to  their  particular  requirements. 
This  is  well  exemplified  in  the  annexed  illustration  of  a 
group  of  Barbary  wild  sheep  in  the  collection. 


\ 

fTVIir 

m^ 

i>  ^ 

is 

P 

T. 

5ffjK|^ 

m 

m 

J 

Fig.  I.— a  group  of  .^oudad,  or  Barbary  wild  sheep.     (From  Report  of  the 
New  York  ZoL logical  Society.) 

Perhaps  the  most  important  part  of  the  society's  work, 
so  far,  at  any  rate,  as  menagerie  administration  is  con- 
cerned, is  the  establishment  of  a  medical  department  on 
what  it  is  hoped  inay  be  a  permanent  basis.  In  the  words 
of  the  report,  "  the  object  of  this  service  is,  by  systematic 
observation  and  record,  and  by  experimental  treatment,  to 
extend  our  knowledge  of  the  care  and  health  of  wild 
animals  in  captivity,  the  causes  of  various  diseases,  and 
the  means  which  should  be  taken  for  their  prevention. 
This  is  both  humane  and  part  of  an  econoinic  administra- 
tion." The  establishment  includes  a  well-known  medical 
pathologist,  a  trained  veterinarian,  and  an  expert  in  micro- 
scopic investigation  and  the  preparation  of  pathological 
cultures.  To  the  report  before  us  the  last-named  official 
contributes  two  cominunications  of  prime  importance  in 
regard  to  menageries,  namely,  one  on  the  modes  of 
tubercular  infection  in  wild  animals  in  captivity,  and  a 
second  on  cysticerci  in  wild  ruininants.  The  work  of  the 
department  in  question  is  therefore  already  in  full  swing, 
and  its  investigations  will  doubtless  be  found  of  the  highest 
value  to  menagerie  authorities  throughout  the  world. 
None  of  us  can  fail  to  be  pained  at  the  large  percentage  of 
ailing  animals  to  be  seen  in  every  menagerie,  and  all  will 
therefore  welcoine  anything  that  can  be  done  to  render 
such  cases  less  common  in  the  future. 

In  addition  to  the  aforesaid  special  papers  and  the  reports 
of  various  officials,  the  volume  before  us  contains  other 
articles   of    interest.       In    one    of    these,    for    instance,    Mr. 


R.  H.  Beck  gives  a  graphic  account  of  hunting  for  giant 
tortoises  in  the  Galapagos  Islands,  illustrated  by  a  photo- 
graph of  these  reptiles  coming  to  a  pool  to  drink,  and  by 
a  second  of  the  mode  in  which  their  empty  shells  are  carried 
on  mule-back  to  the  coast.  The  psychology  of  birds  forms 
the  subject  of  a  communication  by  Mr.  C.  W.  Beebe,  while 
Mr.  R.  L.  Ditmars  discourses  on  the  method  of  feeding 
reptiles  in  captivity,  with  especial  reference  to  the  some- 
what forcible  measures  adopted  in  the  case  of  a  recalcitrant 
python. 

To  those  who  make  the  study  of  mammals  a  speciality, 
as  well  as  to  big  gaine  hunters  and  sportsmen  generally, 
a  paper  by  the  secretary,  Mr.  M.  Grant,  on  caribou,  or  rein- 
deer, will  be  of  special  interest,  not  only  from  the  excellent 
account  of  the  various  local  forms,  but  from  the  numerous 
illustrations  by  which  their  distinctive  features  are  dis- 
played. One  of  these  we  herewith  reproduce,  on  account  of 
its   being  taken   from   an   animal    in   the  wild   state.       Mr. 


Fig.  2. — Wild  Newfoundland  Caribou.     (From  KepDrt  of  the  New  York 
Zoological  Society.) 

Grant  considers  that  all  the  American  caribou  may  be 
divided  into  two  groups,  the  large  and  light  antlered  barren 
ground  group,  and  the  woodland  group,  distinguished  by 
the  short,  heavy,  and  much-branched  antlers.  The  dis- 
tribution of  the  various  members  of  these  two  groups  is 
illustrated  in  a  coloured  map.  R.   L. 

THE  ORIGIN  OF  SEED-BEARING  PLANTS.' 
yVTHEN  Linmeus,  in  1735,  brought  out  his  famous  sexual 

*  '  system  of  classification,  which  for  so  long  dominated 
systematic  botany,  twenty-three  out  of  his  twenty-four 
classes  were  occupied  by  flowering  plants,  and  one  only  was 
left  for  the  flowerless  plants  or  Cryptogamia. 

As  the  name  "  Cryptogamia  "  indicated,  a  thick  veil  of 
mystery  still  hung  over  the  reproductive  processes  of  these 
flowerless  plants.  When  this  obscurity  became  gradually 
dissipated,  with  the  aid  of  improved  microscopes,  by  the 
brilliant  researches  of  Hedwig,  Mirbel,  Nageli,  ^'ringsheim, 
Cohn,  Thuret,  and  above  all  Hofmeister,  and  t'le  "  Crypto- 

1  Discourse  delivered  at  ihe  Royal  Institution  on  Friday,  May  15,  by 
Dr.  D.  H.  Scott,  F.R.S. 


NO.    1764,    VOL.   68J 


378 


NATURE 


[August  20,  1903 


gamia, "  to  quote  a  phrase  of  Prof.  Sachs's,  became  the 
true  "  Phaneroganiia, "  their  relative  importance  received 
better  recognition.  In  a  recent  classification — that  of  Prof. 
Warming — out  of  twenty-three  classes  no  less  than  eighteen 
are  assigned  to  Cryptogams. 

In  spite  of  our  vastly  increased  knowledge  of  the  Crypto- 
gamia,  the  flowering  plants  are  still  in  the  majority  as 
regards  species.  According  to  a  recent  census,  out  of  about 
175,000  known  species  of  plants,  about  100,000  or  4/7  are 
phanerogamic.  For  our  present  purpose  we  may  speak  of 
the  flowering  plants  as  the  seed-bearing  plants  or  Spermo- 
phyta,  for  at  least  in  recent  vegetation  the  two  characters, 
the  grouping  of  the  reproductive  leaves  in  a  flower  and  the 
formation  of  a  seed,  go  together,  and  the  latter  is  the 
more  definite  and  constant  featpre.  The  Cryptogams,  such 
as  ferns,  mosses,  seaweeds,  and  fungi,  may,  in  contra- 
distinction, be  spoken  of  as  the  spore-bearing  plants  or 
Sporophyta.  In  the  vegetation,  then,  of  the  present  day, 
the  seed-bearers  are  enormously  predominant,  not  so  much 
in  mere  number  of  species  as  in  importance,  including,  with 
few  exceptions,  all  plants  of  utility  to  man,  and  almost  all 
of  conspicuous  stature,  and  occupying  vastly  the  greater 
part  of  the  earth's  land  surface. 

To  what  do  the  now  dominant  seed-plants  owe  their 
success  ? 

This  is  a  diflRcuIt  question,  for  all  organisms  are  well 
adapted  or  they  could  not  exist,  and  nothing  requires  more 
careful  discrimination  than  the  attempt  to  delermine  the 
exact  factors  which  constitute  the  relative  superiority  of 
one  group  over  another  in  the  struggle  for  life.  Everything 
depends  on  the  conditions  of  the  contest. 

In  the  simpler  of  the  higher  Cryptogams,  such  as  ordinary 
ferns,  the  spores  are  all  of  one  kind,  and  on  germination 
give  rise  to  an  independent  plantlet,  the  prothallus,  on 
which  the  sexual  organs  are  borne.  Fertilisation  requires 
the  presence  of  water  for  the  actively  moving  male  cells, 
the  spermatozoids,  to  swim  in.  This  condition  may  be 
something  of  a  handicap  to  the  plant,  but  if  water  is  pre- 
sent, reproduction  is  fairly  well  ensured.  In  the  more 
advanced  spore-plants,  such  as  the  Selaginellas,  so 
commonly  grown  in  our  greenhouses,  the  differentiation  of 
the  sexes  begins  earlier,  for  the  spores  themselves  are  of 
two  kinds.  There  are  numerous  male  spores  of  very  small 
size  (microspores)  and  comparatively  few  female  spores  of 
relatively  large  size  (megaspores).  In  the  group  of  the 
water-ferns  (Hydropterideae)  only  one  of  these  large  spores 
is  produced  in  each  spore-sac,  which  then,  if  provided  with 
a  special  envelope,  as  in  Azolla,  may  closely  simulate  a 
seed. 

In  the  microspores,  the  prothallus  is  scarcely  developed  ; 
the  spore  has  practically  nothing  else  to  do  but  to  produce 
the  spermatozoids.  On  the  female  side,  provision  has  to 
be. made  for  the  nutrition  of  the  embryo,  and  here  there  is 
a  comparatively  bulky  prothallus,  though,  as  compared  with 
that  of  the  ferns,  it  tends  to  lose  the  character  of  an  inde- 
pendent plant,  and  to  become  a  mere  storehouse  of  food- 
materials.  There  are  certain  obvious  advantages  in  this 
heterosporous  condition.  The  male  spores  are  kept  small 
for  easy  dispersal,  and  can  be  produced  in  correspondingly 
large  numbers.  The  prothallial  tissue  is  economised  and 
only  formed  where  it  is  wanted,  i.e.  in  connection  with  the 
egg-cells  from  which  the  embryos  arise. 

The  differentiation  of  microspores  and  megaspores  is,  in 
fact,  comparable  to  that  earlier  differentiation  of  minute 
active  spermatozoids,  and  large  stationary  ovum,  which 
took  place  far  back  in  the  history. of  both  animals  and 
plants,  and  laid  the  foundation  of  sex. 

At  the  same  time  the  heterosporous  arrangement,  as  we 
find  it  in  Cryptogams,  puts  a  new  obstacle  in  the  way  of 
the  successful  accomplishment  of  the  act  of  fertilisation. 
In  order  that  this  may  happen.it  is  necessary  that  the  two 
kinds  of  spores  should  germinate  together,  as  well  as  in 
the  presence  of  an  adequate  water  supply.  The  necessary 
association  of  the  large  and  small  spores' is,  as  a  rule,  left 
to  chance,  the  small  spores  being  produced  in  enormous 
numbers,  so  that  the  chance  may  be  a  good  one. 

In  the  case  of  the  great  cryptogamic  trees  of  the 
Palaeozoic  period  the  difticulty  must  have  been  a  serious 
one.  We  know  that  their  spores  often  differed  in  mass  in 
the  proportion  of  at  least  100,000  to  i,  and  when  bodies  of 
such  diverse  weights  were  scattered  by  the  wind  from  the 
tops  of  lofty  trees,  the  chances  must  have  been  enormously 

NO.   1764,  VOL.  681 


against  their  coming  to  rest  at  the  same  spot.  It  was 
perhaps  to  this  difliculty  that  the  series  of  adaptations  lead- 
ing up  to  seed-formation  owed  their  first  inception. 

If  the  microspores  could  be  brought  to  the  megaspores 
while  the  latter  were  still  attached  to  the  parent  plant, 
much  greater  certainty  of  their  union  would  be  gained,  for 
adaptations  would  now  become  possible  for  catching  the 
small  spores  and  retaining  them  in  position.  Some  of  the 
Cryptogams  now  living  have  got  as  far  as  this  ;  the  work 
of  an  American  lady,  Miss  Lyon,  has  shown  that  in  some 
species  of  Selaginella  the  microspores  and  megaspores  meet 
and  the  spermatozoids  are  discharged  within  the  spor- 
angium ;  fertilisation  is  effected,  and  even  an  embryo  may 
develop  before  the  megaspore  is  shed.  In  this  last  respect 
these  Selaginellas  go  beyond  the  seed-plants  of  the 
Palaeozoic  period,  as  we  shall  presently  see.  The  first 
advantage,  then,  to  be  secured  was  the  occurrence  of 
fertilisation,  or  rather  the  bringing  together  of  the  two 
kinds  of  spore,  on  the  parent  plant.  This  is  one  of  the 
constant  characteristics  of  the  seed-bearing  plants ;  the 
process  is  spoken  of  as  pollination,,  for  what  we  call  the 
pollen-grains  are  nothing  but  the  microspores  of  the 
Spermophyta. 

We  will  now  see  how  the  process  actually  goes  on  in 
some  of  the  simpler  seed-plants  of  the  present  day. 

The  seed-plants,  as  is  well  known,  are  divided  into  two 
great  classes,  the  Angiosperms,  in  which  the  seeds  are 
enclosed  in  a  seed-vessel,  and  the  Gymnosperms,  in  which 
they  are  exposed.  In  the  former,  fertilisation  is  effected 
by  the  growth  of  the  pollen-tube  through  the  tissues  of  the 
young  seed-vessel ;  in  the  Gymnosperms  the  pollen  falls 
directly  upon  the  young  seed  or  ovule,  and  the  pollen-tube 
has  only  a  short  way  to  grow  before  reaching  the  egg-cell. 

The  Angiosperms  (Monocotyledons  and  Dicotyledons)  in- 
clude practically  all  our  familiar  flowering  plants,  but  with 
them  we  are  not  concerned  at  present.  The  question  of 
the  origin  of  Angiosperms  is  one  of  the  great  unsolved 
problems  of  botany,  but  it  does  not  immediately  touch  our 
present  subject.  It  is  to  the  simpler  seed-plants — the 
Gymnosperms — that  we  must  turn  for  light  on  the  origin 
of  the  seed-plants  as  a  whole.  The  Gymnosperms  are 
enormously  the  more  ancient  of  the  two  classes,  extending 
back  through  the  whole  of  the  Carboniferous  period  into 
the  Devonian,  while  the  Angiosperms,  so  far  as  we  know, 
only  appeared  quite  late  in  the  Mesozoic  period. 

The  most  familiar  of  the  Gymnosperms — the  Coniferse  or 
cone-bearing  trees — are  themselves  too  far  advanced  on  the 
seed-bearing  line  for  our  purpose.  We  will  concentrate  our 
attention  on  a  family  which,  of  all  living  flowering  plants, 
stands  nearest  to  the  Cryptogams,  namely,  the  Cycads. 
This  group,  not  very  well  known  to  the  non-botanist,  but 
of  which  a  splendid  collection  will  be  found  in  the  palm- 
house  at  Kew,  is  now  a  small  one,  including  nine  genera 
and  about  seventy  species,  distributed  through  the  tropical 
and  sub-tropical  regions  of  both  the  old  and  new  worlds.  In 
habit  these  plants,  which  may  rise  to  the  stature  of  small 
trees,  bear  some  superficial  resemblance  to  palms ;  the 
agreement  with  ferns  is,  however,  much  more  striking. 

In  the  genus  Stangeria  from  tropical  Africa,  the  leaves 
bear  so  close  a  resemblarfce  to  those  of  some  ferns  in  form 
and  veining  that  the  plant,  before  its  fructification  was 
known,  was  described  by  competent  botanists  as  a  species 
of  the  fern-genus  Lomaria. 

In  all  Cycads  the  male  fructifications  are  in  the  form  of 
cones ;  the  pollen-sacs  are  borne  in  great  numbers  on  the 
under  surface  of  the  scales  of  the  cone.  In  all  the  genera 
but  one,  the  female  fructifications  are  also  cones,  each  scale 
bearing  two  large  ovules.  In  the  type  genus  Cycas,  how- 
ever, there  is  no  specialised  female  cone  at  all.  The  fertile 
leaves  are  borne  in  rosettes  on  the  main  stem,  alternating 
with  zones  of  the  ordinary  vegetative  leaves. 

The  fertile  leaves  are  of  large  size  and  compound  form, 
and  usually  each  of  them  bears  several  ovules,  which, 
whether  fertilised  or  not,  grow  to  a  great  size,  sometimes 
as  big  as  an  egg-plum.  They  are  in  some  species  of  a 
bright  red  colour,  and  contrasting  with  the  yellow  woolly 
leaves  on  which  they  are  borne,  are  conspicuous  and 
beautiful  objects. 

In  thus  bearing  its  seeds  on  leaves  so  little  modified,  and 
springing,  like  the  ordinary  leaves  from  the  main  stem, 
Cycas  is  the  most  fern-like  genus  of  flowering  plants. 

The  ovule,   at  the  time  when  pollination   takes  place,    is 


August  20,  1903] 


NATURE 


379 


about  the  size  of  a  small  hazel  nut.  It  consists  of  an  outer 
envelope  and  a  central  body,  the  two  being  closely  joined 
together,  except  towards  the  top,  where  the  envelope  leaves 
a  narrow  passage  open,  leading  down  to  the  central  body. 
The  ape.\  of  the  latter  becomes  excavated  into  a  hollow 
pit — the  pollen  chamber — a  feature  almost  peculiar  to 
Cycads  amongst  living  plants,  discovered  by  our  country- 
man Griffith  so  long  ago  as  1854,  though  the  credit  is 
often  wrongly  given  to  later  French  or  German  investi- 
gators. 

The  pollen,  blown  by  the  wind  or  possibly  conveyed  by 
insects,  is  received  in  the  opening  of  the  envelope  by  a 
drop  of  gummy  substance,  and  as  this  evaporates  the 
pollen-grains  are  drawn  down  through  the  narrow  passage 
into  the  pollen  chamber  below.  There  each  grain  anchors 
Itself  by  sending  out  a  tube  into  the  neighbouring  tissue 
of  the  ovule.  Thus  pollination  is  accomplished.  Fertilisa- 
tion, i.e.  the  actual  union  of  the  male  and  female  cells, 
takes  place  some  months  later,  when  the  ovule,  now  to  all 
external  appearance  a  seed,  has  reached  its  full  size.  In 
the  meantime,  the  single  megaspore  or  embryo-sac,  em- 
bedded in  the  tissue  of  the  central  body  of  the  seed,  has 
grown  to  enormous  dimensions — filled  itself  with  prothallus 
and  developed  the  egg-cells  at  its  upper  end,  which  are  so 
large  as  to  be  easily  seen  with  the  naked   eye. 

The  pollen-grain  behaves  like  a  cryptogamic  microspore 
and  produces  two  large  spermatozoids,  each  with  a  spiral 
band  bearing  numerous  cilia — the  organs  of  motion.  The 
pollen-tube  becomes  distended  with  water,  bursts,  and  sets 
free  the  sluggishly  moving  spermatozoids,  which  by  aid 
of  the  water  discharged  from  the  pollen-tubes  are  able  to 
swim    to   the   egg-cells   and   effect   fertilisation. 

This  remarkable  process,  first  discovered  in  1896  by  two 
Japanese  botanists,  Ikeno  and  Hirase,  and  independently 
in  1897  by  the  American  Webber,  occurs  not  only  in  the 
Cycads,  but  also  in  that  strange  plant  the  maiden-hair 
tree.  Ginkgo,  a  form  now  completely  isolated,  certainly 
rare  in  a  wild  state,  and  said  to  have  been  only  saved 
from  extinction  by  cultivation  around  Buddhist  temples 
in  China  and  Japan,  but  which  has  a  long  geological 
history. 

The  cycadean  method  of  fertilisation  holds  exactly  the 
middle  place  between  the  purely  cryptogamic  process, 
where  the  active  male  cells  accomplish  the  whole  journev 
to  the  egg  by  their  own  exertions,  and  the  method  typical 
of  seed-plants,  where  these  cells  are  little  more  than  mere 
passengers  carried  along  by  the  growth  of  the  pollen-tube. 

The  adaptations,  which  in  the  Cycads  allow  of  pollination 
and  fertilisation  on  the  plant,  are  chiefly  three  : — 

(i)  The  envelope  of  the  seed  with  its  narrow  opening 
down  which  the  pollen-grains  are  guided. 

(2)  The  pollen-chamber  below  in  which  they  are  received. 

(3)  The  pollen-tube  which,  however,  plays  a  somewhat 
less  important  part  here  than  in  the  higher  flowering  plants, 
and  in  the  Pahtozoic  allies  of  the  Cycads  may  perhaps  have 
been  dispensed  with  altogether. 

There  are,  however,  other  points  in  which  the  ovule  of 
a  Cycad  differs  from  the  spore-sac  of  a  Cryptogam.  Not 
only  is  the  megaspore  solitary — that  is  a  condition  already 
reached  among  the  water-ferns — but  it  is  firmly  embedded 
in  the  surrounding  tissue.  It  is  no  longer  a  'mere  spore 
destined  to  be  shed,  but  remains  throughout  an  integral 
part  of  the  ovule,  while  the  ovule  ripens  into  a  seed  and 
ultimately  germinates.  Thus  the  whole  development  of 
the  prothallus  takes  place  within  the  seed,  and  this  requires 
special  methods  of  food-supply,  involving  a  complexity  of 
structure  far  beyond  that  of  any  cryptogamic  spore-sac. 
When  the  time  tor  dispersal  comes,  the  seed  is  shed  as  a 
whole. 

There  is,  however,  another  character  commonly  regarded 
as  essential  to  the  definition  of  a  seed  ;  a  seed  should  con- 
tain an  embryo.  This  implies  that,  after  the  egg-cell  has 
been  fertilised,  the  young  plant  develops  to  a  certain  extent 
while  still  within  the  seed,  and  before  it  is  shed.  In  the 
ripe  seed  the  embryo  passes  into  a  resting  stage,  and  only 
resumes  its  development  when  the  seed  begins  to  germinate 
and  the  embryo  becomes  a  seedling.  Usually,  too,  the 
ripening  of  the  seed  itself  is  dependent  on  the  development 
of  the  embryo;  if  there  is  no  fertilisation  there  is  no  true 
seed,  only  an  abortive  ovule. 

In  the  Cycads  this  is  not  the  case ;  the  ovule  ripens  into 
a  full-sized  and  apparently  normal  seed,  even  if  fertilisation 


NO.    1764,   VOL.  68] 


has  failed.  In  our  hot-houses  Cycads  are  seldom  fertilised  ; 
yet  the  conspicuous  scarlet  seeds  of  Cycas  revoluta,  or  the 
crimson  seeds  of  Encephalartos,  are  familiar  objects  to  many 
Kew  visitors.  Further,  the  degree  of  development  of  the 
embryo  at  the  time  the  seed  is  shed  is  very  inconstant ; 
sometimes,  although  fertilisation  has  taken  place,  the 
embryo  is  scarcely  to  be  detected. 

The  definite  resting  stage  of  the  young  plant  in  the  dry 
seed,  so  characteristic  of  the  higher  Phanerogams,  is  un- 
known to  these  primitive  seed-bearers,  the  Cycads  and  the 
maidenhair-tree.  The  same  appears  to  hold  good  for 
the  seeds  found  in  the  Pakeozoic  rocks.  Such  seeds  are 
common  in  certain  localities,  as  in  the  Coal-measures  of 
central  France,  and  to  a  less  degree  in  our  own  coal-beds. 
In  petrified  specimens  the  structure  is  often  beautifully  pre- 
served, yet  in  no  single  case  has  a  Palaeozoic  seed  been 
found  to  contain  an  embryo.  It  is  not  merely  a  matter  of 
preservation,  for  that  is  not  unfrequently  so  good  that  the 
delicate  egg-cells  can  still  be  recognised.  Thus  there  is 
no  known  "  seed  "  of  Palseozoic  age  which,  according  to 
current  definitions,  strictly  deserves  the  name.  Technically, 
the  term  "  ovule  "  would  be  more  appropriate,  but  the 
obvious  maturity  of  the  integument  makes  the  word  "  seed  " 
seem  more  natural.  So  far  the  case  is  parallel  to  that  of 
our  recent  Cycads  or  the  maidenhair-tree. 

It  is,  of  course,  possible  that  any  day  we  may  light  on 
some  Palaeozoic  seed  with  an  embryo  ;  it  may  be  that  the 
specimens  hitherto  found  were  all  unfertilised,  though  the 
frequent  presence  of  pollen-grains  in  the  pollen-chamber 
makes  this  explanation  unlikely.  It  seems  not  improbable 
that  the  development  of  an  embryo  in  the  ripening  seed  was 
a  later  device — that  in  the  older  seed-plants  the  period  of 
rest  came  immediately  after  fertilisation,  and  that  the 
growth  of  the  embrjo,  when  once  started,  went  on  rapidly 
and  continuously  to  germination.  In  that  case  a  seed  with 
a  recognisable  embryo  would  rarely  be  preserved. 

We  are  now  in  a  position  to  see  what  are  the  chief 
advantages  gained  by  a  plant  in  adopting  the  seed-habit ; 
they  are  : — 

(i)  Pollination  on  the  parent  plant,  and  consequently 
greater  certainty  in  bringing  together  the  two  kinds  of 
spore. 

(2)  Fertilisation  either  on  the  plant  or  at  least  within 
the  sporangium,  giving  greater  certainty  of  success,  and 
protection  at  a  critical  moment. 

(3)  Protection  of  the  young  prothallus  from  external 
dangers. 

(4)  A  secure  water-supply  during  its  growth. 

(5)  Similar  protective  and  nutritive  advantages  for  the 
young  plant  developed  from  the  egg-cell. 

This  last  end,  however,  was  very  probably  not  yet  fully 
attained  in  the  earlier  seed-bearing  plants. 

We  may  now  go  on  to  consider  our  main  subject — the 
historical  question,  from  what  group  of  spore-bearing  plants 
were  the  seed-plants  derived? 

One  thing  is  plain ;  the  stage  of  heterospory  was  the 
immediate  precursor  of  seed-formation,  and  it  was  from 
some  group  of  Cryptogams  producing  spores  of  two  kinds 
that  the  seed-plants  sprang.  Such  heterosporous  groups 
are,  however,  known  in  three  of  the  main  phyla  of  the 
higher  Cryptogams. 

In  the  Lycopod  series  we  have,  among  their  living  re- 
presentatives, pronounced  heterospory  in  Selaginella  and 
Isoetes  ;  among  the  Palaeozoic  Lycopods  it  was  commoner 
still.  Within  the  class  of  the  ferns  we  have  the  hetero- 
sporous water-ferns.  In  the  third  series,  that  of  the  horse- 
tails, w^e  have,  it  is  true,  only  homosporous  forms  now 
living,  but  in  Palaeozoic  times  a  well-marked  differentiation 
of  micro-  and  megaspores  was  attained,  though  less  extreme 
than  in  the  other  two  lines. 

So  far,  therefore,  there  is  no  reason  why  the  early  seed- 
plants  might  not  have  had  family  relations  with  any  of  these 
great  cryptogamic  classes,  and,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  all  three 
lines  have  been  championed  by  one  botanist  or  another  as 
the  probable  ancestors  of  the  seed-plants. 

The  horsetail  stock,  though  it  attained  an  extraordinary 
development,  shows  no  further  sign  of  transition  towards 
the  higher  plants. 

The  case  for  the  Lycopods  is  stronger,  and,  indeed,  they 
were  long  the  "  favourites,"  and  were  commonly  regarded 
as  lying  nearest  the  true  line  of  spermophytic  descent. 
This  idea  was  specially  based  on  the  mode  of  development 


38o 


NATURE 


[August  20,  1903 


of  the  spore-sacs,  which  has  much  in  common  with  that 
of  the  pollen-sacs  and  ovules  of  Phanerogams,  and  this, 
combined  with  the  occurrence  of  well-marked  hetero- 
spory  in  some  genera,  appeared  to  point  to  a  relationship. 
But  the  former  character  (the  development  of  the  spore-sac 
from  a  group  of  cells  instead  of  from  a  single  one)  is  now 
known  to  be  common  to  certain  ferns,  and  to  just  those 
ferns  (the  Marattiaceai,  &c.)  which  prove  to  be  the  most 
ancient,  so  that  this  argument  has  lost  its  weight.  It  has 
lately  been  found,  indeed,  that  some  of  the  Carboniferous 
Lycopods  produced  seed-like  organs,  presenting  the  most 
striking  analogies  with  true  seeds,  but  the  plants  which 
bore  them  were  in  all  other  respects  Lycopods  pure  and 
simple,  and  the  case  appears  to  have  been  one  of  homo- 
plastic modification.  There  is  no  indication,  as  yet,  of  any 
forms  really  transitional  between  the  Lycopods  and  the 
Spermophyta. 

The  one  line  which,  so  far,  has  yielded  truly  intermediate 
types    is  that  of  the  ferns. 

Among  recent  plants,  the  Cycads,  as  we  have  seen,  offer 
some  points  of  agreement  with  ferns,  sufficient  to  have  led 
certain  distinguished  botanists,  for  example  Sachs  and 
Warming,  strongly  to  maintain-  their  fern-ancestry.  The 
chief  points  of  agreement  are  : — 

(i)  The  fern-like  foliage  in  some  Cycads,  and  in  many 
the  mode  of  folding  of  the  leaflets  in  the  bud. 

(2)  The  arrangement  of  the  pollen-sacs  in  groups  on  the 
underside .  of  the  cone-scales,  like  that  of  the  spore-sacs 
of  ferns  on  the  underside  of  the  leaves. 

(3)  The  carpels  or  fertile  leaves  of  Cycas,  which,  though 
bearing  true  seeds,  are  more  like  fertile  fern-fronds  than 
any  other  reproductive  leaves. 

By  themselves,  these  characters,  though  suggestive,  would 
be  inconclusive ;  the  anatomy  is  not  directly  comparable 
with  that  of  any  living  ferns. 

What,  then,  do  we  know  of  the  history  of  this  family  in 
past  times?  The  Cycads  are  now  a  small  and  isolated 
group  ;  in  the  Mesozoic  period,  from  the  Trias  to  the  Lower 
Cretaceous,  they  were  one  of  the  dominant  types  of  vegeta- 
tion, and  spread  all  over  the  world.  Of  the  fossil 
species  recorded  from  the.  Oolite  of  the  Yorkshire  coast 
and  from  the  Wealden  of  the  south  of  England,  one-third 
are  referred  to  Cycads,  and  they  were  equally  abundant  in 
the  Mesozoic  floras  of  North  America,  India,  and  other 
countries.  If  they  existed  in  the  same  proportion  now  as 
then,  they  would  have  about  35,000  species  instead  of  70  ! 
The  Cycads  of  the  Mesozoic,  however,  were  not,  as  they  are 
now,  a  single  family,  but  a  great  class  (the  Cycadophyta  of 
Nathorst)  embracing  very  diverse  types,  often  with  organs 
of  reproduction  widely  different  from  those  of  their 
surviving  relatives,  and  showing  a  certain  parallelism  with 
angiospermous  fructifications.  But  with  all  this  there  was 
on  the  whole  a  remarkable  uniformity  in  habit,  just  as  we 
find  a  general  similarity  in  outward  characters  among 
so  many  dicotyledonous  trees  of  the  present  day,  though 
belonging  to  the  most  diverse  families. 

In  the  Mesozoic  rocks  we  also  find  a  certain  number  of 
plants  (known  only  from  their  foliage)  as  to  which  it 
remains  doubtful  whether  they  belonged  to  Cycads  or  ferns, 
or  to  some  intermediate  group. 

Besides  the  Cycadophyta,  seed-plants  were  represented  in 
Mesozoic  days  by  a  great  number  of  Coniferae,  more  or 
less  allied  to  those  still  living,  and  by  various  forms  akin 
to  the  maidenhair-tree,  perhaps  the  more  ancient  type 
surviving  in  the  recent  flora. 

When  we  go  further  back,  to  the  Palaeozoic  rocks,  it  is 
only  in  their  uppermost  strata  that  we  find  forms  clearly 
referable  to  Cycads  or  Conifers. 

The  best  known  seed-bearing  plants  of  the  older  rocks 
are  those  of  the  family  Cordaiteae,  which  stretches  back  to 
the  Devonian.  They  were  tall,  branched  trees,  bearing 
great  simple  leaves,  sometimes  a  yard  long.  The  anatomy 
of  stem  and  root  resembled  that  of  an  Araucarian  Conifer, 
but  the  leaves  had  just  the  structure  of  the  leaflets  of  a 
Cycad.  Male  and  female  flowers  were  borne  in  little  spikes 
or  catkins,  and  may  best  be  compared  with  those  of  the 
maidenhair-tree.  The  seeds,  of  which  the  structure  is 
known,  closely  resemble  those  of  that  plant,  or  of  recent 
Cycads. 

The  Cordaiteae,  however,  ancient  as  they  are,  were 
already  pronounced  gymnospermous  seed-plants — by  them- 
selves they  give  no  direct  clue  to  the  origin  of  Spermo- 
NO.    1764,  VOL.  68] 


phvta.       We  must  look  elsewhere  for  the  key  to  our  main 
problem. 

The  vast  number  and  variety  of  fern-like  remains  through- 
out the  Palaeozoic  strata,  wherever  land-plants  are  known, 
is  familiar  to  all.  Almost  every  form  of  recent  fern-frond 
can  be  matched  from  the  impressions  in  the  Carboniferous 
and  Devonian  rocks.  A  considerable  number  of  these  fossil 
fern-fronds  are  known  to  have  really  belonged  to  ferns,  for 
typical  fern-fructifications  are  found  upon  them.  An 
experienced  collector  of  Coal-measure  plants,  Mr.  Heming- 
way, once  told  me  that  he  reckoned  on  finding  about  20 
per  cent,  of  the  specimens  of  any  true  fossil  fern  in  the  fertile 
state.  When,  therefore,  a  common  fossil  fern-frond  (so- 
called)  is  never  found  fertile,  a  strong  suspicion  is  awakened 
that  the  plant  must  have  had  some  kind  of  fructification 
other  than  that  of  an  ordinary  fern.  This  is  the  case  with 
a  surprisingly  large  proportion  of  the  Palaeozoic  plants 
commonly  described  as  ferns,  and  holds  good  of  certain 
entire  "genera";  the  important  genera  Alethopteris, 
Neuropteris,  Mariopteris,  Callipteris,  Tasniopteris,  and 
others,  have  never  yet  been  found,  in  any  of  their  species, 
with  fertile  fronds,  if  we  except  one  or  two  specimens  so 
questionable  and  obscure  that  no  conclusion  can  be  drawn 
from  them.  It  is  probably  under  the  mark  to  say  that  one- 
third  of  the  so-called  ferns  of  Palaeozoic  age  afford  no 
evidence  from  fructification  that  they  were  really  ferns,  as 
we  now  define  thein. 

The  absence  of  recognisable  fertile  fronds  may,  it  is  true, 
be  partly  accounted  for  by  dimorphism.  Many  ferns,  both 
recent  and  fossil,  bear  their  reproductive  organs  on  modified 
portions  of  the  frond,  or  even  on  special  fronds,  very 
different  from  the  vegetative  foliage.  P'ossil  remains  are 
usually  fragmentary,  and  when  the  sterile  and  fertile  fronds 
are  found  isolated,  there  may  be  nothing  to  show  that  the 
one  belonged  to  the  other.  But,  allowing  for  this,  there  are 
very  many  "  fern-fronds  "  which  offer  no  evidence,  even 
from  association,  of  any  fern-like  fructification,  while  the 
fructifications  actually  associated  with  them  are  often  any- 
thing but  fern-like.  There  are,  in  fact,  a  number  of  un- 
assigned  seeds  from  the  Coal-measures,  some  of  which  are 
commonly  associated  with  certain  of  the  quasi-ferns  of 
which  we  are  speaking. 

On  the  whole,  however,  we  have,  up  to  this  point,  had 
before  us  merely  negative  evidence,  indicating  that  many 
of  the  leaves,  so  familiar  to  palaeobotanists,  classed  on 
account  of  their  form  and  veining  as  fern-fronds  may 
really  have  belonged  to  some  group  different  from  the  true 
ferns.  Negative  evidence  is  notoriously  weak  ;  at  most  it 
only  justifies  us  in  taking  up  a  position  of  philosophic 
doubt,  though  in  this  case  it  was  enough  to  induce  the 
distinguished  Austrian  palaeobotanist  Stur  to  suspect  that 
the  genera  Alethopteris,  Neuropteris,  and  others  were  not 
ferns,  but  Cycads. 

During  the  last  thirty  years,  however,  positive  evidence 
has  been  accumulating  proving  that  certain  of  the  fern- 
like Palaeozoic  plants  were  at  any  rate  something  distinct 
from  true  ferns,  as  we  now  know  them.  This  evidence  is 
derived  from  a  study  of  the  anatomical  structure,  which  in 
Cycads  and  ferns,  as  they  now  exist,  is  sufficiently  different 
to  prevent  any  possible  confusion  between  the  two  groups. 
A  single  section  from  the  leaf-stalk  of  the  fern-like  Cycad 
Stangeria  would  be  enough  to  show  that  it  is  a  true  Cycad 
and  no  fern,  and  conversely,  a  single  section  from  the  frond 
of  Lomaria,  with  which  Stangeria  was  once  confused,  would 
show  it  to  be  a  true  fern  and  not  a  Cycad. 

A  common  Coal-measure  plant,  named  Lyginodendron 
Oldhamium,  was  one  of  the  first  of  the  Paheozoic  quasi- 
ferns  to  be  examined  anatomically.  We  owe  this  work, 
like  so  many  other  great  advances  in  fossil  botany,  to  the 
late  Prof.  Williamson,  who  thus  led  the  way  to  the  solution 
of  the  problem  before  us. 

Externally,  the  plant  is  wholly  fern-like  ;  its  characteristic 
highly  compound  foliage  is  that  of  a  Sphenopteris 
(S.  Honinghausi)  with  a  Davallia-like  habit.  The  large 
fronds  were  borne,  at  intervals,  on  a  somewhat  slender 
stem,  which  rooted  freely.  The  slender  proportions  and 
the  presence  of  spines  everywhere,  on  leaf  and  stem,  suggest 
that  the  plant  may  have  been  a  scrambling  climber  like 
Davallia  aculeata,  for  example,  among  recent  ferns. 

The  structure  of  all  the  vegetative  parts  of  the  plant, 
stem,  leaf,  and  root,  is  known  as  perfectly,  perhaps, 
as    in   any   plant    now   living.     The   leaves   turn   out.  to   be 


August  20,  1903] 


NATURE 


3^1 


true  "  fern-fronds  "  in  structure  as  well  as  in  external 
aspect.  The  vascular  bundle  traversing  the  petiole,  for 
example,  is  of  the  "  concentric  "  type  characteristic  of 
ferns,  and  any  differences  there  may  be  are  in  details  only. 

A  section  of  the  stem,  however,  bears  at  first  sight  no 
resemblance  to  that  of  a  fern  ;  outside  the  pith  we  find,  in 
all  mature  specimens,  a  broad  zone  of  wood  and  bast  with 
its  cells  arranged  regularly  in  radial  series,  like  that  of  an 
ordinary  "  exogenous  "  tree,  and  in  detail  approaching 
especially  the  cycadean  structure.  .^t  the  border  of  the 
pith  there  are  distinct  strands  of  wood,  and  this  region, 
which  was  laid  down  before  the  radially  arranged  zone, 
recalls  the  structure  of  an  Osmunda.  The  bundles  in  the 
cortex  of  the  stem,  on  their  way  out  to  the  leaves,  have,  in 
this  part  of  their  course,  exactly  the  structure  of  the  strands 
in  the  leaf-stalk  of  a  Cycad — a  structure  found,  in  this 
form,  in  no  other  living  plants. 

The  roots,  when  young,  resembled  those  of  certain  ferns 
(Marattiaceae),  but  as  they  grew  older  they  also  formed 
radially  arranged  wood  and  bast  like  the  roots  of  Gymno- 
sperms. 

On  the  ground  of  this  remarkable  combination  of 
structural  characters,  it  was  inferred  that  Lyginodendron 
could  not  have  been  a  true  fern,  but  must  have  occupied  a 
position  intermediate  between  the  ferns  and  the  cycadean 
type  of  Gymnosperms. 

k  similar  association  of  diverse  anatomical  characters  has 
now  been  proved  to  e.xist  in  various  other  quasi-ferns  of 
PalcTBOzoic  age.  In  Heterangium,  for  example,  also  investi- 
gated by  Williamson,  leaves  and  roots  resemble  those  of 
the  previous  genus,  but  the  stem  is  more  obviously  fern-like, 
agreeing  in  its  earlier  stages  with  that  of  a  Gleichenia,  but 
acquiring,  with  advancing  age,  a  zone  of  secondary  wood 
and  bast  of  the  cycadean  type.  This  plant  likewise  bore 
foliage  of  the  Sphencpteris  form  (S.  elcgans). 

In  Medullosa,  on  the  other  hand,  to  which  the  Aletho- 
pteris  and  Neuropteris  foliage  belonged,  the  original  ground- 
plan  of  the  tissues  in  the  stem  is  like  that  of  a  complex 
fern,  but  the  structure  of  leaves  and  roots,  and  the  secondary 
structure  of  the  stem  itself,  is  almost  purely  cycadean. 
We  might  continue  the  list  much  further.  Wherever 
one  of  these  quasi-ferns  has  been  examined  anatomically,  a 
similar  combination  of  characters  has  been  found.  It  may 
be  pointed  out  in  passing  that,  while  many  of  these  inter- 
mediate forms  lead  on  towards  the  Cycadophyta  themselves, 
others  approach  more  nearly  to  the  extinct  family 
Cordaite.-t,  and  indicate  that  they  also,  though  so  different 
from  ferns  in  habit,  may  yet  have  sprung  from  the  same 
stock. 

But  so  far  the  positive  evidence  has  been  wholly 
anatomical,  and  botanists  are  not  yet  altogether  in  agree- 
ment as  to  the  value  of  anatomical  characters.  The 
anatomist  very  naturally  thinks  that  there  is  nothing  like 
anatomy,  but  the  pure  systematist  will  not  be  satisfied  with- 
out the  characters  en  which  he  has  been  accustomed  to 
rely,  and  his  faith  in  which  has  been  so  amply  justified, 
those,  namely,  draxyn  from  the  reproductive  organs. 
Darwin,  however,  who  neglected  nothing,  was  fully  alive 
to  the  importance  of  anatomical  evidence  ;  he  expresses  his 
interest  in  an  anatomical  character  in  an  amusing  way  in 
one  of  his  lately  published  letters  (1861),  saying,  "  The 
destiny  of  the  whole  human  race  is  as  nothing  compared  to 
the  course  of  vessels  in  Orchids  !  " 

Until  the  present  year,  we  had  no  satisfactory  knowledge 
of  the  fructification  in  any  one  of  the  Cycadofilices,  as  we 
now  call  them,  of  the  Palaeozoic  period.  There  is,  it  is 
true,  some  reason  to  believe  that  a  form  of  fructification 
with  long  tufted  spore-sacs  belonged  to  Lyginodendron, 
but  we  know  nothing  as  yet  as  to  the  details — it  may  prove 
to  represent  the  male  reproductive  organs  of  the  plant. 
Among  the  unidentified  seeds  of  the  Coal-measures,  there 
are  some — the  great  seeds  known  as  Trigonocarpon — which 
are  not  only  associated  with  Medullosa,  but  which  show 
a  certain  structural  resemblance  to  some  of  its  tissues. 
But  still  the  indications  were  slight — so  slight  that  Prof. 
Zeiller,  of  Paris,  than  whom  there  is  no  higher  authority, 
has  recently  expressed  a  doubt  whether  these  Cycadofilices 
were,  after  all,  anything  more  than  a  peculiar  group  of 
ferns. 

Within  the  last  few  months,  however,  an  altogether  new 
light  has  fallen  on  our  subject.     Among  the  seeds  discovered 
by    Williamspn    in    the    English    Coal-measures    were    three 
NO.    1764,  VOL.   68] 


species  which  he  placed  in  his  genus  Lagenostoma.  These, 
as  we  shall  see,  are  characteristic  seeds  of  complex  struc- 
ture. One  of  them,  named  L.  Lomaxi  by  Williamson, 
though  not  described  by  him,  has  lately  been  reinvesti- 
gated, in  the  first  instance  by  my  friend  Prof.  F.  W. 
Oliver  (see  Nature,  June  4).  The  great  peculiarity  about 
it  is  that  the  seed  itself  was  borne  in  a  little  calyx-like  cup, 
fitting  loosely  round  it,  just  as  a  hazel  nut  is  borne  in  its 
husk.  The  cup,  or  cupule,  which  is  deeply  lobed,  bears  very 
peculiar  glandular  bodies,  usually  with  a  short  thick  stalk 
and  a  round  head  which  is  empty,  as  if  the  secretory  tissue 
had  broken  down.  These  glands,  on  the  cupule  of  the  seed, 
have  been  found  to  agree  exactly  in  dimensions,  form,  and 
structure  with  the  glands  borne  on  the  leaves  and  stems 
of  the  particular  form  of  Lyginodendron  Oldhamium  with 
which  the  seeds  are  associated. 

Suppose  that  in  some  tropical  forest  where  the  trees  were 
too  lofty  for  their  leaves  and  fruits  to  be  reached,  seeds  and 
leaves  and  twigs  were  found  scattered  together  on  the 
ground,  and  that  they  all  proved  to  bear  exactly  similar 
glandular  outgrowths  of  a  kind  unknown  elsewhere. 
Suppose,  further,  that  the  structure  of  the  envelope  of  the 
seed  turned  out  to  agree  in  other  respects  with  that  of 
the  vegetative  fragments,  should  we  hesitate  to  conclude 
that  the  seeds  belonged  to  the  same  plants  as  the  leaves 
and  twigs,  though  we  had  never  seen  them  actually  in 
connection?  Such  is  the  argument  with  regard  to  the 
relation  of  the  seed  Lagenostoma  -  to  the  plant  Lygino- 
dendron. Short  of  finding  the  vegetative  and  reproductive 
organs  in  continuity,  the  proof  is  as  strong  as  it  can  be, 
and  I  think  we  need  not  hesitate  to  conclude  that  the  one 
belonged  to  the  other. 

But,  if  this  be  so,  the  question  as  to  the  nature  of  the 
Palaeozoic  Cycadofilices  is  settled,  at  least  as  regards  one 
member  of  the  group.  Lyginodendron  was  already  a  seed- 
bearing  plant.  The  seeds  are  highly  organised,  and, 
broadly  speaking,  of  the  cycadean  type.  The  integument 
and  central  body  of  the  seed  are  closely  joined  to  near  the 
tip  and  along  the  line  of  junction  run  the  strands  which 
conveyed  the  water-supply.  The  upper  part  of  the  integu- 
ment has  a  curious  chambered  structure — the  central  body 
terminates  in  a  large  pollen-chamber  of  peculiar  bell-shaped 
form,  in  which  the  pollen-grains  are  sometimes  found.  The 
neck  of  the  pollen-chamber  fits  into  the  opening  of  the 
integument  and  reaches  the  surface.  The  centre  of  the  seed 
is  occupied  by  the  large  megaspore  or  embryo-sac,  in  which 
remains  of  prothallial  tissue  can  sometimes  be  detected. 
The  seed,  in  fact,  is  as  highly  differentiated  as  any  seed  of 
its  period,  lacking  only  an  embryo,  as  do  all  its  con- 
temporaries. 

But  if  Lyginodendron,  with  all  its  fern-like  characters, 
was  thus  a  true  seed-plant,  we  cannot  doubt  that  other 
quasi-ferns  of  that  period,  exhibiting  a  similar  combination 
of  characters,  had  also  entered  the  ranks  of  the  Spermo- 
phyta,  and  we  may  confidently  expect  that,  one  by  one, 
many  of  the  as  yet  unowned  Palaeozoic  seeds  will  be  traced 
to  their  fern-like  possessors. 

Further  positive  indications  of  this  are  already  presenting 
themselves.  For  example,  there  is  a  specimen  in  the 
British  Museum  collection  showing  a  cast  of  a  branched 
rachis  accompanied  by  a  multitude  of  ribbed  seeds,  many 
of  which  are  in  clear  connection  with  the  rachis  itself.  At 
one  place  we  see  a  leaflet  of  Sphenopteris  obtusiloba,  a  well- 
known  Coal-measure  "  fern,"  and  everything  indicates  that 
we  have  here  the  fertile,  seed-bearing  rachis  of  that  species. 
There  are  other  specimens  which  point  in  the  same  direc- 
tion, and  now  that  the  eyes  of  collectors  are  opened  to 
the  possibility  of  their  so-called  "  fern-fronds  "  bearing 
seeds — an  idea  which  before  seemed  too  improbable  to  be 
entertained — more  of  such  specimens  will  doubtless  find  their 
way  into  our  museums. 

The  present  position,  then,  of  our  question  is  this.  Some, 
probably  many,  of  the  fern-like  plants  of  Palaeozoic  age 
bore  seeds  of  the  same  general  structure  as  those  of  the 
Cycads  among  living  Gymnosperms.  The  plants  in  ques- 
tion were  not  merely  fern-like ;  their  anatomical  structure 
proves  them  to  have  had  so  much  in  common  with  true 
ferns  that  there  can  be  no  doubt  of  their  affinity  with  them. 
In  fact,  apart  from  the  newly  discovered  seeds,  these  plants, 
for  the  most  part,  show  a  balance  of  characters  on  the  fern 
side. 

The  evidence  thus  points  unmistakably  to  the  conclusion 


382 


NA  TURE 


[August  20,  1903 


that  the  Cvcadophvta — the  most  primitive  of  the  seed- 
plants— sprang  from  the  fern  stock.  Thus  the  origin  of 
the  great  mass  of  cycadean  forms  which  overspread  the 
world  during  the  Mesozoic  epoch  is  accounted  for — they 
were  doubtless  derived  from  the  more  primitive  Cycad-ferns 
of  the  preceding  Palaeozoic  age,  and  through  them  from 
some  early  filicinean  ancestry.  The  first  divergence  from 
this  original  cryptogamic  stock  must  have  occurred  very 
far  back ;  the  seeds  of  Lyginodendron  and  other  Carbon- 
iferous seeds  referable  to  the  Cycadofilices  are,  as  we  have 
seen,  already  highly  organised,  and  the  stages  of  their 
evolution  from  the  cryptogamic  sporangium  are  still  to  be 
discovered. 

The  origin  of  the  seed-plants  from  the  fern  phylum  will 
probably  prove  to  hold  good  for  other  groups  besides  the 
Cycadophvta.  The  great  Palaeozoic  family  Cordaitese  com- 
bines the'  characters  of  Cycads  and  Coniferae,  and  at  the 
same  time  shares  certain  of  those  anatomical  features  which 
first  betrayed  the  true  nature  of  the  Cycadofilices.  There 
is  thus  a  strong  presumption  that  the  Cycadophyta,  the 
Cordaitea,  and  the  Coniferae  themselves  had  a  common 
origin,  or  at  least  that  they  all  sprang,  directly  or  indirectly, 
from  the  great  plexus  of  modified  ferns  which  played  so 
large  a  part  in  Palaeozoic  vegetation. 

Hence,  so  far  as  the  gymnospermous  seed-plants  are  con- 
cerned, we  are  led  to  the  conclusion  that  they  were  derived, 
at  a  very  early  period,  from  the  fern  stock.  The  following 
up  of  the  clue,  which,  as  I  believe,  we  have  now  grasped, 
will  afford  a  pursuit  of  the  utmost  interest  and  promise. 

But  the  other  great  problem — the  origin  of  the  angio- 
spermous  seed-plants,  which  are  now  supreme  in  the 
vegetable  world — is  as  yet  untouched.  And  so,  though  real 
progress  has  been  made,  it  will  be  long  before  we  can  hope 
for  a  complete  answer  to  the  question  which  we  have  had 
before  us. 


IRE    GOVERNMENT    LABORATORY. 

THE  report  of  Dr.  T.  E.  Thorpe,  F.R.S.,  upon  the  work 
of  the  Government  Laboratory  for  the  year  ended 
March  31,  1903,  with  appendices,  has  now  been  published, 
and  the  following  extracts  from  it  are  of  interest. 

It  appears  from  the  report  that  the  descriptions  of  imports 
as  given  in  merchants'  entries  are  often  erratic,  and  give^ 
no  clue  whatever  to  the  real  nature  of  the  goods.  For' 
example,  crushed  bones  were  entered  as  "  semolina," 
gingerbread  as  "paints,"  sodium  peroxide  as  "fancy 
goods,"  varnish  as  "  iron  goods,"  whilst  "  machinery  " 
and  "  razor  strops  "  turned  out  to  be  tobacco  fumigating 
powder  and  sugar-coated  pills  respectively. 

Many  preparations  containing  spirit  are  liable  to  duty 
also  in  respect  of  other  ingredients.  Soaps,  for  example, 
may  contain  cocoa-butter,  spirit  and  sugar,  the  latter  being 
frequently  used  as  a  cheap  substitute  for  glycerine.  Black- 
ing and  polishes  are  examined  for  sugar  or  molasses  ;  con- 
fectionery for  sugar  and  chocolate ;  and  essences  for  dutiable 
tariff  articles,  in  addition  to  spirit,  such  as  acetic  and 
butyric  ether,   used  for  flavouring  purposes. 

During  the  year  1173  samples  of  beer,  wort,  and  brewing 
materials  were  tested  for  the  presence  of  arsenic,  the  great 
majority  of  which  were  either  quite  free  from  that  im- 
purity or  contained  only  traces ;  but  in  44  instances  the 
amount  was  so  notable  that  the  brewers  were  informed  in 
the  case  of  materials  that  they  should  not  be  used,  and  in 
the  case  of  wort  or  beer  that  it  should  not  be  sent  into 
consumption.  The  largest  quantity  of  arsenious  oxide 
found  was,  in  malt,  i/5oth  of  a  grain  per  pound,  in 
glucose,  I /40th  of  a  grain  per  pound,  in  wort,  i/36th  of 
a  grain  per  gallon,  and  in  water-softening  material,  7/ioths 
of  a  grain  per  gallon. 

No  imported  sample  of  butter  has  been  reported  as 
adulterated  during  the  year.  Boric  acid  preservative  was 
present  in  98  per  cent,  of  the  samples  of  butter  from 
Australia  and  Belgium,  86  per  cent,  of  the  French  samples, 
78  per  cent,  of  those  from  New  Zealand,  77  per  cent,  of 
the  South  American  samples,  45  per  cent,  of  those  from 
Holland,  and  43  per  cent,  of  the  samples  from  the  United 
States.  Sixteen  per  cent,  of  the  Canadian  samples  con- 
tained this  preservative.  There  has  been  a  decrease  in 
the  proportion  of  samples  containing  boric  preservative 
NO.    1764,  VOL.  6S] 


from  363   per  cent,   in   1902   to  33-5  per  cent,   in   1903,   for 
which  the  samples  from  Holland  are  chiefly  responsible. 

Among  articles  submitted  by  manufacturers  to  the 
Government  Laboratory  was  a  filter  which  was  required  to 
deliver  a  sterile  filtrate,  but  on  examination  was  found  to 
permit  the  passage  of  unfiltered  water  into  the  reservoir 
to  which  only  filtered  water  was  supposed  to  gain  access. 
This  is  a  danger  to  which  insufificient  attention  appears 
to  be  paid  by  both  manufacturers  and  users  of  filters.  The 
inefficiency  of  many  of  the  old  filters  was  long  since  estab- 
lished, and  as  a  result  improvement  was  effected  in  the 
filtering  substance,  so  as  to  secure  that  the  water  passing 
through  should  be  free  from  all  micro-organisms.  In  con- 
sequence of  the  precautions  necessary  where  biological 
investigations  are  made,  it  is  to  be  feared  that  in  some 
instances,  when  testing  the  sterility  of  the  filtrate,  _  the 
filtering  cylinders,  cones,  or  candles,  have  been  examined 
apart  from  the  filter  cases  in  which  they  are  ordinarily 
fixed,  and  no  subsequent  test  has  been  made  of  the  filter 
as  a  whole,  with  its  parts  fitted  together  as  in  common  use. 
Where  this  is  so  it  is,  of  course,  possible  that  though  the 
filtering  cylinder  itself  may  be  entirely  satisfactory,  its 
whole  value  may  be  destroyed  by  a  faulty  connection. 

Among  work  undertaken  for  the  Home  Oflice  was 
an  investigation  of  the  character  of  the  products  of  corn- 
bustion  in  gas  and  oil  stoves.  It  was  desired  to  ascertain 
whether  along  with  the  main  products  of  complete  com- 
bustion there  was  an  appreciable  production  of  carbon  mon- 
oxide and  acetylene.  Five  of  the  best  knowa  stoves — three 
gas  and  two  oil — were  experimented  with,  and,  as  a  result, 
it  was  found  after  the  stoves  had  been  alight  for  some  time 
(i)  that  no  acetylene  was  produced  by  any  of  the  stoves, 
and  (2)  that  a  small  amount  of  carbon  monoxide  was  a 
regular  constituent  of  the  products  of  combustion  of  all 
the  stoves,  the  actual  quantity  per  hour's  combustion 
being,  for  the  gas  stoves  00024,  0-0048  and  o  0480  cubic 
foot,  and  for  the  oil  stoves  0023  and  0032  cubic  foot. 

Of  the  gas  stoves,  the  first  two  results  quoted  were  from 
stoves  of  different  type,  the  first  being  of  the  argand  class 
and  burning  with  a  luminous  flame,  whilst  in  the  second 
the  burners  were  of  the  Bunsen  type,  and  the  flame  im- 
pinged on  skeleton  non-combustible  fuel.  The  production 
of  carbon  monoxide  is  greater  in  the  oil  stoves  than  in  two 
out  of  the  three  gas  stoves,  and  it  emphasises  the  necessity 
of  carrying  off  the  products  of  combustion  from  every 
class  of  stove  by  means  of  a  flue,  if  possible,  or,  where 
this  actually  cannot  be  attained,  at  least  securing  that,  by 
good  ventilation,  there  shall  be  no  chance  of  an  accumula- 
tion of  these  gaseous  products. 


UNIVERSITY    AND    EDUCATIONAL 
INTELLIGENCE. 

The  report  has  been  issued  of  the  commission  appointed 
to  inquire  into  the  steps  to  be  taken  to  bring  into  existence 
an  institution  which  should  form  part  of  a  teaching  uni- 
versity for  the  Transvaal,  and  which  should  provide  the 
highest  training  in  the  arts  and  sciences  connected  with 
mining  and  other  industries.  The  commission  recom- 
mends that,  in  establishing  the  proposed  technical  institute 
to  form  an  integral  part  of  a  teaching  university,  simul- 
taneous steps  should  be  taken  to  lay  the  foundations  of  the 
university  itself.  Recommendations  are  made  for  the  estab- 
lishment of  a  permanent  teaching  institution  and  the 
acquisition  of  a  site  within  a  convenient  distance  of 
Johannesburg  and  Pretoria  for  a  teaching  university  for  the 
Transvaal,  and  for  any  other  parts  of  South  Africa  which 
may  wish  to  take  part  in  the  scheme.  On  this  site  should 
also  be,  besides  the  school  of  mines,  the  proposed  agri- 
cultural school,  the  State  laboratories  for  chemistry  and 
animal  and  vegetable  pathology.  At  the  outset  the  appoint-  J 
ment  is  recommended  of  a  principal  of  the  highest  scientific 
attainments  and  proved  organising  capacity,  with  a  salary 
of  not  less  than  3000L  a  year. 

The  Columbia  University  of  New  York  has,  by  an  agree- 
ment with  Mr.  Joseph  Pulitzer,  undertaken  to  establish  and 
conduct     a     school     of     journalism.     President     Eliot,     of 
Harvard  University,  has  proposed  an  outline  for  a  practical         ' 
scheme    which  details  the  subjects  appropriate  to  a  course        \ 


August  20,  1903] 


NA  TURE 


383 


of  study  leading  to  the  profession  of  journalism.  But 
though  Dr.  Eliot  says  "  that  a  journalist  needs,  more  than 
most  men,  to  be  trained  in  the  best  methods  of  ascertain- 
ing truth,"  his  scheme  does  not  appear  to  include  a  pro- 
vision for  the  due  instruction  of  the  future  journalist  in 
the  broad  principles  of  science,  which,  in  view  of  the  large 
part  taken  by  scientific  questions  in  modern  life,  seems  an 
omission. 

The  Commission  of  Inquiry  into  the  educational  systems 
of  the  United  States  in  their  bearing  upon  national  com- 
merce and  industry,  projected  last  year  by  Mr.  Alfred 
Mosely,  C.M.G.,  will  start  on  October  3.  The  itinerary 
1  the  commission,  drawn  up  with  the  assistance  of  Presi- 
dent Butler,  of  Columbia  University,  embraces  most  of  the 
leading  educational  centres  in  the  United  States.  Among 
universities  which  will  be  visited  may  be  mentioned 
Columbia,  Yale,  Harvard,  Cornell,  and  Pennsylvania,  and 
in  addition  to  the  work  of  these  seats  of  learning,  the  com- 
mission will  study  the  methods,  equipment,  and  curricula 
of  technical  colleges  and  secondary  schools  for  boys  and 
girls,  and  be  given  opportunities  to  examine  the  procedure 
of  educational  institutions  of  special  types.  Each  member 
of  the  commission  will,  we  understand,  be  invited  to  record 
his  own  impressions,  or  to  combine,  if  he  prefers  it,  with 
others  interested  in  the  same  subjects  of  education.  In 
this  way  more  varied  light  will  be  brought  to  bear  upon 
all  the  points  in  American  education.  The  reports  will  be 
printed  in  a  volume  or  volumes,  and  distributed  to 
educational  bodies  throughout  the  United  Kingdom.  In 
an  article  on  the  commission  in  the  Times,  it  is  stated 
that  _"  the  startling  growth  of  American  and  German  in- 
dustrial competition  is  a  fact,  and  a  daily  more  alarming 
fact.  Closely  related  with  it,  and  in  the 'opinion  of  many 
keen  observers,  largely  responsible  for  it,  is  the  fact  tha't 
these  are  precisely  the  two  countries  in  which  national 
education  of  all  grades  has  made  the  greatest  strides,  and 
in  which  its  importance  is  most  widely  recognised  by  the 
people  at  large."  These  truths  have  long  been  insisted 
upon  in  these  columns,  and  we  are  glad  to  find  they  are 
coming  to  be  more  generally  appreciated,  for  it  brings  us 
nearer  to  the  day  when  this  country  will  be  properly 
equipped  educationally.  The  list  of  commissioners  includes 
with  others  the  following  names  :— Prof.  W.  E.  Ayrton 
I-.R.S.,  Mr.  R.  Blair,  Dr.  J.  Rose  Bradford,  F.R.S.  Dr' 
Magnus  .Maclean,  Principal  Reichel,  Prof.  John  Rhys',  and 
Prof.  W.   Ripper. 

The  Royal  Geographical  Societv,  in  response  to  requests 
from  various  school  authorities,  recently  appointed  a  com- 
mittee to  draw  up  syllabuses  in  geography  to  guide  teachers 
in  elementary  and  secondary  schools  in  their  work  of 
imparting  geographical  knowledge.  This  committee 
-cured    the    assistance   of   Mr.    H.    J.    Mackinder    to   draw 

!>  the  syllabus  for  secondary  schools,  and  of  the  late  Mr. 
I  .  G.  Rooper  to  prepare  that  for  elementary  schools 
I  'wing  to  Mr.  Rooper 's  death,  Mr.  G.  G.  Chisholm  con- 
-nted  to  complete  the  revision  of  the  latter  syllabus.  The 
(ourse  laid  down  for  elementary  schools  includes  first  a 
preliminary  stage  for  children  between  five  and  eight  years 
who  are,  it  is  said,  best  taught  by  reading  to  them  suitable 
<  xtracts  from  books  of  famous  travellers,  and  accompany- 
ing the  readings  by  the  explanation,  with  the  aid  of  sand- 
trays,  &c.,  of  geographical  terms.  The  second  stage  is  that 
for  children  between  eight  and  eleven  years  old,  and  includes 
observational  preparation  with  a  view  to  the  necessity  of 
reading  maps.  Some  observations  within  the  reach  of  town 
children  suggested  are  the  use  of  the  globe,  the  acquirement 
of  the  idea  of  direction  and  differences  in  elevation,  and 
their  representation  on  maps.  Country  children  are,  in 
addition,  to  learn  the  use  of  the  compass  and  to  compare 
Ordnance  maps  of  the  same  district  on  different  scales.  In 
<!!  study  of  maps  the  same  ideas  must  be  emphasised  as  in 
ihi  observational  work.  In  the  third  stage  children  of 
-  leven  to  fourteen  years  old  begin  the  systematic  study  of 
various  parts  of  the  world,  and  such  subjects  as  climate, 
rainfall,  temperature ;  the  connection  between  geography 
and  history  are  also  insisted  upon.  The  syllabus  for 
-t'condary  schools  is  divided  into  four  years'  work,  and  the 
\  cars  between  thirteen  and  seventeen  are  particularly  ;Con- 
i  irned — in  fact,  the  student  is  supposed  to  have  mastered 
rhe  contents  of  the  elementary  schedule.     In  the  first  year 


NO.   1764,  VOL.  68] 


it  is  proposed  that  a  portion  of  Britain,  extending  some 
distance  from  the  school,  should  be  carefully  studied.  The 
portion  should  be  large  enough  to  contain  complete  ex- 
amples of  river-basins,  and  such  lengths  of  road  and  rail 
to  show  the  influence  of  physical  features  on  their  course. 
The  work  should  be  correlated  with  instruction  in  elemen- 
tary geology.  In  the  second  year,  Britain  as  a  whole  is 
prescribed  as  the  subject  of  study,  and  its  several  parts  are 
to  be  traversed  by  the  comparative  method,  the  work  of 
the  first  year  being  the  standard.  For  the  third  year  the 
subject  suggested  is  Europe  and  the  Mediterranean,  and 
it  is  proposed  that  the  complexion  of  the  teaching  shall 
depend  on  the  other  work  of  the  school.  The  non- 
European  portions  of  the  globe  are  reserved  for  the  fourth 
year's  work.  "  What  is  essential  throughout  is  that 
nothing  should  be  taught  as  an  isolated  fact,  and  yet  that 
the  line  of  argument  should  be  so  chosen  that,  in  the  end, 
every  essential  fact  .  .  .  would  have  been  learnt  in  its  due 
setting  of  related  facts,  and  in  its  proper  perspective." 

The  report  of  the  Technical  Education  Committee  of  the 
Derbyshire  County  Council  for  the  session  1901-2  has 
reached  us,  and  contains  detailed  statistical  information  as 
to  recent  progress  in  secondary  and  technical  education  in 
Derbyshire.  The  statistics  relating  to  the  subject  of  mining 
are  of  especial  interest.  Prior  to  189 1  not  more  than  twenty 
students  appear  to  have  been  attending  public  classes  in 
this  subject,  whilst  the  average  enrolment  in  local  classes 
in  coal  mining  for  the  past  eight  years  has  been  about  500. 
It  is  also  mentioned  that,  whereas  at  the  time  of  the  initia- 
tion of  the  scholarship  scheme  in  Derbyshire  in  1892  only 
six  out  of  sixty  successful  candidates  were  sent  to  schools 
in  the  county,  at  the  present  time,  out  of  about  250  minor 
scholarships,  230  are  being  held  at  schools  within  the 
administrative  county,  and  only  twenty  at  schools  outside 
the  administrative  area. 

The  catalogue  of  books  on  the  useful  arts  contained  in 
the  central  library  at  Newcastle-upon-Tyne,  which  was 
recently  published  by  the  Public  Libraries  Committee  of 
the  city,  is  the  third  of  a  useful  series  of  catalogues  pre- 
pared by  Mr.  Basil  Anderton,  chief  librarian.  The  cata- 
logues provide  satisfactory  evidence  that  students  residing 
in  Newcastle  have  at  their  disposal  an  excellent  library  con- 
ducted with  tact  and  intelligence.  The  useful  arts  dealt 
with  in  the  present  catalogue  include  all  branches  of  agri- 
cultural, chemical,  engineering,  and  mechanical  technology, 
as  well  as  many  aspects  of  medical  and  domestic  science. 
Some  idea  of  the  number  of  books  in  the  Newcastle  central 
library  may  be  obtained  from  the  statement  that  the  author- 
list  of  books  on  the  useful  arts  runs  to  115  closely  printed 
pages  of  large  size. 


SOCIETIES  AND  ACADEMIES. 

Edinburgh. 
Royal  Society,  July  6.— Principal  Sir  Wm.  Turner, 
K.C.B.,  in  the  chair. — Mr.  William  Murray  communicated 
a  paper  on  statistical  evidence  regarding  the  influence  of 
artificial  propagation  upon  the  salmon  fisheries  of  the 
American  rivers. — In  a  paper  on  the  origin  of  the  pineal 
body  as  an  amesial  structure  deduced  from  the  study  of 
its  development  in  Amphibia,  Dr.  John  Cameron  showed 
that  the  epiphysis  in  certain  types  of  Amphibia  arose  in 
the  form  of  two  recesses  or  outgrowths  from  the  roof  of 
the  fore-brain.  The  right  outgrowth  disappeared  very  early 
by  blending  with  the  left.  The  latter  showed  most  active 
growth,  and  the  result  of  this  was  to  cause  the  epiphysial 
opening  to  become  situated  to  the  left  of  the  mesial  plane 
in  most  cases.  The  epiphysis  in  Amphibia  was  therefore 
to  be  regarded  as  a  bilateral,  and  not  as  a  mesial,  struc- 
ture. These  results  corresponded  in  the  main  with  those  of 
B^raneck,  Dendy,  Gaskell,  Hill,  and  Locy  in  other  verte- 
brate types. — Dr.  O.  Charnock  Bradley  communicated  an 
elaborate  paper  on  the  abdominal  viscera  of  Cercocebus 
fuliginosus  and  Lagothrix  humboldti. — Mr.  A.  Cameron 
Smith  described  his  final  form  of  apparatus  for  determining 
by  a  direct  method  latent  heats  of  evaporation  at  the  boil- 
ing point  in  electrical  units.  The  essence  of  the  method 
is  to  determine  the  electrical  energy  required  to  effect  the 
evaporation  of  a  measured  mass  of  the  liquid.     The  energy 


384 


NATURE 


[August  20,  1903 


was  supplied  by  a  large  current  through  a  small  resistance 
immersed  in  the  liquid.  The  vessel  containing  the  liquid 
was  surrounded  bv  a  double-walled  shield  filled  with  the 
saturated  vapour  of  the  liquid  itself,  and  the  mass  evapor- 
ated was  measured  by  weighing  on  a  delicate  balance. 
To  have  the  vessel  hanging  freely  from  the  one  arm  of 
the  balance  and  vet  to  keep  it  practically  surrounded  with 
the  saturated  vapour  were  among  the  principal  difficulties 
to  be  surmounted.  Promising  results  had  already  been 
obtained.— Dr.  Thomas  Muir  communicated  a  note  on  a 
special  circulant  considered  by  Catalan. 
Paris. 
Academy  of  Sciences,  August  lo.— M.  Albert  Gaudry  in 
th-  chair  —The  president  announced  to  the  Academy  the 
death  of  M.  Munier-Chalmas,  member  of  the  section  of 
mineralogy.— On  aerodynamics  and  the  theory  of  the 
acoustical' field,  bv  M.  le  G^n^ral  Sebert.  Remarks  on 
the  theory  of  M.  Charbonnier  on  the  waves  set  up  in  air 
by  projectiles  moving  with  a  greater  velocity  than  that- of 
sound.— Description  of  a  new  apparatus  for  the  preparation 
of  pure  gases,  by  M.  Henri  Moissan.  The  gases  are 
dried  by  cooling  to  about  -70°,.  and  then  liquefied  by  boil- 
ing oxygen  or  air ;  substances  gaseous  at  this  latter  tempera- 
ture are  removed  bv  the  mercury  pump,  and  .the  pure  gas 
allowed  to  boil  off  'into  a  suitable,  gasholder.  Details  are 
given  for  carbon  dioxide,  hydrogen  iodide,  hydrogen 
phosphide,  and  sulphide.  By  the  use  of  suitable  tempera- 
tures the  gas  obtained  from  copper  and  dilute  nitric  acid 
was  separated  into  water,  nitrous  oxide,  nitric  oxide,  and 
nitrogen. -~On  the  mechanical  analysis  of  soils,  by  M.  Th. 
Schloesing,  sen.  An  apparatus  is  described  permitting  of 
th-^  mechanical  separation  of  earth  into  fractions  depending 
on  the  time  taken  to  deposit  from  water.  A  microscopical 
examination  of  the  deposits,  showed  that  the  size  of  the 
deposited  grains  varied  with  the  time  required  to  fall  out. 
Grains  less  than  o  005mm.  remain  in  suspension  in  pure 
water  for  an  indefinite  time. — Corrections  relating  to  a 
note  of  M.  Armand  Gautier  on  the  estimation  of  arsenic 
in  sea  water,  common  salt,  mineral  water,  and  reagents. 
In  the  original  note,  by  an  error,  there  is  a  confusion 
between  milligrammes  and  thousandths  of  a  milli- 
gramme which  is  here  rectified. — On  the  death  of  M. 
Prosper  Henry,  by  M.  Janssen. — On  the  relations  between 
the  complete  integrals  of  S.  Lie  and  Lagrange,  by  M.  N. 
Saltykow. — The  theory  of  the  acoustical  field  and  the  in- 
ternal friction  of  gases,  by  M.  P.  Charbonnier. — The 
appearance  of  Bishop's  Circle  in  1903,  by  M.  F.  A. 
Forel.  This  phenomenon,  which  appeared  last  in  1884, 
after,  the  Krakatoa  eruption,  has  been  noticed  again 
this  year,  and  is  considered  by  the  author  to  be  connected 
with  the  eruptions  at  Martinique. — On  some  binary  com- 
pounds of  uranium,  by  >L  A.  Coloni.  Compounds  of 
uranium  with  sulphur,  selenium,  tellurium,  nitrogen, 
phosphorus,  arsenic,  and  antimony  are  described. — The 
nature  of  the  alkaline  reaction  of  the  blood  and  its  estim- 
ation, by  M.  H.  Labbe.  The  alkalinity  is  not  completely 
removed  by  the  precipitation  of  the  phosphates  by  barium 
chloride,  and  it  is  this  residual  alkalinity  which  is  most 
strongly  affected  by  pathological  variations. — Phenols  and 
phenolsulphonic  acid  in  the  animal  economy,  by  M.  L. 
IWIonfet.— On  the  passage  of  the  Rhine  by  the  Doubs 
valley  arid  Bresse  valley  during  the  Pliocene  age,  by  M.  le 
G^n^ral  de  Lamothe. 

New  South  Wales. 
Linnean  Society,  June  24.— Dr.  T.  Storie  Dixson,  presi- 
dent, in  the  chair.— On  the  botany  of  the  Darling,  N.S.W., 
by  Mr.  Fred.  Turner.  The  characteristics  of  the  flora  of 
the  country  lying  between  29°  and  33°  S.  lat.,  and  141°  and 
147°  E.  long.,  are  discussed.  The  census  of  the  Phanero- 
gams and  vascular  Cryptogams  now  brought  forward  gives 
a  total  of  314  genera  and  760  species. — The  corpus  luteum 
of  Dasyurus  viverrinus,  with  observations  on  the  growth 
and  atrophy  of  the  Graafian  follicle,  by  Dr.  F.  P.  Sandes. 
The  chief  conclusions  arrived  at  in  this  investigation  may 
be  thus  summarised  : — (i)  The  characteristic  cells  of  the 
corpus  luteum  are  formed  by  hypertrophy  of  the  cells  of  the 
membrana  granulosa.  (2)  The  theca  interna  folliculi  is 
rudimentary,  and  forms  only  the  vascular  connective  tissue 
of  the  corpus  luteum.  (3)  The  corpus  luteum  atreticum  is 
formed  in  the  same  way  as  the  corpus  luteum  verum.     (4) 


Other  atresic  follicles  are  reduced  to  fibrous  tissue  or  remain 
cystic.  (5)  The  corpus  luteum  is  probably  a  gland  with  an 
internal  secretion  of  use  in  the  organism.  It  has  the  func- 
tion of  stopping  ovulation  during  pregnancy  and  at  the 
cestral  periods. — Notes  on  the  genus  Psychopsis,  Newm., 
with  descriptions  of  new  species,  by  Mr.  W.  W.  FroKSatt. 
Three  species  of  the  genus  were  noticed  in  a  previous  paper 
in  the  Proceedings  for  1902.  From  the  study  of  a  fine  series 
of  specimens  acquired  in  the  interval,  the  author  is  now 
able  to  show  that  it  has  been  customary  to  apply  Newman's 
name,  P.  mimica,  to  what  are  in  reality  the  representatives 
of  two  different  species.  These  are  differentiated  ;  a  second 
species  from  Queensland  is  also  described  as  new,  raising 
the  total  to  five. — Notes  on  Prosobranchiata.  No.  3.  The 
neanic  shell  of  Melo  diadema,  Lamk.,  and  the  definition  of 
the  nepionic  stage  in  the  gasteropod  mollusc,  by  Mr.  H. 
Leighton  Kesteven.  A  description  of  the  mass  of  egg- 
capsules  of  M.  diadema  is  given,  and  attention  is  directed 
to  the  sequence  of  the  acquisition  of  the  columellar  plaits 
which,  in  this  species,  is  in  perfect  conformity  with  a 
phylogenetic  scheme  of  their  origin  advanced  by  Dr.  Dall 
in  1890.  Then  follows  a  comparison  of  the  molluscan 
stages  of  development  with  those  of  the  Lepidoptera. — The 
continental  origin  of  Fiji,  by  Mr.  W.  G.  Woolnougrh. 
Part  i.,  general  geology.  The  author's  provisional  con- 
clusions are:-^(i)  That  Viti  Levu,  the  chief  island  of  the 
Fiji  group,  was  part  of  a  continental  area  probably  united 
to  New  Hebrides-  and  New  Caledonia  during  early 
Paljeozoic  time,  and  that  it  remained  a  land  area  under- 
going denudation  probably  to  at  least  the  close  of  Palaeozoic 
time.  (2)  That  in  Mesozoic  time  and  Older  Tertiary  time 
subsidence  predominated  in  the  Fiji  area,  the  subsidence 
at  Drau,  in  Viti  Levu,  carrying  the  island  at  least  about 
1300  feet  further  below  the  sea  than  it  is  at  present.  During 
this  period  the  Fiji  Soapstone  was  deposited.  (3)  In  late 
Cainozoic  time  elevation  set  in,  and  synchronously  with  it 
occurred  violent  and  extensive  eruptions  of  andesitic 
dolerite  and  basalt.  Elevation  has  continued  into  late 
Cainozoic  time,  and  may  be  still  in  progress.  On  the 
whole,  therefore,  negative  movement  of  the  land  has  prob- 
ably greatly  predominated  over  positive  movement  since 
Palaeozoic  times. 

CONTENTS.  PAGE 

River  Improvement 361 

The  Fisherman  in  America.     By  L.  W.  B 363 

Technical  Physics.     By  H.  L.  C 364 

Our  Book  Shelf:— 

Stevens:  " An  Introduction  to  Botany " '•363 

Sanger  :  "Kant's  Lehre  vom  Glauben."— G.  S.  B.  .  365 
Kerr  and  Brown  :  "  Elementary    Physics.     Practical 

and  Theoretical  " 365 

Pierson  :  "  Among  the  Night  People  " 366 

Garvin  :       "  Qualitative       Chemical       Analysis." — 

J.  B.  C 366 

Wallis  and  Mill  :"  British  Rainfall,  1902" 366 

Letters  to  the  Editor  :— 

The  Amount  of  Emanation  and  Helium  from  Radium.  — 

Prof.  E.  Rutherford,  F.R.S 366 

Summer  Lightning.  — Sir  Arch.  Geikie,  F.R.S.  .    .  367 

A  Mirage  at  Putney. — H.  E.  Wimperis 368 

The    Southport    Meeting  of  the   British    Associa- 
tion :  Sectional  Arrangements 368 

Natives   and  Customs  of  Chutia  Nagpore.     {Illus- 
trated.^    By  J.  F.  Hewitt 369 

The  Seismological  Congress  in  Strassburg    ....  371 

Notes 372 

Our  Astronomical  Column  : — 

The  Spectrum  of  Comet  1903  c 37^ 

The  Spectroscopic  Binary  ;8  Scorpii 376 

Effects  of  Absorption   on   the    Resolving   Power    of 

Spectroscopes 376 

A  New  Circumzenithal  Apparatus.  {With  Diagram.)  376 

The  Secchi  Commemoration 376 

The   New    York   Zoological   Society.      {Illustrated.) 

By  R.  L •    .  376 

The  Origin  of  Seed-bearing  Plants.     By  Dr.  D.  H. 

Scott,  F.R.S 377 

The  Government  Laboratory 382 

University  and  Educational  Intelligence    .....  382 

Societies  and  Academies 383 


NO.   1764,  VOL.  68] 


NATURE 


385 


THURSDAY,   AUGUST  27,    1903. 


ALCOHOLIC  FERMENTATION. 
Die  Zymase  gar  ung  Untersuchungen  iiber  den  Inhalt 
der  Hefezellen  und  die  biologische  Seite  des 
Gdrungsproblems.  By  Eduard  Buchner,  Hans 
Buchner,  and  Martin  Hahn.  Pp.  viii  +  416. 
(Miinchen  :  Oldenbourg.)     Price  12  marks. 

IN  the  preface  to  this  book,  written  by  Profs.  Eduard 
Buchner  and  Martin  Hahn,  credit  is  given  to  the 
late  Prof.  Hans  Buchner  for  the  general  scheme  of 
arrangement  which  has  been  carried  out  after  his 
death  by  the  other  authors. 

There  are  four  parts  to  the  treatise;   the  first,   by 
Prof.    Eduard   Buchner,   entitled  "  Uber  die  Zymase- 
garung,"  occupies  nearly  three-quarters  of  the  entire 
I    book,  and  deals  with  the  important  researches  of  this 
\    author  and  others  on  the  soluble  ferment  first  separ- 
ated by  him  from  yeast-cells  and  called  zymase,  the 
I    ferment    which     induces     alcoholic     fermentation     of 
*   sugar. 

I        His  original  papers  on  the  subject  have  appeared  in 
'    contributions   to   scientific  journals   since   the  end  of 
1896,  and  are  now  presented  in  book  form. 

After  a  brief  historical  review  of  the  development 
of"  ideas  on  the  subject  of  alcoholic  fermentation,  and 
a  comparison  of  Liebig's  and  Pasteur's  theories  with 
regard  to  this  process,  he  discusses  the  nature  of 
"  zymase,"  which  he  brings  into  the  category  of  the 
enzymes,  or  soluble  ferments.  A  very  full  and  com- 
plete account  is  given  of  the  method  of  preparing 
"  active  "  yeast-juice,  the  main  steps  of  which  are  now 
familiar  to  all  students  of  the  subject.  Especial  stress 
is  laid  on  the  powdering  of  the  yeast-cells  with  quartz 
sand  in  order  to  break  up  the  cell-membranes.  With- 
out this,  no  amount  of  pressure  avails  for  getting 
active  juice  from  the  cells,  while,  after  breaking  the 
cells,  comparatively  little  pressure  will  give  some 
active  juice,  increase  of  pressure  increasing  both  the 
activity  and  the  yield.  The  activity  of  yeast-juice, 
i.e.  its  capacity  for  inducing  the  alcoholic  fermentation 
of  sugar,  varies  with  different  species  of  yeasts ;  no 
conclusion  as  to  richness  in  zymase  can  be  drawn 
directly  from  observed  variations  in  activity,  as  yeast- 
juice  contains,  besides  several  previously  discovered 
ferments,  one,  endotryptase,  which  digests  and 
destroys  zymase,  and  this  is  present  in  very  variable 
amounts  in  the  different  yeasts.  Juices  also  of  very 
different  activity  are  obtained  from  different  batches  of 
the  same  variety  of  yeast.  These  differences  are  partly 
explained  by  the  action  of  endotryptase  on  zymase. 

The  method  of  determining  the  "  activity,"  depen- 
dent as  it  is  on  these  conflicting  factors,  is  fully  de- 
scribed, and  consist^  in  the  estimation  of  the  quantity 
of    carbon    dioxide    formed    in    a    given    time    under 
'    standard  conditions. 

When  the  juice  is  collected  in  fractions,  the  first 
fraction  that  is  pressed  out  shows  least  activity,  and 
the  activity  increases  with  successive  fractions  to  the 
last,  so  that  methods  which  give  a  small  yield  may 
also  give  juice  of  relatively  small  activity.  The  most 
active  juice  is  much  less  active  than  fresh  yeast,  and 
NO.    1765,  VOL.  68] 


the  explanation  is  that  in  fermentation  with  the  latter 
there  is  always  a  fresh  production  of  zymase.  The 
so-called  self-fermentation  of  yeast-juice  is  fully  dis- 
cussed, and  shown  to  be  a  function  of  the  glycogen 
content.  Some  interesting  results  are  recorded  in  th« 
fermenting  of  sugars  other  than  glucose.  For  in- 
stance, glucose  and  fructose  are  fermented  equally 
fast  by  the  yeast-juice,  whereas  fresh  yeast  ferments 
glucose  the  more  quickly.  The  author  explains  this 
as  due  to  the  fructose  having  a  lower  rate  of  diffusion 
into  the  yeast-cell.  Similarly,  glycogen  was  fer- 
mented by  yeast-juice  obtained  from  yeast  which,  in 
the  fresh  state,  did  not  ferment  this  carbohydrate,  the 
explanation  being  that  the  glycogen  cannot  diffuse 
through  the  cell-membrane.  The  experimental  proof 
that  the  juice  can  ferment  glycogen  is  an  interesting 
confirmation  of  what  has  been  induced  theoretically, 
viz.  that  any  cell  which  can  synthesise  glycogen  must 
be  capable  also  of  hydrolysing  it,  at  least  intra- 
cellularly.  It  explains  the  phenomenon  of  "self- 
fermentation,"  and  accords  with  the  new  theory  of 
the  reversible  action  of  ferments. 

The  discussion  on  the  mode  of  action  of  antiseptics 
is  interesting,  but  not  always  convincing.  As  regards 
chloroform,  the  hypothesis  is  adopted  that  living  cells 
are  subdivided  into  separate  workshops  by  partitions 
of  cholesterin  (Overton),  which  the  author  thinks  may 
be  injured  by  the  drug  and  thus  allow  of  a  mingling 
of  substances  which  ought  to  be  kept  apart.  He  gives 
the  impression  that  chloroform  is  a  substance  almost 
inert  towards  ferments,  for  which,  therefore,  some 
mechanical  action  on  living  cells  is  to  be  sought. 
Qhloroform  is,  however,  certainly  not  without  action 
on  ferments,  and  affects  some  much  more  than  others ; 
the  maltase  of  yeast,  for  instance,  is  distinctly  affected 
by  it,  and  it  may  be  that  some  ferment  essential  to. 
cell-growth  and  multiplication  is  extremely  sensitive 
to  it.  It  is  difficult  to  estimate  at  all  quantitatively 
from  his  experiments  the  sensitiveness  of  zymase  to 
such  antiseptics,  on  account  of  the  unknown  factor  of 
their  action  on  endotryptase.  This  also  applies  to  the 
experiments  on  the  action  of  added  alcohol ;  expt.  4256 
especially  suggests  that  the  alcohol  has  no  negligible 
effect  on  endotryptase.  The  experiments  with 
arsenites  are  interesting,  and  give  food  for  reflection 
to  physiologists  and  physicians  alike. 

The  quantitative  fermentation  of  cane  sugar  in  con- 
centrated solution  by  zymase  was  attempted,  but  the 
yield  of  COj  and  alcohol  was  always  less  than  the 
calculated  amount,  and  the  author  considers  and  dis- 
cusses several  possible  explanations  of  the  pheno- 
menon. In  this  connection  he  touches  on  cases  of 
zymo-hydrolysis  where  incompleteness  has  been  traced 
to  the  action  of  the  hydrolytic  products,  but  does  not 
clearly  distinguish  between  a  direct  paralysing  action 
of  one  of  the  products  on  the  enzyme,  such  as  was 
found  by  Taumann  in  the  hydrolysis  of  amygdalin  by 
emulsin,  and  a  slowing  down  due  to  mass-action  of 
the  products,  a  consequence  of  the  reversible  nature 
of  enzyme-action,  and  occurring  only  on  the  approach 
of  chemical  equilibrium  in  the  system  on  which  the 
enzyme  acts.  The  fermentation  residue  was  examined 
for  cane  sugar  with  a  negative  result,  but  not  for  a 
reversion    sugar.       The    author,    however,    hopes    to 

^  S 


386 


NATURE 


[August  27,  1903 


investigate  this  question  further.  In  an  experiment 
given  later,  done  with  a  lower  sugar  concentration 
than  in  the  above,  the  yield  of  alcohol  approaches  the 
calculated  amount. 

Glycerol  is  probably  not  found  in  the  cell-free 
fermentation,  and  is  considered  a  product  of  cell- 
metabolism,  a  similar  view  to  that  held  by  Pasteur 
about  ethyl  alcohol.  May  not  the  production  of 
glycerol  and  other  higher  alcohols  be  equally  due  to 
the  action  of  soluble  ferments  not  yet  discovered? 

The  experiments  on  regeneration  of  yeast,  which 
conclude  part  i.,  serve  to  show  how  much  work  re- 
mains to  be  done  in  this  direction.  The  whole  account 
of  the  general  research  is  given  in  a  lucid  and  interest- 
ing manner,  and  deals  with  many  lesser  matters 
arising  out  of  the  main  thesis,  each  point  being  illus- 
trated by  tables  of  the  actual  experiments  performed, 
and  the  results  of  the  experiments  are  fully  discussed. 
The  author  establishes  himself  especially  firmly  where 
other  investigators  have  questioned  some  of  his  work. 

Part  ii.,  by  Profs.  Hahn  and  Geret,  gives  an  account 
of  the  discovery  of  endotryptase  by  the  former  author, 
the  description  of  the  experimental  work  being 
followed  by  a  good  summary. 

Part  iii.  is  by  Prof.  Hahn  alone,  and  describes  the 
reducing  properties  of  yeast-juice  as  shown  by  experi- 
ments performed  by  himself  and  Dr.  Cathcart.  Some 
reasons  are  given  for  the  author's  thinking  that  the 
reducing  power  is  due  to  the  same  ferment,  zymase, 
which  induces  alcoholic  fermentation. 

Part  iv.,  by  Profs.  Hans  Buchner  and  Rudolph 
Rapp,  is  on  the  relation  of  oxygen-supply  to  the  fer- 
menting power  of  living  yeast-cells. 

The  contradictory  results  of  previous  workers  are 
first  reviewed,  Pasteur's  theories  being  considered  and 
Chudiakow's  work  repeated  and  examined  critically 
in  detail.  The  latter  had  found  that  air  had  no  effect 
on  the  fermenting  power,  but  that  it  killed  yeast-cells 
more  rapidly  than  hydrogen,  when  each  was  drawn 
through  a  sugar  solution  containing  a  small  quantity 
of  the  yeast.  The  authors  find  that  his  results  were 
partly  due  to  defects  in  his  aspiration  methods,  more 
air  than  hydrogen  being  drawn  through  in  a  given 
time,  with  consequent  injury  from  shaking.  They 
state  also  that  he  used  a  yeast  of  too  little  vitality  for 
general  conclusions.  They  find  that  neither  air  nor 
hydrogen,  as  such,  affects  the  fermenting  power,  and 
that  the  mechanical  shaking  of  the  fluid  is  detrimental 
if  it  exceed  a  certain  limit.  The  effects  of  air  and 
hydrogen  differ  only  in  that  the  former  induces  a  slight 
multiplication  of  the  yeast  cells,  and  thus  leads  to  a 
rather  larger  production  of  CO^. 

The  authors  then  pass  on  to  investigate  the  effect  of 
air  on  cultures  of  yeast  grown  on  beer-wort-gelatin 
with  10  per  cent,  of  glucose.  Here,  with  a  free  supply 
of  air,  they  find  one  part  of  sugar  oxidised  to  every 
five  parts  fermented.  The  yeast  multiplies  more 
rapidly  under  such  conditions  than  when  very  little 
air  is  supplied,  but  in  the  latter  case  a  given  weight 
of  yeast  ferments  more  sugar. 

The  whole  volume  is  full  of  interest  and  instruction, 
and  cannot  fail  to  give  the  greatest  pleasure  to  a 
student  of  alcoholic  fermentation. 

Arthur  Croft  Hill. 
NO.   1765,  VOL.  68] 


^iV  INDIAN  FLORA. 
The  Flora  of  the  Presidency  of  Bombay.  Vol.  i. 
Ranunculaceae  to  Rubiaceae.  By  Theodore  Cooke, 
CLE.,  M.A.,  M.A.I. ,  LL.D.,  F.G.S., 
M.Inst.C.E.I.  Pp.  645.  (London:  Taylor  and 
Francis,   1901-3.)     Price  27s. 

THE  labours  of  botanists  and  of  a  small  band  of 
foresters,  in  India. and  at  Kew,  have  supplied 
us  with  rich  stores  of  information  as  to  the  Indo- 
Malayan  flora.  These  rendered  possible  the  issue  of 
Sir  Joseph  Hooker's  monumental  "  Flora  of  British 
India." 

But  British  India  and  Malaya,  including  as  they 
do  countries  far  apart,  with  climates  ranging  in 
temperature  from  low  alpine  to  high  torrid  extremes, 
in  humidity  from  the  perpetual  aridity  of  the  desert 
to  the  permanent  moistness  of  the  equatorial  tropics, 
exhibit  subfloras  and  kinds  of  vegetation  of  correspond- 
ing variety.  In  order  to  map  out  these  separate  floras 
of  British  India,  including  Burma,  the  Government  of 
India  has  decided  to  issue  a  series  of  "  regional 
floras."  Such  a  series  will  be  of  great  service,  be- 
cause the  information  at  present  available  as  to  the 
floras  of  certain  large  tracts  of  India  is  lamentably 
deficient.  This  deficiency  Sir  George  King's  in- 
auguration of  a  botanical  survey  of  India  is  calculated 
to  remove. 

For  the  preparation  of  the  first  of  the  "  regional 
floras  " — that  of  Bombay  Presidency — the  Govern- 
ment of  India  was  fortunate  enough  to  secure  the 
services  of  Dr.  T.  Cooke. 

To  write  an  ideal  "  flora  "  of  Bombay  is  at  present 
impossible.  For  such  a  work  should  not  only  enable 
persons  to  identify  plants  found  in  the  Presidency,  but 
should  also  give  information  as  to  the  geographical 
distribution  of  the  indigenous  species,  including  their 
general  and  local  distribution,  their  habitats,  and  their 
frequency  of  occurrence ;  it  should  also  impart  inform- 
ation, often  unavailable  to  the  worker  in  Europe,  as 
to  the  habits,  colours,  dates  of  flowering,  of  sprout- 
ing, and  of  defoliation.  Finally,  it  should  give  a 
general  account  of  the  whole  flora  and  vegetation  of 
the  region,  and  map  out  their  subdivisions  within  that 
region.  The  present  "  flora  "  does  not  contain  all 
these  desiderata,  for  it  is  not  yet  concluded,  and  much 
remains  to  be  discovered  in  regard  to  the  local  dis- 
tribution and  periodicity  of  the  Bombay  plants.  This, 
the  first  volume,  includes  the  whole  of  the  Polypetalae, 
following  Hooker's  sequence  of  orders,  and  the 
natural  order  Rubiaceae, 

The  characters  exhibited  by  the  natural  orders  are 
given  very  fully,  so  much  so  that  an  inexperienced 
person  would  find  it  difficult  to  decide  upon  the  really 
salient  features.  This  difficulty  might  be  reduced  by 
printing  important  diagnostic  characters  in  different 
type.  But  when  the  work  is  finally  complete,  the 
author  may  aid  the  tyro  by  giving  abbreviated 
diagnoses,  or  possibly  an  analytical  key  of  the  natural 
orders. 

In  describing  genera  and  species  of  exotic  plants 
the  botanist  working  in  a  herbarium  is  often  at  a  dis- 
advantage. The  specimens  reaching  him  are  fre- 
quently comparatively  small,  their  colours  are  changed. 


August  27,  1903] 


NATURE 


;87 


and  the  information  supplied  by  the  collector  regarding 
them  may  be  meagre.  But  Dr.  Cooke,  with  his  ripe 
experience  in  India,  is  in  a  position  of  vantage.  His 
descriptions  of  genera  and  species  are  clear  and  vivid, 
and  at  times  include  information  on  vegetative 
characters  that  can  be  observed  only  on  the  spot.  It 
may  be  suggested,  however,  that  an  even  more  free 
record  of  vegetative  characters  would  greatly  facilitate 
the  identification  of  a  plant  by  a  person  happening  to 
meet  with  it  in  blossom  but  not  in  fruit,  and  would 
supply  botanists  at  a  distance  with  valuable  inform- 
ation otherwise  inaccessible.  To  take  specific  ex- 
amples. The  two  indigenous  lythraceous  genera  with 
indefinite  stamens,  Lagerstroemia  and  Sonneratia,  are 
distinguished  from  one  another  in  the  analytical  key 
by  their  fruits ;  yet  their  habits  and  habitats  are 
sufficiently  dissimilar  to  be  of  immediate  use  in  an 
analytical  key,  but  we  are  not  told  in  the  present  work 
whether  or  no  Sonneratia  apetala  possesses  the  erect 
respiratory  roots  so  characteristic  of  S.  acida.  Again, 
in  the  Rhizophoraceae,  the  four  genera  of  the  saline 
swamps  and  littoral  situations  are  at  once  separable 
from  the  inland  Carallia  by  their  habitats,  apart  from 
the  seeds,  which  are  used  as  the  basis  of  distinction 
in  the  analytical  key.  Furthermore,  species  of  Rhizo- 
phora  emit  aerial  roots  from  their  epigeous  branches, 
and  thus  stand  apart  from  other  rhizophoraceous 
plants,  and,  indeed,  so  far  as  I  know,  from  all  man- 
grove plants  except  Acanthus  ilicifolius.  Surely  the 
mention  of  these  roots  would  greatly  facilitate  recog- 
nition of  species  of  Rhizophora,  yet  no  mention  is 
made  of  them ;  and  if,  as  is  quite  conceivable,  these 
species  are  apt  not  to  possess  them  in  Bombay  Presi- 
dency, information  to  this  effect  would  be  of  extreme 
interest  to  botanists.  Whilst  discussing  vegetative 
characters,  it  may  be  remarked  that  the  "  white 
spongy  bodies  "  in  the  shoots  of  Jussiaea  repens  are 
adventitious  roots,  not  stipules.  And  the  generally 
accepted  view  in  regard  to  the  leaves  of  Rubia  is  that 
they  are  stipulate,  but  that  the  stipules  are  often  leaf- 
like in  form. 

Dr.  Cooke's  analytical  keys  of  genera  and  species 
are,  it  need  hardly  be  stated,  admirable  examples  of 
the  approved  form,  and  he  may  be  wise  in  adhering 
to  the  system  that  experience  has  shown  to  be  most 
useful,  even  though  it  frequently  assumes  that  a 
person  using  the  "  flora  "  possesses  shoots,  flowers 
and  fruits  of  the  specimen  he  desires  to  identify. 

The  attractive  and  clear  detailed  descriptions  of  the 
species  are  succeeded  in  most  cases  by  mention  of  the 
times  of  flowering.  In  many  instances  there  is  no 
record  as  to  whether  a  plant  described  is  deciduous 
or  evergreen.  Records  on  this  point,  coupled  with 
additional  information  as  to  the  times  of  opening  of 
floral  and  vegetative  buds,  and  of  the  shedding  of  the 
leaves,  would  throw  much  light  upon  the  scarcely 
touched  subject  of  the  periodicity  of  plant-life  in  the 
tropics.  As  this  subject  has,  in  addition,  considerable 
practical  economic  significance,  it  is  to  be  hoped  that 
authors  of  the  Indian  "  regional  floras  "  will  record 
such  of  these  data  as  are  known,  and  will  thereby 
stimulate  further  observation. 

On  the  question  of  geographical  distribution,  facts 
NO.   1765,  VOL.  68] 


are  given  as  to  the  occurrence  of  the  indigenous  species 
in  places  outside  the  Presidency,  and  many  details  are 
added  concerning  their  frequency  of  occurrence,  locali- 
ties and  habitats,  within  the  Presidency.  But  the 
author  specially  directs  attention  to  the  need  for  in- 
formation on  the  local  distribution  of  species.  Despite 
of  this  lack  of  complete  information,  the  hope  may  be 
expressed  that  Dr.  Cooke  will  include  in  his  work 
some  account  of  the  floristic  subdivisions  of  the  Presi- 
dency dealt  with,  and  that  the  authors  of  other  Indian 
"regional  floras"  will  do  likewise.  Of  equal  scien- 
tific interest,  and  probably  of  greater  practical  im- 
portance, would  be  an  account  of  the  distribution  of 
types  of  vegetation,  or  plant-formations,  within  the 
area.  Such  an  account  of  the  distribution  of  types  of 
vegetation  within  Bombay  Presidency  would  be  of 
especial  botanical  interest,  for 

"  the  rainfall  varies  .  .  .  from  3  or  4  inches,  or  even 
less  in  the  almost  rainless  districts  of  Sind,  to  upwards 
of  300  inches  on  the  Western  Ghdts." 

The  vegetation  shows  corresponding  diversity,  vary- 
ing from  arid  or  rocky  desert-tracts  to  moisture-laden 
evergreen  forests.  As  to  the  practical  aspect,  we  now 
recognise  that  vegetation  reflects  in  its  form  the 
environment,  and  that  plants,  when  their  actions  are 
interpreted  aright,  are  more  cunning  analysts  of  ex- 
ternal conditions,  including  soil  and  climate,  than  are 
the  most  accomplished  chemists  and  meteorologists. 

Brief  references  to  the  economic  uses  of  many  of 
the  species  described,  and  vernacular  names,  add  value 
to  the  book  before  us. 

In  conclusion,  Dr.  Cooke  is  to  be  congratulated  on 
producing  a  most  excellent  work. 

Percy  Groom. 


THE  STUDY  OF  FERMENTATION. 
Fermentation  Organisms,  a  Laboratory  Handbook. 
By  Alb.  Klocker.  Translated  from  the  German  by 
G.  E.  Allan,  B.Sc,  and  J.  H.  Millar,  F.I.C.  Pp. 
XX +  392,  (London:  Longmans  and  Co.,  1903.) 
Price  125.  net. 

THE  importance  of  a  systematic  study  of  the  micro- 
organisms which  play  a  part  in  the  various  pro- 
cesses of  fermentation  is  making  itself  felt  more  and 
more  as  time  goes  on  and  new  facts  and  phenomena 
are  brought  to  light.  The  old  empirical  methods  of 
twenty  years  ago  have  passed  away  before  the  marvel- 
lous changes  first  introduced  by  Hansen,  and  the 
culture  of  yeast  is  recognised  as  one  of  the  secrets  of 
success  in  the  manufacture  of  the  various  kinds  of 
beer.  The  study  has  long  been  carried  on  under  the 
personal  supervision  of  Hansen  and  his  assistants, 
but  until  recently  has  been  almost  entirely  conducted 
under  some  form  of  personal  supervision.  As  in  other 
cases,  however,  the  study  has  outgrown  so  limited  a 
method  of  teaching,  and  we  have  in  this  volume  a 
laboratory  handbook  which  will  enable  practical  work 
in  the  culture  of  fermentation  organisms  to  be  more 
widely  spread,  and  probably  more  successfully  con- 
ducted, than  has  hitherto  been  the  case.  The  volume 
is  welcome  on  this  account  especially,  but  it  has  other 
claims  also  on  the  student,  coming  as  it  does  from  the 


388 


NATURE 


[August  27,  1903 


Carlsberg  laboratory,  and  embodying  the  ideas  and 
teaching  of  Hansen  himself.  It  is  welcome  also  to 
English  readers  from  the  fact  that  it  has  been  trans- 
lated in  great  part  by  one  of  the  disciples  of  the  Burton- 
on-Trent  school,  from  which  have  come  so  many 
valuable  contributions  to  our  knowledge  of  the 
chemistry  of  the  carbohydrates  concerned  in  brewing. 

The  author  has  described  at  great  length  what  we 
may  consider  to  be  an  ideal  laboratory  for  the  practical 
study  of  the  lower  fungi,  including,  indeed,  the  patho- 
logical bacteria,  though  these  are  not  necessarily  in- 
cluded in  the  range  of  study  he  sets  forth.  His  de- 
scription is  greatly  to  be  commended,  for  he  is  not 
satisfied  with  saying  what  apparatus  should  be  pro- 
vided and  what  precautions  observed  in  arranging  tne 
laboratory,  but  he  gives  a  careful  explanation  of  the 
reasons  underlying  his  plans,  so  that  mere  empirical 
work  has  no  place  in  this  course.  The  descriptions  of 
apparatus  are  good,  showing  what  are  the  best  forms 
of  the  modern  appliances  now  at  the  disposal  of 
workers  at  the  subject.  Perhaps  a  little  less  detail 
would  have  sufficed  in  the  section  upon  the  microscope, 
as  the  instrument  has  now  so  widespread  an  appli- 
cation in  so  many  branches  of  science.  Workers  will 
welcome  especially  the  instructions  given  in  the 
methods  of  culture  of  micro-organisms,  from  the 
original  methods  of  water  culture  of  Hansen  to  tne 
modern  plate  cultures,  in  which  gelatin  and  similar 
media  take  so  large  a  part. 

A  very  important  section  of  the  work  is  devoted  to 
the  biological  analysis  of  yeasts,  and  the  methods  of 
ensuring  pure  cultures.  Also  to  the  biological  analysis 
of  water,  air,  and  soil. 

In  the  later  portion  of  the  volume  the  author  treats 
in  some  detail  of  the  fermentation  organisms  them- 
selves. In  this  section  the  Saccharomycetes  occupy 
the  largest  place,  as  is  natural  when  we  consider  the 
fermentations  in  which  they  play  a  part.  Mucor  and 
its  allies,  however,  are  not  neglected,  and  fair  attention 
is  given  to  the  ascomycetous  moulds.  Their  diagnostic 
features  are  described,  and  the  part  they  play  in  various 
fermentations  is  discussed,  the  idea  being  kept  promin- 
ently in  view  that  the  author  is  writing  as  a  teacher 
for  students,  and  that  the  work  is  a  laboratory  hand- 
book.    Finally,  the  bacteria  come  in  for  recognition. 

The  book  will  be  welcomed  further  for  the  very 
admirable  historical  sketch  of  the  gradual  development 
of  our  knowledge  of  fermentation  from  the  earliest 
times.  It  is  very  satisfactory  to  find  that  this  section 
contains  an  admirable  summary  of  the  work  of  Hansen 
himself. 

The  volume  concludes  with  a  very  complete  biblio- 
graphy. 


OVR    BOOK  SHELF. 
Five  Figure  Logarithmic  and  other  Tables.     By  Alex. 

M'Aulay,     M.A.     Pp.     xl  +  i6i.     (London :      Mac- 

millan  and  Co.,  Ltd.,  1903.)     Price  2s.  6d. 
Siebenstellige  Logarithmen  und  Antilo garithmen.     By 

O.  Dietrichkeit.     Pp.64.     (Berlin  :  Julius  Springer, 

1903.)     Price  3  marks. 
The  book  by  Mr.   M'Aulay  is  of  a  very  handy  size, 
specially  adapted  for  the  pocket.     The  author,  in  the 
preliminary  pages,  explains  the  general  properties  of 

NO.   1765,  VOL.  68] 


logarithms  and  the  use  of  the  tables  which  follow. 
The  tables  themselves  comprise,  first,  an  ordinary  four- 
figure  table  of  logarithms  of  numbers,  occupying  two 
pages,  and  without  the  usual  antilogarithms.  Next, 
a  five-figure  table  of  logarithms  of  numbers  from  o  to 
100,000,  with  a  complete  set  of  proportional  parts  or 
differences ;  these  take  up  thirty-six  pages.  Then 
comes  the  second  principal  table  of  the  book,  giving 
the  logarithmic  sines,  cosines,  tangents,  and  cotan- 
gents of  angles  for  each  minute,  with  differences  for 
intervals  of  ten  seconds.  Some  subsidiary  tables  and 
useful  numbers  follow,  very  much  condensed,  so  as 
not  materially  to  add  to  the  size  of  the  book. 

The  tables  would  be  improved  if  they  could  be  pro- 
vided with  a  marginal  or  thumb  index  to  facilitate 
reference.  The  two  main  tables  are  printed  in  clear 
bold  type,  and  the  little  volume  will  prove  extremely 
useful  to  all  who  require  greater  accuracy  than  is 
given  by  four-figure  mathematical  tables. 

The  tables  of  Herr  O.  Dietrichkeit  are  most 
ingeniously  arranged.  The  numbers  in  the  columns 
are  given  to  seven  figures,  the  last  two  of  which  are 
written  as  suffixes  in  smaller  type.  Tlji^  logarithm  or 
anti-logarithm  of  any  four-figure  numb^f^^pan  be  read 
directly  from  the  tables  to  any  desired  accuracy  up 
to  seven  figures  without  requiring  differences  to  be 
used.  The  two  tables  of  logs  and  anti-logs  are  printed 
on  paper  of  different  tints,  a  very  good  feature,  and 
they  occupy  only  eighteen  and  twenty  pages  respec- 
tively. They  are  provided  with  a  complete  thumb 
index,  reading  both  backwards  and  forwards,  and  it 
will  be  found  that  readings  may  be  taken  from  the 
tables  almost,  if  not  quite,  as  quickly  as  from  the  well- 
known  four-figure  tables. 

If  five-figure  accuracy  were  required  for  five-figure 
numbers,  the  difference  for  the  fifth  figure  would  have 
to  be  calculated.  And  it  is  possible  from  these  tables, 
although  occupying  only  a  few  pages,  to  obtain  seven- 
figure  accuracy  for  seven-figure  numbers,  by  means 
of  an  interpolation  constant  and  a  most  ingenious 
method  of  calculation,  which,  however,  would  be  too 
long  except  for  occasional  use.  The  tables  will  prove 
most  valuable  in  cases  where,  though  four-figure 
accuracy  is  usually  sufficient,  it  is  desired  to  have  at 
command  a  means  of  greater  accuracy  for  special  pur- 
poses. The  volume  is  beautifully  got  up  and  printed, 
and  it  is  quite  a  pleasure  to  use  the  tables. 
Economie  rurale.  By  E.  Jouzier  (Encyclopedie 
agricole).  Pp.  xv  +  476.  (Paris:  Bailliere  et  Fils, 
1903.)  Price  5  francs. 
This  book  belongs  to  a  type  of  which  we  have  few 
representatives  in  this  country;  it  consists  of  a  dis- 
cussion of  such  general  principles  of  political  economy 
as  may  be  illustrated  in  the  conduct  of  a  farm. 

Beginning  with  an  account  of  the  relations  of  agri- 
culture to  the  State,  questions  of  taxation,  transport 
and  markets,  it  proceeds  to  discuss  the  capital  required 
in  the  business  of  agriculture,  the  live  and  dead  stock, 
insurance,  depreciation,  and  the  valuation  of  such  con- 
tingencies as  cultivations  and  manurial  residues. 
Such  general  principles  as  the  minimum  of  production 
necessary  to  profit  and  the  law  of  diminishing  returns 
are  explained  and  illustrated.  Questipiis^  of  labour, 
rriethods  of  finding  the  cost  and  profit  or'^loss  of  the 
different  operations  are  considered ;  finally,  tenure, 
compensation  for  improvements,  systems  of  land  hold- 
ing, cooperation,  and  similar  matters  touching  on  the 
economics  of  agricultural  production  are  dealt  with. 
The  whole  is  treated  in  a  somewhat  abstract  and 
generalised  fashion,  and  would  find  little  favour  with 
the  practical  farmer  or  landowner  here;  we  can,  how- 
ever, commend  the  book  to  teachers  of  agriculture 
as  suggestive  and  likely  to  lead  to  a  wider  outlook 
than  generally  prevails  in  the  treatment  of  similar 
questions  in  this  country. 


August  27,  1903] 


NATURE 


389 


A.  Naturalist's  Calendar,  kept  at  Swaffham  Bulbeck, 
Cambridgeshire,  by  Leonard  Blomefield  {formerly 
Jenyns).  Edited  by  F.  Darwin.  Pp.  xix  +  85. 
(Cambridge  :  University  Press,  1903.) 
In  his  introduction  the  editor  has  given  several  reasons 
(all  of  them  excellent  in  their  way)  for  the  reissue  of 
this  excellent  memorial  of  an  e.xceedingly  accurate 
and  gifted  naturalist.  He  has  apparently  omitted, 
however,  that  which,  in  our  opinion,  is  the  most  im- 
portant argument  of  all,  namely,  the  relatively  early 
date  (previous  to  1846)  at  which  the  record  was  kept. 
This  renders  it  extremely  valuable  for  comparison 
with  observations  of  a  similar  nature  made  at  the 
present  day,  for  the  purpose  of  ascertaining  whether 
any  secular  changes  in  the  date  of  the  arrival  of 
migratory  birds  or  in  the  flowering  of  plants  has 
taken  place  in  this  country  since  the  compilation  of 
this  calendar.  Whether  any  such  differences  do  occur 
would  require  very  careful  comparison,  but  we  should 
not  be  surprised  to  learn  that  the  average  date  of  the 
cuckoo's  arrival  has  altered  somewhat  since  Blome- 
field's  time.  Be  this  as  it  may,  the  well-known 
scrupulous  accuracy  of  its  compiler  renders  his 
calendar  of  natrure  a  record  of  exceptional  value  and 
interest,  bel6n]g'ing  to  a  period  when  such  compilations 
were  rare.  There  is,  therefore,  every  justification  for 
its  republication  in  the  present  convenient  form,  and 
its  appearance  at  a  morphological  centre  like  Cam- 
bridge may  certainly  be  regarded  as  a  good  augury 
for  the  future  of  natural  history  studies. 

Mr.  Darwin  gives  several  anecdotes  of  the  author, 
to  which  the  present  writer  can  add  another.  Mr. 
Jenyns  (as  he  was  then  called),  who  was  by  no  means 
a  handsome  man,  was  in  early  life  accustomed  to 
preach  occasionally  in  a  church  attended  by  the 
Henslow  family.  After  one  of  these  periodical  visits, 
the  younger  members  of  the  family  were  asked  why 
they  were  always  so  unusually  quiet  in  church  when 
Uncle  Leonard  preached.  To  which  query  came  the 
reply  that  "  he  kept  on  making  such  ugly  faces." 

Elements   of   Physics,    Experimental   and   Descriptive. 

By  An1t)s  T,    Fisher,    B.Sc,   assisted  bv   Melvin   J. 

Patterson,  B.Sc.     Pp.   184.     (London  :  D.  C.  Heath 

and  Co.,  1903.)  Price  25.  6d. 
Those  of  us  who  are  engaged  in  university  teaching 
are  personally  interested  also  in  the  kind  of  science 
teaching  which  is  given  in  schools.  Lads  come  to 
college  fresh  from  school  crammed  with  what  is  called 
physics ;  but,  owing  to  its  unsatisfactory  character, 
our  first  effort  is  usually  to  knock  out  of  them  the  loose 
and  erroneous  knowledge  w^ith  which  they  have  been 
crammed.  We  are  afraid  that  the  book  under  review 
is  not  likely  to  improve  matters.  A  long  list  of  errors 
which  we  have  noted  down  lies  before  us — far  too 
long  to  reproduce  here — and  we  must  be  content  with 
a  few  as  a  sample. 

The  diagrams  of  lines  of  magnetic  force  of  currents 
(p  131),  of  the  dispersion  in  a  prism  (p.  96),  of  the 
iormation  of  a  rainbow  (p.  98),  are  all  wrong.  It  is 
incorrect  to  state  that  the  image  of  (sic)  a  concave  lens 
is  always  smaller  than  the  object,  and  that  a  concave 
meniscus  is  a  converging  lens.  The  field  of  a  magnet 
does  not  vary 'as  the  inverse  square  of  the  distance. 
An  induced  charge  is  not  usually  equal  to  the  inducing 
charge. 

A  paint-brush  illustration  of  the  production  of  in- 
duced currents  (p.  137)  gives  the  wrong  direction  to 
th':?  current.  The  conservation  of  energy  is  stated  to 
be    a    consequence   of    the    conservation    of  mass ! 

In  spite  of  numerous  errors  and  fallacies,  and  weak- 
nesses of  description,  the  book  is  not  wholly  bad;  but 
what  a  burden  is  thrown  upon  the  teacher  who  has  to 
put  all'  these  wrong  things  right !  For  the  private 
student  the  book  cannot  be  recommended. 

NO.    1765,  VOL.  68] 


LETTERS    TO    THE    EDITOR. 

[The  Editor  does  not  hold  himself  responsible  for  opinions 
expressed  by  his  correspondents.  Neither  can  he  undertake 
to  return,  or  to  correspond  with  the  writers  of,  rejected 
manuscripts  intended  for  this  or  any  other  part  of  Nature. 
No  notice  is  taken  of  anonymous  communications.] 

An  Earthquake  Shock  at  Kimberley. 
Local  earthquakes  are  rare  phenomena  here.  There 
was,  however,  a  small  shock  at  8h.  43m.  p.m.  (G.M.T.)  on 
Friday  last,  July  31.  It  was  accompanied  by  the  loud 
rumbling  noise  resembling  the  passing  of  a  heavy  waggon, 
and  caused  some  shaking  of  furniture.  It  appears  to  have 
been  felt  and  heard  over  a  considerable  area.  The  record 
by  my  large  horizontal  pendulum  showed  a  single  nearly 
sudden  dip  to  the  west  of  3-6mm.  (t.e.  from  3o-4mm.  to 
340mm.,  measured  from  the  reference  base-line),  roughly 
corresponding  to  a  tilt  of  about  3*,  and  a  rather  more 
gradual  recovery,  with  very  little  (if  any)  return  swing  to 
the  east.  No  certain  signs  of  preliminary  tremors  could 
be  detected  upon  the  record.  It  seems  important  (c/.  Milne, 
"  Earthquakes,"  p.  309,  4th  ed.,  1898)  that  for  some  days 
previously  there  had  been  a  gradual,  general  dip  of  the 
level  to  the  east,  the  mean  distances  of  the  hourly  readings 
from  the  reference  base-line,  measured  from  east  to  west, 
being  : — 

July   27  34'3  mm. 

„      28  34-0     ,, 

n      29         311     „ 

,,      30  270     „ 

,,      31  28-1     „ 

Aug.    I  29*0     „ 

The  weather  during  the  week  had  been  moderately  warm 
and  cloudy,  but,  so  far  as  I  know,  there  was  not  any  rain 
anywhere  on  the  table-land.  There  was  no  disturbance  of 
the  barometer  accompanying  the  shock. 

I  enclose  a  cutting  from  the  Diamond  Fields  Advertiser 
of  August  3.  It  gives  the  duration  at  Koffyfontein  as  three 
minutes,  which  probably  really  means  that  some  loose 
articles  of  furniture  might  have  remained  swinging  for 
some  time  after  the  shock  had  passed.  KofTyfontein,  how- 
ever, like  Kimberley,  is  a  diamond  mining  centre,  and  from 
various  reports  it  seems  to  be  demonstrated  that  the  earth- 
movement  was  much  more  pronounced  in  the  vicinity  of 
the  open  workings  than  elsewhere.  J.  R.  Sutton. 

Kenilworth,   Kimberley,   S.  Africa,  August  3. 


Sun-spots  and  Phenologfy, 

It  can  be  shown  in  several  ways,  I  think,  that  we  have, 
on  the  whole,  in  these  parts  (London),  more  warmth  when 
the  sun-spots  are  numerous  than  when  they  are  few,  a 
state  of  things  rather  opposite  to  that  in  the  tropics, 
where  (according  to  M.  Nordmann,  who  has  lately  con- 
firmed the  work  of  Dr.  Koppen  some  thirty  years  ago) 
sun-spots  mean  coolness,  and  there  is  most  warmth  about 
minima. 

The  recurring  contrast,  in  the  case  of  Greenwich,  appears 
to  be  most  distinct  in  the  early  part  of  the  year.  Thus 
we  may  show  it  by  taking  the  mean  temperature  of 
P'ebruary  and  March,  and  smoothing  the  curve  with 
averages  of  five  (curve  A  in  diagram).  B  is  the  sun-spot 
curve.  Thus  about  sun-spot  maxima,  the  milder  weather 
of  spring  seems  to  set  in,  on  an  average,  earlier  than  at 
other  times.  It  might  be  expected  that  this  would  have 
an  influence  on  the  data  of  phenology  (time  of  flowering 
of  plants,  &c.),  and  in  many  cases  we  find  it  is  so,  that  is, 
curves  which  represent  the  dates  of  flowering  of  plants 
will  be  found  to  show  a  certain  agreement  with  the 
temperature  curve  of  February-March,  and  with  the  sun- 
spot  curve. 

In  the  diagram  are  given  two  of  these  phenological  curves 
(C  and  D).  C  is  that  for  flowering  of  Kibes  sanguineum 
in  Edinburgh  (1850-87),  and  D  that  for  flowering  of 
.'Isalea  pontica  at  Pare  de  Baleine,  Allier,  in  the  heart  of 
France  (1858-1901).     (The  scales  are  separate.) 

The  date  of  flowering  is  given  as  the  day-number  in  the 
year,   and   these   numbers   are   smoothed   with   averages  of 


390 


NATURE 


[August  27,  1903 


five.  The  curves  are  inverted,  so  that  high  points  represent 
early  dates  and  low  points  late  dates. 

Other  examples  might  be  given.  This  line  of  inquiry 
has  been  followed  to  some  extent  by  M.  Flammarion  in 
France,  and  it  seems  desirable  that  attention  should  be 
given  to  it  in  this  country  by  those  interested  in  phenology. 

The  contrast  above  referred  to  between  the  relations  of 
sun-spots   and   temperature    in    western    Europe     and    those 


in  the  tropics  also  calls  for  elucidation.  Probably  no 
meteorologist  would  now  regard  it  (or  other  such  contrasts) 
as  fatal  to  the  idea  of  sun-spot  influence. 

Alex.    B.    MacDowall. 


Retarded  Motion  of  the  Great  Red  Spot  on  Jupiter. 

Perhaps  the  most  notable  fact  brought  to  light  by  observ- 
ations   of   Jupiter    during    the    present    season    is    that    the 


velacity  of  the  great  red 
The  rotation  period  of  this 
follows  in  recent  years  : — 


spot   has   been    again    retarded, 
well-known  object  has  been  as 


1898   

9  55 

41-8 

1899    

9  55 

41-9 

1900   

9  55 

417 

I90I   

9  55 

40-9 

1902  and  to  May  1903 

9  55 

39 -o 

May  26  to  August  21,  1903  ... 

9  55 

41-5 

At  the  end  of  May  last  the  longitude  of  the  spot  was  about 
30°,  whereas  at  the  present  time  it  is  32°,  indicating  an 
easterly  drift  of  2°,  whereas  during  the  preceding  twelve 
months  the  marking  had  shown  a  westerly  drift  of  about  1° 
per  month.  The  spot  now  follows  the  zero  meridian  (system 
ii.  of  Mr.  Crommelin's  ephemeris.  Monthly  Notices  R.A.S., 
Ixiii.  p.  no,  December,  1902)  by  about  53  minutes.  A  re- 
markable disturbance  has  recently  occurred  in  the  southern 
equatorial  belt  of  Jupiter.  In  about  longitude  140°  to  175° 
(system  i.)  several  nearly  black  spots  have  appeared,  and 
the  belt  in  this  region  is  much  torn  and  full  of  irregularities, 
changing  from  night  to  night,  and  evidently  subject  to 
extensive  commotions.  W.   F,   Denning. 


The  Spots  on  Saturn. 
During  the  past  two  months  about  75  transit  times  of 
these  objects  have  been  taken  here.  Several  of  the  more 
conspicuous  markings  are  moving  slower  than  expected, 
and  their  positions  appear  to  be  well  represented  by  a 
rotation  period  of  about  loh.  395m. 

W.  F.  Denning. 
Bishopston,   Bristol,  August  25. 

NO.   1765,  VOL.  68] 


THE  SOUTH  PORT  MEETING  OF  THE 
BRITISH  ASSOCIATION. 
CINCE  the  prospective  programmes  of  the  various 
•^  sections  of  the  British  Association  were  obtained 
for  last  week's  Nature,  the  following  additional  par- 
ticulars referring  to  the  subsection  of  Section  A,  de- 
voted to  astronomy  and  meteorology,  and  the  Inter- 
national Meteorological  Committee  have  been  received 
from  Dr.  W.  N.  Shaw,  chairman  of  the  subsection. 

It  is  intended  that  the  subsection  shall  meet  on 
Friday,  September  11,  and  on  the  following  Monday 
and  Wednesday.  The  proceedings  may  be  expected 
to  be  especially  interesting  on  account  of  the  presence 
of  a  number  of  distinguished  meteorologists  from 
foreign  countries  who  will  be  in  Southport  in  con- 
nection with  the  meeting  of  the  International  Com- 
mittee. It  is  hoped  that  arrangements  can  be  made 
to  enable  the  members  of  the  committee  to  take  part 
in  the  meetings  of  the  subsection,  although  separate 
meetings  of  the  committee  must  be  held  for  the  trans- 
action of  business. 

The  questions  already  proposed  for  discussion  by 
the  Committee  include  the  initiation  of  international 
cooperation  in  connection  with  atmospheric  electricity 
and  solar  phj^sics,  and  its  extension  as  regards  ter- 
restrial magnetism ;  the  revision  of  the  arrangements 
for  the  exchange  of  daily  telegraphic  reports,  and  the 
modification  of  some  of  the  existing  international 
conventions  with  regard  to  the  observations  mad6  at 
stations  of  various  orders  and  the  method  of  recording 
them. 

In  the  subsection  on  September  11,  after  an  address 
by  the  chairman  on  methods  of  meteorological  in- 
vestigation, the  president  of  the  Association,  Sir  N. 
Lockyer,  will  read  a  paper  on  the  correlation  of  solar 
and  terrestrial  phenomena,  which  will  be  followed  by 
a  discussion,  as  a  preliminary  to  a  proposal  for 
putting  the  organisation  of  work  in  connection 
with  that  subject  upon  an  international  basis.  Dr. 
Buchan  will  contribute  a  communication  illustrating 
the  distribution  of  rainfall  in  Scotland  according 
to  the  succession  of  years  of  the  sun-spot  cycle. 
At  the  same  session  it  is  hoped  that  some  of 
the  members  of  the  International  Meteorological 
Committee  who  have  taken  a  prominent  part  in 
the  prosecution  of  researches  in  connection  with 
that  committee  may  be  able  to  contribute  papers.  In 
particular  the  work  of  the  committee  on  cloud  observ- 
ations has  recently  been  brought  to  a  conclusion,  and 
a  summary  of  the  final  results  achieved  would  be  very 
acceptable. 

For  any  further  available  time  on  that  or  the  other 
days  there  is  already  a  substantial  programme. 
Various  astronomical  papers  have  been  referred  to 
in  the  previous  notice.  The  committees  which  have 
to  present  reports  are  those  on  kite  observations, 
on  the  Ben  Nevis  Observatory,  and  on  seismological 
observations,  and  any  one  of  them,  either  of  them- 
selves or  in  connection  with  papers  on  special 
points  associated  with  them,  may  give  rise  to 
valuable  discussion.  Prof.  Hergesell,  the  chairman 
of  the  aeronautical  committee,  will  be  able  to  give 
the  latest  information  as  to  the  international  investi- 
gation of  the  upper  air,  and  Dr.  Varley  will  exhibit 
the  record  obtained  by  him  for  Mr.  P.  'Y.  Alexander 
with  an  unmanned  balloon  that  reached  the  extra- 
ordinary height  of  70,000  feet  on  a  journey  from  Bath 
in  July.  The  kite  equipment  and  method  of  investi- 
gation employed  by  Mr.  Dines  will  be  exhibited,  if 
possible,  in  action. 

Prof.  Callendar  will  speak  upon  self-recording  in- 
struments, and  thus  open  the  way  for  the  discussion 
of  a  subject  which  is  of  pressing  importance  in  co- 
operative meteorological  work. 


August  27,  1903] 


NATURE 


391 


The  exhibition  of  objects  of  interest  in  connection  j 
with  meteorology,  terrestrial  magnetism,  and  allied  i 
sciences  has  already  been  referred  to  in  the  columns 
of  Nature.  Arrangements  have  been  made  with  the 
view  of  exhibiting  the  formation  and  physical  pro- 
perties of  the  remarkable  vortex  ring  of  smoke 
produced  by  the  discharge  of  a  mortar  of  the  same 
lype  as  those  which  are  extensively  used  in  southern 
Europe  with  the  object  of  mitigating  hailstorms. 

By  way  of  illustration  of  the  method  adopted  by  the 
Meteorological  Council  for  dealing  with  telegraphic 
weather  reports,  a  weather  chart  for  north-western 
Europe,  with  remarks  and  forecasts  for  the  British 
Isles,  will  be  prepared  each  morning  during  the  meet- 
ing on  the  receipt  of  telegraphic  information  at  South- 
port,  and  a  limited  number  of  lithographed  copies  will 
be  available  in  the  reception  room. 


THE  OLDER  CIVILISATION  OF  GREECE^ 

STUDENTS  of  the  older  civilisation  of  Greece, 
which  wq  usually  know  as  "  Mycenagan,"  will 
welcome  the  appearance  of  the  eighth  volume  of  the 
British  School  at  Athens  Annual,  which,  we  are  glad 
to  say,  this  year  is  printed  on  much  better  paper 
than  formerly,  and  shows  a  great  improvement  both 


in  editing  and  ar 
rangement.  The 
volume  contains 
the  chief  results 
of  the  excava- 
tions which  were 
undertaken  i  n 
Crete  in  1902, 
both  by  the 
oflficers  of  the 
British  School  it- 
self and  by  the 
Cretan  Explora- 
tion Fund,  o  f 
which  Mr.  A.  J. 
Evans  is  the 
prime  mover. 
More  than  a  third 
of  the  book  is 
occupied  by  an 
elaborate  paper 
by  Mr.  Evans, 
who  continues  his 
annual  descrip- 
tion of  the  results 
of  his  excavations 
at  Knossos ;  this 
is  profusely  illus- 
trated   by    no    less 


/6 


indefinitely  on  researches  which  would,  in  any  other 
country  but  England,  be  undertaken  either  by  the 
Government  or  by  some  wealthy  academy. 

The  most  important  objects  described  by  Mr.  Evans 
are: — (i)  A  series  of  tablets  of  porcelain  mosaic  re- 
presenting houses  and  towers,  which  are  curiously 
like  children's  dolls'  houses,  with  a  door  in  the  middle 
and  the  windows  divided  by  mullions.  (2)  A  series  of 
similar  porcelain  tablets  with  representations  of 
warriors  and  animals.  (3)  A  set  of  terra-cotta  models 
of  pillar-altars,  with  figures  of  doves  perched  upon 
the  top  of  them.  (4)  Fragments  of  ivory  figures  of 
leaping  youths,  with  the  hair  represented  by  bronze 
spirals  let  into  the  ivory.  (5)  A  small  shrine  discovered 
in  situ  in  the  southern  part  of  the  palace.  The  shrine 
and  its  contents  have  been  carefully  kept  in  their 
original  position,  and  a  small  house  has  been  built 
over  them  to  protect  them  from  the  weather.  The 
contents  consist  of  rude  iconic  figures  of  deities,  and 
a  horned  altar,  which  is  somewhat  Canaanitish  in 
type.  These  horned  altars  are  familiar  objects  in 
Cretan  diggings,  and  they  are  usually  described  by 
Mr.  Evans  as  "horns  of  consecration."  (6)  Objects 
inscribed  in  ink  with  Cretan  hieroglyphics.  These 
are  of  great  importance,  for  they  show  that  the  Cretans 
employed  the  Egyptian  means  of  writing  as  well  as 
the  Mesopotamian ;  they  used  both  pen  and  ink  as  well 


tMklURlMEMTi    tli  MILL!t1tTH£l. 


I>ARK  GREY  GMUMD .  U/ITH 

CRIMSON  STRIPES  S  W/HDOW  fRAM£6 

UPPER.    WIHD0W3    OPEN    RIGHT  THROUCH 

LOWER   MtlDOWS,   SUNK,  (V/TH  <i CARLE T  FILLING 

Fig.  1. — Porcelain  Tablets  in  Form  of  Houses  (slightly  enlarged). 


SECT/ON 


ALL    GRSy    a    WHITE. 

WINDOWS  ,  SIJNf^,  WITH  iZARl£T  FILLING 


than  seventy-four  reproductions 
from  photographs  and  line  drawings,  a  map  showing 
tlie  state  of  the  excavations  at  the  present  time, 
and  two  plates.  Mr.  Evans's  paper  is  exceedingly 
interesting  reading,  and  his  discoveries  appear 
to  have  been,  as  is  usually  the  case,  of  first-class 
importance;  we  earnestly  hope  that  good  fortune 
may  attend  his  labours  in  the  future  at  Knossos 
as  it  has  done  in  the  past !  It  is,  however, 
obvious  that,  for  extensive  excavations  of  this  kind, 
which  involve  heavy  and  prolonged  expenditure,  in- 
creased funds  are  necessary.  It  is  well  known  that 
Mr.  Evans  has  contributed  to  the  expenses  of  the  work 
from  his  own  private  means  far  more  than  was  right, 
but  it  is  clear  that  no  archaeologist,  however  enthusi- 
astic he  may  be,  can  continue  to  spend  his  own  money 

1  "Th«  Annual  of  the  British  School  at  Athens"  No.  viii.  Session 
1901-1901.  Pp.  348,  20  plates,  and  many  illustrations.  (London  :  Mac- 
millan  and  Co.,  Ltd.) 

NO.    1765,  VOL.  68] 


as  clay  tablet  and  stylus.  (7)  The  sanitary  arrange- 
ments of  the  palace,  which  appear  to  have  been  extra- 
ordinarily modern  in  character.  The  latrines  were 
water-closets,  which  were  provided  with  carefully  con- 
structed drains  made  of  terra-cotta  pipes,  the  sections 
of  which  remind  one  (see  Fig.  7,  p.  13)  of  a  sanitary 
engineer's  catalogue  of  the  present  day.  The 
exigencies  of  space  will  not  allow  us  to  enumerate  the 
minor  discoveries,  and  we  refer  the  reader  to  the 
Annual  itself  for  a  full  account  of  them. 

Mr.  Evans  ends  his  paper  with  some  speculations 
as  to  the  possible  connection  of  Crete  with  Egypt  as 
early  as  the  time  of  the  fourth  and  fifth  dynasties, 
i.e.  about  B.C.  3700-B.c.  3200,  and  it  is  of  interest  to 
note  that  Mr.  H.  R.  Hall,  of  the  British  Museum, 
publishes  in  this  volume  of  the  Annual  a  paper  deal- 
ing more  or  less  with  this  very  subject.  Mr.  Hall 
traces  the  history  of  the  connection  between  Egypt 
and  the  peoples  of  the  .<^gean,  and  the  southern  coast 


392 


NATURE 


[August  27,  1903 


of  Asia  Minor,  from  the  periods  of  the  sixth  and 
twelfth  dynasties  down  to  the  reign  of  Rameses  III., 
i.e.  for  a  space  of  more  than  2000  years.  The  great 
value  of  his  paper  to  Greek  archaeologists  consists  in 
the  fact  that  he  derives  his  materials  from  the  Egyptian 
monuments  alone,  and  he  has  shown  pretty  con- 
clusively from  the  Egyptian  records  that  the 
Mycenseans,  or  "  Minoans,"  of  Crete  were  in  close 
communication  with  Egypt  as  early  as  the  time  of 
the  eighteenth  dynasty,  about  B.C.  1650  to  B.C.  1400, 
and  probably  much  earlier.  We  may  note  in  passing 
a  point  of  interest,  namely,  his  identification  of  the 
true  name  of  the  Island  of  Cyprus  in  the  time  of 
Thothmes  III.,  viz.  Yantanay,  which  is  undoubtedly 
the  same  as  the  Assyrian  name  for  the  island, 
"Yatnana."  Mr.  Hall  also  gives  new  material 
to  the  student  of  Mycenaean  art  in  his  identifica- 
tions of  Cretan  vases  among  the  tribute  depicted 
on  the  walls  of  the  tombs  at  Thebes,  about  B.C. 
1550.  The  rest  of  his  paper  is  occupied  with  an 
account  of  the  relations  of  the  Egyptians  with  the 
Mediterranean  tribes  who  successively  invaded  Egypt 
under  the  nineteenth  and  twentieth  dynasties.  He 
proves  that  the  period  of  peaceful  relations  between 
Crete  and  Egypt  under  the  eighteenth  dynasty  was  the 
period  of  the  Minoan  civilisation  of  Knossos  and 
Phaestus,  and  that  the  post- 
Minoan,  or  true  Mycenaean, 
period  in  Greece  was  the  time 
when  the  peaceful  relations  of 
Cretan  civilisation  with  Egypt 
had  come  to  an  end,  and,  in  the 
author's  words,  "  in  the  days  of 
the  degenerate  Ramessids  of 
Egypt,  its  place  had  been  taken 
by  wandering  tribes,  amid  whose 
internecine  struggles  the  older 
civilisation  of  Greece  slowly  de- 
generated and  finally  passed  away. 
The  excavations  which  have 
been  carried  on  by  the  British 
School  itself  at  Palaikastro,  at 
the  eastern  end  of  Crete,  are  de- 
scribed by  Mr.  R.  C.  Bosanquet, 
the  present  director  of  the  school. 
He  has  found  there  the  remains  of  a  palace  and 
houses,  some  remarkable  interments  in  painted 
terra-cotta  coffins,  and  a  great  quantity  of  pottery 
of  the  pre-Mycenaean  or  Kamares  type.  We  under- 
stand that  Mr.  Bosanquet's  excavations  this  year 
have  been  even  more  productive  than  those  of  last 
year,  and  his  exploration  of  the  Eteokretan  country 
has  given  us  much  new  information  about  this 
remote  but  interesting  portion  of  the  island.  Two 
or  three  years  ago  Mr.  Bosanquet  discovered  on 
the  site  of  Praesus,  the  ancient  capital  of  the 
Eteokretans,  another  example  of  an  inscription  in 
the  non-Greek  language  of  eastern  Crete.  This 
is  critically  examined  by  Mr.  R.  S.  Conway  in 
this  number  of  the  Annual,  but  we  think  that  his 
attempt  to  prove  that  the  language  is  Indo- 
European  is  unsuccessful.  Kretschmer  has  shown 
that  the  languages  of  southern  Asia  Minor,  of 
which  Lycian  is  the  best  known  example,  were 
not  Indo-European,  and  legend  connects  the  Eteo- 
kretans with  Lycia.  Of  the  Lycian  language  Mr. 
Conway  naively  admits  (p.  156,  note  2)  that  he  has 
no  knowledge,  but  yet  criticises  Kretschmer !  The 
remaining  article  in  the  volume,  which  is  by  Mr. 
Marcus  N.  Tod,  is  of  interest  to  classical  scholars 
only.  The  above  remarks  are  sufficient  to  indicate 
the  interest  and  importance  of  the  new  volume  of  the 
British  School  at  Athens, 


Fig.  2. — Upper  Part  and 
Head  of  a  Mode!  of  an 
Ape  found  at  Mycenae. 


NO.    1765,  VOL.  68] 


THE    MARQUIS    OF    SALISBURY. 

THE  death  of  Lord  Salisbury  has  robbed  us  of  a 
great  statesman.  He  had  been  ill  for  some  weeks 
and  the  peaceful  end  came  during  the  evening  of 
Saturday  last.  At  the  beginning  of  June  of  this  year 
an  attack  of  nephritis,  complicated  with  a  weakness 
of  the  heart,  set  in,  and  from  this  illness  Lord  Salis- 
bury never  recovered.  Since  the  preceding  Wednesday, 
when  his  heart  began  to  fail,  it  was  generally  known 
that  there  was  no  hope,  and  the  quiet,  painless 
passing  came  as  a  fitting  conclusion  to  a  distin- 
guished career,  marked  always  as  it  was  by  a  dignified 
reserve  and  an  unusual  love  for  seclusion. 

Born  in  Hatfield  on  February  3,  1830,  Lord 
Salisbury  died  in  his  seventy-fourth  year.  He  was 
the  direct  lineal  descendant  of  the  great  Lord  Bur- 
leigh, and  was  educated  at  Eton  and  Christ  Church, 
Oxford,  where  he  graduated  in  1850.  The  few  years 
following  his  stay  at  Oxford  were  spent  in  travel,  and 
included  a  somewhat  prolonged  visit  to  Australia  and 
New  Zealand.  During  this  period  he  learnt  from 
personal  experience  the  dangers  and  charms  of  life 
at  cattle  stations  and  at  the  gold  digg'?ttgs.  Return- 
ing in  1853,  he  was  elected  to  an  All  Souls  Fellow- 
ship, but  as  subsequent  events  showed  he  preferred 
the  activity  of  politics  to  the  quietude  of  university 
life.  In  the  autumn  of  the  same  year  he  entered  the 
House  of  Commons  as  Conservative  member  for 
Stamford,  and  for  fifteen  years  he  continued  to  repre- 
sent this  constituency,  until,  in  1868,  on  the  death 
of  his  father,  he  took  his  seat  in  the  House  of  Lords 
as  Marquis  of  Salisbury. 

It  is  unnecessary,  even  if  it  were  appropriate,  to  give 
in  these  columns  an  account  of  the  numerous  in- 
cidents in  the  political  career  of  this  renowned 
statesman.  The  barest  catalogue  of  the  important 
offices  of  State  occupied  by  him  with  consummate 
ability  serves  adequately  to  indicate  how  intimately 
his  life  has  been  intertwined  with  the  history  of  the 
Empire  during  the  latter  half  of  the  nineteenth  cen- 
tury, and  how  large  a  part  the  dead  statesman  has 
taken  in  the  government  of  the  nation.  He  was 
twice  Secretary  for  India  and  President  of  the  Indian 
Council.  In  1876  he  was  special  Ambassador  to  the 
historic  conference  at  Constantinople;  and  in  1878 
Plenipotentiary  at  the  celebrated  Berlin  Conference. 
Four  times  he  was  the  Secretary  of  State  for  Foreign 
Aff'airs,  and  in  this  capacity  more  than  any  other, 
perhaps,  he  inspired  the  complete  confidence  of  his 
countrymen.  In  1886  he  was  First  Lord  of  the 
Treasury,  and  three  times  he  was  called  upon  by  his 
Sovereign  to  form  a  Cabinet.  His  premierships  lasted 
respectively  from    1885-6,    1886-1892,   and   1895-1902. 

But  an  account  of  Lord  Salisbury's  political  career 
gives  no  proper  idea  of  the  versatility  of  his  genius. 
When  a  member  of  the  House  of  Commons  he  was 
actively  engaged  in  journalistic  work,  and  his  con- 
tributions to  the  Saturday  Review,  the  Quarterly 
Review,  and  other  papers  would  have  secured  for  a 
less  gifted  person  a  sufficiently  high  reputation.  To 
men  of  science,  however,  the  most  interesting  recol- 
lection in  connection  with  Lord  Salisbury  is  the  fact 
that  in  1894  he  was  President  of  the  British 
Association,  and  that  throughout  his  political  triumphs 
his  great  pleasure  was,  In  his  leisure  hours  at  Hatfield, 
to  pursue  scientific  researches  in  physics  and 
chemistry. 

In  commenting  on  the  Presidential  Address  delivered 
by  Lord  Salisbury  at  Oxford  in  our  issue  for  August 
9,  1894,  we  remarked  : — "  Many  of  those  who  know 
Lord  Salisbury  only  as  a  politician  and  as  Minister 
for  Foreign  Affairs  will  be  surprised  at  the  wide 
range    of    thought    and    reading    displayed     in     his 


August  27,  1903] 


NATURE 


393 


handling  of  the  diverse  topics  which  he  passes  under 
review."  And  though  Lord  Salisbury  himself  said 
in  that  address,  "  In  presence  of  the  high  priests  of 
science  I  am  only  a  layman,  and  all  the  skill  of  all 
the  chemists  the  Association  contains  will  not  trans- 
mute a  layman  into  any  more  precious  kind  of  metal," 
yet  on  that  occasion  he  proceeded  to  give  in  a  masterly 
fashion  "  a  survey  not  of  our  science  but  of  our 
ignorance."  The  references  to  the  want  of  know- 
ledge of  the  nature  of  the  capricious  differences  which 
separate  the  atoms  from  each  other;  the  description 
of  the  ether  as  "a  half-discovered  entity";  the  ex- 
planation of  the  deep  obscurity  which  at  the  time  of 
the  address  still  enveloped  the  origin  of  the  infinite 
variety  of  life,  and  the  impossibility  of  demonstrating 
the  process  of  natural  selection  in  detail,  combined  to 
make  the  Oxford  British  Association  address  com- 
parable in  importance  with  the  great  controversy  at 
the  same  city  when  the  Association  met  there  thirty- 
four  years  previously. 

The  study  of  science  was  for  many  years  the  solace 
which  Lord  Salisbury  sought  from  the  cares  of  State, 
and  it  is  ,far  from  fanciful  to  suppose  that  these 
investiga,trt9ns  influenced  his  political  outlook  and  con- 
tributed to  his  success  in  meeting  the  difficulties  of 
government.  But  whether  this  is  so  or  not,  there 
can  be  no  doubt  that  Lord  Salisbury's  acquaintance 
with  physical  and  chemical  science  was  of  an  intimate 
nature,  and  added  greatly  to  the  joy  and  comfort  of 
the  short  years  of  his  retirement. 

Lord  Salisbury  held  many  other  appointments  and 
received  numerous  academic  distinctions.  Among 
these  may  be  mentioned  that  from  1869  to  the  time 
of  his  death  he  was  Chancellor  of  the  University  of 
Oxford,  and  his  interest  in  higher  education  was  also 
shown  by  the  fact  of  his  being  a  member  of  the 
Council  of  King's  College,  London.  He  was  a 
Doctor  of  Civil  Law  of  Oxford,  and  a  Doctor  of 
Laws  of  Cambridge  University,  as  well  as  a  Fellow 
of  the  Royal  Society. 

.,  This  brief  notice  of  a  great  career  may  be  fittingly 
closed  with  a  paragraph  from  Dr.  Traill's  mono- 
graph. "  Lord  Salisbury's  record  is  that  of  an 
English  statesman  who,  while  directing  the  affairs 
of  his  country  abroad  with  singular  skill  and  judg- 
ment, has  also  guided  its  domestic  policy  in  the  paths 
of  wisdom  and  equity,  and,  though  loyally  submitting 
to  the  '  will  of  the  majority  '  in  all  things  lawful, 
has  held  it  his  first  duty  to  maintain  the  just  rights 
of  every  class,  however  small  a  minority  it  may  con- 
stitute,  in   the   State." 


PROF.    LUIGI    CREMONA. 

AN  interesting  account  of  the  life  and  work  of  the 
late  Prof.  Cremona,  by  Prof.  Blaserna,  appears 
in  the  Proceedings  of  the  Royal  Society  of  Edinburgh 
(vol.  xxiv.),  an  advance  copy  of  which  has  been  re- 
ceived. By  permission  of  the  general  secretary  of  the 
Society,  we  print  a  free  translation  of  Prof.  Blaserna 's 
contributioq,and  extracts  from  a  note  appended  to  it. 

Prof.  Luigi  Cremona  was  born  at  Pavia  on 
December  7,  1830,  and  studied  there  until  the  year 
1848,  when  he  suspended  his  academic  work  to  join 
the  ranks  of  the  Italian  volunteers,  and  to  take  part  in 
the  heroic  defence  of  Venice  until  the  capitulation  of 
that  famous  town.  He  then  graduated  in  mathe- 
matics at  Pavia,  where  he  had  among  his  teachers 
Francesco  Brioschi,  and  among  his  fellow-students 
Eugenio  Beltrami  and  Felice  Casarati.  Thereafter  he 
taught  in  the  Gymnasium  at  Cremona  and  in  the 
Beccarian  Lyceum  at  Milan. 

NO.   1765,  VOL.  68] 


In  i860  he  was  appointed  to  the  new  chair  of  higher 
geometry  in  the  University  of  Bologna,  then  re-  • 
organised  by  the  Italian  Government,  and  thence  he 
passed,  in  1866,  to  the  Polytechnic  at  Milan.  When, 
after  the  year  1870,  the  Italian  Government  undertook 
the  organisation  of  the  great  University  of  Rome,  with 
its  annexed  engineering  school,  Cremona  was  called, 
in  1873,  to  be  professor  of  higher  geometry  in  the 
university  and  director  of  the  engineering  school, 
which  he  reconstructed  and  established  in  the  old  Con- 
vent of  St.  Pietro  in  Vincoli.  The  duties  of  this 
double  post  he  discharged  with  fidelity  and  distinction 
to  the  last  years  of  his  life.  _         . 

Although  Cremona  had  been  a  pupil  of  Brioschi,  an 
eminent  analyst,  his  predilection  was  always  for  geo- 
metry, in  which  he  may  be  said  to  have  created  a 
classical  school.  His  numerous  publications  refer 
chiefiy  to  the  theory  of  algebraic  curves  and  surfaces. 
All  the  problems  that  arose  in  this  department  of 
mathematics  between  i860  and  1880  attracted  his 
attention,  and  everywhere  he  left  an  indelible  trace  of 
the  depth  and  the  clearness  which  characterised  his 
genius. 

To  general  theory  are  dedicated  the  "  Introduction 
to  a  Geometrical  Theory  of  Plane  Curves  "  (1862)  and 
"  Preliminaries  to  a  Theory  of  Surfaces  "  (1866),  two 
monographs  in  which  he  expounds,  with  originality 
of  view  and  wonderful  unity  of  method,  results  partly 
known  and  partly  new.  He  demonstrated  the  fruit- 
fulness  of  the  theorems  contained  in  the  second  of  these 
memoirs  by  applying  them  to  the  study  of  surfaces  of 
the  third  order,  in  the  "  M^moire  de  G^ometrie  pure 
sur  les  Surfaces  du  troisieme  Ordre,"  which  gained  in 
1886  the  Steiner  prize  of  the  Academy  of  Berlin,  and 
which  will  remain  for  all  time  a  classic  model  of 
geometric  research. 

But  the  originality  of  Cremona  appears  still  more 
distinctly  in  his  study  of  the  transformations  to  which 
his  name  is  now  attached.  Already  in  the  first  half 
of  the  nineteenth  century  a  theory  had  arisen  of  the 
projective  transformations  which  change  the  points 
and  straight  lines  of  one  plane  into  the  points  and 
straight  lines  of  another  plane,  and  side  by  side  with 
these  had  also  been  examined  the  correspondences 
which  transform  straight  lines  into  circles  or  conies. 
But  the  idea  of  treating  from  a  more  general  point  of 
view  the  transformations  which  change  straight  lines 
into  algebraic  curves  of  any  order  n  whatever  belongs 
to  Cremona,  who  established  the  basis  of  this  theory 
in  two  memoirs  (1863-65),  and  afterwards  extended  it 
to  space  of  three  dimensions  (1871-72),  thus  opening 
to  geometers  a  vast  field  of  research,  which  has  not 
been  exhausted  at  the  present  day. 

While,  by  these  works,  of  which  I  have  mentioned 
only  the  most  extensive,  and  by  his  splendid  lectures, 
Cremona  was  firing  the  rising  generation  with  the 
love  of  pure  science,  and  thus  exercising  a  great  in- 
fluence on  original  geometric  research  in  Italy  during 
the  last  thirty  years,  on  the  other  hand  he  was  never 
weary  of  showing  his  interest  in  the  technical  appli- 
cations of  mathematics.  His  little  work  on  "  Reci- 
procal Figures  in  Graphical  Statics  "  is  a  beautiful 
example  of  this  interpenetration  of  pure  and  applied 
science,  an  interpenetration  which  characterises 
another  side  of  his  broad  genius.  Always  pursuing 
this  order  of  ideas,  he  took  assiduous  care  with  his 
engineering  students  in  Rome  to  keep  science  and 
practice  side  by  side,  inciting  them  to  attain  that  just 
balance  of  different  faculties  of  which  he  gave  himself 
so  fine  an  example. 

Besides  all  this,  Luigi  Cremona  was  a  statesman. 
Nominated  a  Senator  of  the  kingdom  in  1879,  he  took 
an  active  part  in  all  the  work  of  the  Senate.  He  was, 
indeed,  one  of  the  most  respected  and  influential  of  the 


394- 


NATURE 


[August  27,  1903 


Senators,  and  his  reports  and  speeches  reveal  a  man  of 
•  frankly  liberal  views  and  of  firm  and  stable  character 
He  was,  for  a  short  time,  Minister  of  Public  Instruc- 
tion in  one  of  the  ministries  of  the  Marchese  di  Rudini. 

The  fame  of  Luigi  Cremona  is  world-wide.  Almost 
all  the  foreign  academies  elected  him  a  fellow.  His 
death  (which  happened  on  June  lo  last)  has  been  a 
loss  not  only  for  Italy,  but  for  science  universal,  in 
which  his  discoveries  will  long  secure  him  a  place  of 
honour. 

In  the  course  of  a  note  appended  to  Prof.,  Blaserna's 
valuable  statement  of  facts  as  to  Cremona's  career, 
Prof.  Chrystal  remarks  : — 

In  the  year  1884,  Cremona,  along  with  Hermite  and 
his  son-in-law  Emile  Picard,  was  my  guest  during 
the  tercentenary  festival  of  the  University  of  Edin- 
burgh. Besides  these  three  distinguished  mathe- 
maticians, the  following  were  present  at  the  festival  : — 
Helmholtz,  Bierens  de  Haan,  Cayley,  Sylvester,  Lord 
Kelvin,  Stokes,  Salmon,  Lord  Rayleigh,  and  Tait. 
The  majority  of  these  dined  one  evening  with  Lord 
M'Laren,  and  it  is  scarcely  probable  that  there  ever 
was  such  a  feast  of  mathematicians  before  or  since. 
Of  this  brilliant  band  of  nineteenth  century  men  of 
science,  there  remain  with  us  now  only  Kelvin,  Ray- 
leigh, and  Picard. 


NOTES. 

The  ninth  International  Geological  Congress  was  opened 
at  Vienna  on  Thursday  last,  when  Dr.  Tietze,  director  of 
the  Imperial  Institute  of  Geology,  was  elected  president. 

A  Reuter  telegram  from  Cape  Town,  states  that  the  Cape 
Legislative  Council  has  agreed  to  a  motion  in  favour  of 
addressing  a  communication  to  the  Imperial  Government  on 
the  subject  of  the  adoption  of  the  metric  system. 

According  to  the  Athenaeum,  a  resolution  was  passed  at 
the  conclusion  of  the  recent  geodetic  congress  at  Amsterdam 
requesting  the  various  nations  to  carry  out  extensive 
measurements  of  gravity  from  the  Atlantic  towards  the 
east  through  the  lowlands  of  Europe  and  Asia,  as  well  as 
in  the  plateau  around  Thibet.  A  clear  conception  of  the 
variations  of  weight  and  of  the  distribution  of  bulk  in  the 
crust  of  the  earth  would  be  gained  thereby  in  connection 
with  astronomical  determinations  of  longitude  and  latitude. 

Science  states  that  the  commission  sent  by  the  U.S. 
Marine  Hospital  Service  to  Vera  Cruz  reports  three  proposi- 
tions as  having  been  demonstrated  beyond  doubt,  namely, 
(i)  that  the  cause  of  yellow  fever  is  an  animal  parasite,  and 
not  a  vegetable  germ  or  bacterium  ;  (2)  that  the  disease  is 
communicated  only  by  the  bite  of  mosquitoes ;  (3)  that  only 
one  genus  of  mosquitoes,  Stegomyia  Fasciata,  is  the  host 
of  the  yellow  fever  parasite. 

The  British  Medical  Journal  states  that  Dr.  S.  R. 
Christophers,  who  was  associated  with  Dr.  Stephens  in  the 
investigation  as  to  malaria  conducted  on  the  west  coast 
of  .A.frica  and  in  the  Indian  cantonments,  has  been  notified 
by  the  Indian  Government  that  the  medical  authorities 
desire  him  to  proceed  at  once  to  India,  with  the  view  of 
his  again  taking  up  special  work  relating  to  malarial  in- 
fection. Dr.  Christophers  is,  it  is  stated,  leaving  almost 
immediately  to  enter  upon  his  duties. 

According  to  a  Stockholm  correspondent  of  the  Times, 
the  Swedish  steamer  Frithjof,  which  on  August  17  started 
from  Stockholm  for  the  relief  of  Dr.  Otto  Nordenskjold's 
South  Polar  Expedition,  will  take  on  board  at  Bremerhaven 
provisions  for  three  years  and  wireless  telegraphy  apparatus. 
NO.    1765,  VOL.  68] 


Such  apparatus  is  also,  it  is  stated,  to  be  fitted  on  board 
the  Argentine  gunboat  Uruguay,  and  it  is  thought  that  this 
vessel,  which  is  iron  built,  will  remain  outside  the  ice 
while  the  Frithjof  will  push  on  as  far  south  as  possible. 
From  Bremerhaven  the  Frithjof  will  go  to  Plymouth  to 
coal,  and  then  via  Madeira  to  Buenos  Ayres,  where  possibly 
an  Argentine  naval  officer  will  join  her.  She  will  then  go 
to  Punta  Arenas,  whence  her  commander  proposes  to  reach 
Snowhill,  the  supposed  winter  station  of  the  Antarctic. 

On  Saturday  last  the  Canadian  Government  steamer 
Neptune  sailed  from  Halifax,  Nova  Scotia,  for  Hudson 
Bay  and  Arctic  waters  on  an  expedition  to  last  a  year  and 
a  half.  The  object  of  the  expedition  is  to  conduct,  on 
behalf  of  the  Government,  a  botanical,  geological,  and 
natural  history  investigation.  The  party  will  take  formal 
possession  of  the  Arctic  Islands  and  the  shore  of  Baffin's 
Bay.  The  commander  of  the  expedition  will  report  on  the 
alleged  extensive  American  poaching  in  the  Hudson  Bay 
fisheries.  The  importance  of  the  cod  and  halibut  fisheries 
will  be  reported  on. 

A  MESSAGE  from  Naples,  dated  August  22,  states  that  the 
explosions  of  Mount  Vesuvius  are  increasing  in  violence, 
and  quantities  of  volcanic  matter  have  been  thrown  to  a 
height  of  about  200  yards.  At  half  past  6  o'clock  of  the 
morning  referred   to,    a  slight   earthquake  shock   was  felt. 

The  arrangements  for  the  eighth  International  Geo- 
graphical Congress,  to  be  held  next  year  at  Washington, 
are,  says  the  Times,  taking  shape  under  the  care  of  a 
committee  representing  the  ten  geographical  societies  and 
mountaineering  clubs  of  the  United  States,  which  have 
united  to  welcome  the  geographers  of  all  nations  to 
American  soil.  The  congress  will  meet  in  Washington  on 
September  8,  1904,  and  will  hold  daily  sessions  on 
September  9,  10,  12,  13,  and  14.  The  subjects  for  treat- 
ment and  discussion  during  the  meeting  at  Washington  are 
classified  under  the  following  heads -.—(i)  Physical  geo- 
graphy, including  geomorphology,  meteorology,  hydrology, 
&c.  ;  (2)  mathematical  geography,  including  geodesy  and 
geophysics ;  (3)  biogeography,  including  botany  and  zoology 
in  their  geographical  aspects;  (4)  anthropogeography,  in- 
cluding ethnology ;  (5)  descriptive  geography,  including 
explorations  and  surveys ;  (6)  geographical  technology,  in- 
cluding cartography,  bibliography,  orthography  of  place- 
names,  &c.  ;  (7)  commercial  and  industrial  geography ;  (8) 
history  of  geography;  (9)  geographical  education.  The 
committee  urges  that  early  notice  be  given  by  those  desirous 
of  presenting  communications  of  'proposing  subjects  for  dis- 
cussion, July  I,  1904,  being  fixed  as  the  latest  date  for  sub- 
mitting communications  designed  for  printing  in  connection 
with  the  congress,  and  August  i  in  the  case  of  abstracts 
(not  exceeding  1000  words  in  length)  designed  for  insertion 
in  the  daily  bulletin. 

An  International  Electrical  Congress  will  be  held  at  St. 
Louis,  Mo.,  from  September  12  to  17  of  next  year.  The 
secti6ns  which  have  been  proposed  for  the  main  body  of  the 
congress  are  : — General  Theory. — Section  A,  mathematical 
and  experimental.  Applications. — Section  B,  general 
applications ;  Section  C,  electrochemistry ;  Section  D, 
electric  power  transmission ;  Section  E,  electric  light  and 
distribution ;  Section  F,  electric  transportation  ;  Section  G, 
electric  communication ;  Section  H,  electrotherapeutics. 
Prof.  Elihu  Thomson  has  been  elected  president  of  the 
committee  of  organisation,  and  the  general  secretary  is  Dr. 
A.  E.  Kennelly,  Harvard  University,  Cambridge,  Mass. 


August  27,  1903] 


NATURE 


395 


.  The  Times  Brussels  correspondent  states  that  the  eleventh 
Interriational  Health  Conference  will  be  held  in  Brussels 
from  September  2  to  8.  One  of  the  leading  questions  for 
discussion  is  whether  the  tuberculosis  bacillus  in  the 
domestic  animal  is  identical  with  that  of  the  human  species. 

In  connection  with  an  exhibition  which  is  to  take  place 
at  Milan  in  1905,  a  national  sanitary  congress  is  to  be 
held.  The  work  of  the  congress  will  be  dealt  with  in  the 
following  sections  : — sanitary  assistance,  public  hygiene, 
clinico-scientific  and  therapeutic,  medical  jurisprudence  and 
accidents  to  workmen,   professional   interests. 

A  GENERAL  exhibition  arranged  by  the  Central  Associ- 
ation of  Inventors,  of  Bayreuth,  for  the  purpose  of 
facilitating  the  sale  of  patents  and  copyrighted  patterns 
is  to  be  held  during  September  and  October  next  at 
Nuremberg.  There  are,  it  is  stated,  more  than  200,000 
copyrighted  patterns  in  Germany  and  more  than  140,000 
patents,  but  one-half  of  these  are  not  in  public  use,  the 
reason  being  that  the  inventors  are  not  able  to  exploit  their 
inventions.  It  was  because  of  this  that  the  Central  Associ- 
ation came  into  being  some  years  ago.  Its  purpose  is  to 
assist  the  members  to  make  their  inventions  profitable  to 
themselves,  the  majority  of  inventors  not  having  the  means 
to  do  so.  The  Association  furnishes  space  to  inventors 
without  means  free  of  cost,  and  charges  no  fees  for  effecting 
a  sale. 

According  to  a  Reuter  telegram  from  Berlin,  a  number 
of  mining  officials  will,  at  the  instance  of  the  Minister  of 
Commerce,  shortly  be  sent  to  this  country  to  make  a 
thorough  study  of  the  hygienic  and  sanitary  arrangements 
in  mining  districts. 

The  Electrician,  quoting  from  the  Western  Electrician 
of  Chicago,  states  that  preliminary  reports  have  been  given 
concerning  wireless  telegraph  experiments  which  have 
been  conducted  on  board  the  training  ships  Prairie  and 
Topeka,  in  conjunction  with  shore  stations,  by  the  Navy 
Department  of  the  United  States  during  the  last  year. 
The  reports  state  that  the  Slaby-Arco  system  is  well  suited 
for  naval  purposes,  and  has  been  adopted  by  the  United 
States  Navy.  It  was  tested  in  competition  with  French, 
German,  and  English  devices,  not,  however,  including  the 
Marconi  system.  Satisfactory  terms,  it  is  stated,  could 
not  be  made  with  Mr.  Marconi  for  the  installation  of  his 
instruments  on  the  war  ships,  and  further  negotiations  were 
discontinued.  Twenty  sets  of  Slaby-Arco  instruments  have 
been  installed  on  eight  war  vessels,  which  used  them  in  the 
fleet  manoeuvres. 

A  TELEGRAM  from  New  York,  through  Laffan's  agency, 
states  that  the  advisory  board  of  the  American  scientific 
expedition  to  Babylon  has  been  compelled  to  abandon  its 
plan  of  extensive  excavations  at  that  place,  preparations  for 
which  have  been  made  during  the  last  three  years.  The 
abandonment  is  due  to  the  persistent  refusal  of  the  Porte 
to  permit  the  American  society  to  carry  on  such  work, 
although  it  has  readily  authorised  excavations  by  other 
nations. 

The  collections  made  by  Mr.  M.  J.  Nicoll,  who  accom- 
panied Lord  Crawford,  as  naturalist,  in  the  R.S.Y. 
Walhalla  during  his  recent  tour  round  the  world,  have 
arrived  at  the  Natural  History  Museum,  South  Kensington, 
and  contain  about  1500  specimens.  The  Walhalla  remained 
so  short  a  time  at  most  of  the  places  where  she  stopped 
that  it  was  not  possible  to  procure  a  large  number  of  ex- 
amples of  terrestrial  animals,  but  about  250  bird-skins  were 
brought  home.     The  principal  collections  were  made  in  the 

NO.    1765,  VOL.   68] 


Magellan  Straits,  at  Valparaiso,  in  the  Samoan  and  Fiji 
groups  of  the  Pacific,  and  in  Torres  Straits.  Mr.  Nicoll  is 
now  engaged  in  arranging  and  naming  the  specimens. 

Several  living  specimens  (three  of  which  have  arrived 
safely)  of  the  wild  guinea-pig  of  Brazil  have,  according  to 
Science,  recently  been  sent  to  the  zoological  laboratory  of 
Harvard  University  by  Mr.  Adolph  Hempe)  for  the  purpose 
of  experimental  studies  in  heredity. 

Dr.  Carroll  gives  an  interesting  risumi  of  our  know- 
ledge of  the  mode  of  transmission  of  yellow  fever  (Journ. 
Amer.  Med.  Assoc,  May  23).  He  points  out  that  the  mos- 
quito theory  has  been  proved  to  be  true,  and  that  the  non- 
communicability  of  the  disease  from  person  to  person,  and 
by  means  of  fomites,  has  been  demonstrated.  Yellow  fever 
has  been  eradicated  from  Havana,  one  of  its  endemic 
homes,  by  the  institution  of  measures  directed  against  the 
mosquito,  after  extreme  cleanliness  and  energetic  disinfec- 
tion had  proved  dismal  failures. 

The  specificity  of  anti-venene,  the  anti-serum  for  snake 
venom,  has  been  a  matter  of  controversy  for  some  years. 
Calmette  originally  asserted  that  anti-venene  was  not 
specific,  that  is,  cobra  anti-venene,  prepared  by  injecting 
an  animal  with  increasing  doses  of  cobra  venom,  though 
most  active  against  cobra  venom,  would  also  antagonise 
other  venoms.  Martin,  and  more  recently  Tidswell,  in 
Australia,  questioned  the  correctness  of  this  view,  and 
Captain  Lamb,  I. M.S.,  has  now  proved  beyond  doubt  that 
anti-venomous  sera  are  just  as  specific  as  any  other  anti- 
sera,  e.g.  diphtheria  or  tetanus  {Sc.  Mem.  of  the  Gov.  of 
India,  New  Series,  No.  5).  He  has  tested  the  neutralising 
properties  of  several  anti-venomous  sera  towards  the  venoms 
of  many  species  of  venomous  snakes,  and  in  no  case  was 
any  neutralising  power  exhibited  by  a  serum  except 
towards  the  venom  with  which  it  had  been  prepared. 

The  annual  report  issued  by  the  superintendent  of  the 
Botanical  Department  in  Trinidad  bears  testimony  to  the 
useful  work  which  is  carried  on  at  the  St.  Clair  experi- 
ment station.  The  Lagos  "  silk  rubber  "  plant  Funtumia 
elastica  continues  to  be  in  demand,  as  the  points  in  its 
favour  are  suitability  to  the  climate,  easy  coagulation,  and 
good  rubber  yield  at  an  early  age.  The  experiments  with 
seedling  sugar-canes  are  unfortunately  limited  by  the  small 
amount  of  space  available  for  growing  plots,  but  the 
demand  for  canes  to  the  full  extent  of  the  available  supply- 
is  a  sufficient  guarantee  of  the  success  of  the  undertaking. 
The  cultivation  of  cotton  in  the  West  Indies  would  be  the 
revival  of  an  old  industry.  Through  the  cooperation  of 
the  Cotton  Growers'  Association,  a  quantity  of  seed  has 
been  provided  for  distribution,  and  prizes  are  offered  for 
the  best  results. 

The  botanical  features  of  that  district  comprised  in  the 
Delta  of  the  Ganges  known  as  the  Sundribuns  are  so 
unique  that  even  after  the  surveys  by  Prof.  Heinig  and 
Mr.  C.  B.  Clarke  there  still  remains  scope  for  the  account 
which  is  presented  by  Dr.  Prain  in  the  Records  of  the 
Botanical  Survey  of  India.  This  includes  the  first  corfiplete 
list  of  plants  gathered  in  the  district,  with  a  guide  to  the 
genera  and  species,  as  well  as  a  summary  of  the  principal 
ecological  associations,  and  observations  on  the  manner  in 
which  they  may  have  originated.  First  in  point  of  interest 
comes  the  mangrove  vegetation,  which  includes  a  hetero- 
geneous collection  of  plants,  many  of  which  are  charac- 
terised by  the  development  of  root  suckers  having  a 
respiratory  function  ;  further,  the  collections  of  plants  found 
at  the  sea  face  and  in  the  clearings  present  problems  in 
connection  with  the  dispersal  of  species. 


396 


NATURE 


[August  27,  1903 


The  causes  of  acceleration  and  retardation  in  the  meta- 
moiphosis  of  Amhlystoma  tigrinum,  the  adult  form  of  the 
Mexican  axolotl,  form  the  subject  of  an  article  by  Mr. 
J.  H.  Powers-  in  the  June  number  of  the  American 
Naturalist.  According  to  the  author,  previous  observers 
have  been  in  error  in  attributing  the  retention  of  the  larval 
form  to  inability  to  leave  an  aquatic  life,  and,  conversely, 
the  early  acquisition  of  the  adult  condition  to  removal  from 
water.  The  real  factor  in  the  case,  he  believes,  is  nutri- 
tion. A  paper  by  Mr.  J.  H.  Lovell,  in  the  same  journal, 
on  the  colours  of  northern  gamopetalous  flowers  and  their 
relations  to  bees  and  other  insects,  contains  much  rriatter 
of  interest  alike  to  the  botanist  and  to  the  entomologist. 
The  sequel  will  be  published  in  a  later  number. 

To  vol.  ii.  No.  5  of  Marine  Investigations  in  South 
Africa,  Dr.  J.  D.  F.  Gilchrist  contributes  some  important 
notes  on  the  development  of  South  African  fishes.  The 
publication  of  these  notes,  which  are  confessedly  crude  and 
imperfect,  would  have  been  deferred  until  fuller  investi- 
gations had  been  undertaken  were  it  not  for  the  circum- 
stance that  they  have  an  important  bearing  on  certain  dis- 
puted points  connected  with  the  Cape  fisheries.  Many  of 
the  fishermen  urge,  for  instance,  that  the  spawn  of  several 
of  the  commoner  food-fishes  is  developed  on  or  near  the 
sea-bottom,  and  is,  in  consequence,  seriously  damaged  by 
trawling.  To  this  the  author  replies  that,  since  in  northern 
waters  it  has  been  demonstrated  that  only  one  valuable  food- 
fish,  the  herring,  has  deep-lying  spawn,  and  since  the  Cape 
seas  are  the  home  of  only  a  small  species  of  herring  of 
little  or  no  commercial  value,  it  is  probable  that  the  damage 
done  by  trawling  in  South  ^rican  waters  has  been  largely 
overestimated. 

A  PRELIMINARY  report  upon  "  Trypanosomiasis  of  Horses 
('  Surra  ')  in  the  Philippine  Islands,"  by  Messrs.  Musgrave 
and  Williamson,  has  been  issued  by  the  Government 
Laboratory,  Manila.  The  disease  seems  to  have  been 
recently  introduced  into  the  Philippines,  for  careful  investi- 
gation has  failed  to  show  any  evidence  that  it  existed  there 
before  May  or  June,  1901.  It  is  transmitted  through  the 
bites  of  insects,  and  until  the  exact  species  are  discriminated, 
for  preventive  measures  all  insects  should  be  considered 
as  carriers  of  the  infection.  In  Manila  a  certain  number 
of  the  rats  have  been  found  to  be  infected  with  the  horse 
trypanosoma.  An  account  is  given  of  the  symptoms  of  the 
disease  and  of  the  preventive  measures  to  be  adopted,  the 
most  important  of  which  is  the  prevention  of  the  access  of 
all  flies  and  insects. 

A  SHORT  time  ago  M.  Blondlot  announced  the  discovery 
of  a  new  form  of  radiation  found  with  Rontgen  rays,  and 
possessing  the  power  of  penetrating  black  paper  and  many 
metals.  The  rays  could  be  reflected  and  refracted  by  quartz 
lenses,  and  were  without  photographic  action;  they  could, 
however,  be  detected  by  their  power  of  increasing  the 
luminosity  of  small  electric  sparks  or  of  a  colourless  "  blue  " 
flame.  The  rays  were  subsequently  shown  by  M.  Blondlot 
to  be  produced  by  an  Auer  burner.  Following  up  his  re- 
searches on  these  n  rays,  M.  Blondlot  has  been  led  to  dis- 
cover some  remarkable  properties  which  they  possess  ;  these 
are  communicated  in  a  recent  number  of  the  Comptes 
rendus.  It  seems  that  the  rays  are  capable  of  increasing 
the  illumination  given  by  an  incandescent  surface  on  which 
they  fall,  and  this  without  any  increase  of  temperature. 
An  experiment  which  seems  conclusive  is  quoted ;  a 
platinum  wire  which  was  heated  to  a  dull  red  was  subjected 
to  the  action  of  the  rays,  and  whenever  these  were  allowed 

NO.   1765,  VOL.  681 


to  fall  on  it  the  incandescence  was  visibly  increased.  An 
auxiliary  electrical  circuit  afforded  a  means  of  measuring 
the  resistance,  and  hence  the  temperature  of  the  wire,  and 
this  showed  that  the  rays  produced  no  increase  in  tempera- 
ture;  an  increase  of  temperature  too  small  to  produce  a 
visible  effect  in  the  incandescence  of  the  wire  was  easily 
detected  by  the  measuring  circuit.  This  result  is  particu- 
larly interesting,  not  only  in  reference  to  the  n  rays  of  M. 
Blondlot,  but  in  reference  to  theories  of  incandescence  and 
light  emission  generally,  as  it  seems  possible  that  these 
rays  may  be  able  to  throw  some  light  on  the  many  difficult 
problems  that  beset  this  subject.  The  remarkable  properties 
that  this  radiation  seems  to  possess  promise  to  make  it  of 
unusual  interest,  and  possibly  also  of  great  utility. 

In  the  Gazette  de  Lausanne,  M.  F.  A.  Forel  directs  atten- 
tion to  what  appears  to  be  a  recurrence  of  the  coloured  circle 
round  the  sun  (Bishop's  Ring),  similar  to  that  which  was 
observed  after  the  Krakatoa  explosion  in  1883.  The  present 
phenomenon  is  paler  than  that  first  described  by  Mr.  Bishop, 
and  is  supposed  to  be  connected  with  the  eruption  of  Mont 
Pel6e  in  May,  1902.  M.  Forel  states  that  if  can  only  be 
seen  at  an  altitude  of  not  less  than  2000  metres ;  it  was 
first  seen  by  him  on  August  i,  and  he  points  out  that  it 
would  be  very  interesting  if  alpine  climbers,  or  balloonists, 
would  state  when  the  ring  was  first  observed  by  them,  and 
whether  its  appearance  is  intermittent  or  continuous. 

A  CORRESPONDENT  of  the  Times  directs  attention  to  a 
supposed  cure  for  the  mysterious  malady  known  as  moun- 
tain sickness.  The  discoverer  of  the  specific  is  a  Russian 
topographer  named  Passtoukhof,  who,  for  some  years  past, 
has  been  making  ascents  in  the  Caucasus,  where  he  has 
climbed  the  Grand  Ararat,  Mount  Kasbek,  and  Mount 
Elbruz.  At  such  high  altitudes  as  these  it  is  easy  to  under- 
stand that  the  question  of  mountain  sickness  becomes  a 
serious  one,  and  on  more  than  one  occasion  M.  Passtoukhof 
has  found  not  only  himself,  but  all  the  other  members  of 
his  expedition,  completely  prostrated  by  it.  On  one  of 
these  occasions  it  occurred  to  him  to  try  the  experiment 
of  lighting  his  spirit  lamp  and  making  some  tea,  which  he 
administered  to  himself  and  his  companions  in  an  almost 
boiling  condition,  with  a  result  that  far  exceeded  his  ex- 
pectations. Almost  immediately  the  more  serious  symptoms 
disappeared,  and  in  a  short  time  all  the  members  of  the 
expedition  found  themselves  well  enough  to  continue  the 
ascent.  Later  on  M.  Passtoukhof  repeated  this  experiment 
of  using  boiling  tea  as  a  remedy  for  mountain  sick- 
ness, with  results  so  invariably  successful  that  he  now  feels 
justified  in  considering  that  it  may  really  be  regarded  as  a 
specific. 

A  CORRESPONDENT  directs  our  attention  to  the  fact  that 
one  feature  of  the  programme  at  present  in  force  at  the 
Alhambra  is  an  exhibition  of  the  microbioscope.  We  are 
glad,  like  our  correspondent,  that  science  is  being  intro- 
duced— even  in  the  form  of  amusement — to  those  who, 
in  ordinary  circumstances,  take  no  interest  in  scientific 
matters,  and  think  with  him  that  more  might  be  done  even 
with  existing  resources  to  bring  a  knowledge  of  the 
advances  of  science  under  the  notice  of  the  people.  "  The 
music  halls  are,"  says  our  correspondent,  "being  in- 
creasingly used  for  good  music ;  why  not  for  good  science  ? 
The  managers  will  put  money  into  it  if  the  public  respond, 
and  no  objection  will  be  made  to  raising  the  tone  of  their 
programmes  if  the  houses  fill.  Those  interested  in  science 
need  not  spend  the  evening  there ;  they  could  go  to  see  just 
what  concerned  them." 


August  27,  1903] 


NATURE 


397- 


The  Engineering  Standards  Committee  has  just  issued 
"  standard  sections  and  specification  "  for  tramway  rails. 
If  the  series  of  rails  be  adopted,  it  should  be  easier  for  the 
British  manufacturer  to  hold  his  own  against  foreign  com- 
petition, which,  in  the  case  of  tramway  rails,  is  particularly 
severe. 

We  have  received  the  first  parts  of  the  monthly  Bulletin 
of  the  Philippine  Weather  Bureau  for  1903,  prepared  under 
the  direction  of  the  Rev.  Jos6  Algu6,  S.J.,  director  of  the 
service.  This  bulletin,  modelled  on  the  plan  of  the  United 
States  meteorological  publications,  contains  valuable 
climatological  observations  and  general  notes  on  the 
weather  and  crops.  The  report  for  1902  contains  an 
interesting  account  of  the  establishment  and  development 
of  the  service  under  the  Spanish  Government,  and  of  its 
reorganisation  and  improvement  under  the  United  States. 
Meteorological  observations  were  begun  in  Manila  in  1865, 
and  after  many  years  of  assiduous  study  of  the  behaviour 
of  the  typhoons  of  the  eastern  seas.  Father  Faura,  the  first 
director  of  the  observatory,  commenced  his  predictions  of 
the  approach  of  typhoons  in  July,  1879.  These  storm 
warnings  have  been  the  means  of  saving  much  life  and 
property,  not  only  in  the  Philippine  Islands,  but  on  the 
Chinese  coasts.  Their  value  is  now  fully  recognised  by 
the  United  States  Government  and  by  the  Colonial 
Secretary  and  Chamber  of  Commerce  of  Hong  Kong.  On 
the  recommendation  of  the  chief  of  the  U.S.  Weather 
Bureau,  a  network  of  subsidiary  stations  has  been  estab- 
lished in  the  archipelago  which  will  doubtless  render  in- 
valuable service  to  our  knowledge  of  the  meteorology  of 
the  Far  East. 

A  PAMPHLET  of  sixty-nine  pages,  extracted  from  the  re- 
port of  the  expedition  of  the  Stella  Polare  in  1899-1900, 
deals  with  the  magnetic  observations  undertaken  in  the 
Bay  of  Teplitz  by  Captain  Umberto  Cagni.  These  observ- 
ations were  reduced  by  Prof.  Luigi  Palazzo,  who  gives  the 
following  results  for  July,  1899,  and  June,  1900  :— Declin- 
ation, 21°  10'  and  21°  18'  east;  inclination,  83°  25'  and 
83°  1-2'  north;  horizontal  intensity,  006846  and  006855; 
vertical  intensity,  0-59319,  055990;  total  force,  0-59713, 
o  56409.  The  principal  instruments  used  were  a  unifilar 
Schneider  magnetometer  and  a  Kew  inclinometer,  but  great 
difficulties  were  experienced  in  making  the  observations ; 
among  other  inconveniences,  snow  was  carried  into  the 
temporary  observatory,  and  succeeded  in  penetrating 
through  every  crack  or  crevice. 

Some  recent  researches  in  the  comparatively  modern  study 
of  experimental  phonetics  are  given  by  Prof.  E.  W. 
Scripture  (Yale)  in  the  Medical  Record  (February  28),  and 
Die  neuern  Sprachen  (January).  In  the  former  paper, 
Prof.  Scripture  describes  the  different  methods  that  have 
been  employed  for  registering  the  sound  curves  of  the 
human  voice.  The  method  preferred  by  the  author  is  to 
obtain  a  gramophone  or  phonograph  record  of  the  voice 
and  to  trace  off  an  enlargement  of  the  fluctuations  either 
by  mechanical  or  by  photographic  methods.  In  the  second 
paper,  Prof.  Scripture  describes  a  complete  record  of  the 
melody  of  the  Lord's  Prayer  as  recited  in  the  style  charac- 
teristic of  the  eastern  part  of  the  United  States.  A  diagram 
is  given  showing  the  main  variations  of  pitch.  An  investi- 
gation in  another  branch  of  physiological  acoustics,  deal- 
ing with  the  audibility  of  vowel  sounds  under  pathological 
tx>nditions,  is  given  by  M.  Marage  in  the  Comptes  rendus 
(February). 

The  additions  to  the  Zoological  Society's  Gardens  during 
the    past    week    include    two    White-crowned    Mangabeys 

NO.    1765,  VOL.  68] 


(Cercocebus  oethiops)  from  West  Africa,  presented  by  Mr. 
C.  R.  Farquharson  ;  an  Ocelot  {Felis  pardalis)  from  Rio  de 
Janeiro,  presented  by  Mr.  John  Gordon  ;  a  Grand  Eclectus 
{Eclectus  roratus)  from  Moluccas,  a  Black-crested  Cardinal 
{Gubertiatrix  cristatella)  from  Paraguay,  a  Red-headed 
Cardinal  {Paroaria  '  larvata),  a  White-throated  Finch 
{Spermophila  lineola)  from  Brazil,  presented  by  the  Right 
Hon.  Earl  of  Crawford,  K.T.  ;  a  Brown-throated  Conure 
{Conurus  oeruginosus)  from  South  America,  presented  by 
Mrs.  M.  Moir-Byres ;  a  Barred  Dove  (Geopelia  striata) 
from  India,  a  West  African  Love-bird  {Agapornis  pullaria) 
from  West  Africa,  presented  by  Sir  Arthur  Bigge,  K.C.B.  ; 
a  Common  Snake  {Tropidonotus  natrix),  British,  presented 
by  Mr.  Oliver  Roberts;  a  Yellow  Baboon  {Papio  cyno- 
cephalus)  from  Africa,  a  Lesser  White-nosed  Monkey 
{Cercopithecus  petaurista)  from  West  Africa,  a  Lion 
Marmoset  {Midas  rosalia)  from  South-east  Brazil,  an 
Echidna  {Echidna  hystrix)  from  New  South  Wales,  two 
Stanley  Parrakeets  {Platycercus  icterotis),  two  Tree 
Sparrows  {Passer  montanus),  three  Limbless  Lizards 
{Pygopus  lepidopus),  a  Muricated  Lizard  {Amphibolurus 
muticatus),  a  Cunningham's  Skihk  {Egernia  cunninghami) 
from  Australia,  a  Lesser  White-fronted  Goose  {Anser 
erythropus),  two  Jackdaws  {Corvus  monedula,  var.),  Euro- 
pean ;  an  American  Glass  Snake  {Ophiosaurus  ventralis), 
a  Hog-nosed  Snake  {Heterodon  platy rhinos),  two  Couch's 
Snakes  {Tropidonotus  ordinatus  couchi)  from  North 
America,  deposited  ;  nine  Summer  Ducks  {Aex  sponsa)  from 
North  America,  purchased. 


OUR  ASTRONOMICAL  COLUMN. 

Astronomical  Occurrences  in  September  :— 
Sept    3.     8h.     Saturn    in   conjunction   with    moon.       Saturn 
5°  26'  S. 
5,     9b.  26m.     Minimum  of  Algol  (/3  Persei). 
7.     5h.     Mercury  at  greatest  eastern  elongation  (27°  o'). 

11.  i8h.     Jupiter  in  opposition  to  the  sun. 

12.  Saturn.     Polar  diameter  =  i6"*3,  outer  minor  axis 

of  outer  ring  =  I4"'39. 
15,     Venus.     Illuminated   portion   of   disc   =0"002;     of 

Mars  =  0-891. 
17.     9h.     Venus  in  inferior  conjunction  with  the  sun. 
>.      I3h.  53m.  to  I4h.  36m.      Moon  occults  o  Cancri 

(mag.  4-3).  .... 

20.  Sun  totally  eclipsed,  invisible  at  Greenwich. 

21.  7h.  13m.  to  loh.  22m.     Transit  of  Jupiter's  Sat.  in. 

(Ganymede). 
23.     i8h.     Sun  enters  Libra.     Autumn  commences. 
25.     iih.  9m.     Minimum  of  Algol  {fi  Persei). 

27.  7h.  55m.  to  lih.  2m.     Transit  of  Jupiter's  Sat.  IV. 

(Callisto). 

28.  7h.  58m.     Minimum  of  Algol  {&  Persei). 

,,      loh.  30m.  to  I3h.  40m.    Transit  of  Jupiter's  Sat.  III. 

(Ganymede). 
30.     I3h.     Saturn  in  conjunction    with   moon.     Saturn 
5°  32'  S. 

New  Table  for  Ex-Meridian  Observations  of  Altitude. 
— In  existing  tables  for  obtaining  the  difference  between 
the  observed  and  meridian  altitudes,  when  determining 
latitude  by  ex-meridian  observations,  one  has  to  refer  to 
two  separate  tables,  using  as  arguments  declination,  hour 
angle  and  approximate  latitude.  To  remedy  this  Mr.  H.  B. 
Goodwin,  R.N.,  has  just  published  a  pamphlet  (Griffin  and 
Co.,  Portsmouth)  showing  how  the  problem  may  be  solved 
by  the  use  of  one  table  only,  which  is  included  in  his 
pamphlet,  using  approximate  latitude  and  azimuth. 

The  principle  on  which  the  method  is  based  is  that  a 
body  near  the  meridian  may  be  regarded  as  changing  its 
altitude  with  a  uniform  rate  of  change,  and  at  any  one 
interval  we  may  take  the  mean  rate  of  change  as  repre- 
sentative, and  obtain  the  **  reduction  "  to  meridian  altitude 
from  the  formula  dz  =  sin  A  cos  l.dh,  where  dz  is  the  change 
of  altitude  and  dh  the  contemporaneous  change  of  hour 


398 


NATURE 


[August  27,  1903 


angle  ;  dz  for  each  half  degree  of  latitude  and  azimuth  is 
given  in  the  table.  All  that  one  has  to  do  to  obtain  the 
"  reduction  "  is  to  take  the  approximate  azimuth  from  any 
azimuth  tables — and  this  has  to  be  done  for  another  part 
of  the  problem— then  take  out  the  rate  of  change,  iz, 
from  the  Goodwin  table  and  multiply- this  by  the  number 
of  minutes  in  the  hour  angle. 

Return  of  Brooks's  Comet. — A  telegram  from  Kiel 
announces  that  Brooks's  comet  was  observed  by  Prof. 
Aitken  at  the  Lick  Observatory  on  August  i8,  and  that 
the  position  of  the  comet  at  i2h.  i7-4m.  (Lick  M.T.)  on 
that  date  was  R.A.=2ih.  2m.  51-35.,  Dec.  =  -27°  4'  19". 
This  position  agrees  closely  with  that  given  by  an 
ephemeris  computed  by  Herr  P.  Neugebauer,  arid  published 
in  No.  3868  of  the  Astronomische  Nachrichtcn.  The  follow- 
ing is  an  extract  from  this  ephemeris  : — 

Ephemetis  izh.  (M.T.  Berlin.) 

1903  True  o  True  S  log  r  log  A 

h.     m.      s.  o        /        // 

Aug.  27  ...  20  56  24-95  ■••  -27    o  30-4  ...  0-3284   ..  0-07060 

,,  29  ...  20  55  12-95  ...  -26  57  6-4 

„  31  ...  20  54  6-78  ...  -26  52  54-0  ...  0-3259  ...  007321 

Sept.  2  ...  20  53  6-98  ..  -26  47  53-8 

„  4  ...  20  52  13-90  ...  -26  42  6-8  ...  0-3234  ...  0-07693 

„  6  ...  20  51  27-98  ...  -26  35  33-6 

„  8  ..   20  5049-45  ...  -26  28  15-2  ...  0-3210  ...  0-08165 

,,  10  ...  20  50  i8-6i  ...  -26  20  12-8 

„  12  ...  20  49  55-67  ...  -26  II  27-7  ...  0-3187  ...  0-08727 

„  14  ...  20  4940-87  ...  -26    2     I'O 

„  16  ...  20  49  34-32  ...  -25  51  53-8  ...  0-3164  ...  0-09369 

„  18  ...  20  493619   ••  -25  41     7'o 

„  20  ...  20  49  46-55  ...  -25  29  41-9  ...  0-3142  ...  0-10081 

According  to  Aitken 's  determination  of  the  comet's  posi- 
tion, as  given  above,  this  ephemeris  needs  a  correction  of 
-f22-58s.  in  R.A.  and  +1'  4i"-2  in  Dec. 

Although  not  a  bright  object,  this  comet  is  of  historical 
interest,  because  when  it  was  first  discovered  by  Brooks, 
in  1889,  it  was  held  to  be  a  good  illustration  of  the  "  capture 
theory  "  of  comets,  and  was  looked  uppn  as  identical  with 
Lexell's  lost  comet  of  1770,  which  had  been  "  captured  " 
by  Jupiter.  This  belief  was,  however,  discountenanced  by 
the  subsequent  researches  of  Dr.  Poor,  of  Baltimore.  In 
1889  Barnard  observed  the  comet  as  double,  and  found  that 
the  two  parts  were  slowly  separating. 

This  comet  has  a  period  of  7096  years,  and  was  duly 
observed  in  1896,  when  it  performed  its  perihelion  passage 
on  November  4.  For  the  present  return  the  comet  takes 
th'='  designation  1903  d. 

Ephemeris  for  Comet  1903  c. — An  ephemeris  for  comet 
1903  c  is  given  in  No.  3890  of  the  Astronomische  Nach- 
fichten  by  Herren  M.  Knapp  and  W.  Dziewulski. 

The  comet  is  now  too  near  the  sun  to  be  observed,  but 
it  will  be  observable  by  astronomers  residing  -  in  the 
southern  hemisphere  after  the  middle  of  September. 

a  Corona  a  SpECTROscopfc  Binary. — Using  the  80cm. 
refractor  and  the  No.  i  spectrograph  of  the  Potsdam 
Observatory,  Prof.  Hartmann  has  determined  that  the 
radial  velocity  of  o  Corona;  Borealis  varies  from  —20km. 
(May  28,  1902)  to  +38km.  (June  3,  1902).  The  observations 
extended  over  the  period  May,  1902-July,  1903,  and  the 
respective  velocities  were  determined  frOm  measurements  of 
th.'  lines  H/3,  H7,  H5,  A  4481  (Mg)  and  \  3934  (Ca).  The 
period  of  the  binary  is  given  as  about  17  days  (Astrono- 
mische Nachrichten,  No.  3890). 

The  Allegheny  Observatory. — In  his  report  for  1902  the 
director.  Prof.  F.  L.  O.  Wadsworth,  laments  the  fact  that 
the  new  observatory  buildings  and  their  equipments  are  not 
yet  completed,  and  especially  urges  the  necessity  for  mount- 
ing and  housing  the  new  30-inch  refractor,  the  discs  "for 
which  have  already  been  received  from  Mantois,  of  Paris ; 
for  this'  purpose  a  fund  of  sixty-five  thousand  dollars  is 
required,  none  of  which  is  yet  subscribed  or  provided  for. 

An  excellent  electrical  equipment  for  lighting  and  heat- 
ing, and -for  all  kinds  of  experimental  work,  has  been 
donated  by  Mr.  Westipghouse. 

An  efficient  time  service  was  maintained  throughout  the 
year  1902  in  spite  of  instrumental,  difficulties.  General 
observational  work  has  had   to  be   suspended   pending   the 

NO.   1765,  VOL.  68] 


removal  to  the  new  observatory.  A  large  number  of  niathe- 
matical  researches  have  already  been  carried  out,  and  others 
are  suggested  for  future  attention,  by  the  director. 

The  latter  part  of  the  report  is  devoted  to  an  outline  of 
the  work  it  is  proposed  to  do  when  the  new  observatory  is 
in  full  swing ;  this  work  includes  exhaustive  daily  observ- 
ations of  all  the  solar  phenomena  and  seismographic, 
gravitational,  and  magnetic  observations. 


THE   RELATIONS    BETWEEN   SCIENTIFIC 
RESEARCH    AND    CHEMICAL    INDUSTRY.' 

THE  particular  branch  of  science  with  which  I  have  been 
asked  to  deal  at  this  meeting  of  university  extension 
students — viz.  chemistry — is  perhaps  better  calculated  to 
illustrate  the  intimate  connection  between  scientific  research 
and  productive  industry  than  any  other  subject.  I 
emphasise  the  term  productive  industry  because 'it  is  desir- 
able to  distinguish  between  productiveness  and  trade,  i.e. 
buying  and  selling.  With  the  latter  I  have  nothing  to  do 
beyond  pointing  out  the  very  obvious  principle  that,  with- 
out something  to  buy  or  sell,  there  would  be  no  commerce, 
and  consequently  productive  industry  must  be  put  into  the 
first  rank.  Now  chemical  products  of  various  kinds  are 
absolutely  indispensable  to  all  civilised  nations.  You  may 
remember  that  many  years  ago  Lord  Beaconsfield  said  that 
the  state  of  trade  could  be  gauged  by  the  price  of  chemicals. 
A  writer  in  the  North  American  Review  in  1899  published 
an  article  in  which  he  laid  it  down  that  the  nation  which 
possessed  the  best  chemists  was  bound  to  come  to  the  fore- 
front in  the  struggle  for  industrial  supremacy.  Of  course, 
"  there  is  nothing  like  leather,"  and  I  am  bound  to  agree 
with  him.  Had  he  been  an  engineer  or  an  electrician  he 
might  perhaps  have  said  the  same  for  mechanical  or 
electrical  engineering.  At  any  rate,  it  is  perfectly  safe  to 
generalise  his  statement,  and  to  declare  that  the  nation 
which  possesses  the  most  highly  trained  technologists  is 
bound  to  take  the  lead. 

In  so  many  ways  does  chemistry  come  into  contact 
with  nearly  every  branch  of  industry  that  it  is 
difficult  to  know  where  to  draw  the  line  in  giving  actual 
illustrations  of  the  industrial  results  achieved  through 
chemical  research.  It  is  not  possible  logically,  for  ex- 
ample, to  distinguish  between  the  results  obtained  through 
research  directed  towards  the  solution  of  a  particular  in- 
dustrial problem  and  the  results  obtained  as  by-products 
in  the  course  of  purely  scientific  investigation.  Industry 
has  been  advanced,  and  always  will  be  advanced,  by  both 
methods.  Bearing  in  mind  also  that  chemistry,  in  its 
widest  sense,  is  essentially  the  science  of  matter — at  any 
rate  until  the  physicist  has  electrified  matter  into  his  own 
domain — it  is  evident  that  we  are  concerned  not  only  with 
the  production  of  useful  materials  for  direct  consumption, 
but  also  with  the  production  of  materials  required  in  other 
industries.  Thus  chemistry  affects  engineers  through  the 
m.etals,  cements,  and  other  materials  used  for  constructive 
purposes,  and  through  the  fuels  used  as  sources  of  energy  ; 
it  affects  the  agriculturist  on  account  of  the  relationship 
between  the  growing  plant  and  the  composition  of  the  soil, 
as  well  as  through  the  relationship  between  the  composi- 
tion of  crops  and  their  value  as  food-stuffs ;  it  supplies 
materials  for  the  pharmacist,  for  the  manufacture  of 
pottery,  glass  and  soap,  for  the  paper  maker,  for  the  dyer 
and  colour-printer,  for  the  bleacher,  tanner,  brewer  and 
spirit  distiller  ;  it  furnishes  the  explosives  used  in  modern 
warfare,  and  it  supplies  photography  with  all  the  materials 
necessary  for  the  practise  of  that  art.  Among  later  develop- 
ments it  may  be  claimed  that  the  modern  science  of  bacteri- 
ology is  the  outcome  of  chemical  research,  and  the  manu- 
facture of  anfi-toxins — the  industrial  result  of  this  science — 
has  until  quite  recently  been  in  the  hands  of  the  chemical 
manufacturers.  I  may  remind  you  also  that  many  im- 
portant products  such  as  sodium,  aluminium,  phosphorus, 
calcium,  carbide,  caustic  soda,  and  chlorine  are  manu- 
factured by  electrical  processes,  so  that  the  demand  for 
these  products  has  given  an  impetus  to  the  development  of 
applied  electricity. 

1  A  Lecture  delivered  at  the  University  Extension  Meeting  at  Oxford  oh 
August  3,  by  Prof.  Raphael  Meldola  F  R.S. 


August  27,  1903] 


NATURE. 


399 


It  is  obviously  impossible  in  view  of  the  enormous  range 
of  industry  in  which  chemistry  is  directly  or  indirectly  con- 
cerned to  do  more  on  the  present  occasion  than  take  a 
cursory  glance  at  a  few  of  the  more  striking  cases  illustra- 
tive of  the  connection  between  research  and  industry.  As 
.1:1  example  of  the  creation  of  an  industry  through  research 
directed  towards  a  special  end,  attention  may  be  directed 
to  the  manufacture  of  optical  and  other  glass  at  Jena.  The 
liistory  of  this  branch  of  manufacture,  and  the  results 
achieved,  have  been  fully  described  by  Dr.  Hovestadt  in 
a  work  published  three  years  ago,  and  of  which  a  transla- 
tion, by  Prof,  and  Miss  Everett,  has  been  recently  pub- 
lished in  this  country.  I  must  refer  you  to  this  work  for 
full  particulars.  The  physical  requirements  to  be  complied 
with  in  order  to  produce  the  most  perfect  glass  for  the 
construction  of  lenses  for  optical  instruments  had  long  been 
known,  and  many  attempts  had  been  made  to  realise  these 
conditions  in  practice.  A  visit  to  the  international  ex- 
hibition of  scientific  apparatus  in  London  in  1876  led  Prof. 
Abbe  to  direct  attention  once  again  to  the  fact  that  the 
future  perfection  of  the  microscope  lay  with  the  glass- 
maker,  and  in  1881  he,  in  conjunction  with  Schott,  com- 
menced a  set  of  experiments  having  for  their  object  the 
production  of  a  series  of  glasses  of  known  composition,  the 
optical  properties  of  which  were  concurrently  determined 
by  measurements  made  by  Prof.  Abbe.  The  experimental 
meltings  were  enlarged  in  scale  the  following  year,  and  an 
experimental  laboratory  established  for  the  continuation  of 
th-i  work  at  Jena.  A  chemist  was  added  to  the  staff,  and 
thus  there  were  cooperating  in  this  industrial  research  a 
glassmaker,  a  chemist,  and  a  physicist.  Before  the  end  of 
.1883  the  results  had  been  so  far  successful  that  the  Jena 
laboratory  was  in  a  position  to  make  known  to  the  world 
the  processes  for  the  "  rational  manufacture  of  optical 
glass."  At  this  stage  the  experimenters  were  persuaded  to 
put  the  results  of  their  labour  into  practice,  and  the  instru- 
ment makers,  Messrs.  Zeiss,  having  joined  in,  the  Jena 
glass  factory  for  producing  optical  glass  on  the  commercial 
scale  was  established  towards  the  end  of  1884.  In  the  first 
catalogue  published  by  the  Jena  Works  in  1886,  we  are  told 
that  forty-four  optical  glasses,  nineteen  being  new  in  com- 
position, were  included.  By  1888  ■  the  undertaking  had 
been  so  successful  that  a  supplementary  catalogue  was 
issued  containing  twenty-four  additional  glasses,  of  which 
thirteen  were  new,  and  in  1892  a  second  supplement 
announced  the  manufacture  of  eight  more  kinds  of  glass,  of 
which  six  were  new.  Consider  what  this  piece  of  work, 
prompted  by  science,  fostered  by  the  State,  and  carried  out 
by  a  university  professor  in  conjunction  with  a  technologist 
has  done  for  German  industry.  In  the  early  stages  of  the 
experiments,  before  Commercial  results  had  been  obtained, 
the  experimenters  were  subsidised  by  the  Prussian  Educa- 
tion Department  and  by  the  Prussian"  Diet  with  a  wise  fore- 
thought which  subsequent  events  have  amply  justified. 
Need  I  remind  those  who  have  come  here  to  hear  about 
bacteriology  from  Prof.  Sims  Woodhead  how  that  science 
has  advanced  pari  passu  with  the  perfecting  of  the  micro- 
scopic objective?  The  Zeiss  instruments  are  now  world- 
renowned,  for  it  is  obvious  that  a  command  over  the  pro- 
cesses for  making  glass  with  any  particular  optical  proper- 
ties that  might  be  desired  would  enable  the  instrument 
maker  to  produce  lenses  suitable  for. other  purposes,  such 
as  telescopes,  field-glasses,  photographic  cameras,  &c.  I 
am  afraid  to  dwell  too  much  upon  the  perfection  of  the 
lenses  of  the  Jena  instruments  because  I  lav  myself  open 
to  the  charge  of  holding  a  brief  for  a  particular  firm.  If 
you  want  to  know  more  fully  what  this  optical  glass  in- 
dustry has  done  for  Germany,  I  refer  you  to  the  report 
on  instruments  of  precision  published  in  connection  with 
the  German  exhibit  at  the  Paris  International  Exhibition 
of  iqoo.  As  a  further  outcome  the  study  of  the  properties 
of  glasses  of  known  composition  in  connection  with  their 
thermal  and  electrical  behaviour  has  led  to  the  manufacture 
of  glass  especiallv  suitable  for  making  thermometers,  as 
also  for  electrical  insulation,  for  the  construction  of  the 
vacuum  tubes  used  for  producing  Rontgen  rays,  and  for 
the  vessels  employed  in  chemical  laboratories.  In  brief, 
the  manufacture  of  the  finer  kinds  of  glass  has  been  placed 
upon  a  strictly  scientific  footing  as  the  outcome  of  scientific 
research. 

NO.    1765,  VOL.  68] 


The  next  illustration,  which  I  propose  to  make  use  of 
refers  to  the  applications  of  chemistry  to  agriculture.  The 
growing  plant,  as  you  are  aware,  requires  food  for  its 
growth  just  as  much  as  the  growing  animal.  Take  an 
extreme  case,  and  consider  the  size  and  weight  of  an  oak 
tree  as  compared  with  the  acorn  from  which  it  arose.  This 
enormous  accumulation  of  matter  represents  the  assimilation 
of  gaseous  food  in  the  form  of  carbon  dioxide  from  the  air 
through  the  leaves,  and  of  water  and  nitrogenous  and  other 
mineral  matter  through  the  roots.  It  was  the  great 
German  chemist  Liebig  who  first  established  this  broad 
principle  of  plant  growth, by  systematic  experiments  upon 
various  crops,  and  his  results  were  given  to  the  world  ii. 
a  work  published  in  1840,  the  English  edition,  edited  by 
Lyoti  Playfair  (afterwards  Lord  Playfair),  bearing  the  title 
"  Organic  Chemistry  in  its  Applications  to  Agriculture  and 
Physiology."  Perhaps  few  students  consult  this  work  now, 
but  it  was,  strictly  speaking,  epoch-making  on  its  appear- 
ance, because  it  brought  the  chemist  into  direct  relationship 
with  the  farmer,  and  the  consequence  has  been  an  enormous 
increase  in  the  food-raising  capacity  of  the  soil.  It  is  not 
necessary  to  inquire  closely  here  into  the  motives  that 
prompted  Liebig's  investigations — whether  his  work  comes 
under  the  category  of  scientific  researches  directed  towards 
a  practical  end,  or  whether  he  begaii  with  a  desire  of 
ascertaining  abstract  truth  in  the  first  place,  and  then  found 
that  his  results  were  capable  of  practical  application.  It 
is  quite  immaterial  from  the  present  point  of  view  how  this 
work  originated,  because  we  are  considering  only  the  bear- 
ing of  the  results  .upon  industry.  It  is  evident  that  if  a 
growing  plant  requires  certain  elements,  such  as  potassium, 
sodium,  phosphorus,  nitrogen,  calcium,  magnesium, 
sulphur,  chlorine,  iron,  &c.,  and.  if  the  soil  by  previous  crops 
has  been  ex,hausted  of  some  of  these  elements,  it  will  not 
b.3  possible  to  raise  subsequent  crops  on  this  impoverished 
soil  unless  the  necessary  elements  are  supplied.  In  other 
words,  the  requisite  elements  must  be  added,  and  added 
in  the  form  of  compounds'  which  the  plant  can  make  use 
of.  Thus  the  great  industry  of  crop-raising,  and  as  con- 
nected therewith  the  feeding  of  farm  stock,  was  shown 
to  depend  ultimately  upon  the  chemical  composition  of  the 
soil,  and  the  manufacture  of  artificial  manures  or  fertilisers 
has  been  the  practical  outcome  of  Liebig's  researches. 

Let  us  consider,  further,  the  industrial  results  so  far  as 
these  have  influenced  chemical  manufactures.  Prof. 
Warington  can  tell  you  all  about  the  agricultural  results. 
The  elements  which  are  most  likely  to  fail,  and  which,  in 
fact,  have  generally  to  be  supplied,  are  potassium,  phos- 
phorus and  nitrogen,  excepting,  of  course,  in  the  case  of 
those  particular  leguminous  plants  which  have  developed  a 
special  means  of  fixing  atmospheric  nitrogen.  Chemistry 
having  thus  been  called  upon  to  supply  the  agriculturist 
with  compounds  containing  potassium,  -  phosphorus  and 
nitrogen,  the  first  development  which  may  be  ascribed  to 
Liebig's  influence  is  the  Stassfurt  salt  industry  in  Prussia, 
where  immense  deposits  of  salts  containing  potassium  were 
known  to  exist.  Similar  deposits  are  found  in  Anhalt. 
The  mining  of  these  salts  was  commenced  in  i860,  and 
has  proved  an  immense  source  of  Wealth  to  Germany,  the 
total  value  of  the  Stassfurt  and  Anhalt  salts  produced  down 
to  1890  being  estimated  at  11,500,000!.,  and  since  that  time 
the  output  has  gone  on  increasing  from  year  to  year.  It 
is  not  necessary  to  weary  you  with  statistics,  but  it  is  im- 
portant to  note  how  the  demand  for  potassium  salts  for 
agricultural  purposes  has  given  rise  to  a  great  industry, 
for  the  natural  salts,  consisting  chiefly  of  carnallite,  a 
double  chloride  of  potassium  and  magnesium  and  kainite, 
a  double  sulphate  of  potassium  and  magnesium  with  mag- 
nesium chloride,  have  to  be  submitted  to  various  processes 
in  order  to  separate  the  constituents,  and  the  Stassfurt  salt 
factories  are  now  supplying  Germany,  as  well  as  exporting 
laige  quantities  of  potassium  chloride  and  sulphate,  mag- 
nesium chloride  and  sulphate,  potassium  carbonate,  caustic 
potash,  &c. 

In  a  similar  way  the  demand  for  phosphates  has  given 
t  ise  to  the  utilisation  of  every  available  source  of  these  com- 
pounds. Calcium  phosphate  is  found  as  the  mineral 
apatite,  a  double  calcium  phosphate  and  chloride  or  fluoride 
occurring  in  vast  deposits  in  America,  and  also  in  a  less 
definite  ^orm  in  Canada,  the  West  Indies,  France,  Belgium^ 


400 


NATURE 


[August  27,  1903 


and  Germany.  In  this  country  calcium  phosphate  occurs 
in  the  form  of  coprolites,  supposed  to  be  the  excreta  of 
extinct  saurians,  in  Cambridgeshire  and  elsewhere.  All 
these  natural  phosphatic  mineral  deposits  are  mined,  and 
have  become  valuable  assets  to  the  countries  possessing 
them.  The  conversion  of  the  minerals  into  a  form  suitable 
for  the  nutrition  of  crops  is  a  branch  of  chemical  industry  in- 
volving the  use  of  sulphuric  acid  for  the  conversion  of  the 
natural  phosphate  into  the  more  easily  assimilable  form 
known  as  superphosphate.  The  greater  part  of  the  world's 
output  of  natural  phosphates  finds  its  way  to  Germany 
to  undergo  this  treatment,  the  annual  consumption 
of  artificial  manure  in  that  country  being  estimated 
at  something  more  than  two  million  tons  at  a  cost 
of  about  5,ooo,oooZ.  The  mineral  portion  of  the  bones 
of  animals,  as  you  are  no  doubt  aware,  also  consists 
largely  of  calcium  phosphate,  and  before  the  mining  of 
the  mineral  phosphates  the  conversion  of  bone  ash  into 
superphosphate  was  carried  on  on  a  very  large  scale.  Bone 
ash  is  supplied  now  in  large  quantities  from  South  America, 
but  not  much  is  converted  into  superphosphate,  as  the 
bones,  after  removal  of  the  fat  and  the  size  (for  glue),  are 
capable  of  being  finely  ground,  and  are  available  for  manure 
in  this  form. 

Here  is  surely  a  romance  of  chemistry  !  The  phosphates 
contained  in  the  vegetation  of  the  South  American  pampas 
go  to  build  up  the  bony  framework  of  the  cattle  which 
graze  thereon.  The  skeletons  of  these  beasts  ultimately 
supply,  let  us  say,  the  growing  crop  of  a  beet  sugar  manu- 
facturer in  Germany  with  phosphates.  The  phosphates 
picked  out  of  the  soil  by  South  American  vegetation  con- 
centrate in  the  bones  of  cattle,  and  are  then  sent  into 
circulation  in  German  beet.  Or,  even  more  striking,  the 
phosphates  accumulated  by  the  great  lizards  of  a  remote 
geological  age  are  now  circulating  through  growing  crops. 
This  circulation  of  matter  through  the  intervention  of  the 
living  organism  is  an  every-day  story  to  the  chemist.  To 
our  greatest  poet    apparently    it  was  also  known  : — 

"  Imperious  Csesar,  dead  and  turn'd  to  clay, 
Might  stop  a  hole  to  keep  the  wind  away: 
O,  that  that  earth  which  kept  the  world  in  awe, 
Should  patch  a  wall  to  expel  the  winter's  flaw  ! " 

But  we  must  descend  from  romance  to  reality.  The  de- 
posits of  sea  birds  also  contain  phosphates  derived  from 
thf!  fish  upon  which  they  feed,  and  these  deposits  often 
accumulate  in  such  large  quantities  as  to  make  them  avail- 
able for  agricultural  purposes.  Under  the  name  of  guano, 
immense  quantities  of  this  material,  which  contains  both 
phosphates  and  nitrogenous  matter,  are  exported  from  Peru. 
There  is  subject-matter  for  philosophising  here,  also,  about 
the  circulation  of  phosphates  from  marine  organisms 
through  birds  into  growing  crops,  and  so  forth,  but  time 
will  not  admit  of  many  side  disquisitions  if  I  am  to  keep 
to  my  text.  As  another  source  of  phosphate,  it  is  of  interest 
to  know  that  the  basic  slag  obtained  in  the  Thomas- 
Gilchrist  process  of  making  steel  is  now  largely  used,  so 
that  the  work  set  going  by  Liebig  has,  among  its  latest 
developments,  led  to  the  utilisation  of  a  waste  product  of 
the  steel  industry. 

Excepting  in  the  case  of  leguminous  plants,  which  are 
capable  of  utilising  atmospheric  nitrogen  by  a  process  which 
it  does  not  come  within  my  province  to  explain,  the  ordinary 
source  of  nitrogen  for  growing  plants  is  a  soluble  nitrate, 
and  if  the  soil  is  poor  in  such  salts,  they  must  be  supplied 
either  directly  or  indirectly  through  salts  of  ammonia, 
which  are  converted  into  nitrates  in  the  soil  bv  bacterial 
action  in  a  way  that  nobody  is  better  able  to  explain  to  you 
than  Prof.  Warington.  The  great  natural  deposits  of 
sodium  nitrate  which  occur  in  Chile  and  Peru  supply  prac- 
tically all  the  nitrogen  applied  to  the  soil  in  this  form  for 
fertilising  purposes.  With  respect  to  ammonia,  the  de- 
structive distillation  of  coal  for  the  manufacture  of  gas  and 
tar  products,  or  for  the  production  of  coke,  furnishes  prac- 
tically all  the  salts  of  this  base  required  for  agricultural 
and  other  purposes.  The  vital  importance  of  assimilable 
nitrogen  to  growing  crops  has  led  the  chemist  also  to  study 
methods  for  the  fixation  of  atmospheric  nitrogen  so  as 
to  rendeV  this  element  available  for  such  purposes.  It  has 
long  been  known  that  nitrogen  and  oxygen  can  be  made  to 
combine  under  the  influence   of  the  electric   spark.     This, 


as  you  may  remember,  is  one  of  the  methods  used  by 
Cavendish  in  his  classical  researches  on  the  composition 
of  the  air,  and  it  was  used  also  by  Lord  Rayleigh  to  separate 
atmospheric  nitrogen  from  argon.  Sir  William  Crookes 
has  shown  that  the  combustion  can  be  brought  about  by 
the  electric  flame  with  such  facility  as  to  render  the  pro- 
duction of  nitrite  and  nitrate  by  this  process  an  industrial 
possibility,  and  the  manufacture  has  actually  been  started 
in  America  by  utilising  the  Falls  of  Niagara  for  the  gener- 
ation of  the  necessary  electric  power.  Still  more  recently 
it  has  been  found  by  Caro  and  Frank  that  when  lime  and 
coal  are  heated  in  the  electric  furnace,  the  calcium  carbide 
fixes  atmospheric  nitrogen  to  form  a  compound  known  as 
calcium  cyanamide,  and  this  decomposes  in  the  soil  with 
the  liberation  of  ammonia,  so  that  the  nitrogen  of  the  air 
is  thus  rendered  available  for  plant  nutrition  by  an  electro- 
chemical process.  The  manufacture  of  this  "  Kalkstick- 
stoff  "  is  in  the  hands  of  the  electrical  engineering  firm  of 
Siemens  and  Halske,  in  Berlin. 

There  has  been  no  straining  of  facts  on  my  part  in  this 
sketch — necessarily  brief — of  the  industrial  results  of 
Liebig's  work.  The  establishment  of  the  fundamental 
truths  was  a  piece  of  pure  scientific  research.  Had  it  not 
been  made  known  by  the  irrefragable  proofs  furnished  by 
scientific  method  that  such  and  such  elements  were  essential 
for  plant  growth,  the  mineral  resources  of  the  earth  would 
have  remained  unused  for  this  purpose.  The  minute  per- 
centage of  nitrogen  locked  up  in  the  fossilised  vegetation 
of  the  Carboniferous  period  would  never  have  been  isolated 
in  the  form  of  ammonia  and  applied  to  the  soil  for  the 
nourishment  of  the  crops  raised  by  the  present  day  agri- 
culturist. The  successful  cultivation  of  the  beet  as  a 
source  of  sugar  has  been  made  possible  by  this  knowledge, 
and  it  may  be  of  interest  to  add  that  the  further  scientific 
study  of  the  cultivation  of  that  root  in  Germany  has  led 
to  the  yield  of  sugar  being  increased  from  5J  to  13  per  cent, 
during  the  period  commencing  about  the  year  1840  and 
ending  at  the  present  time.  The  economic  result  of  this 
industry  upon  our  own  sugar-growing  colonies  is  a  fiscal 
question  which  does  not  come  within  the  province  of  this 
address. 

Equally  instructive  as  illustrating  the  connection  between 
scientific  research  and  industry  is  the  production  of  alcohol 
and  other  valuable  products  through  the  agency  of  living 
organisms.  The  spontaneous  conversion  of  saccharine 
solutions,  such  as  the  juice  of  the  grape,  into  solutions  con- 
taining  alcohol,  with  the  concurrent  development  of  gaseous 
carbon  dioxide,  is  among  the  earliest  recorded  observations 
in  applied  organic  chemistry.  The  various  theories  which 
were  from  time  to  time  advanced  to  explain  what  is  called 
"  fermentation  "  are  now  of  historical  interest  only.  It  is 
to  the  researches  of  Pasteur  that  we  are  indebted  for  the 
placing  of  the  fermentation  industries  on  a  scientific  found- 
ation. This  illustrious  chemist,  who  as  far  back  as  1860-62 
had  successfully  disproved  the  so-called  "  spontaneous 
generation  "  by  showing  that  the  ordinary  air  was  always 
charged  with  living  germs,  turned  his  attention  to  the 
diseases  of  wine,  with  the  object  of  assisting  an  industry 
of  great  national  importance  in  France.  His  "  Etudes 
sur  le  Vin  "  was  published  in  1872.  A  greater  work — the 
great  classic  of  the  science  of  fermentation — appeared  in 
187G  under  the  title  "  Etudes  sur  la  Bi^re."  In  this  work 
it  was  definitely  proved  that  the  transformation  of  sugar 
into  alcohol  is  a  biochemical  change  ;  that  the  yeast  which 
produces  this  change,  and  of  which  the  organised  nature 
had  long  previously  been  suspected,  is,  in  fact,  a  low  form 
of  vegetable  life  allied  to  the  fungi,  and  that  it  multiplies 
and  grows  at  the  expense  of  the  sugar  and  other  materials 
contained  in  the  fermenting  liquid,  the  alcohol  and  carbon 
dioxide  being  the  products  of  its  activity.  It  is  now  known, 
through  the  work  of  Buchner,  that  this  chemical  trans- 
formation of  sugar  into  carbon  dioxide  and  alcohol  is  the 
result  of  interaction  between  the  sugar  and  a  certain  definite 
substance — an  unorganised  ferment — which  is  formed  by 
the  living  yeast  cell,  and  which  can  do  its  work  indepen- 
dently of  the  cell  in  which  it  originated. 

The  scientific  development  of  the  fermentation  industries 
followed  from  this  and  other  work  of  Pasteur's.  The 
names  of  those  who  have  taken  part  in  these  later  develop- 
ments are  numerous  and  illustrious,  but  want  of  time  pro- 
hibits  a  detailed   survey   of   this  most   fascinating  chapter 


NO.   1765,  VOL.  68] 


August  27,  1903] 


NATURE 


401 


of  biochemistry.  The  leading  idea  that  the  formation  of 
alcohol  is  a  biochemical  process  depending  upon  certain 
organisms,  or,  as  we  may  now  say,  upon  the  products  of 
certain  organisms,  carries  with  it,  as  a  necessary  conse- 
quence, the  conclusion  that  the  industrial  production  of 
alcohol — whether  for  brewing  or  spirit  distilling,  or  for 
the  chemical  manufacturer — is  not  an  empirical  or  rule-of- 
thumb  operation  depending  upon  unknown  conditions,  but 
a  definite  chemical  change  produced  in  a  definite  way  by 
a  definite  organism  (yeast),  and  just  as  much  under  control 
as  any  other  chemical  operation.  The  chemist  and  the 
brewer  have  thus  also  been  brought  into  association.  The 
recognition  that  definite  chemical  transformations  can  be 
effected  by  microscopic  forms  of  life  which  resulted  from 
Pasteur's  studies  in  wine  and  beer  has  had  such  far-reaching 
consequences  that  it  is  impossible  to  overestimate  the  im- 
portance of  this  work  for  the  well-being  of  humanity.  I 
should  be  encroaching  upon  the  domain  of  Prof.  Sims  Wood- 
head  were  I  to  do  more  than  remind  you  of  the  growth  of 
that  modern  science — the  most  humanitarian  of  all  the 
sciences — bacteriology,  out  of  this  fundamental  conception. 
Keeping  to  the  main  topic  of  industrial  results,  one  outcome 
has  been,  as  I  have  said,  to  bring  the  operations  of  the 
brewer  under  scientific  control.  The  organism,  the  yeast 
introduced  into  the  vat  to  induce  fermentation,  must  under- 
go careful  microscopic  e.xamination  to  see  that  it  contains 
no  deleterious  organisms,  i.e.  no  organisms  which  would 
give  rise  to  products  other  than  alcohol.  The  water  used 
by  the  brewer  must  be  analysed  to  ascertain  whether  it 
contains  the  necessary  mineral  constituents  for  the  nourish- 
ment of  the  yeast,  because  this  plant  is  subject  to  the  same 
conditions  of  growth  as  any  other  plant.  Instead  of  obtain- 
ing its  carbon  from  carbon  dioxide,  however,  it  can  utilise 
sugar  for  this  purpose,  and  it  decomposes  the  sugar  into 
carbon  dioxide  and  alcohol  in  the  way  indicated. 

The  recognition  of  yeast  as  a  vital  chemical  reagent 
which  is  apt  to  contain  impurities  in  the  form  of  wild  or 
stray  organisms  which  may  damage  the  contents  of  the 
brewing  vat,  has  led  further  to  the  introduction  of  the 
process  of  brewing  by  what  is  known  as  "  pure  culture 
yeast."  This  industry,  of  which  the  home  is  chiefly  on 
the  Continent,  depends  on  the  use  of  a  yeast  cultivated 
in  the  first  place  from  a  single  cell  of  some  particular 
*t)l?cies  or  variety  or  race  by  methods  similar  in  principle 
to  those  adopted  by  the  bacteriologist,  the  cultivation  being 
carried  on  from  generation  to  generation  in  carefully  pre- 
paired  solutions  containing  the  necessary  nutrient  materials, 
sugar,  nitrogenous  matter,  mineral  salts,  &c.,  and  previously 
sterilised  by  heat  so  as  to  destroy  every  other  form  of  life. 
The  brewer  can  now  be  supplied,' as  the  outcome  of  a  series 
of  brilliant  investigations  by  Hansen,  of  Copenhagen,  to 
whom  he  is  indebted  for  this  purification  of  the  biological 
foundation  of  his  industry,  with  a  cultivated  yeast  as  pure 
in  strain  as  a  pedigree  horse  or  a  particular  breed  of  dog 
—a  yeast  which,  by  virtue  of  its  purity,  can  be  depended 
on  for  giving  constant  results  in  the  brewing  vat.  This 
IS  another  illustration  of  the  relationship  between  research 
and  industry. 

Consider,  in  the  next  place,  the  sugar  which  the  yeast 
decomposes  by  virtue  of  its  zymase.  In  an  ordinary  brew- 
ing operation  the  liquor  which  is  fermented  is  not  supplied 
in  the  first  place  with  sugar  as  such,  but  the  starch  con- 
tamed  in  the  barley  grain  is  ultimately  broken  down,  as 
chemists  say,  into  sugar  by  virtue  of  certain  processes 
which  I  cannot  stop  to  explain.  But  the  broad  fact  is  that 
yeast  cannot  feed  upon  starch,  but  onlv  upon  sugar,  and, 
in  fact,  only  upon  certain  kinds  of  sugars,  and  the  starch 
which  is  stored  up  in  the  barley  is  the  raw  material  which 
ultimately  supplies  the  necessary  kind  of  sugar.  So  that 
starch,  which,  as  you  know,  is  a  substance  very  widelv 
distributed  in  the  vegetable  kingdom,  can  be  extracted  if 
necessary  from  the  seeds  or  tubers  which  contain  it,  and  con- 
verted into  sugar  by  chemical  processes,  and  then  used  for 
the  production  of  alcohol.  An  important  industrv  is  flourish- 
ing in  Germany  at  the  present  time  for  the  production  of 
alcohol  from  potato-starch.  In  Berlin  a  few  weeks  ago  we 
were  shown  over  a  large  establishment  entirely  devoted  to 
the  fermentation  industries,  and  potato  spirit  and  other  pro- 
ducts from  the  potato  were  the  most  conspicuous  features 
of  the  exhibition.  Now  alcohol  is  a  substance  of  great 
NO.    1765,  VOL.  68] 


importance  for  chemical  industry  in  many  directions,  and 
its  inflammability  makes  it  valuable  as  a  fuel,  so  that  the 
problem  of  the  cheap  production  of  alcohol  is  worthy  of  the 
serious  attention  of  investigators.  It  is  interesting  to  con- 
template the  period  when  our  natural  sources  of  fuel,  coal 
and  petroleum,  are  all  exhausted,  and  when  we  may  have 
to  fall  back  upon  the  vital  activity  of  a  lowly  form  of 
vegetable  life  to  supply  us  with  liquid  fuel.  Scientific  re- 
search has  helped  here,  also,  to  call  a  new  industry  into 
existence,  because  the  cost  of  alcohol,  like  that  of  any  other 
chemical  product,  is  obviously  dependent  upon  the  yield 
i.e.  upon  the  quantity  obtainable  from  a  given  weight  of 
raw  material.  I  must  claim  your  indulgence  while  I  trace 
in  brief  outline  one  of  the  most  beautiful  of  the  modern 
industrial  developments  of  the  principles  of  fermentation. 

It  had  long  been  known  that  in  Java  an  alcoholic 
beverage,  known  as  arrack,  was  prepared  by  fermenting 
molasses  with  a  peculiar  ferment  prepared  by  a  special 
process  from  rice.  From  what  has  been  previously  said, 
vou  will  understand  that  the  starch  contained  in  rice  is 
nor  as  such,  available  for  direct  alcoholic  fermentation. 
A  detailed  scientific  investigation  of  the  starch-fermenting 
materials  used  in  Java  and  elsewhere  in  the  Far  East  has 
revealed  the  fact  that  these  ferments  owe  their  activity  to  the 
joint  action  of  two  out  of  several  different  organisms  which 
are  contained  in  them.  One  of  these  is  a  mould  fungus 
which  has  the  property  of  saccharifying  starch,  i.e.  breaking 
it  down  into  sugar,  and  thus  rendering  it  available  for  the 
growth  of  the  other  organism,  which  is  a  yeast  capable 
of  exciting  alcoholic  fermentation  in  the  usual  way.  Now 
the  principle  revealed  by  the  scientific  study  of  these  eastern 
ferments  has  been  developed  into  an  industrial  process  for 
producing  alcohol  from  starch  of  any  origin,  such  as  from 
maize,  rice,  potato,  &c.  The  operations,  in  the  briefest 
possible  terms,  consist  in  saccharifying  the  prepared  starch 
by  a  pure  culture  of  mould  fungus,  and  then  fermenting 
bv  means  of  yeast.  The  problem  of  increasing  the  yield 
of  alcohol  has  thus  been  solved ;  not  only  is  the  spirit 
obtained  in  more  concentrated  form,  but  the  actual  per- 
centage of  alcohol  furnished  by  a  given  weight  of  starch-, 
is  much  greater  than  has  ever  been  obtained  by  any  of  the 
older  processes  of  fermentation. 

I  have  left  but  little  time  for  dealing  with  an  industry 
with  which  I  have  had  long  personal  connection — the  manu- 
facture of  colouring  matters  and  other  products  from  coal 
tar.  The  relations  between  scientific  research  and  this  in- 
dustry are  so  intimate,  and  are  so  frequently  referred  to  in 
public,  that  it  has  become  a  kind  of  stock  example  for  the 
use  of  those  who  wish  to  emphasise  the  interdependence  of 
science  and  industry.  The  history  of  this  industry,  more- 
over, is  particularly  instructive  from  our  present  point  of 
view,  because  it  originated  in  this  country  in  1858  and 
flourished  here  for  a  period  of  about  twenty  years,  and  then 
began  to  decline.  The  chief  centre  of  activity  for  the  pro- 
duction of  coal  tar  products  at  the  present  time  is  Germany, 
where  there  are  six  large  factories  and  a  number  of  smaller 
ones.  The  aggregate  capital  of  the  six  large  factories 
amounts  to  some  3,000,000/.,  and  they  give  employment  to 
about  20,000  people,  including  chemists,  engineers,  clerks 
and  travellers,  dyers  and  draughtsmen,  workmen,  &c. 
These  large  firms  pay  dividends  varying  between  5  and  25 
per  cent,  upon  their  capital.  The  total  value  of  the  tar 
products  manufactured  in  Germany  exceeds  10,000,000/. 
annually,  and  she  supplies  by  far  the  largest  proportion 
of  the  dye-stuffs  used  throughout  the  world.  When,  in 
1886,  I  proclaimed  our  approaching  fate  with  respect  to 
this  industry,  I  found  that  we  were  then  using  about  90 
per  cent,  of  German  and  other  foreign  colouring  matters 
in  this  country,  and  my  friend,  Prof.  Arthur  Green,  of  the 
Yorkshire  College,  finds  that  things  are  in  about  the  same 
state  at  the  present  time. 

The  coal  tar  colour  industry  arose,  in  the  first  place,  from 
an  observation  made  by  Dr.  W.  H.  Perkin  in  1856  in  the 
course  of  a  research  having  for  its  object  the  synthesis  of 
quinine.  He  did  not  succeed  in  producing  the  alkaloid,  , 
but  he  noticed  that  aniline,  when  oxidised,  gave  a  colour- 
ing matter,  which  he  manufactured  and  introduced  under 
the  name  of  "  mauve,"  and  so  laid  the  foundations  of  an 
industry  which  has  developed  to  its  present  colossal  dimen- 
sions.      The   art   of   the   dyer   and   calico-printer   has   been 


402 


NATURE 


[August  27,  1903 


absolutely     revolutionised     by     the     introduction     of     the 
synthetical   colouring  matters   prepared   from   coal    tar.     Of 
these  more  than  500  are  now  available — each  one  a  distinct 
and  definite  chemical  compound  with  characteristic  colour  ; 
each   one   with   properties   rendering'  it    suitable   for    appli- 
cation   to    particular    classes    of    fabrics.       Every    range   of 
colour,   including  the  deepest  black,   can  be  imparted,   and 
every  degree  of  brilliancy  or  dullness,  of  fastness  to  light, 
to  washing  and  bleaching  agents,  &c.,   can  be  realised  as 
required.       The  natural  dye-stuffs,   such  as  madder,   which 
supplied  alizarin  for  Turkey  red  ;  the  cochineal  insect,  which 
furnished  a  red  dye ;  the  lichens  and  dyewoods,  which  were 
used  by  the  old-time  dyers,  have  been  displaced,  or  are  on 
the  way  to  displacement,   by   the  tar  products.     The   most 
important  of  all  the  natural  colouring  matters,   indigo,   is, 
as  you  know,  among  the  latest  of  the  achievements  of  in- 
dustrial synthetical  chemistry,   and  a  great  industry  worth 
some     3,000,000/.     annually     to     our     Indian     Empire      is 
threatened     with     extermination     by     the    German     manu- 
facturers.    Not  a  month  passes  without  the  introduction  of 
new  colouring  matters,  and  so  enterprising  are  the  German 
colour    makers     that    their    pattern-books    are    issued    with 
full  directions  in  various  languages,   and   trained  chemists 
in  their  service  will  give  personal  instructions  to  our  dyers 
in  the  application  of  new  and  unfamiliar  colouring  matters. 
It  is  impossible  to  do  more  than  allude  in  passing  to  the 
enormous  influence  of  this  greatest  and  most  refined  of  all 
the    chemical    industries    upon    every    other    department    of 
chemical    manufacture.     It    has    reacted,    and    is    reacting, 
vyith  ever  multiplying  ramifications  upon   the  manufacture 
of    the    raw    materials     such    as    acids    and    alkalis,    it    is 
revolutionising   the   methods   for   producing   sulphuric   acid, 
it  is  pressing  into  its  service  electrolytic  processes,   and  it 
has  created  new  branches  of  engineering  for  the  construc- 
tion of  special  plant  and  machinery.  The  utilisation  of  the  in- 
finity of  compounds  present  in  the  tar  is  no  longer  restricted 
to  the  production  of  colouring  matters.     Valuable  medicinal 
preparations,  photographic  materials,  perfumes,  antiseptics, 
the  sweet-tasting  saccharin,  which  is  300  times  sweeter  than 
sugar,  an  artificial  musk  which  exceeds  in  intensity  of  odour 
any  natural   musk,    are  among  the  manufactured  products 
from  coal  tar.     The  industry  is  the  direct  outcome  of  scien- 
tific  research ;    it   has   been   developed   by   research,    and   is 
being  still  developed  by  research.     Both  methods  referred  to 
in  this  address  have  been,  and  are,  at  work.     The  by-results 
of   pure   scientific    investigation    are   seized   upon    whenever 
they  show  the  slightest  chance  of  being  industrially  useful. 
S»accharin    is    such    a    by-result.     The    chemical    reactions 
which    culminated    in    the    industrial    production    of    indigo 
were  published  by  their  discoverer,   the  late  Dr.   Heumann 
as  an  academic  discovery  in  the  first  place,   and  were  del 
veloped    industrially    by    the    "  Badische    Anilin    und    Soda 
habrik        of   Ludwigshafen.     By    the   other    method    whole 
armies  of  highly  trained   scientific  chemists  are  constantlv 
at  work  in  the  splendidly  equipped  research  laboratories  o'f 
the  German  factories  investigating  new  products  and  pro- 
cesses  ^ylth    the   direct    object   of   their    ultimate    industrial 
application.       Nor    must    it    be    forgotten    that     under    the 
term      research      used  in  this  connection  is  comprised  also 
theoretical   research.     A  close  study  of  the  history  of  this 
industry   will   show   how   throughout   it   has   been   vitalised 
uJ?\T        ,^°"fept'«ns   concerning   the   chemical    struc- 
bv   fhf  TI'^u^'  °^  "'■^''"^'^  compounds,  and  especially 

fJJr  \°-^^"ed  benzene  ring  theory  of  Kekul6,  now  so 
familiar  to  chemical  students.  The  force  of  illustration  of 
the  connection  between  science  and  industry  can,  perhaps 
go  no  further  than  in  this  case,  where  a  purely  abstract 
conception  based  on  a  knowledge  of  the  properties  of  the 
atom  of  carbon  has  reacted  upon  a  branch  of  manufacture 
to  Its  lasting  benefit. 

I  have  thought  it  best  to  limit  my  treatment  to  the  record 
of  bare  fact^  in  order  to  bring  home,  to  you  in  a  concrete 
way  how  chemical  industry  and  chemical  research  are  inter- 
dependent. Four  groups  of  industries  have  been  dealt  with  ; 
•  It  would  have  been  easy  to  subdivide  the  subject  and  to 
deal  with  four  dozen.  I  must  confess  that  I  am  getting 
rather  tired  of  what  may  be  called  the  platform  treatment 
of  education  in  applied  science,  which  consists  in  general 
of  the  purely  clerical  or  office-boy  work  of  compiling  in- 
NO.    1765,  VOL.  68] 


formation — doubtless  very  valuable  in  its  way — concerning 
the  number  of  schools  in  foreign  countries,  the  acreage  of 
land  which  they  cover,  their  cubic  contents,  cost  of  erection 
and  maintenance,  the  number  of  professors  and  staff,  and 
the  number  of  students  which  they  turn  out  annually.  The 
reason  why  this  kind  of  information  is  getting  stale  and 
wearisome  is  because  it  produced  at  first  no  effect  at  all  in 
this  country,  and  then  it  led  to  a  reckless  expenditure  in 
bricks  and  mortar,  and  the  starting  of  institutions  which 
are  inadequately  endowed,  insufficiently  maintained,  and 
altogether  lower  in  their  working  capabilities  than  the 
continental  institutions  which  prompted  their  foundation. 
I  thought,  therefore,  that  it  might  be  more  acceptable  it, 
instead  of  dealing  with  the  usual  generalities  of  the 
statistical  order,  1  sketched  the  history  of  a  few  specihc 
industries.  If  it  appears  that  Germany  has  played  a  very 
prominent  part  in  these  histories,  all  I  can  say  is  that  there 
has  been  no  intentional  selection  on  my  part,  but  it  is 
entirely  due  to  the  circumstance  that  it  is  to  that  country 
more  than  to  any  other  that  industry  owes  its  advancement 
by  scientific  method.  The  preeminence  of  Germany  in 
chemical  industry  is  sufficiently  notorious,  as  our  own 
manufacturers  know  to  their  cost.  The  most  striking 
feature  of  the  exhibition  at  Paris  in  1900,  when,  as  a 
member  of  the  International  Jury  for  Chemical  Products, 
Ihad  occasion  to  examine  the  exhibits  of  all  countries  was 
the  collective  exhibit  of  chemical  products  displayed  by 
some  ninety  German  firms.  This  splendid  collection,  which 
revealed  more  than  anything  the  enormous  advances  niade 
in  chemical  industry  by  Germany,  is  "ow  deposited  in  a 
special  building  in  the  grounds  of  the  Technical  High 
School  at  Charlottenburg.  ^     ,  ^u  ^  «f 

So  much  has  been  said  and  written  about  the  causes  ot 
this  wonderful  development  of  German  chemical  manu- 
factures that  I  hesitate  to  add  anything  more  to  the  dis- 
cussion. Certainly  it  is  not  possible  to  add  anything  new. 
Those  who,  like  Prof.  Michael  Sadler  and  Dr.  Rose,  have 
made  a  special  study  of  German  educational  systems  have 
placed  before  the  public  valuable  reports  in  which  these 
causes  are  fully  discussed  from  the  educational  point  ot 
view  '  In  the  Official  report  to  the  French  Government  on 
the  products  of  Class  87,  Prof.  Haller,  the  secretary  to  our 
iury  and  author  of  the  report,  has  devoted  a  whole  section 
to  the  "  Causes  de  la  Prosp^rit^  de  I'lndustne  chimique 
AUemande."  The  general  conclusion  to  which  we  have 
all  come  concerning  this  remarkable  industrial  development 
is  that  it  is  mainly  due  to  the  higher  educational  level  in 
Germany  with  respect  more  especially  to  the  highest  scien- 
tific instruction  in  the  universities  and  technical  hig:h 
schools.  It  is  perhaps  permissible  to  go  one  stage 
further  back,  and  to  say  that  this  advanced  scientific  educa- 
tion is  in  itself  the  expression  of  the  public  faith  in  such 
education,  and  the  recognition  by  the  State  of  the  in- 
dustrial value  of  such  training.  It  has  been  well  pointed 
out  that  the  money  invested  by  the  German  nation  in  found- 
ing and  maintaining  the  chemfcal  chairs  at  the  universities 
and  technical  high  schools  is  now  worth  some  50,000,000/. 
annually  to  the  country  in  this  branch  of  industry  alone. 
More  especially,  also,  it  may  be  claimed  that  the  recog- 
nition of  the  value— the  indispensable  value— of  scientific 
research  to  industry  by  the  manufacturers  themselves  has 
been  one  of  the  most  potent  factors  in  developing  German 
chemical  industry,  and  the  lack  of  such  appreciation  on  the 
part  of  our  own  manufacturers  has  been  one  of  the  chief 
causes  of  their  decadence. 

In  so  far  as  the  subject  under  consideration  is  an 
educational  one,  it  comes  within  the  province  of  a  gathering 
of  students  held  under  the  auspices  of  the  most  ancient 
seats  of'  learning  in  this  country.  At  any  rate,  the  topic 
is  one  of  such  supreme  importance  to  the  welfare  of  this 
nation  that  I  could  not  resist  the  invitation  to  take  part 
in  your  proceedings,  because  the  question  is  one  which  has 
been  for  years  undergoing  the  most  serious  consideration 
by  those  who  have,  like  myself,  been  connected  on  the  one 

1  See  especially  vol.  ix.  of  the  special  reports  issued  by  the  Board  of 
Education,  entitled  "Education  in  Germany,"  by  Prof.  Sadler.  Also  Dr. 
Rose's  diplomatic  and  Consular  reports,  issued  by  the  Foreign  Office, 
No.  561,  "Chemical  Instruction  and  Chemical  Industries  in  Germany"; 
No.  551,  "German  Technical  High  Schools";  No.  594,  "Agricultural 
Instruction  in  Germany  and  the  Development  of  German  Agriculture  and 
Agricultural  Industries." 


August  27,"  1903] 


NATURE 


403 


hand  with  manufacturing  industry  and  on  the  other  hand 
with  the  teaching  of  science.  Whether  the  old  universities 
are  desirous  of  nialiing  a  new  departure  and  of  enlarging 
their  spheres  of  activity  so  as  to  bring  them  more  into 
harmony  with  the  practical  requirements  of  the  age  I 
have  no  authority  to  discuss.  Certainly  Cambridge,  by  the 
establishment  of  departments  of  engineering  and  agri- 
cultuie,  has  made  a  distinct  advance  in  this  direction. 
At  any  rate,  it  may  be  taken  as  a  sign  of  the  times  that 
the  relationship  between  science  and  industry  has  been 
made  a  special  feature  of  this  year's  university  extension 
meeting,  and  the  outer  world  will  no  doubt  take  due  cog- 
nisance of  the  circumstance  that  a  subject  has  been  chosen 
for  consideration  which,  in  this  country,  is  generally  con- 
sidered quite  remote  from  the  higher  ideals  of  university 
education. 

It  is  evident  from  what  has  long  been  going  on  in 
Germany  and  America,  and  from  what  is  now  taking  place 
with  regard  to  education  by  our  newer  universities  here, 
that  applied  science  is,  or  can  be,  brought  within  the 
province  of  university  education.  Of  course,  if  the  view 
bo  held  that  science  is  degraded  by  being  turned  to  practical 
account,  then  we  must  not  look  to  the  universities  for  the 
training  of  our  industrial  leaders.  It  is  impossible,  how- 
ever, to  note  the  progress  of  events  since  the  coalescence 
of  science  and  industry  abroad  without  coming  to  the  con- 
clusion that  the  position  of  a  nation  in  the  scale  of  civilisa- 
tion will  be  measured  in  the  future  by  its  productive  energy 
— by  the  capacity  of  its  workers  to  evolve  new  ideas  and 
to  carry  them  out  practically ;  by  the  number,  zeal  and 
originality  of  its  scientific  workers,  and  by  their  mastery 
over  the  resources  of  nature.  I  do  not  mean  to  imply  that 
the  old  universities  have  done  nothing  towards  the  educa- 
tion of  scientific  thinkers  and  workers.  What  strikes  out- 
siders like  myself  is  the  very  small  part  that  these  universi- 
ties are  taking  in  the  modern  equipment  of  the  great  in- 
dustrial army  of  Britain  as  compared  with  the  work  being 
done  by  foreign  universities  for  their  respective  countries. 
In  view  of  the  industrial  struggle  between  nations  which 
has  arisen  through  the  discoveries  of  modern  science — a 
struggle  which  is  bound  to  become  keener  with  the  progress 
of  science — it  cannot  be  seriously  maintained  that  the 
material  welfare  of  our  country  is  beneath  the  dignity  of 
even  the  most  profound  academic  scholar.  The  old  defini- 
tion of  a  university  as  an  educational  centre  for  the  cultiv- 
ation of  useless  knowledge  no  longer  holds  good.  If  there 
are  universities  which  still  cling  to  this  tradition  concern- 
ing their  functions,  it  may  safely  be  predicted  that  their 
influence  in  moulding  the  future  life  of  the  nation  is  destined 
tj  shrink  to  smaller  and  smaller  dimensions. 

The  part  played  by  the  German  universities  and  technical 
high  schools  in  the  training  of  technologists  is  now  so  well 
known  in  this  country  that  a.  detailed  restatement  of  the 
facts  is  hardly  necessary.  I  may  remind  you  that  their 
twenty  universities,  with  foundations  dating  from  the 
fourteenth  to  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth  century,  for 
many  years  supplied  the  factories  with  men  thoroughly 
trained  in  science,  and  capable  of  applying  their  knowledge 
to  industrial  processes.  With  the  development  of  manu- 
facturing industry  along  scientific  lines  it  was  found 
necessary  to  provide  more  specialised  education,  and  during 
the  first  half  of  the  nineteenth  century  trade  schools  or 
polytechnics  were  called  into  existence  in  nine  different 
centres.  Of  course,  vou  know  that  our  polytechnics  here 
have  very  little  analogy  with  the  German  institutions  of 
that  name.  The  polytechnics  were  in  time  found  inade- 
quate to  meet  the  growing  requirements  of  German  in- 
dustrial training,  and  their  functions  were  accordingly 
enlarged  and  their  educational  status  raised.  Out  of  these 
nine  polytechnics  or  trade  schools  have  arisen  nine 
technical  high  schools,  and  two  more  such  schools  are  now 
in  course  of  erection.  Thus  in  Germany  both  universities 
and  technical  high  schools  are  catering  for  the  scientific 
needs  of  the  national  industries.  I  may  add  that  a  few 
years  ago  there  was  a  serious  discussion  in  Germany  among 
certain  educational  bodies  and  industrial  organisations  as  to 
whether  the  State  should  not  be  asked  further  to  strengthen 
the  scientific  faculties  of  the  universities  by  creating  chairs 
of  technical  or  applied  chemistry,  and  although  there  has 
been  no  practical  outcome  of  this  movement  as  yet,   it   is 

NO.    1765,  VOL.  68] 


an  instructive  illustration  of  the  spirit  which  is  abroad  in 
that  country. 

There  is  very  much  misapprehension  here  concerning  the 
nature  and  functions  of  the  German  technical  high  schools. 
They  are  not  glorified  polytechnics  of  our  own  type  for 
teaching  handicrafts  to  artisans  or  smatterings  of  science 
to  ill-prepared  students.  They  are  institutions  of  university 
rank — their  education  is  of  university  standard,  and  their 
professors  stand  on  a  level  with  the  professors  of  the  uni- 
versities. Their  students  are  not  admitted  until  they  have 
reached  a  high  standard  of  general  secondary  education. 
Their  courses  of  instruction  are  as  purely  scientific  as  the 
university  courses,  and  the  only  difference  between  the  two 
kinds  of  education  is  that  the  technical  high  school  is  all 
scientific,  and  the  various  sciences  are  taught  both  theo- 
retically and  practically  with  a  view  to  their  ultimate  in- 
dustrial applications.  It  is  a  "  technical  education  "  in  the 
highest  and  best  sense,  and  not  in  the  narrow — I  may  even 
say  degraded — sense  in  which  the  term  is  so  frequently 
used  in  this  country. 

The  question  of  the  hour  which  the  old  universities  have 
now  to  face  is  whether  they  are  willing  to  take  part  in 
the  newer  education  required  by  our  industrial  leaders, 
whether  they  are  prepared  to  strengthen  and  develop  the 
teaching  of  those  physical  sciences  which  underlie  productive 
industry,  and  to  recognise  the  claims  of  the  applied  sciences 
as  subjects  worthy  of  inclusion  in  their  curricula.  There 
will,  of  course,  be  a  divergence  of  opinion  with  regard  to 
this  question.  There  will  be  the  old,  old  conflict  between 
the  advocates  of  the  "  humanising  "  influence  of  the  ancient 
classical  studies  and  the  supporters  of  modern  scientific 
education.  So  far  as  my  opinions  are  worth  anything,  I 
cannot  see,  and  I  never  could  see,  why  a  study  of  nature 
at  first  hand  should  be  less  "  humanising  "  than  the  study 
of  those  classical  subjects  which  have  so  long  held  the  field. 
I  admit  that  the  teaching  of  the  physical  sciences  as  they 
should  be  taught  at  the  present  time  in  any  institution  of 
university  rank  is  more  costly — that  the  equipment  consists 
of  something  more  than  a  library,  and  that  their  teachers, 
to  6e  effective,  should  be  themselves  active  investigators, 
inspiring  originality  and  a  desire  for  creating  new  know- 
ledge in  their  students.  I  can  understand  that  a  subject 
which  to  the  classical  don  wears  the  aspect  of  a  financial 
ogre  should  be  kept  down  as  long  as  he  has  a  preponder- 
ating influence  in  regulating  the  affairs  of  his  university. 
But  this  is  a  matter  of  expediency,  and  not  a  real  conflict 
between  fundamental  principles.  I  cannot  find  that  the 
classical  teaching  of  the  American  or  Gerrrian  universities 
has  been  impaired  by  the  splendid  development  of  their 
scientific  faculties  ;  neither  does  it  appear  that  the  human 
products  of  their  scientific  activities  are  in  the  least  degree 
inferior  as  men  to  their  classical  scholars.  Of  course,  I 
am  a  special  pleader,  and  I  am  making  the  best  use  of 
niv  opportunities,  and  I  repeat  that  I  never  could  see  where 
anv  antagonism  existed  between  the  older  and  the  newer 
studies  excepting  in  the  struggle  for  financial  means. 
There  are  many  educational  authorities  here  and  abroad 
who  will  tell  you  that  the  scientific  development  of  the 
German  universities  has  reacted  upon  and  improved  the 
classical  teaching  by  an  infusion  of  scientific  method  into 
the  latter.  Moreover,  it  must  be  remembered  that  we  who 
are  advocates  for  the  new  education  are  not  clamouring, 
as  many  people  think,  for  the  abolition  of  the  old  studies. 
I  for  one  should  deplore  any  falling  off  in  the  prestige 
of  the  old  universities  as  seats  of  classical  learning.  Neither 
is  it  suggested  that  our  future  leaders  of  industry  would 
never  at  any  period  of  their  studies  derive  benefit  from  that 
particular  kind  of  culture  which  the  ancient  literature  is 
capable  of  imparting.  I  firmly  believe  they  would ;  but 
the  question  as  to  when  and  how  would  open  up  the  whole 
field  of  education,  elementary,  secondary,  and  university, 
both  pre-  and  post-graduate,  and  I  should  find  myself 
floundering  among  shoals  and  quicksands  in  no  time.  The 
ideal  university  is  one  that  offers  facilities  for  both  the 
older  and  the  newer  education  ;  they  are  not  mutually  ex- 
clusive— they  can,  and  do,  thrive  side  by  side  elsewhere, 
and  there  is  no  reason,  at  any  rate  no  theoretical  reason, 
why  they  should  not  do  so  here. 

The  form  in  which  the  question  may  be  put  is  therefore 
whether,    given    the    means,    the    older    universities    should 


404 


NA  TURE 


[August  27,  1903 


develop  their  work  in  the  direction  of  applied  science.  A 
large  body — I  cannot  say  how  many — of  outsiders  who  are 
well-wishers  of  these  universities  is  of  opinion  that  they 
should,  and  there  is  an  idea  abroad  that  they  are  suffering 
financially  now  from  having  neglected  this  side  of  educa- 
tion in  the  past.  There  was,  for  example,  a  leading  article 
in  the  Times  of  May  25  in  the  course  of  which  the  writer 
suggests  that  they  may  have  suffered  through  having  a 
false  reputation  for  being  very  wealthy  bodies,  and  he 
adds  : — "  Or  is  it  perchance,  because  the  modern  millionaire, 
being  a  man  of  his  age  and  an  Englishman  to  boot,  has 
no  great  belief  in  the  economic  value  of  knowledge  as  such, 
and  no  great  confidence  in  the  capacity  of  our  ancient 
universities  to  adapt  themselves  to  the  needs  of  the  coming 
time?  "  Now,  so  far  as  the  chemical  manufacturers  of 
this  country  are  concerned,  I  can  say  with  some  personal 
experiences  of  my  own  that  they  certainly  have  shown  no 
great  belief  hitherto  in  the  economic  value  of  scientific 
knowledge,  as  they  now  know  to  their  own  cost.  But  if, 
to  make  a  purely  hypothetical  conjecture,  some  beneficent 
millionaire  were  to  test  the  capacity  of  our  old  universities 
for  undertaking  this  kind  of  work,  and  were  to  offer 
adequate  means  for  the  purpose,  I  feel  pretty  confident,  from 
what  I  know  of  the  spirit  which  dominates  their  governing 
bodies,  that  such  an  offer  would  be  accepted  both  at  Cam- 
bridge and  here  at  Oxford  with  few  dissentients.  If 
such  a  departure  were  placed  within  their  power,  I  think 
that  that  great  public  which  glories  in  the  past  achieve- 
ments of  these  universities  would  rejoice  in  their  new  de- 
velopment. And  I  will  further  add  that  the  creation  of 
chairs  of  applied  science  would  react  upon  and  strengthen 
the  teaching  of  all  those  sciences  which  are  in  any  way 
connected  with  industrial  productiveness. 

Of  course,  this  is  all  hypothesis — the  most  nebulous  of 
hypotheses.  We  all  know,  unfortunately,  that  the  financial 
resources  of  the  universities  have  been,  and  are,  inadequate 
for  the  purpose  of  enabling  them  to  meet  the  requirements 
of  modern  scientific  education,  either  in  the  way  of  staff, 
accommodation,  or  equipment.  It  can  be  said,  and  jqstly 
said,  that  so  long  as  these  universities  are  without  the 
means  of  developing  their  schools  of  pure  physical  science 
to  an  extent  worthy  of  their  reputation,  it  is  useless  to  talk 
about  developing  the  teaching  of  applied  science.  So  it 
may  be.  But  I  remind  you  that  we  are  still  in  the  region 
of  hypothesis,  and  the  captious  critic  might  retort  by  say- 
ing that  they  have  not  done  even  as  much  as  they  might, 
and  could,  have  done  for  the  proper  development  of  scientific 
teaching  with  the  means  already  at  their  disposal — that 
they  are  still  overweighted  by  ancient  tradition,  and  that 
their  internal  scientific  forces  are  still  feeble  as  compared 
with  the  preponderating  forces  of  the  advocates  of  the 
older  culture.  There  is  no  time,  even  if  I  knew  enough 
about  the  inner  mechanism  of  university  administration, 
to  discuss  this  aspect  of  the  question,  but  if  you  want  to 
know  an  American  view  of  the  case — a  strong  view  ! — I 
would  invite  attention  to  an  address  by  Prof.  Victor  Alder- 
son,  Dean  of  the  Armour  Institute  of  Technology,  delivered 
before  the  Chicago  Literary  Club  in  October  last  year,  an 
abstract  of  which  was  published  in  Nature  of  February  12. 

The  question  of  the  recognition  of  applied  science  by  our 
old  universities  must,  as  I  said,  be  faced — ^the  time  is  at 
hand  for  them  to  consider  seriously  whether  it  is  desirable 
that  they  should  cater  for  the  training  of  those  who  are 
destined  to  be  the  founders  and  upholders  of  our  national 
prosperity.  The  longer  this  question  is  shelved  the  smaller 
will  grow  the  chances  of  their  being  able  to  participate 
in  the  work.  At  present  we  in  this  country  are  not  up  to 
the  German  level  so  far  as  concerns  the  higher  technical 
training  of  industrial  leaders.  Our  universities,  in  other 
words,  have  not  yet  had  to  encounter  the  full  force  of  com- 
petition with  newer  institutions  of  the  rank  of  the  technical 
high  schools.  We  have  but  very  few,  if  any,  schools  of 
this  status  here  now,  but  if  I  read  the  signs  of  the  times 
correctly,  the  differentiation  between  the  old  and  the  new 
education — which  has  already  become  well  marked — is 
bound  with  the  progress  of  science  to  become  more  and 
more  strongly  pronounced.  Our  newer  universities — 
especially  those  in  large  manufacturing  centres— will  be 
driven  more  and  more  into  the  teaching  of  applied  science, 
and   our   polytechnics   and    technical   colleges    will    perforce 


NO.    1765,  VOL.   68] 


have  to  raise  their  educational  standard.  The  effect  cannot 
but  be  to  cause  the  older  universities  to  become  of  smaller 
importance  in  the  general  scheme  of  national  education  as 
time  goes  on.  That  is  why  I  have  taken  advantage  of  the 
opportunity  which  has  been  placed  in  my  hands  for  raising 
this  note  of  alarm,  because  even  if  nothing  practical  results 
from  this  meeting,  it  may  at  any  rate  be  useful  to  let  it  be 
known  that  many  of  us  desire  to  see  the  most  ancient  and 
the  most  renowned  of  our  educational  foundations  doing 
more  for  the  education  of  a  nation  the  prosperity  of  which 
is  so  largely  dependent  on  productive  industry. 

Whether  as  the  outcome  of  the  lectures  delivered  and 
the  conferences  held  during  this  meeting  the  attitude  of 
the  uni%'ersities  towards  applied  science  undergoes  modifi- 
cation or  not,  the  ventilation  of  opinions  cannot  but  be  of 
advantage  in  many  ways.  If,  for  example,  it  is  made 
manifest  that  the  current  of  national  thought  is  moving 
slowly — alas  !  very  slowly — towards  the  recognition  of 
science  as  the  main  factor  of  industrial  progress,  it  may 
help  to  emphasise  the  necessity  for  strengthening  and  de- 
veloping the  teaching  of  pure  science.  If  the  beneficent 
millionaires  are  not  forthcoming  for  the  purpose  of  en- 
dowing applied  science,  there  is,  at  any  rate,  ample  scope 
for  their  beneficence  in  the  endowment  of  pure  science  in 
our  old  universities.  A  school  of  active  science  workers 
would — to  use  a  quasi-scientific  expression  found  in_  the 
pages  of  many  writers  of  fiction — "  galvanise  into  life  " 
the  science  teaching  of  the  schools.  If  you  can  only  help 
to  mould  the  public  mind  into  the  belief  that  science  is  a 
living  reality  veiling  truths  of  inestimable  value  to 
humanity  from  every  point  of  view,  moral,  social  and 
material— truths  that  are  to  be  wrested  only  by  conscien- 
tious, laborious  and  persistent  research — you  will  be  assist- 
ing a  great  cause.  If  you  will  proclaim  this  doctrine  from 
the  house-tops  and  assist  in  sweeping  away  that  dust 
heap  of  formal  text-book  knowledge  which  passes  for 
science  in  our  examination  rooms  you  will  be  doing  some- 
thing towards  raising  the  general  level  of  opinion  in  this 
country.  We  need  it  badly  !  Think  of  all  the  creative  in- 
tellectual power  running  to  waste — the  unrealised  assets 
in  the  way  of  originality  of  thought  which  Great  Britain 
might  have  at  her  disposal  if  the  brain  power  of  her  teachers 
and  students  were  only  diverted  into  the  right  channels. 
The  old  universities,  by  virtue  of  their  prestige,  their  tradi- 
tions, and  their  past  achievements,  have  still  a  powerful 
hold  upon  the  public  mind.  They  must  open  their  doors 
still  more  widely  to  science  if  they  wish  to  retain  their 
hold.  If  their  means  are  at  present  insufficient  to  enable 
them  to  meet  the  requirements  of  the  age,  they  can  still 
forward  the  national  cause  by  upholding  the  dignity  of 
science,  by  insisting  upon  originality  of  thought  as  an 
essential  qualification  for  its  successful  teaching,  and  by 
helping  to  dispel  the  notion  that  it  undergoes  degradation 
by  being  applied  to  human  welfare.  It  must  be  realised, 
and  it  cannot  be  realised  too  soon,  that  the  peaceful  cam- 
paign of  industrial  competition  requires  leaders  well  trained 
in  scientific  method,  and  not  crammed  with  mere  formal 
book  learning — men  as  alert  in  mind  and  resourceful  in 
meeting  difficulties,  as  upright  in  principle,  as  keen  in 
enthusiasm,  as  far-seeing  in  imagination,  and  with  as 
intimate  a  knowledge  of  human  nature  as  the  statesmen, 
warriors,  divines,  lawyers,  and  schoolmasters  which  these 
old  universities  have  given  to  their  country.  The  victory 
of  the  future  is  with  that  nation  which  enables  her  children 
to  approximate  more  closely  towards  Tennyson's  ideal  : — 

"...  the  crowning  race 
Of  those  that  eye  to  eye  shall  look 
On  knowledge  ;  under  whose  command 
Is  Earth  and  Earth's  ;  and  in  their  hand 
Is  Nature  like  an  open  book." 


IRRIGATION  WORKS. 
India. 
TN  a  recent  number  of  the  Revue  genirale  des  Sciences  is 
-*■  .an  article  on  irrigation  in  India  which  is  interesting 
as  showing  the  impression  made  on  the  mind  of  a  foreigner 
after  an  inspection  of  the  great  works  that  have  been  carried 
out    under    the    British    administration    for    mitigating    the 


August  27,  1903] 


NATURE 


405 


effects  of  famines  and  improving  the  condition  of  agri- 
culture. In  a  report  published  a  few  years  ago  by  Mr. 
Deakin,  the  Minister  of  Water  Supply  in  Victoria,  under 
the  title  of  "  Irrigated  India,"  Mr.  Ueakin  stated  that,  in 
his  opinion,  after  an  inspection  of  the  irrigation  works 
in  Italy,  Egypt  and  America,  he  was  satisfied  that  there 
was  no  canal  system  in  the  world  that  could  hold  com- 
parison with  that  of  India,  and  expressed  his  surprise  that 
so  little  was  known  of  it.  The  area  of  land  irrigated  in 
India  by  canals  amounts  to  about  30  millions  of  acres,  six 
times  that  of  Egypt,  and  nearly  double  that  of  the  whole 
of  the  rest  of  the  world.  M.  Chailley  Bert,  the  writer  of 
the  article  under  notice,  after  spending  considerable  time 
in  inspecting  the  various  irrigation  works,  seems  to  have 
come  to  very  much  the  same  conclusion.  He  expresses  his 
opinion  that,  after  the  principles  of  the  general  administra- 
tion of  the  country,  and  the  conduct  of  the  English  in  India, 
there  is  nothing  of  more  interest  and  more  worthy  of  observ- 
ation than  the  system  of  irrigation,  the  methods  pursued 
in  carrying  out  the  works,  and  the  results  that  are  obtained. 

From  all  time  there  has  existed  a  close  relation  in  India 
between  famine  and  irrigation.  The  ancient  rulers  of  India 
have  left  everywhere  traces  of  the  great  works  which  they 
had  carried  out  for  overcoming  the  want  of  rain  and  pro- 
viding against  the  constant  recurrence  of  famines ;  and 
since  the  English  administration  irrigation  has  been  forced 
to  the  front  by  the  terrible  famines  which  periodically  visit 
a  portion  of  this  vast  territory,  in  every  instance  caused  by 
deficient  rainfall,  which  sometimes  lasts  for  two  or  three 
consecutive  years.  The  great  famine  of  1837  in  Bengal 
led  to  the  project  of  the  Ganges  Canal,  which  has  now 
5500  miles  of  main  canals  and  branches  ;  that  of  1853  to 
the  works  at  Madras ;  that  of  1859  to  the  works  in  the 
north-west.  The  famine  which  desolated  Orissa  and  the 
north  of  India  in  1864,  when  a  million  of  the  inhabitants 
lost  their  lives  by  starvation  notwithstanding  the  expendi- 
ture of  i^  miliions  of  pounds  in  combating  the  famine,  and 
also  more  than  3  millions  in  works  of  irrigation,  resulted 
in  the  policy  of  systematically  carrying  out  extraordinary 
public  works  by  which  it  was  contemplated  to  spend  half 
a  million  a  year  in  developing  irrigation  for  the  purpose 
of  preventing  the  recurrence  of  these  terrible  disasters. 
During  the  terrible  famine  of  1876,  for  which  a  large  relief 
fun^  was  raised,  5^  millions  of  lives  were  lost,  although 
trib  Indian  Government  expended  11  millions  in  relief. 

The  rainfall  of  India  is  very  various,  amounting  to  200 
inches  in  a  year  in  some  districts,  while  in  others  the  fall 
does  not  amount  to  more  than  from  2  to  10  inches ;  and 
over  a  vast  area  the  land  is  dry  and  sterile,  except  where 
the  rivers  have  been  canalised,  or  the  rain  coming  from 
the  mountains  has  been  caught  and  stored  in  reservoirs. 

The  peasants  inhabiting  these  districts  are  described  as 
being  utterly  improvident,  and  population  goes  on  in- 
creasing at  an  enormous  rate.  The  dry  and  unfertile  years 
find  them  without  any  resources,  and  when  famine  comes 
untold  misery  ensues,  and  the  population  is  decimated  by 
starvation  and  death. 

A  vivid  description  is  given  by  M.  Chailley  Bert  of  the 
irrigation  works  undertaken  for  the  relief  of  the  inhabitants 
in  the  great  famine  of  1901  in  the  Presidency  of  Bombay. 
Here  five  camps  were  established  where  provision  was  made 
for  10,000  people  who  were  engaged  in  the  construction  of 
a  reservoir.  To  this  camp  came  a  mass  of  people  of  all 
ages  and  conditions,  old  men,  women,  and  children,  besides 
the  actual  work  people,  driven  from  their  homes  by  misery 
and  starvation.  To  deal  with  this  multitude  a  complete 
system  of  feeding  and  hospital  requirements,  sanitation  and 
the  care  of  children  had  to  be  provided,  while  all  the  able- 
bodied  were  organised  into  an  army  of  workers.  The 
writer  says  that  no  description  can  correctly  give  an  idea 
of  the  complete  system  of  organisation  and  order  of  this 
installation,  and  he  seemed  to  be  greatly  impressed  with 
the  fact  that  the  whole  management  was  carried  out  by 
native  functionaries  under  the  direction  of  a  single  English 
engineer,  with  the  occasional  visits  of  the  collector  of  the 
district  and  his  assistants. 

It  is  pointed  out  in  the  article  that  irrigation,-  besides 
providing  a  means  of  meeting  the.  sterility  due  to  the 
absence  of  rain,  adds  very  greatly  to  the  fertility  of  the 
land,  in  some  cases  doubling,  and  in  others  increasing  the 
yield  fourfold,   and  increasing  the  value  of  the  land  from 


NO.    1765,  VOL.  68] 


2/.  or  3i.  an  acre  to  ten  or  twelve  times  that  amount. 
Irrigation  also  permits  the  cultivation  of  the  more  valuable 
crops,  such  as  rice,  wheat,  sugar  cane,  and  indigo,  and  it 
also  leads  to  other  works  which  assist  in  the  mitigation 
of  famines,  such  as  roads  and  railways  for  the  conveyance 
of  the  produce  of  the  irrigated  lands. 

The  Indian  Government  has  already  expended  upwards 
of  23  millions  sterling  on  irrigation  works,  providing 
water  for  13  millions  of  acres  at  an  average  cost  of  355.  an 
acre. 

South  Africa. 

At  the  meeting  of  the  South  A^^rican  Science  Association 
held  in  May  last,  amongst  other  subjects  discussed,  the 
most  important  in  the  interests  of  the  country  was  that  re- 
lating to  irrigation,  which  Sir  Charles  Metcalfe  described 
as  the  most  prominent  question  of  the  day.  In  a  paper  read 
by  Mr.  Westhofen,  the  author  stated  that,  owing  to  the  in- 
sufficiency and  uncertainty  in  the  distribution  of  the  rain- 
fall, it  was  absolutely  necessary  that  irrigation  should  be 
resorted  to  if  the  country  is  ever  to  be  made  a  self-support- 
ing one.  Thousands  of  square  miles  of  the  most  fertile 
land  are  lying  waste  owing  to  the  want  of  this  most 
essential  adjunct  to  agriculture.  The  institution  of  a  proper 
system  of  irrigation  has  hitherto  been  hindered  by  want 
of  capital,  want  of  experience,  and  ignorance  of  the  best 
methods  of  storing  water  and  applying  it  to  the  greatest 
advantage.  Irrigation  is  no  new  thing  in  Africa.  In 
Rhodesia  there  exist  the  remains  of  ancient  works,  and 
for  miles  and  miles  may  be  seen  the  traces  of  skilfully 
engineered  irrigation  canals.  No  information  exists  as. 
to  who  carried  out  these  works.  In  a  rude  way  the 
natives  of  the  Zambesi  at  the  present  day  obtain  from  two 
to  three  crops  off  their  land  by  employing  a  simple  system 
of  irrigation.  As  an  example  of  what  might  be  done,  and" 
as  a  public  object  lesson,  a  large  reservoir  containing  1000 
million  gallons  of  water  was  constructed  by  Mr.  Rhodes 
at  Matapos,  the  water  in  which  is  held  up  by  an  earthwork 
dam  100  feet  high. 

While  thousands  of  acres  of  fertile  land  are  lying  waste 
in  Africa  for  want  of  irrigation,  food  to  the  value  of  2\ 
millions  of  pounds  is  imported  through  Cape  Town. 

Before  an  efficient  system  of  irrigation  can  be  organised^ 
legislation  is  required  to  define  the  water  rights.  Sir  W. 
Willcocks,  in  his  report  on  the  subject,  suggested  that  all 
rivers  and  streams  should  be  proclaimed  as  public  domain 
and  become  the  property  of  the  nation. 

The  forestry  of  the  country  was  also  dealt  with  in  a  paper 
by  Mr.  D.  E.  Hutchins,  who  showed  that  while  at  one 
time  there  is  evidence  that  Africa  was  a  well-wooded 
country,  the  forests  of  to-day  consist  generally  of  nothing 
but  stunted  evergreen  trees  confined  to  sheltered  kloofs. 
There  are  now,  however,  Government  forests  worked 
systematically  by  the  Forest  Department,  but  so  scarce  is 
the  supply  that  the  imports  of  commercial  timber  amount 
to  half  a  million  pounds.  It  was  stated  that  the  special 
sleeper  plantations  established  by  the  Cape  Government 
Railways  cost  6o,oooZ.,  and  that  in  twenty-five  years  they 
were  estimated  to  bring  in  a  revenue  of  ioo,oooL  a  year. 
There  is  no  doubt  that  the  encouragement  of  the  growth 
of  forests  will  have  a  material  effect  in  conserving  the  rain- 
fall of  the  country. 

New  Mexico. 
In  the  report  issued  by  the  New  Mexico  College  of  Agri- 
culture for  April,  an  account  is  given  of  the  experiments 
carried  out  for  pumping  water  for  irrigation  from  wells. 
New  Mexico  has  a.  genial  climate  and  fertile  soil,  but  the 
amount  of  rainfall  is  light,  averaging  not  more  than  from 
8  to  16  inches  a  year.  Irrigation,  therefore,  becomes  a 
necessity.  It  was  with  a  view  to  demonstrate  the  practic- 
ability of  providing  such  a  supply  of  water  from  the  under- 
flow that  the  experimental,  work  was  undertaken.  The 
strata  consist  of  sand  and  gravel,  with  occasional  layers  of 
clay.  The  Rio  Grande  Valley  is  underlaid  with  gravel  beds 
sufficiently  thick  to  procure  from  them  an  ample  supply 
of  water  at  a  depth  of  from,  20  to  80  feet.  There  are  twc» 
methods  of  obtaining  water  from  the  underground  supply. 
One  by  sinking  a  well  down  to  the  water-level,  and  then 
forcing  perforated  pipes  to  some  depth  below  this. .  The 
experimental  station  well  was  sunk  48  feet  deep,  with  six- 


4o6 


NATURE 


[August  27,  1903 


inch  pipes  driven  %\\  feet  below  this.  The  other  method 
is  by  driving  tubes  varying  from  3  to  6  inches  diameter 
down  from  the  surface  some  distance  into  the  water-bear- 
ing surface.  With  tube  wells  as  small  as  3  inches 
in  diameter,  the  perforated  portion  at  the  lower  end  is 
driven  with  the  pipe,  but  with  larger  tubes  the  open  pipe 
is  first  sunk,  and  the  strainer  or  perforated  part  lowered 
inside;  the  tube  is  then  jacked  up  until  the  perforated  tube 
is  exposed.  The  pipes  are  sunk  by  means  of  a  sand  bucket, 
which  consists  of  a  cylinder  3  to  5  feet  long,  the  diameter 
being  a  little  smaller  than  that  of  the  tube,  provided  with  a 
plunger  and  valve  at  the  bottom.  The  cylinder  is  forced  into 
the  ground,  and  then  the  plunger  is  driven  down  to  the 
bottom,  and  when  drawn  up  sucks  the  sand  and  small  stones 
into  it.  It  is  then  raised  to  the  surface  and  emptied.  In 
some  cases  pressure  has  to  be  exerted  by  means  of  weights  or 
levers  to  force  the  bucket  down,  and  it  is  continually  turned 
round  by  means  of  clamps.  In  favourable  ground  it  will 
sink  at  the  rate  of  i  foot  a  minute.  Owing  to  the  quantity 
of  fine  sand  in  suspension  in  the  water,  centrifugal  pumps 
for  lifting  the  water  were  found  to  answer  best.  Where 
wells  are  used  the  suction  pipe  draws  from  the  water  at 
the  bottom,  but  with  tube  wells  the  suction  pipe  is  attached 
to  the  top  of  the  tube. 


FORESTRY    IN    THE    UNITED    STATES. 

nr  HE  bulletins,  professional  and  hydrographical  papers, 
■*•  which  form  part  of  the  serial  publications  of  the 
United  States  Geological  Survoy,  treat  of  a  variety  of  sub- 
jects, among  which  forestry  figures  conspicuously.  Five 
beautifully  illustrated  volumes,  accompanied  by  carefully 
prepared  and  coloured  maps,  have  recently  been  received. 
The  statistics  and  information  collected  from  various 
sources  by  well-trained  experts  and  specialists  are  put  forth 
in  a  very  plain  and  comprehensive  manner. 

The  first  paper  is  by  Mr.  Henry  Gannett,  and  treats  of 
the  forests  of  Oregon.  It  deals  very  concisely  with  the 
composition  and  character  of  the  difl'erent  forests  and  wood- 
lands in  the  State.  At  the  outset  a  land  classification  table 
is  given,  which  shows  total  area,  merchantable  timber  area, 
open  country,  burned,  cut,  and  barren  areas. 

As  the  author  remarks,  "  the  most  startling  feature 
shown  by  the  land  classification  map  of  this  State,  is  the 
extent  of  the  burned  areas."  A  point  worthy  of  note,  to 
which  the  author  directs  attention,  is  that  "  the  burns  are 
greatest  and  most  frequent  in  the  most  moist  and  heavily 
timbered  parts  of  the  Slate,  •  and  are  smaller  and  fewer 
where  the  rainfall  is  less  and  where  the  timber  is  lighter," 
the  reason  being  that  the  density  and  abundance  of  the 
undergrowth  forms  excellent  fuel  for  the  fire,  and  vastly 
increases  its  heat  and  destructiveness.  Of  the  total 
timbered  areas,  not  less  than  18  per  cent,  has  been  thus 
destroyed.  This  represents  a  total  of  54,000  million  feet 
in  the  State,  with  an  estimated  value  of  54  million  dollars, 
which  the  author  very  truly  remarks  is  too  much  to  lose 
through  carelessness.  However,  as  the  region  of  the  fire 
area  is  well  watered,  reafforestation  appears  to  be  progress- 
ing favourably,  especially  where  the  burns  have  not  been 
extensive ;  but,  where  many  square  miles  have  been  in- 
volved, the  lack  of  seed  has  retarded  the  process  consider- 
ably. The  dangerous  fire  season  is  autumn,  when  most 
things  are  dry.  However,  the  magnitude  of  such  devasta- 
tions appears  to  have  been  worse  prior  to  and  during  the 
days  of  early  settlement — from  1843  to  1870.  The  rest  of  the 
paper  consists  of  extremely  valuable  notes  accompanied  by 
tables  which  give  a  classification  of  the  lands  together 
with  the  amount  and  classification  of  timber  for  each 
pounty  in  the  State.  There  is  no  extraneous  matter  brought 
in — each  sentence  is  pithy  and  to  the  point.  The  text, 
accompanied  as  it  is  by  illustrations  and  maps,  gives  as 
perfect  an  idea  of  the  character  and  stand  of  the  timber  of 
Oregon  as  can  well  be  conceived.  ■ 

The  next  professional  paper  (No.  2)  of  the  series  is  by  the 
same  author.  It  deals  with  a  revision  of  the  estimates  of 
the  standing  timber  and  its  distribution  in  the  State  of 
Washington.  These  forests  consist  mainly  of  red  fir 
(Pseudotsuga  taxifolia),  mingled  with  spruce,  hemlock,  and 
cedar.     They    are    the    densest,    heaviest,    and    most    con- 


tinuous in  the  States,  with  the  exception  of  the  red  wood 
forests  of  California.  The  author's  general  description  is 
followed  by  a  summary  of  the  standing  timber  in  Washing- 
ton, after  which  each  county  is  taken  up  separately  and 
in  detail. 

The  revised  estimate  shows  an  increase  over  that  given 
in  a  former  report ;  this  is  due  to  the  inclusion  of  species 
which  have  novv  come  into  use,  and  also  such  species  as 
are  of  known  value    though  at  present  not  utilised. 

The  next  report  (No.  3)  of  the  series  is  by  Mr.  Fred  G. 
Plummer.  It  deals  with  the  forest  conditions  in  that  part 
of  the  Cascade  Range  lying  between  the  Mount  Rainier 
and  Washington  Forest  Reserve.  The  land  classification 
map  which  accompanies  this  report  covers  2,800,000  acres, 
but  after  deducting  the  naturally  timberless  areas,  such 
as  arid  lands,  lakes,  and  glaciers,  also  the  area  destroyed 
by  fire  (8  per  cent.)  and  logging  (1-64  per  cent.),  there 
remains  an  area  of  2,292,820  acres  which  can  be  called 
timber  lands.  After  dealing  with  general  matters,  the 
author  gives  a  list  of  trees  and  shrubs  of  central  Washing- 
ton, which  is  followed  by  a  very  useful  and  instructive 
table  showing  the  distribution  of  species  by  zones  of  alti- 
tude. Then  comes  a  detailed  record  of  the  amount  of 
vegetable  growth  supported  by  an  acre  of  average  soil  of 
the  Cascade  Mountains.  The  defects  and  diseases  of  timber 
trees,  also  the  market  prices  of  lumber,  receive  due  atten- 
tion. The  bulk  of  the  report  is  taken  up  with  detailed 
descriptions  of  the  various  watershed  areas.  At  the  end 
of  the  paper  irrigation,  grazing,  and  mineral  springs  are 
reported  upon.  The  author's  remarks  on  irrigation  are 
interesting,  as  they  show  what  can  be  done  in  the_  way  of 
reclaiming  and  utilising  arid  tracts  for  agricultural 
purposes. 

Report  No.  4  of  the  series  deals  with  the  conditions  of 
the  Olympic  Forest  Reserve,  Washington,  and  has  been 
prepared  from  field  notes  taken  by  Messrs.  Arthur  Dodwell 
and  Theodore  F.  Rixon.  It  deals  first  with  topographical 
matters,  agricultural  lands,  stand  of  timber,  timber  trees, 
forest  fires,  mining,  roads,  &c.  The  principal  part  of  the 
report  gives  a  detailed  description  of  the  various  town- 
ships contained  in  the  forest  reserve.  There  is  much 
useful  information  regarding  the  accessibility  of  the  forests 
and  the  facilities  of  timber  transport,  which  are  matters 
of  considerable  importance. 

The  forest  conditions  in  the  northern  part  of  Sierra 
Nevada,  by  John  B.  Leiberg,  form  the  fifth  paper  of  the 
series.  This  report  deals  with  the  topographical  features 
of  the  region  examined,  along  with  the  extent  and  com- 
position of  the  forest  and  woodland.  The  distribution  of 
the  various  coniferous  trees  and  forest  type  presented  by 
each  receive  adequate  attention  from  a  sylvicultural  point 
of  view.  The  topographical,  agricultural,  and  sylvicultural 
aspects  of  the  various  river  basins  are  then  taken  up  and 
described  in  detail. 

In  addition  to  the  above,  three  volumes  on  forestry,  each 
consisting  of  several  papers,  have  already  been  published 
in  former  annual  reports  of  the  United  States  Geological 
Survey. 

We  have  only  been  able  to  sketch  in  the  briefest  outline 
the  scope  and  significance  of  the  above  works,  which  re- 
present several  years  of  painstaking  and  accurate  investi- 
gation. The  undertaking  shovv's  that  the  great  importance 
of  the  forest  is  now  duly  recognised  in  America,  although 
not  so  many  years  have  elapsed  since  forestry  was  a  com- 
paratively unknown  science  in  that  country. 

In  the  days  of  early  settlement  axe  and  fire  were  in- 
discriminately employed  to  the  great  destruction  _  of  the 
forest,  and  in  later  days,  when  timber  was  required  for 
structural  purposes,  lumbering  operations  were  so  diligently 
and  recklessly  pursued  in  the  most  accessible  forests  that 
in  a  short  time  they  were  depleted  of  all  but  the  most 
worthless  material.  He  who  wants  a  vivid  description  of 
thi=  state  of  affairs  need  only  refer  to  Prof.  Heinrich 
Mayr's  work,  "  Die  Waldungen  von  Nord  America," 
which  contains  a  great  amount  of  information  and  good 
advice  as  regards  the  conservation  of  the  North  American 
forests.  We  are  glad  to  see  such  advice  has  now  been 
accepted.  The  good  work  already  done  by  the  Geological 
Survey  will  form  a  basis  upon  which  future  schemes  of 
management  for  the  conservation  of  the  forests  of  North 
America  may  be  built. 


NO.    1765,  VOL.  68] 


August  27,  1903] 


NATURE 


407 


THE  VIENNA  ACADEMY  OF  SCIENCES. 
IXT'E  have  lately  received  the  Proceedings  (vol.  cxi.)  of 
*'  the  Imperial  Academy  of  Sciences  at  Vienna 
(Sitzungsberichte  der  kaiserlichen  Akademic  der  Wisscn- 
schaftcn)  for  part  of  1902.  The  volume  is  an  important 
publication  now,  and  is  divided  into  four  sections,  dealing 
with  different  branches  of  the  natural  and  physical  sciences. 
Section  i.  (April  to  July)  includes  mineralogy,  crystallo- 
graphy, botany,  physiology  of  plants,  zoology,  palaeonto- 
logy, geology,  physical  geography,  and  travels.  We 
notice  several  important  papers  on  systematic  zoology  and 
botany;  by  F.  Siebenrock,  on  Podocnemis,  Wagl.,  a  genu? 
of  tortoises  ;  by  A.  Zahlbruckner,  on  Brazilian  Lichens  ;  by 

E.  Lampa,  on  liverworts ;  and  by  A.  Attems,  on  the 
Myriopoda  of  Crete.  There  are  also  papers  by  O.  Richter, 
on  magnesium  in  its  relation  to  plants ;  by  F.  Pischinger, 
on  the  structure  and  regeneration  of  the  assimilative 
apparatus  of  Streptocarpus  and  Monophyllaea  ;  by  A.  Abel, 
on  asymmetry  in  the  skulls  of  the  toothed  whales ;  by 
H.  Hofer,  on  petroleum  ;  and  by  F.  Berwerth,  on  the  struc- 
ture of  a  meteorite  from  Mukerop,  German  West  Africa  ; 
and  several  other  papers,  chiefly  dealing  with  geology  and 
palaeontology. 

In  section  iia.  (May  to  July),  devoted  to  mathematics, 
astronomy,  physics,  meteorology,  and  mechanics,  we  have  a 
large  number  of  important  papers,  of  which  those  relating 
to  meteorology  are  perhaps  of  most  general  interest,  such  as 
those  by  J.  Haan,  on  the  meteorology  of  the  equator,  from 
observations    taken    at    the    Museum    Goeldi    at    Para ;    by 

F.  M.  Exner,  on  the  variations  of  the  pressure  of  the  air 
from  day  to  day;  and  by  J.  Valentin,  on  the  fall  of  dust 
between  March  9-12,  1901.  There  are  also  several  interest- 
ing papers  on  electricity,  magnetism,  photography,  &c., 
as  well  as  on  mechanics  and  applied  mathematics. 

Section  lib.  (April  to  July)  includes  chemistry,  and  com- 
prises a  large  number  of  papers  by  various  writers,  among 
which  we  notice  one,  by  R.  von  Hasslinger,  on  the  form- 
ation of  artificial  diamonds  by  the  fusion  of  silicates. 

Section  iii.  (January  to  December)  deals  with  the  anatomy 
and  physiology  of  men  and  animals,  and  also  with 
theoretical  medicine.  There  are  only  a  few  papers  of  im- 
portance in  this  section;  by  C.  Storel,  on  caseine  in  asses' 
milk  ;  by  F.  Winkler,  on  the  infiltration  of  the  vessels  of 
the  skin,  when  stimulated  by  heat ;  by  F.  Ballner,  on  the 
disinfective  effect  of  saturated  vapour  of  water  at  different 
boiling  points ;  by  O.  Low,  on  the  chemiotaxis  of  sperm- 
atozoa in  the  female  genital  tract ;  by  S.  von  Schuhmacher, 
on  the  cardiac  nerves  of  men  and  Mammalia  ;  by  K.  Toldt, 
jun.,  on  the  development  and  structure  of  the  zygoma  in 
man  ;  and  by  J.  Seegen,  on  the  influence  of  alcohol  on  the 
diastatic  energy  of  the  ferments  of  saliva  and  of  the  secre- 
tion of  thfe  pancreas ;  and  also  on  the  formation  of  sugar  in 
liver  preserved  in  alcohol. 

This  imperfect  sketch  may  serve  to  illustrate  the  activity 
of  Austrians  in  various  branches  of  science,  and  it  will 
also  be  seen  that,  while  the  separation  of  the  journal  into 
sections  is  convenient,  it  can  only  be  rough  and  imperfect, 
fo*"  the  various  sciences  trench  upon  each  other  to  such  an 
extent  that  many  papers  might  almost  as  well  be  referred 
to  a  different  section  to  those  in  which  they  have  been  with 
equal  propriety  placed  ;  thus  a  paper  on  organic  chemistry 
would  not  be  out  of  place  in  the  section  on  physiology,  or 
perhaps  even  zoology  or  botany,  and  so  in  other  instances. 

We  may  also  direct  attention  to  another  point.  All  the 
papers  in  this  volume  (apart  from  their  publication  in  it) 
are  separately  priced,  and  can  be  bought  separately.  In 
Britain,  except  where  a  paper  fills  the  whole  of  a  part,  this 
is  not  the  case,  and  separate  papers  are  only  furnished  to 
authors  to  give  away,  on  the  tacit  understanding  that  they 
are  not  to  be  sold.  Perhaps  this  is  sufficient  for  British 
needs,  owing  to  the  much  smaller  number  of  students  who 
are  engaged  in  special  scientific  work  in  Britain,  as  com- 
pared with  German-speaking  countries. 

UNIVERSITY   AND    EDUCATIONAL 

INTELLIGENCE. 

On  more  than  one  occasion  it  has  been  pointed  out  in 

these  columns  that  the  study  of  economic  botany  is  neglected 

by  our  universities  and  colleges.     But   though   educational 

authorities  have  failed  to  make  provision  for  students  and 

NO.   1765,  VOL,  68] 


research  in  economic  botany,  Kew  has  long  been  a  training 
school  from  which  men  have  been  sent  to  all  parts  of  the 
world,  and  a  centre  of  expert  advice  on  vegetable  pro- 
ducts. For  thirty  years  or  more  a  course  of  lectures  on 
economic  botany,  intended  to  prepare  men  fcr  service  in 
India  and  the  colonies,  has  been  given  in  the  museums  of 
the  Royal  Botanic  Gardens,  Kew ;  and  th«?  course  just 
finished,  by  Mr.  J.  M.  Hillier,  the  keeper  was  attended 
by  twenty  gardeners  in  training.  It  is  <iesirable  that 
the  study  of  vegetable  economics  should  be  encouraged 
in  great  commercial  centres  such  as  Glasgow,  Liverpool 
and  Belfast,  as  suggested  by  Prof.  Bower  in  an  address 
referred  to  in  Nature  of  December  18,  1902  (vol.  Ixvii. 
p.  165) ;  but  it  must  not  be  forgotten  that,  while  universi- 
ties and  educational  authorities  have  practically  ignored 
the  subject,  Kew  has  been  steadily  training  practical 
botanists  and  investigators  for  botanic  gardens  and  other 
establishments  at  home  and  abroad.  As  a  result  there  is 
now  scarcely  a  botanic  garden  in  India  and  the  colonies 
which  has  not  on  its  staff  one  or  more  men  trainefd  at  Kew 
or  recommended  by  the  director  of  the  Royal  Gardens. 
Kew  affords  facilities  for  scientific  and  technical  training 
in  botany  unequalled  by  any  other  institution,  and  it  is 
satisfactory  to  know  that  so  many  members  of  the  staffs  of 
our  botanic  gardens  have  been  trained  there. 

We  have  received  two  publications  from  the  United 
States  concerning  the  education  of  deaf  children.  One 
pamphlet  is  the  sixth  report  of  the  home  in  Philadelphia 
for  the  training  in  speech  of  deaf  children  before  they  are 
of  school  age,  and  the  other  is  a  special  report,  by  the 
superintendent  of  schools,  of  the  school  for  the  deaf  and 
the  normal  training  department  for  teachers  of  the  deaf  in 
connection  with  the  Board  of  Education  of  the  City  of 
Detroit.  These  booklets  show  clearly  enough  that  it  is 
quite  possible  so  to  educate  deaf  children  that  they  can 
understand  ordinary  speech,  and  so  work  satisfactorily  with 
normal  persons. 

We  have  received  a  copy  of  the  report  of  Prof.  Starling, 
the  Dean  of  the  Faculty  of  Science  of  University  College, 
London.  The  report  was  read  at  the  assembly  of  the 
P'aculties  of  Arts  and  Laws  and  of  Science  which  took 
place  in  July  last,  and  reference  was  made  to  it  in  our 
issue  for  July  9.  Referring  to  the  amount  of  scientific  re- 
search done  at  University  College,  Prof.  Starling  says  : — 
"  I  believe  I  may  safely  assert  that  in  no  utiiversity  does 
the  quality  and  the  quantity  of  the  original  work  turned 
out  exceed  that  which  we  have  to  record  at  University 
College.  Our  success  in  this  direction  is  attested  by  the 
continued  increase  in  the  number  of  research  students,  that 
is  of  men  of  the  highest  ability  who  are  seeking  the  best 
form  of  training  for  their  subsequent  careers.  Whereas 
last  year  we  had  seventy-two  research  students,  this  year 
we  have  eighty-seven  on  our  books.  These  men  are  drawn 
from  all  parts  of  the  world,  the  British  Isles,  colonies  of 
Canada,  Australia  and  South  Africa,  and  our  Indian  depen- 
dencies, Japan,  Germany,  Switzerland,  and  so  on.  Much 
of  the  work  which  they  have  turned  out  represents  im- 
portant advances  in  our  knowledge,  and  will  be  of  lasting 
value.  It  is  satisfactory  to  know  that,  whereas  a  few  years 
back  all  our  best  students  and  we  ourselves  regarded  a  visit 
to  Germany  as  a  necessary  part  of  a  science  curriculum, 
the  conditions  are  now  beginning  to  be  reversed."  Ihe 
list  of  original  papers  and  other  publications  from  the 
scientific  departments  of  University  College  during  the  past 
year,  with  which  the  report  concludes,  contains  more  than 
a  hundred  entries. 

A  Blue-book  showing  the  amount  spent  on  technical 
education  by  local  authorities  in  England  and  Wales,  with 
the  exception  of  five  which  have  made  no  return,  during 
the  year  1901-2  has  been  issued  by  the  Board  of  Educa- 
tion. The  return  shows  that  the  total  amount  thus  ex- 
pended on  technical  education  in  England  and  Wales  'during 
th-i  year  1901-2  was  1,057,399/.  This  amount  is  exclusive 
of  the  sums  allocated  to  intermediate  and  technical  educa- 
tion under  the  Welsh  Intermediate  Education  Act,  i88f. 
The  amount  raised  by  loan  on  the  security  of  the  local  rate 
under  the  Technical  Instruction  Acts  was  206,426/.,  the 
amount  of  loans,  so  raised,  outstanding  was  1,030,952/., 
and  the  balance  in  hand  of  moneys  received  and  allocated 
to  technical  instruction  was  658,319/.   165. 


II 


4o8 


NATURE 


[August  27,  1903 


SOCIETIES  AND  ACADEMIES. 

Edinburgh. 

Royal    Society,  July   20.— The    Rev.    Prof.    Flint   in   the 
chair.— An    obituary    notice    of    Prof.    Cremona,    by    Prof. 
Elaserna,    was    communicated    by    Prof.     Chrystal.— Mr. 
James  Russell  read  a  paper  on  the  molecular  condition  of 
iron,   demagnetised  by  various  methods,   in  which   a  large 
number  of  experiments  on  the  mutual  effects  of  superposed 
magnetisations   were   described   and   discussed   in   the   light 
of     the     molecular     theory     which     had     suggested     them. 
According   to   the   author's   view,    when   iron   has   been   de- 
magnetised  by    a   series   of    reversals   diminishing   by    very 
small  steps,   the  molecules  in  any  small  region,   instead  of 
being  left  in  a  condition  in  which  as  many  point  one  w^ay 
as     another,     are     left     with     a     preponderance     pointing 
uniformly  round  the  equatorial  belt  at  right  angles  to  the 
direction     in     which     the     magnetising     forces     had     been 
applied.     It    is   obvious   that    if   a    new    magnetic   force    be 
applied  codirectional  with,  or  perpendicular  to,  the  direction 
of   the   original    set   of   forces,    there   will   be   no    induction 
at  right  angles  to  the  new  force.     But  if  the  new  force  be 
applied  in  any  other  direction,   there  will  be  a  component 
of  induction  perpendicular  to  this  direction.     The  consider- 
,atlon  of  the  theory   in  various  combinations  led  to  results 
■which  were  tested  by  experiment.     In  all  cases  the  theory 
-stood  the  test  of  experiment  satisfactorily.— Dr.   D.   Eraser 
Harris  read  a  paper  on  affectability  and  functional  inertia 
.as   the   two   fundamental   properties   of   protoplasm.     These 
were  regarded  as  the  two  physiologically  opposite  functional 
capabilities,  the  degree  of  the  relative  intensities  of  which 
determined  the  particular  manifestation  at  the  moment.     As 
examples     of     manifestation     of     functional     inertia     were 
mentioned  insusceptibility,  automatism,   heredity,  rhythmic- 
ality  of  action,  the  manner  in  which  functional  exhaustion 
was  warded  off    and  the   state  of  fatigue  substituted,   &c. 
Functional  inertia  not  only  accounted  for  vestigial  organs, 
but  also  for  vestigial  metabolism,  as,  e.g.  the  formation  of 
uric   acid  in   the  mammal,    an   avian   or  reptilian   metabolic 
relic— Dr.  Noel  Paton  communicated  a  paper  on.  October 
salmon  in  the  sea,   in  which  some  new  points  in  the  life- 
history  of  these  fish  were  brought  to  light.     In  late  runs 
of  salmon  male  fish  markedly  preponderated.     In  the  series 
studied,   ovaries  in  all  stages  of  development   were   found, 
SD   that  ripeness  of  ovary   was   not  the  determining  factor 
of  migration  from  sea  to  river.     One  fish  which  had  been 
obtained  was  of  peculiar  interest.     In  its  strong  mandible 
and  large  teeth  it  resembled  a  male,  but  when  the  viscera 
•were  exposed  ovaries  were  found.     The  ovaries  were  flabby 
and    soft,    and    had    a   yellowish    opaque    appearance,    with 
ipale  opaque  patches  on  many  of  the  eggs. — In  a  note  on 
resistance   change   accompanying   transverse    magnetisation 
in  nickel   wire.    Prof.   C.   G.   Knott  and  Mr.    P.    Ross  de- 
scribed an  experiment  which  seemed  to  show  that  in  nickel 
wire  in  strong  fields  (in  moderate  fields  in  which  the  effect 
of    longitudinal    magnetisation    is    easily    observed    there    is 
no   measurable   effect)     there    is   very    slight    effect   until   a 
field  of  nearly  2000  units  is  reached,    when   the   resistance 
begins  rapidly  to  decrease,  and  goes  on  decreasing  linearly 
with  increase  of  current  to  fields  of  5000.     When  the  coil 
(s  wound  with  a  pitch  of  i  in  20,  the  component  of  the  field 
along  the  wire  gives  rise  to  an  increase  of  resistance    which 
in  the  lower  fields  may  counterbalance  the  slight  decrease 
4ue  to  the  transverse  field.     In  the  higher  fields,  however, 
this  longitudinal  effect   is  of  comparatively   small   account. 
^-Mr.  J.  H.  Maclagan  Wedderburn  communicated  a  paper 
.on  the  application  of  quaternions  in  the  theory  of  differential 
.equations. — In  a  note  on  a  method  of  bringing  together  the 
two    spectra   produced   by    the   ordinary    spectrophotometer, 
Mr.  J.   R.  Mlino  described  a  neat  application  of  the  well- 
knowa  heliometric  device  of  the  divided  lens.     By  using  a 
divided  lens  in  the  eye-piece,  he  was  able  not  only  to  bring 
the    two    spectra    edge    to    edge    without    intervening    dark 
space,  but  was  able  to  shift  the  spectra  sideways  relatively 
to  one  another  so  as  to  compare  directly  the  luminosities 
of  strips  belonging  to  different  parts  of  the  spectrum. — A 
paper  by  Dr.  Thomas  Muir  on  the  theory  of  axisymmetric 
determinants  in  the  historical  order  of  development  up   to 
1841  was  also  communicated. 

NO.    1765,  VOL    68] 


Paris. 
Academy  of  Sciences,  August  17. — M,  Albeit  Gaudry  in 
the  chair. — .Spectroscopic  observations  of  the  Borrelly  comet 
(1903  c),  bv  M.  H.  Deslandres.  The  spectrum  obtained 
with  an  exposure  of  two  hours  is  nearly  identical  with  that 
of. the  comet  1893  b  (Rordame).  The  bands  due  to  hydro- 
carbons and  cyanogen  are  clearly  made  out,  and  from  the 
nature  of  the  cyanogen  bands  it  is  concluded  that  the 
illumination  of  this  gas  on  the  comet  is  due  to  electrical 
phenomena. — On  the  aerodynamical  phenomena  produced 
by  the  cannon  used  in  dispersing  hailstorms,  by  M.  J. 
Violle. — Examples  of  the  mechanical  analysis  of  soils,- 
by  M.  Th.  Schloesing:,  sen.  Examples  are  given 
of  the  mechanical  analysis  of  soils  by  the  method  de- 
scribed in  a  previous  paper.  It  is  shown  that  the  amount 
of  clay  does  not  interfere,  and  that  analyses  of  the  same 
earth,  repeated  under  different  conditions,  give  concordant 
results. — On  the  relation  of  the  work  of  S.  Lie  to  that  of 
Liouville,  by  M.  N.  Saltykow. — On  entire  functions  of 
zero  order,  by  M.  Edm.  Maillet. — On  the  integrals  of 
Fourier-Cauchy,  by  M.  Carl  StSrmer. — A  diagram  giving 
the  properties  of  nickel-steels,  by  M.  L6on  Guillet.  The 
diagram  is  constructed  with  percentages  of  carbon  as 
abscissae,  and  percentages  of  nickel  as  ordinates.  The 
diagram  is  divided  into  four  areas,  and  allows  of  the  deduc- 
tion of  the  structure  and  mechanical  properties  of  the  steel 
from  its  composition. — On  unsymmetrical  tetramethyl-di- 
amino-diphenylene-phenyl-methane  and  related  dye-stuffs, 
by  MM.  A.  Guyot  and  M.  Granderye. — A  fixing  liquid 
isotonic  with  sea-water,  by  M.  M.  C.  Dekhuyzen.  The 
solution  is  made  up  of  a  2-5  per  cent,  solution  of  potassium 
bichromate  in  sea-water,  250.0.  of  normal  nitric  acid,  and 
54c. c.  of  a  2  per  cent,  solution  of  osmic  acid. — On  the 
presence  of  lactic  acid  in  the  muscles  of  the  invertebrates 
and  the  lower  vertebrates,  by  M.  Jean  Gautrelet. — On  the 
presence  of  microsporidia  of  the  genus  Thelohania  in 
insects,  by  M.  Edmond  Hesse. — On  the  post-embryonic 
development  of  Ixodes,  by  M.  A.  Bonnet. 


CONTENTS.  PAGE 

Alcoholic  Fermentation.     By  Dr.  Arthur  Croft  Hill  385 

An  Indian  Flora.     By  Prof.  Percy  Groom 386 

The  Study  of  Fermentation      .    .               .  ^87 
Our  Book  Shelf:— 

M'Aulay :     "  Five    Figure     Logarithmic    and   other 
Tables  ;  Dietrichkeit :  "  Siebenstellige  Logarithmen 

und  Antilogarithmen  " ....  388 

Jouzier  :  "  Economic  rurale  " 388 

"A  Naturalist's  Calendar,  kept  at  Swafifham  Bulbeck, 
Cambridgeshire,  by  Leonard    Blomefield  (formerly 

Jenyns)."— R.   L 389 

Fisher  and  Patterson  :  "Elements  of  Physics,  Experi- 
mental and  Descriptive  "      389 

Letters  to  the  Editor  :— 

An  Earthquake  Shock  at  Kimberley. — ^J.  R.  Sutton  .  389 
Sunspots  and  Phenology.     (IVM  Diagram.)— Alex. 

B.  MacDowall 389 

Retarded  Motion  of  the  Great  Red  Spot  on  Tupiter. — 

W.  F.  Denning 390 

Two  Spots  on  Saturn. — W.  F.  Denning 390 

The  Southport  Meeting  of  the  British  Association  .  390 

The  Older  Civilisation  of  Greece.     (IllvstrafeJ.\     .    .  391 

The  Marquis  of  Salisbury  .            392 

Prof.  Luigi  Cremona 393 

Notes .        .  394 

Our  Astronomical  Column  :— 

Astronomical  Occurrences  in  September 357 

New  Table  for  Ex-Meridian  Observations  of  Altitude  397 

Return  of  Brooks's  Comet 398 

Ephemeris  for  Comet  1903  c 398 

o  Coronee  a  Spectroscopic  Binary 398 

The  Allegheny  Observatory 398 

The    Relations   between    Scientific    Research    and 
Chemical  Industry.     By  Prof.  Raphael  Meldola, 

F.R.S ....  398 

Irrigation  Works    ...               404 

Forestry  in  the  United  States 406 

The  Vienna  Academy  of  Sciences 407 

University  and  Educational  Intelligence    .    .            .  407 

Societies  and  Academies 408 


NATURE 


409 


\ 


THURSDAY,    SEPTEMBER    3,     1903. 


PSYCHOMETRIC    OBSERVATIONS    IN 
ML  RR  AY  ISLAND. 

Reports  of  the  Cambridge  Anthropological  Expedition 
to  Torres  Straits.     Vol.  ii.,  Physiology-  and  Psycho- 
log\-.     Part  i.,  Vision.     Pp.  vi+140.     By  W.  H.  R. 
Rivers,    with   an    appendix    by    C.    G.    Seligmann. 
Part  ii..  Hearing,  SmelJ,  Taste,  Cutaneous  Sensa- 
tions,  Muscular  Sense,   Reaction-Times.     By  C.   S. 
Myers   and   \V.    McDougall.     Pp.    141-223.     (Cam- 
bridge: University  Press,  1901,   1903.) 
IN   his  short  preface  to  this   second  volume  of  the 
Cambridge  anthropological  reports,    Dr.    Haddon 
remarks  that  no  investigation  of  a  race  of  people  can 
be  considered  as  complete  unless  it  embraces  observ- 
ations on  such  psychological  phenomena  as  admit  of 
definite  determination.       In   order  to  carry   this   into 
practice,  he  appears  to  have  resolved  that  such  branches 
of  study  should  be  efficiently  dealt  with  in  the  second 
expedition   to  Torres  Straits.       Dr.    Haddon   is  to  be 
congratulated   on   having   framed   this   comprehensive 
and  truly  scientific  conception  of  ethnographical  study, 
and  he  is  further  to  be  congratulated  on  having  secured 
the  services  of  such  efficient  psychological  representa- 
tives as  Dr.  Rivers,  Dr.   Myers,  and  Dr.   McDougall. 
The   psychometric   observations   carried   out   by    these 
gentlemen  have,  as  was  to  be  expected,  been  conducted 
on  thoroughly  sound  lines,  and  the  results  described 
in  the  reports  thus  form  not  only  an  extremely  valu- 
able  addition    to   anthropological   knowledge,    but   an 
almost  unique  contribution    to  the  physiology  of  the 
special  senses.     To  Dr.    Rivers    in  particular,  special 
praise  is  due  for  the  thoyghtful  care  which  he  has 
bestowed  upon  the  conduct  of  the  inquiry,  and  for  the 
way    in    which    he    has    collated    and    presented    the 
results. 

The  main  part  of  the  work  was  carried  out  in 
Murray  Island,  where  the  observers  lived  for  four 
months.  This  island  was  originally  selected  by  Dr. 
Haddon  as  being,  in  his  judgment,  particularly  favour- 
able for  the  study  of  a  simple  primitive  people ;  it  is 
out  of  the  track  of  commerce,  and  its  inhabitants  still 
retain  their  simple  natural  characteristics ;  it  is  true 
that  they  have  come  into  contact  with  missionaries 
and  have  acquired  a  certain  knowledge  of  pidgin 
English,  but  this  was  found  to  be  a  distinct  advantage 
from  the  point  of  view  of  the  expedition,  since  it 
facilitated  the  establishment  of  a  good  understanding 
between  the  natives  and  the  members  of  the  expedi- 
tion, besides  enabling  the  observers,  to  converse  more 
freely  with  those  selected  for  psychometric  experiment. 
The  limited  population,  450  all  told,  was  ah  obvious 
aid  to  the  inquiry,  and,  judging  from  the  reports,  it 
appears  doubtful  if  any  other  community,  European 
or  Polynesian,  has  been  psychometrically  investigated 
under  more  favourable  conditions  as .  regards  both 
absence  of  disturbing  factors  and  simplification  of 
method. 

The  observations  discussed  in  the  reports  are  mainly 
those    involving    sensation,    their    scope   being    deter- 
mined  by    the    time   at    the   disposal    of    the    investi- 
NO.    1766,  VOL.  68] 


gators,  the  available  apparatus,  and  the  natpre  of 
the  individuals  on  whom  the  experiments  were  made. 
In  the  first  part  of  the  reports  Dr.  Rivers  gives  an 
account  of  various  visual  experiments  chiefly  made  on 
the  Murray  islanders,  but  also  carried  out  with  the  aid 
of  Dr.  Seligmann  on  some  of  the  other  small  islands 
in  Torres  Straits.  The  chief  points  aimed  at  were  the 
determination  of  visual  acuity,  of  colour  vision,  and 
of  visual  spatial  perception.  As  regards  visual  acuity, 
the  most  trustworthy  test  seemed  to  be  the  well-known 
E  type  method,  which  consists  in  determining  at  what 
distance  a  given  size  of  this  letter  can  be  recognised ; 
the  letter  was  placed  in  various  positions  (sideways, 
upside  down,  &c.),  and  recognition  was  indicated  by 
the  observed  person  placing  in  a  similar  position  a 
corresponding  E  on  a  card  which  he  held  in  his  hand. 
The  conclusion  arrived  at  by  Dr.  Rivers  is  that  the 
visual  acuity  of  the  Torres  Straits  islanders  is  only 
slightly  more  pronounced  than  that  of  normal  Euro- 
peans, and  that  probably  this  difl'erence  would  dis- 
appear on  taking  into  account  the  refractive  errors, 
myopic  and  other,  of  the  latter  class.  The  unanimity 
with  which  travellers  ascribe  a  high  degree  of  visual 
acuity  to  savage  races  does  not,  therefore,  mean  that 
these  races  have  organs  which  are  abnormally  sensitive 
to  stimulation  by  light,  but  is  related  to  the  power  of 
the  primitive  savage  to  make  correct  inferences  from 
comparatively  insignificant  visual  data.  This  power 
does  not  depend  on  a  more  perfect  organ,  but  is  associ- 
ated with  the  close  attention  which  the  savage  pays 
to  the  natural  objects  which  surround  him.  Dr. 
Rivers  appears  to  agree  with  Ranke  in  believing  that 
this  close  attention  to  detail  can  be  acquired  by  prac- 
tice, but  that  in  primitive  races  it  is  associated  with 
lower  mental  development  and  with  incapacity  to  feel 
any  marked  aesthetic  interest  or  enjoyment  even  in 
scenes  which  the  European  regards  as  of  great  natural 
beauty. 

A  very  large  number  of  observations  Vvere  made  upon 
the  extremely  interesting  phenomena  of  colour  vision. 
It  is  well  known  that  the  references  to  colour  in 
classical  literature  show  a  limited  variety  of  colour 
nomenclature  as  compared  with  modern  colour  vocabu- 
laries. The  view,  of  Gladstone  and  others  that  this 
indicates  a  difference  between  the  range  of  colour 
sensations  of  the  ancients  and  those  of  their  modern 
successors  has,  however,  been  generally  rejected  on 
the  ground  that  sensations  may  have  been  undoubtedly 
experienced  even  when  no  special  terminology  has 
been  framed  in  order  to  describe  them.  It  appears, 
however,  from  the  observations  on  the  Murray 
islanders  that  it  is  precisely  those  colour  sensations 
which  are  more  or  less  defective  for  which  there  is 
no  definite  descriptive  word,  thus  supporting  Glad- 
stone's views.  In  Murray  Island  107  individuals  were 
tested  for  colour,  and  it  is  remarkable  that  not  a  single 
case  of  red-green  blindness  could  be  detected,  although 
in  Europeans  such  defects  amount  to  quite  4  per  cent. 

The  colour  vocabulary  is  largely  framed  from  the 
names  of  such  natural  objects  as  force  themselves  on 
the  attention ;  thus  the  word  for  '*  red  "  is  derived  from 
blood,  that  for  •'  green  "from  the  bile  of  the  turtle, 
it  being  common  knowledge  that  if  the  turtle's  gall- 
bladder   was    accideiitally    opened    in    preparing    the 


Qrio 


Isf-ATURE 


[September  3    1903 


Animal  for  food, 'then  the  intensely  green  bile  rendered 
b\\  parts  inedible ;  only  one  colour  \vas  named  from  the 
hue  of  a  flower,  in  spite  of  the  great  variety  which 
tropical  flowers  show.  Points  Of  equal  interest  are  the 
'indefinite  character  of  the  word  used  for  "  blue,"  this 
feeing  applied  indifferently  to  blue-green,  dirty  yellow, 
grey,&c.,  and  the  complete  absence  of  any  word  for 
■^' brown,"  the  language  resembling  in  this  respect 
Homeric  Greek.  The  Murray  islander  recognised 
•"red"  far  mor6  distinctly  than  any  other  colour; 
yeilow  was  the  next  most  recognisable  hue,  "  blue  " 
could  Only  be  differentiated  when  in  considerable 
strength,  and  brown  was  merely  a 'dull-looking  light. 

In  this  connection  the  simple  experiments  made  upon 
peripheral  colour"  vision  were  extremely  suggestive. 
It  is  well  known  that  in  the  European  the  red-green 
visual  field  is  the  smallest,  whilst  the  blue  and  yellow 
fields  are  far  larger,  but  in  the  Murray  islander  the 
green  field  was  distinctly  the  smallest,  and  the  red 
field  extended  widely  into  the  peripheral  regions ;  the 
largest  field  of  all  was,  however,  the  blue  one,  these 
colours  being  far '  better  recognised  with  peripheral 
vision  than  in  vision  involving  the  central  macula. 
Probably,  as'  Dr.  Rivers  suggests,  the  defective  stimu- 
lation of  the  macula  by  blue  light  may  be  related  to 
the  excess  of  yellow  pigment  present  in  the  Papuan 
race,  and  would  not  be  in  itself  a  sign  of  defective 
retinal  capacity  for  excitation  by  these  rays. 
"  Many  other  points  of  great  interest  are  detailed'  in 
this  part  of. the  reports,  colour  contrast,  after-images, 
visual  perception  of  distance,  binocular  vision,  capacity 
to  bisect  lines,  capacity  to  compare  the  length  of 
vertical  with  that  of  horizontal  lines,  susceptibility  to 
such  well-known  visual  illusions  as  those  of  Miiller- 
Lyer,  Zollner's  line  displacements,  &c.  In  regard  to 
all  these  points  there  appears  to  be  little,  if  any,  differ- 
ence between  the  Murray  islander  and  the  average 
European;  the, details  of  these  experiments  will  well 
repay  the  reader,  particularly  as  Dr.  Rivers  has  pre- 
sented the  results  and  described  the  methods  in  such 
a  manner  that  his  account  can  interest  those  who 
ihave  not  especially  devoted  theniselves  to  this  kind  of 
worli.  /  ' 

The  second  ■  part  of  the' present  volume  of  reports 
deals  with  other  sensory  phenomena.  '  The  investi- 
gation of  hearing  was  undertaken  by  Dr.  C.  S.  Myers  ; 
it  was  rendered  difficult  by  the  not  infrequent  presence 
■oif  defects  in  the  ears  due  to  the  now  prohibited  practice 
of  deep  diving  for  pearls.  The  expei-iments  on  the 
younger  inhabitants  were  free  from  such  hampering 
circumstances,  ^alnd  the  results  showed  that,  as  com- 
pared with  Europeans,  both  the  acuity  of  hearing  and 
the  capacity  to  '  distinguish  '  difference's  of  tone  were 
'distinctly  inferior  irt"  the  case  of  th6  islanders ;  on  the 
•other 'hand,  it  is  remarkable  that  the  range,  as  estim- 
ated by  •  modified  Galt6n  -whistles,;  was  at  •  least  as 
•extensive  in  the  islander  as  iii'tlie'  European.  The 
investigation  of  the  senSatio'n^^^bf  smell  by  Dr.  Myers 
was  also  extremely  difificult,  pvving  to  the' great  objec- 
'tions  entertained'  by'  the  islainders  for  this'  class  of 
experiment,'  but  it  'seems  :from  slucb  observations  as 
tould  be  made  that  there;  is  no  rriarked  hyper-sensitive- 
ness to  olfactory  stimulation  in  this  'primitive -race  as 
compared  with  EurOpieans'.  -      .      •  .  >  .■^ 

NO.   1766,  VOL.  68] 


Dr.  Myers  also  made  some  limited  experiments  on 
tastes ;  a  specially  interesting  feature  brought  out  by 
these  observations  is  the  complete  absence  of  any  word 
to  describe  the  extremely  conspicuous  gustatory  sensa- 
tion which  we  denote  as  "  bitter,"  although  it  is 
certain  that  the  sensation  was  experienced.  In  con- 
nection with  this  remarkable  omission  is  the  circum- 
stance that,  even  in  Europeans,  there  is  considerable 
confusion  as  to  the  sensory  significance  of  the  qualities 
connoted  by  the  word  "  bitter. "  Cutaneous  sensa- 
tions, muscular  sense,  &c.,  were  undertaken  by  Dr. 
McDougall,  and  here  there  are  some  striking,  but  not 
unexpected,  differences  between  the  Murray  islander 
and  the  European.  In  the  former  the  sense  of  pure 
contact  was  twice  as  delicate  as  in  the  average  English- 
man, whilst  the  susceptibility  to  pain  through  pressure, 
&c.,  was  far  less  pronounced.  It  is  somewhat  sur- 
prising, considering  how  unfamiliar  the  islanders  were 
with  the  necessary  procedure,  to  find  that,  as  regards 
the  estimation  of  different  weights,  the  average  least 
recognisable  weight  increment  was  actually  smaller 
in  their  case  than  in  the  corresponding  average  of 
thirty  Englishmen,  being  3.2  per  cent,  as  compared 
with  3-9  per  cent. 

Finally,  the  very  important  subject  of  reaction-time 
was  undertaken  by  Dr.  Myers,  who  gives  most  valu- 
able details  of  the  results  of  his  observations.  It 
appears  that,  as  regards  auditory  reaction-time,  the 
younger  Murray  islanders  give  results  identical  with 
the  average  young  English  townsmen,  but  that,  as 
regards  visual  reaction-time,  the  Murray  islanders  give 
distinctly  longer  results.  This  lag  becomes  more  per- 
ceptible when  the  attention  is  definitely  fixed  on  the 
visual  stimulus  rather  than  the  preconcerted  move- 
ment, a  .procedure  which  always  lengthens  the  re- 
action-time of  Europeans,  but  which  lengthened  that 
of  the  islander  comparatively  more.  Further,  when 
the  method  of  choice  visual  signal  was  used,  involving 
a  complexity  of  psychical  conditions,  then  the  increased 
lag  became  still  more  apparent.  The  reader  is  referred 
tp  the  original  for  the  very  instructive  and,  from  a 
psychological  standpoint,  most  suggestive  details  of 
these  observations. 

In  conclusion,  the  authors  are  to  be  heartily  con- 
gratulated on  the  appearance  of  this  work,  which  is 
a  very  important  contribution  to  both  physiology  and 
psychology.  The'  reports  form  a  lasting  memorial 
both  of  the  activity  of  Cambridge  anthropology  and  of 
the  genuine  character  of  the  scientific  spirit  which  now 
actuates  those  who  study  the  various  aspects  of  ethno- 
graphy; the  appearance  of  the  remaining  volumes 
promised  by  Dr.  Haddon  will  be  looked  forward  to 
with  the  greatest  interest  by  a  wide  circle  of  biological 
students.  '   F.  G.   . 

A    REVISION    OF   PRINCIPLES. 
The, Principles  of  Mathematics.     By  Bertrand  Russell, 
M.A.       Vol.     i.       Pp.     xxviii  +  534.       (Cambridge: 
University  Press,   1903.)     Price  125,  6d.  net. 

THE  appearance  of  a  book  addressed  equally,  to 
mathematicians  and  to  philosophers,  setting 
forth  all  the  assistance  which  philosophy  can  afford 
in'  the   shape   of    material    for   mathematics  .  to -work 


September  3,  1903] 


MATU^R'E. 


4U 


with,   is  a   remarkable  event,   and   the   fact  that   the 
criticism,  pertinent  and  lucid  as  it  is,  of  the  work  of  j 
(lie    g-reat   Continental    thinkers    is   adverse   on    many  ! 
tundamental   points     should   claim    for   it   the   patient 
roiisideration     of     both     classes     of     students.       We 
quote  : — 

"  The  distinction  of  philosophy  and  mathematics  is 
broadly  one  of  point  of  view :  mathematics  is  con- 
structive and  deductive,  philosophy  is  critical,  and  in 
a  certain  impersonal  sense  controversial.  Wherever 
we  have  deductive  reasoning,  we  have  mathematics ; 
but  the  principles  of  deduction,  the  recognition  of  in- 
definable entities,  and  the  distinguishing  between 
■irh  entities,  are  the  business  of  philosophy." 

In  answer  to  the  question,  "  what  is  mathematics?  " 
\\  f  are  told  that 

"  Pure  Mathematics  is  the  class  of  all  propositions 
of  the  form  '  p  implies  q  '  where  p  and  q  are  pro- 
positions containing  one  or  more  variables,  the  same 
in  the  two  propositions,  and  neither  p  nor  q  contains 
any  constants  except  logical  constants." 

These  logical  constants  are  defined  in  terms  of  the 
'  fundamental  concepts  which  mathematics  accepts  as 
indefinable ;  the  philosophical  discussion  of  the  latter 
occupies  part  i.  of  this  volume.  The  remaining  six 
parts  are  devoted  to  the  establishment  of  the  rriain 
thesis,  that  what  is  ordinarily  known  as  mathematics' 
is  deducible  from  these  fundamental  concepts  by  purely 
logical  processes.  This,  of  course,  necessitates  'a 
philosophical  account  of  the  processes  which  are 
admissible ;  the  carrying  out  of  the  deductions  in  their 
most  abstract  and  rigorous  form  lies  in  the  prdvihce' 
of  symbolic  logic,  and  is  reserved  for  the'  second 
volume. 

The  mathematical  reader  is  recommended  in  the 
preface  to  pass  over  some  of  the  more  philosophical 
portions  and  begin  at  part  iv.,  on  *'  Order."  We  do 
not  endorse  this  recommendation,  for  the  exact  estab- 
lishment of  the  notion  of  order  is  one  of  the  most- 
tedious  pieces  of  work  that  the  mathematical  philo- 
s.opher  has  to  do;  besides,  many  of  the  preceding 
chapters  are  not  only  extremely  interesting  in  them- 
selves, but  absolutely  essential  to  a  correct  appreciation 
of  the  science  of  arithmetic  subsequently  developed. 
For  example,  a  number  will  be  found  to  be  defined  as 

class. 

Concerning  the  notion  of  class,  some  slight  criticism 
may  not  be  inappropriate.  The  distinction  between 
class,  class-concept,  and  concept  of  class,  which  is  of 
fundamental  importance  to  exact  thinking,  is  made 
admirably  clear,  but  the  same  cannot  be  said  of  what 
is  necessary  >  to  constitute  a  class.  A  class  may  be 
defined  either  extensionally,  by  an  enumeration  of  its 
terms,  or  intensionally,  by  the  concept  which  denotes 
its  terms.  The  former  method  seems  applicable  only 
to  finite  classes;  we  cannot  agree  with  the  author  that 
it  is  logically,  though  not  practically,  applicable  to 
infinite  classes,  unless  some  meaning  is  attached  to 
the  word  "  enumeration  "  different  from  what  is 
ordinarily  understood.  On  the  other  hand,  the  latter 
method  implies  that  a  class  is  defined  by  a  predicate, 
I  and  contains  those  terms  of  which  the  predicate  is 
predicable ;  but  this  leads  to  an  apparent  contradiction 
which  Mr.  Kussell  has  discovered ;  for  consider  the 
NO.    1766,  VOL.  68] 


predicates  which  are  not  predicable  of  themselves,  for 
example,  humanity,  which  is  not  human;  "not  pre- 
dicable of  itself"  seems  to  be  a  predicate  defining  a 
class  of  predicates,  yet  to  suppose  that  this  defining, 
predicate  either  is,  or  is. not,  contained  in  that  class, 
leads  to  a  contradiction.  A  similar  contradiction  is 
reached  when  we  consider  the  class  whose  terms 
are  all  the  classes,;  each  of  which  does  not  constitute 
as  one  a  term  of  itself  as  many ;  for  in  attempting  to 
form  this  class,  at  any  stage  the  terms  already 
obtained  constitute  a  class  which  must  be  included  as 
a  new  term,  and  so  on.  This  may  be  compared  with 
the  attempt  to  sum  a  numerical  series  each  of  whose 
terms  is  the  sum  of  all  the  preceding  terms ;  the  com- 
parison does  not  completely  explain  the  paradox,  but 
suggests  that  a  distinction  should  be  made  among  m- 
finite  classes  somewhat  like  that  between  convergence 
and  divergence. 

Leaving  the  logical  side  of  the  subject,  w-e  come 
to  the  first  mathematical  idea  to  be  defined,  that  of 
number.  It  <\-as  formerly  supposed  that  the  notions 
of  "  I  "  and  "  +1  "  were  fundamental,  and  that  from 
them  all  other  numbers  could  be  defined.  In  the  pre- 
sent work  the  number  of  terms  in  a  class  is  defined, 
in  a  manner  slightly  differing  from  Peano's,  as  the 
class  of  all  classes  similar  to  the  given  class. 
Similarity  depends  on  a  one-one  relation,  which  can 
be  defined  without  reference  to  "number,  and  indicates 
by  Mr.  Russell's  "  principle  of  abstraction  "  the  pos- 
session of  a  common  property  which  may  be  called  the 
number.  \'arious  reasons  are  given  for  preferring 
this  definition,  one  of  the  chief  being  the  inclusion  of 
the  infinite  numbers  introduced  by  Cantor. 
'  Part  iJi.  deals  with  quantity  and  magnitude,'  between 
which  a  subtle  distinction  is  drawn,  and  contains  an 
introduction  to  the  problems  of  infinity  and  continiiity, 
which  are  to  be  more  fully  discussed  in  part  v.  Part 
iv.  develops  the  difficult  theory  of  order  and  Dedekind's 
theory  of  integers.  The  next  part  is  necessarily  based 
largely  on  the  work  of  Cantor.  To  readers  un- 
acquainted with  the  '■  Mengenlehre,"  the  introduction 
of  transfinite  numbers  must  appear  rather  startling, 
but  this  is  perhaps  partly  due  to  aii  unusual  weakness 
in  the  English  language.  It  must  be  remembered 
that  by  a  trjyisfinite  carding!  number  is  meant  a  certain 
kind  of  infiniteness  of  aggregate,  the  same  number 
belonging  to  different  aggregates  which  are  similar 
in  the  preceding  sense;  and  a,  transfinite  ordinal 
number  is  another  name  for  a  type  of  infinite -series,  .or 
of  generating  relation.  •   .  ,  -  ' 

In  the  chapters  on  real  numbers  and  irrationals,  jve 
approach  controversial  ground.  The  particular  object 
which  the  arithmetisers  of  mathematics  have  here  in 
view  is  to  complete  the  series  of  rational  hiimbers  W 
the  introduction,  without  any  appeal  to'  intuition,  of 
other  numbers,  so  as  to  satisfy  the  abstract 'definition' 
of  continuity.  One  consequence  of  this  will'' be  that 
it  will  then  be  possible  to  assign  a  real  number  to 
every  point  on  a  straight  line.  Three  great  thinkers 
— Dedckind,  Weierstrass  and  Cantor — have  done  this, 
making  their  definitions  of  an  irrational  number  de- 
pend upon  the  theory  of  limits.  ''  Their  methods'are 
j  explained  and  criticised,  the  chief  objection  beihg  that 
.^i'i  .•'.7/;.:':  J   .orf 


4II2, 


NATUKE. 


[September  3,  1903 


there  is  no  adequate  ground  for  assuming  that  a  limit 
such  as  that  of  the  series  of  rationals  whose  squares 
are  less  than  2  does  really  exist.  Instead  of  this 
Mr.  Russell  defines  a  segment  as  a  class  of  rationals 
less  than  a  variable  term  of  itself,  and  shows  that 
segments  possess  all  the  usual  properties  of  real 
numbers.  This  theory  agrees  very  closely  with 
Cantor's,  the  point  of  divergence  being  where  Cantor 
appears  to  regard  the  rational  number  a  as  identical 
with  the  real  number  defined  by  the  series  (a,  a,  a,  .  .  .) 
whereas  Mr.  Russell  will  not  admit  this.  On  the  one 
hand  it  is  obvious  that  the  two  concepts  are  as  distinct 
as  "man"  and  "  featherless  biped,"  and  therefore 
cannot  be  identical ;  but,  on  the  other  hand,  it  seems 
unnecessary  to  insist  too  much  on  the  distinction, 
because  no  confusion  need  arise  from  using  the  ex- 
pression "a"  in  two  different  senses.  Thus,  if  b  is 
the  irrational  number  defined  as  the  series  (.  .  .  <2„. 
a„  + 1,  .  .  .)  we  may  write  d-a  =  {.  .  .  f/„  -  a,  <?„  +  j  -  rt,  .  .  .) 
and  in  this  equation  a  is  a  series  or  so-called  real 
number  on  the  le.'t  and  a  rational  number  on  the 
right.  The  conclusion  is  that  the  series  of  rational 
numbers  cannot  be  completed  exactly  as  it  stands,  but 
the  rationals  must  first  be  replaced  by  series,  or,  if 
preferred,  by  segments,  and  then  by  means  of  other 
series  the  continuum  of  real  numbers  can  be  con- 
structed. 

Limitations  of  space  forbid  detailed  comment  on 
part  vi.,  in  which,  incidentally,  Euclid  gets  some 
rather  hard  knocks ;  and  in  the  matter  and  motion  of 
part  vii.  Newton's  laws  are  condemned  as  confused, 
worthless,  and  wholly  lacking  in  self-evidence,  while 
we  are  told  that  force  is  a  mathematical  fiction,  and 
velocity  and  acceleration  must  not  be  regarded  as 
physical  facts. 

On  the  whole  the  book  is  very  interesting,  although 
somewhat  too  long.  The  presentation  is  admirably 
clear,  and  the  seriousness  of  the  style  is  relieved  here 
and  there  by  neatly  turned  bits  of  humour.  It  does 
not  pretend  to  say  the  last  word  on  any  subject,  and, 
indeed,  bristles  with  unsolved  difficulties,  towards  the 
correct  solution  of  which  a  great  step  is  undoubtedly 
made  by  its  publication.  R.  W.  H.  T.  H. 


ELECTROCHEMICAL  ANALYSIS. 
Quantitative  Chemical  Analysis  by  Electrolysis.  By 
Prof.  Classen.  Translated  by  Bertram  B.  Bolt- 
wood.  Pp.  vii  +  315.  (New  York:  John  Wiley  and 
Sons;  London:  Chapman  and  Hall,  Ltd.,  1903.) 
Price  12s.  6d.  net. 

ELECTROCHEMICAL  methods  of  analysis  are 
now  coming  into  such  general  use  on  the 
Continent  and  in  America,  and  to  a  smaller  extent  in 
this  country,  that  chemists  will  be  prepared  to  welcome 
the  latest  translation  of  Pro^  Classen's  "  Quantitative 
Analyse  durch  Elektrolyse. " 

The  translation  is  made  from  the  fourth  German 
edition  published  in  1897,  but,  as  the  translator  has 
been  allowed  wide  latitude  by  the  author,  he  has 
brought  the  book  well  up  to  date,  and  we  find  several 
features  in  this  book  which  are  not  in  the  German 
original. 

NO.    1766,  VOL.  6S] 


In  chapters  xiii.  and  xiv.,  for  example,  which  deal 
respectively  with  "  measurements  of  current  strength  " 
and  "  sources  of  current,"  there  are  quite  a  number  of 
new  blocks,  as,  for  example,  Bredig's  amperemano- 
meter  and  the  Weston  ammeters  and  voltmeters.  We 
also  find  several  new  diagrams  in  chapter  xvi.,  which 
deals  with  the  accessory  apparatus  employed  in 
analysis.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  we  think,  considering 
that  the  book  is  devoted  to  electro-analysis,  some  of 
the  apparatus  described  is  rather  superfluous.  A 
quadrant  electrometer  is  not  usually  to  be  found  in  a 
laboratory  devoted  to  electro-  or  any  other  analysis, 
the  description  of  such  apparatus  appertaining  more 
to  works  on  physics  or  perhaps  on  general  electro- 
chemistry. In  chapter  xviii.  the  author  gives  details 
as  to  "arrangements  for  analysis."  The  details 
which  are  given  refer  mainly  to  the  very  thorough 
installations  at  Aachen,  and  two  photo-plates  of  the 
laboratories,  as  they  are  at  present,  also  one  showing 
the  former  equipment  of  the  private  laboratory,  are 
given.  One  cannot  learn  very  much  from  these  photo- 
graphs, but  they  improve  the  appearance  of  the  book, 
and  incidentally  give  an  idea  of  the  large  number  of 
platinum  basins  which  Prof.  Classen  possesses. 

On  p.  153  we  come  to  the  analytical  portion  of  the 
book,  the  first  metal  dealt  with  being  iron.  For  the 
analysis  of  iron  there  is  no  doubt  that  Classen's 
oxalate  method  is  extremely  satisfactory,  and  the 
analytical  results  obtained  are  generally  very  accurate. 
At  the  same  time,  as  Kohn  and  others  have  shown, 
this  is  really  due  to  a  balancing  of  errors.  The  iron 
deposited  always  contains  traces  of  carbon,  but,  on 
the  other  hand,  there  is  usually  a  trace  of  iron  left 
in  the  solution,  and  these  two  errors  balance.  Classen 
states  that  iron,  when  deposited  from  solutions  con- 
taining citrates  and  tartrates,  always  contains  carbon, 
but  leaves  it  to  be  inferred  that  when  oxalates  are  em- 
ployed, the  metal  is  deposited  free  from  carbon.  Prof. 
Classen  employs  the  oxalate  method  not  only  for  iron, 
but  he  uses  it  for  almost  every  metal,  very  often,  too, 
when  other  ways  are  vastly  superior,  and  he  seems 
very  much  afraid  that  someone  else  will  take,  credit 
for  the  method,  because  in  almost  every  case  we  find 
a  bracket  in  which  it  is  stated  that  this  is  the  "  method 
of  the  author."  As  a  matter  of  fact,  there  are  only 
a  few  cases  in  which  the  employment  of  oxalates  has 
any  real  advantage,  as  e.g.  with  iron  and  zinc.  There 
is  certainly  nothing  to  be  gained  by  using  it  when 
depositing  copper,  nickel,  or  mercury,  where  there 
are  many  much  more  satisfactory  methods.  Cobalt, 
according  to  the  author,  when  deposited,  shows  its 
characteristic  metallic  properties.  Generally  speak- 
ing, when  electrically  deposited,  cobalt  is  brownish  or 
smoky  in  appearance — are  these  its  characteristic 
metallic  properties? 

Section  ii.  of  the  analytical  portion  deals  with  the 
analysis  of  nitrates,  and  section  iii.  with  the  determin- 
ation of  the  halogens. 

Section  iv.,  on  the  separation  of  the  metals,  is 
perhaps  one  of  the  best  parts  of  the  book.  It  may  be 
very  easy,  and  generally  is,  provided  one  employs  the 
correct  conditions,  to  analyse  from  pure  salts  of  the 
metals,    but   the   electrolytic   separation   of   metals   is 


September 


1903] 


NATURE 


413 


not  always  so  simple.  Of  course,  the  chief  point  is 
to  know  how  and  when  to  combine  pure  analytical 
with  electro-analytical  methods  in  such  a  way  as  to 
attain  the  greatest  accuracy,  and  to  save  as  much  time 
as  possible. 

Section  v.  is  devoted  to  a  short  account  of  a  very 
neat  method  of  determining  the  halogens  in  presence 
of  each  other.  It  depends  upon  the  fact  that  iodine 
is  precipitated  from  its  solutions  at  a  lower  potential 
than  bromine.  A  silver  anode  is  employed,  and  when 
at  the  lower  potential  all  the  iodine  has  been  deposited, 
a  fresh  anode  is  placed  in  the  solution,  and  a  higher 
E.M.F.  employed.  Part  iii.  of  the  book  is  divided 
into  two  sections,  the  first  of  which  gives  some  ex- 
1  amples  of  applied  electrochemical  analysis,  as  e.g. 
analysis  of  alloys,  such  as  brass,  solder,  type  metal, 
&c.,  and  of  certain  ores,  such  as  cinnabar  and 
molybdenite.  The  second  section  gives  details  for  the 
preparation  of  reagents. 

The  book  in  its  present  form  is  a  very  useful  addition 
13  laboratory  text-books.  The  introduction  is,  perhaps, 
rather  unnecessarily  long,  but  it  explains  Faraday's 
and  Ohm's  laws  clearly,  and  gives  a  good  general 
account  of  the  theories  of  electrolysis.  At  the  heads 
of  the  chapters  very  full  references  to  the  literature  of 
the  subject  are  given ;  the  references  are  mainly  to 
German  and  American  authors,  the  reason  being  that 
(iermans  and  Americans  have  done  most  of  the  work. 

The  translator.  Dr.  Bertram  Boltwood,  has  carried 
out  his  labour  with  care  and  discretion,  and  many  of 
his  additions  are  very  valuable.  The  book  is  splendidly 
printed,  and  the  diagrams  are  very  clear  and  well  pro- 
duced. F.    MOLLWO   Perkin. 


TECTONICS  OF  THE  EASTERN  ALPS. 

The  Geological  Structure  of  Monzoni  and  Fassa.  By 
Maria  M.  Ogilvie-Gordon,  D.Sc,  Ph.D.  Pp.  x  + 
180.  (Edinburgh  :  For  the  Geological  Society  of 
Edinburgh,  Turnbull  and  Spears;  London  :  Simpkin, 
Marshall  and  Co.,  Ltd.,  1902-3.) 

IT  is  indeed  satisfactory  that  the  Geological  Society 
of  Edinburgh  has,  with  considerable  enterprise, 
jjublished  the  very  detailed  observations  of  Dr.  Maria 
Ogilvie-Gordon.  We  can  easily  conceive  that,  when 
originally  presented  to  the  Royal  Society  of  London, 
this  paper  seemed  of  somewhat  local  aoolication  (pre- 
fatory note,  p.  v.),  and  it  is  the  privilege  of  societies 
with  fewer  claims  upon  their  funds  to  do  justice  to 
the  work  of  their  own  members.  It  rests  with  the 
author  to  see  that  the  circulation  of  separate  copies 
is  judiciously  carried  out,  in  which  case,  from  a  cos- 
mopolitan point  of  view,  the  place  of  publication  has 
little  influence  on  the  judgment  of  scientific  men. 

One  feels,  however,  that  continuous  energy  and 
jiersistent  attention  to  detail  on  the  part  of  Dr. 
Ogilvie-Gordon  have  brought  into  an  important  con- 
troversy a  feature  that  may  be  superficial,  but  which, 
none  the  less,  jars  upon  the  reader.  One  becomes  in- 
clined to  believe  that  an  observation  claims  our  notice 
because  it  was  made  by  the  authoress,  and  not  because 
it  furnishes  a  link  in  the  long  chain  of  argument. 
XO.    T766,  VOL.  681 


The  same  impression,  it  is  true,  is  often  produced  in 
the  works  of  Ruskin  or  Carlyle,  but  does  not  form 
their  most  enduring  attraction  for  posterity.  The 
recognition  of  Dr.  Ogilvie-Gordon 's  work  is  manifest 
from  the  frequent  references  to  it  by  Continental 
writers,  notably  in  the  new  "  Fiihrer  fiir  die 
Exkursionen,"  issued  for  the  ninth  Geological 
Congress  in  Vienna.  Yet  we  cannot  forget  that  the 
authoress  attaches  so  much  importance  to  the  views 
adopted  by  her  as  to  have  introduced  disparaging  re- 
marks upon  a  rival  school  in  the  "  translation  "  of 
a  work  by  Prof,  von  Zittel.  The  paper  now  before 
us.  the  record  of  some  years  of  devoted  and  faithful 
study  in  the  field,  describes  how  the  Triassic  masses 
have  been  broken  up  by  a  double  series  of  planes  of 
fracture,  along  which  igneous  rocks  have  crept  during 
the  period  of  earth-movement.  Possibly,  then,  there 
is  some  appropriateness  in  a  mode  of  treatment  which 
causes  us  to  see  the  lines  of  weakness  in  previous  de- 
scriptions penetrated  with  an  almost  intrusive 
pertinacity. 

Not  that  there  is  any  note  of  battle  in  the  present 
treatise.  The  authoress  gives  her  reading  of  the  very 
numerous  observations  made  by  her  in  a  classic  area, 
and  the  difficulties  to  be  faced  are  well  realised  by 
Doelter  in  the  "  Fiihrer  "  above  referred  to,  when  he 
says  of  Predazzo, 

'■  Die  Teilnehmer  an  dieser  Exkursion  betreten  ein 
Gebiet,  welches  zu  den  allerinteressanten  Europas 
gehort,  aber  auch  zu  denen,  wo  der  Zwiespalt  der 
Meinungen  am  grossten  ist.  Die  verschiedensten  und 
widersprechendsten  Ansichten  haben  hier  geherrscht 
und  herrschen  teilweise  heute  noch." 

Similar  caution  is  shown  by  Drs.  Diener  and 
.\rthaber  in  treating  of  the  "  reef-facies  "  in  the 
Schlern  area.  With  regard  to  the  causes  that  bring 
massive  limestones  into  juxtaposition  with  normal 
sediments,  along  surfaces  that  occasionally  interlock, 
all  geologists  are  aware  that  Dr.  Ogilvie-Gordon  has 
adopted  a  theory  of  cross-fracture  and  faulting  (p.  67), 
and  has  done  so  after  detailed  mapping  on  the  ground. 
Her  views  of  the  Monzoni  mass  are  admirably  stated 
on  p.  176  of  the  present  paper. 

"  I  therefore  strongl)-  insist  upon  my  observation 
in  the  case  of  Monzoni  that  the  particular  band  of 
limestone  strata  entered  by  the  sill  was  at  the  time  of 
inflow  in  process  of  sinking  steeply  inward  at  the 
inthrow  faults  .  .  .  While  the  ascending  magma  in- 
volved and  engulfed  fragmentary  portions  of  the  in- 
sinking  calcareous  rock,  it  clearly  found  easiest  access 
amidst  the  multiplicity  of  fracture  and  shear-slip 
planes  in  the  body  of  Werfen  strata  to  the  south." 

The  succession  of  intrusions  is  then  described,  and 
the  suggestive  conclusion  is  arrived  at  (p.  177)  that 

"  during  the  geological  periods  when  the  fault-vent 
continued  intermittently  active,  the  form  of  the  sill- 
complex  was  capable  of  being  re-moulded  periodically 
in  harmony  with  the  localised  crust-stresses." 

The  Cainozoic  age  often  assigned  to  the  whole 
eruptive  series  of  Monzoni,  which  can  only  be  proved 
to  be  later  than  the  Lower  Trias,  is  not  a  vital  point 
in  Dr.  Ogilvie-Gordon 's  paper.  Its  interest  lies  in  its 
tectonic  details,  and  these  are  illustrated  by  a  number 


414 


NATUgE 


[September  3,  1903 


of  coloured  sections  and  two  folding  maps.  Some  of 
the  photographic  plates,  such  as  that  of  the  "  block- 
structure  "  in  porphyrite,  facing  p.  io6,  are  of  un- 
usual beauty.  G.  A.  J.  C. 


OUR    BOOK  SHELF. 

A.      Koelliker's     Handbuch     der      Gewebelehre     des 

Menschen.       6te    Auflage.       Drittes     Band.       Von 

Victor     V.     Ebner.     Pp.      1020 ;     633     illustrations. 

(Leipzig  :  W.  Engelmann,  1902.)     Price  i8s.  net. 

The    conclusion    of    the    sixth    edition    of    Koelliker's 

'*  Histology  "   merits    more    than    a    passing   remark. 

The    first   appearance    of    this    well-known    handbook 

about  the  middle  of  the  last  century  formed  an  epoch 

in  the  science  of  which  it  treats  (which  it  may  almost 

be  said  to  have  created),  and  ever  since  it  has  held  the 

foremost  rank  in  works  dealing  with  the  subject.     But 

«  it  is  now  more  than   thirty  years  ago  that  the  fifth 

edition   was  published,   and  progress  has  been   rapid 

in  the  interval. 

The  first  two  volumes  of  the  present  edition  were 
edited  by  the  original  author,  and  no  work  that  he 
has  done  has  been  better  done  than  this.  But  the 
weight  of  years  must  eventually  tell,  even  if  one  is 
Koelliker,  and  the  task  of  editing  the  third  volume 
was  handed  over  by  him  to  Prof.  v.  Ebner.  A  first 
part  of  this  volume,  dealing  with  the  digestive,  re- 
spiratory, and  urinary  organs  has  appeared,  and  has 
already  been  noticed  in  Nature;  the  last  part  of  the 
work,  embracing  the  structure  of  the  generative 
organs,  the  vascular  system  and  the  organs  of  special 
sense,  and  comprising  also  an  index  of  subjects  and 
authors  for  the  whole  book,  is  now  in  the  hands  of 
histologists.  Prof.  Koelliker's  selection  of  an  editor 
for  his  great  work  is  amply  justified ;  a  better  successor 
to  himself  could  hardly  have  been  found  than  the 
eminent  Vienna  histologist,  who  has,  moreover,  been 
ably  assisted  by  Dr.  Joseph  Schaffer  and  Dr.  Hans 
Rabl.  It  is  to  all  intents  and  purposes  a  new  book 
which  has  made  its  appearance.  Hardly  a  page  but 
has  been  rewritten,  and  of  thje  633  illustrations,  533 
are  entirely  new^ — for  the  most  part  from  original  pre- 
parations. Nevertheless,  the  general  style  of  the  pre- 
ceding volumes  is  singularly  well  carried  out  in  this 
one,  so  that  it  is  difificult  at  first  to  recognise  that  the 
work  is  by  another  hand.  Too  much  praise  cannot  be 
given  to  the  bibliographical  notices,  which  are  far  more 
complete  than  are  to  be  found  in  any  other  work  on 
histology. 

The  whole  book  is  a  storehouse  of  information  based 
on  personal  observations,  and  must  long  remain  the 
standard  work  of  reference  on  the  subject. 

The  octogenarian  master,  whose  own  scientific 
activity  is  by  no  means  exhausted,  must  be  well  con- 
tent to  know  that  his  work  has  been  brought  to  so 
brilliant  a  completion,  and  in  presenting  to  him  our 
respectful  congratulations,  we  may  be  permitted  to 
express  the  desire  that  he  will  still  continue  for  many 
years  to  enjov  the  satisfaction  of  witnessing  the 
success  of  his  life-long  labours.  E.  A.  S. 

Building  Superintendence.     New  edition,  revised  and 
rewritten.     Bv     T.      M.     Clark.     Pp.      306.     (New 
York  :    The    Macmillan    Company ;    London  :    Mac- 
millan  and  Co.,  Ltd.,  1903.)     Price  12s.  6d.  net. 
This  is  a  book  which  appears  to  have  had  an  extended 
circulation  in  the  United  States,  and,  although  It  con- 
tains  a   good   deal   of  practical   information,    a   large 
amount  would  only  apply  to  construction  methods  on 
the     North     American     Continent.     It     is     primarily 
addressed  to  the  young  architect,  and  gives  him  hints 
as  to  the  selection  of  good  materials  and  as  to  the 
direction  of  building  operations  generally.     A  know- 
ledge of  building  construction  is  therefore  assumed, 

NO.  1766,  VOL.  68] 


and  the  book  is  intended  to  supplement  that  know- 
ledge by  the  practical  application  to  existing  buildings. 
The  subject  is  divided  into  three  main  heads, 
namely,  stone  buildings,  wooden  buildings,  and  steel- 
framed  buildings,  and  in  each  case  a  typical  building 
is  described  from  the  foundations  upwards,  showing 
the  successive  stages  of  construction  and  general  direc- 
tion for  the  judging  of  the  quality  of  materials.  The 
term  "  superintendent,"  which  occurs  so  often,  is  pre- 
sumably the  American  equivalent  for  the  English 
clerk  of  works. 

The  English  student  should  beware  of  information 
which  may  apply  in  the  States,  but  is  not  correct  as 
applied  to  England;  for  instance,  on  p.  5  we  are  told 
that  five  courses  of  bricks  commonly  equal  one  foot 
in  height,  whereas,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  four  courses 
in  England  usually  equal  one  foot.  Many  of  the  terms 
and  names  will  also  be  quite  unfamiliar  to  him. 

Chapter  i.,  dealing  with  stone  buildings,  takes  up 
the  construction  of  a  stone  church  intended  to  be 
erected  on  elevated  ground.  This  occupies  more  than 
lovi  pages,  and  deals  with  the  preliminary  staking  out 
of  its  various  parts— foundations,  damp  in  cellars,  the 
making  of  concrete  and  mortar,  defects  common  to 
various  kinds  of  stone,  walling,  flooring,  roofing 
beams,  and  plastering.  The  information  is  sometimes 
effected  by  means  of  question  and  answer  between  the 
architect  and  foreman  in  the  manner  made  familiar 
in  the  treatises  of  Viollet  le  Due. 

Chapter  ii.  deals  with  wooden  dwelling-houses, 
their  location  and  aspect,  drainage  of  site,  employment 
of  contractors,  the  framing  of  the  timber  (uprights 
and  sills),  chimneys,  electric  wiring  and  fitting,  roof 
shingles,  plastering,  plumbing  fittings,  doors, 
windows,  stairs  and  their  arrangement  and  defects, 
drainage  and  water  supply,  and  painting.  Chapter 
iii.,  dealing  with  the  writing  of  specifications,  can  be 
passed  over,  as  essential  differences  exist  between 
English  and  American  practice.  Chapter  iv.  deals 
with  contracts,  and  the  author  rightly  dwells  on  the 
importance  of  these,  especially  with  regard  to  the 
necessity  for  protecting  the  building  owner. 

Chapter  v.  deals  with  the  construction  of  a  steel- 
frame  oflfice  building,  eleven  storeys  high,  on  a  corner 
city  site  25  feet  by  100  feet,  in  which  economy  of  space 
has  to  be  carefully  studied.  This  is  probably  one  of 
the  most  interesting  chapters  in  the  book,  and  its  con 
struction  is  dealt  with  in  a  progressive  way,  in  the 
same  manner  as  in  the  stone  and  wood  buildings. 

The  plan,  question  of  fire  escapes,  foundation,  steel 
ftamework,  vaults,  floors  (fire-resisting),  elevators,  are 
dealt  with  in  turn.  As  will  be  seen,  the  book  is 
arranged  on  a  sensible  and  convenient  plan,  and  if  it 
could  he  written  to  be  suitable  for  English  readers,  it 
would  be  of  greater  benefit.  As  it  is,  however,  it  con- 
tains a  great  deal  of  excellent  advice  founded  upon 
practical  experience,  and  no  architect  could  read  it 
through  without  having  his  wits  sharpened  for  dis- 
covering defects  in  workmanship  at  the  periodical 
visits  which  he  pays  to  buildings  in  course  of  erection 
from  his  designs. 

A  Key  to  the  Time  Allusions  in  the  Divine  Comedy  of 
Dante  Alighieri.  By  Gustave  Pradeau.  Pp.  32. 
(London  :  Methuen  and  Co.,  1902.) 
The  author,  having  found  that  different  editions  of 
the  great  poem  of  Dante  assigned  different  durations 
of  time  for  the  action  supposed  to  be  occupied  by  it, 
set  himself  to  investigate  the  matter  by  a  comparison 
of  all  the  time  allusions  until  the  poet  ascends  from 
over  Jerusalem  to  the  primum  mobile.  He  ingeniously 
illustrates  his  argument  by  a  diagram  or  "  dial  ''  in 
the  circumference  of  which  are  the  signs  of  the  zodiac, 
whilst  ip  the  centre  are  four  points  representing  respec- 


September  3,  1903] 


NATURE 


415 


lively  Jerusalem,  Purgatory,  the  Ganges,  and  Morocco. 
Dante  imagined  that,  with  respect  to  Jerusalem, 
the  Ganges  was  the  extreme  east  and  Morocco 
the  extreme  west.  The  four  important  divisions  of 
the  day,  mezzodi  or  midday,  sera  or  evening, 
mczzan'otte  or  midnight,  and  m'attino  or  morning,  are 
represented  by  lines  towards  the  circumference.  At 
ihi  beginning  of  the  poem  Gerusalemme  must  be 
jjlaced  at  the  top  of  the  circle,  with  Mattino  over  it. 
Now  looking  southwards,  holding  the  dial  straight 
before  us,  it  will  be  found  that  the  sun  on  the  dial 
follows  the  same  course  as  the  real  sun.  The  lines  in 
the  Inferno,  Purgatorio,  and  Paradiso  which  contain 
he  time  allusions  are  given  in   Italian  and  in  Long- 

llow's  English  translation,  and  the  author  finds  that 
ihe  whole  duration  from  the  beginning  of  the  poem 
to  the  final  morning  in  Purgatorio  is  seven  and  a  half 
days,  i.e.  seven  days  from  the  entrance  with  Vergil 
into  Hell. 

The  conceptions  of  great  poets  like  Dante  and 
Milton  must  ever  be  of  interest,  though  we  Cannot,  of 
course,  expect  them  to  be  in  agreement  with  modern 
astronomy.  The  latter,  though  constructing  the 
universe  according  to  Ptolemy,  yet.  Hying  after 
C'opernicus,  and  being  personally  acquainted  with 
(ialileo,  evidently  had  misgivings  with  regard  to  the 
truth  of  that  svstem.  None  such  troubled  the  mind  of 
Dante;  to  him' the  earth  was  the  centre  of  the  universe, 
both  in  appearance  and  in  reality.  But  M.  Pradeau 
presents  a  scheme  concerning  his  views  as  bearing 
upon  the  progress  of  time  in  the  "  Divina  Commedia  " 
which  is  both  ingenious  and  consistent  with  itself. 

W.   T.   L. 

1  School  Geometrv.  Part  iii.  By  H.  S.  Hall,  M.A., 
and  F.  H.  Stevens,  M.A.  Pp.  vii+137  to  210. 
(London  :  Macmillan  and  Co.,  Ltd.,  1903.)     Price  15. 

In  this  volume  we  have  a  further  instalment  of  the 
new  text-book  of  elementary  geometry  which  the 
authors  have  in  preparation,  a  school  geometry  based 
un  the  recommendations  of  the  Mathematical  Associ- 
ation and  the  recently  adopted  report  of  the  Cambridge 
Svndicate. 

"The  present  contribution  deals  with  the  geometry 
of  the  circle,  and  contains  the  substance  of  Euclid, 
book  iii.,  1-34,  and  a  portion  of  book  iv.  The  authors 
have  omitted  sotne  of  Euclid's  propositions,  and  have 
not  adhered  strictly  to  Euclid's  sequence,  but  the 
Euclidean  form  of  proof  has  been  retained. 

The  conception  of  a  "  limit  "  is  appropriately  intro- 
duced in  explaining  the  nature  of  tangency,  and  in 
establishing  some  of  the  propositions. 

The  exercises,  which  follow  the  propositions  at  short 
intervals,  are  partly  deductive  and  partly  graphical, 
the  latter  requiring  the  use  of  compasses  and  scale, 
the  numerical  answers  being  collected  at  the  end  of 
tlie  volume.  The  exainples  are  simple  and  well 
graduated. 

We  consider  that  problem  23  would  be  better  omitted, 
together  with  the  exercises  based  thereon.  It  is  of 
no  practical  value,  and  should  be  consigned  to  the 
Euclidean  relics.  Every  draughtsman  knows  that  a 
line  can  be  drawn  with  greater  accuracy  to  touch  two 
given  circles  than  to  pass  through  two  given  points, 
and  if  the  points  of  contact  are  wanted,  they  can  be 
determined  subsequently  by  drawing  perpendiculars 
from  the  centres  of  the  circles. 

The  circumference  and  area  of  a  circle  are  briefly 
dealt  with  on  p.  198.  The  experimental  determin- 
ation and  verification  of  these  quantities  might  with 
advantage  have  been  more  fully  gone  into.  The  book 
concludes  with  some  propositions  on  circles  and 
triangles,  including  a  demonstration  of  the  property 
of  the  nine-points  circle. 

NO.    1766,  VOL.  68] 


LETTERS    TO    THE    EDITOR. 

[  The  Editor  does  not  hold  himself  responsible  for  opinions 
expressed  by  his  correspondents.  Neither  can  he  undertake 
to  return,  or  to  correspond  uitth  the  writers  of,  rejected 
manuscripts  intended  for  this  or  any  other  part  of  Nature. 
No  notice  is  taken  of  anonymous  communications.] 

American  Botanic  Laboratory  in  Jamaica. 

The  Director  of  Kew  presents  his  compliments  to  the 
Editor  of  Nature  and  requests  the  fa%'our  of  his  publishing 
the  enclosed  letter. 

Kew,  August  23. 

Sir  William  Thiselton-Dyer, 

Royal   Botanic  Gardens, 
Kew, 

Surrey,   England. 
My  dear  Sir, 

The  Government  of  Jamaica  has  decided  to  relinquish 
its  use  of  the  buildings  at  Cinchona.  The  experimental 
and  botanical  plantations  are,  however,  to  be  maintained 
as  before.  The  Surveyor-General  of  Jamaica  offered  under 
public  advertisement  on  June  15  the  group  of  buildings 
known  as  Beilevue  and  some  land  for  rental.  I  have 
personally  accepted  this  rental  for  the  purpose  of  saving  the 
station  for  scientific  purposes,  and  with  the  plan  of  establish- 
ing there,  if  possible,  the  long  desired  botanical  laboratory 
in  the  American  tropics.  At  my  request.  Dr.  MacDougal 
has  recently  visited  Jamaica  to  arrange  details  of  the  lease, 
and  .reports  that  the  buildings  and  their  furnishings  are 
already  comfortable  and  well  adapted  for  the  use  of 
investigators.  

Dr.  MacDougal  and  I .  decided  _to  take  these  steps  after 
consultation  and  correspOrtdence  with  Prof.  Underwood, 
who  spent  the  early  part  of  the  year  in  Jamaica  in  the 
study  of  ferns,  and  who  is  now  in  Europe  ;  with  Dr.  Duncan 
S.  Johnson,  who  has  recently  returned  from  Jamaica,  where 
he  has  been  collecting  material  for  embryological  studies ; 
with  Mr.  Wm.  R.  Maxon,  who  was  with  Prof.  Underwood 
there  during  the  spring  ;  and  with  Prof.  Earle,  who  spent 
last  November  in  Jamaica  in  mycological  investigations. 
Dr.  MacDougal  was  already  familiar  with  the  locality 
from  his  visit  there  with  I'rof.  Campbell  in  1897,  and  we 
had  discussed  the  topic  with  the  Hon.  Wm.  Fawcett, 
director  of  the  public  gardens  and  plantations  of  Jamaica, 
while  he  was  in  New  York  last  autumn  during  the  meeting 
of  the  Plant  Breeding  Conference.  The  aid  and  cooperation 
of  all  who  regard  the  securing  of  Cinchona  as  a  proper  and 
desirable  act  will  be  needed  to  maintain  such  a  laboratory, 
and  to  this  end  I  ask  that  you  write  me  your  opinions  on 
this  subject,  and  to  indicate  what  aid  you  can  render,  and 
whether  either  you  or  your  students  would  wish  to  make 
use  of  the  station  during  the  next  year,  and  if  so,  for  what 
length  of  time  approximately. 

I  may  say  that  the  Jamaican  Government  is  heartily  in 
sympathy  with  the  enterprise,  and  will  cooperate  to  a  very 
important  extent,  furnishing  facilities  for  growing  plants 
under  the  widely  different  climatic  conditions  offered  bv  the 
gardens  at  Cinchona,  Hope,  and  Castleton,  the  use  of  the 
large  botanical  laboratory  and  herbarium  at  Hope,  and  the 
use  of  visitors'  tables  in  the  laboratory  at  Hope. 

As  regards  Cinchona,  I  quote  the' following  from  Prof. 
Underwood's  account  of  his  work  in  Jamaica  from  the  July 
issue  of  the  Journal  of  the  New  York  Botanical  Garden  : — ' 

"  Not  the  least  important  of  the  results  of  the  expedition 
was  a  possible  solution  of  the  problem  of  a  suitable  location 
for  a  tropical  laboratory,  which  has  long  been  under  con- 
sideration by  American  botanists.  At  the  time  of  the  visit 
of  the  committee  appointed  some  years  ago  to  investigate 
the  subject,  the  plant  at  Cinchona  was  occupied  by  the 
Government  botanist,  and  was  consequently  out  of  the 
question.  A  one-story  six-room  house,  three  or  four  low 
buildings  suitable  for  laboratory  work,  with  two  green- 
houses of  sufficient  capacity  to  conduct  experimental  work 
under  glass,  could  be  had  of  the  Jamaica  Government  at 
a  nominal  rent.  Cinchona  is  nearly  a  mile  above  the  sea, 
with  a  delightful  climate  (the  extremes  of  temperature  for 
the  past  twenty  years  being  45°  F.  and  70°  F.),  a  delightful 
outlook,  and  as  closely  accessible  to  virgin  forest  as  could 
be    obtained.     Within    three    miles,    nearlv    on    a    level,    is 


4  i6 


NATURE 


[Si:PTEMDEK  3,    190; 


Morce's  Gap,  whose  tropical  conditions  I  have  described 
above;  close  to  Morce's  Gap  you  make  the  ascent  to  John 
Crow  Peak  (6000  feet),  through  a  forest  of  tropical  luxuri- 
ance. Below  is  Mabess  River  (3000  feet),  with  similar  but 
lower-level  vegetation.  -At  about  the  same  distance  from 
Cinchona  (three  miles)  is  New  Haven  Gap  (5500  feet),  with 
a  similar  but  higher-altitude  flora.  Still  higher  altitudes 
are  accessible  at  Portland  Gap  and  Blue  Mountain  Peak  at 
a  distance  of  eight  to  ten  miles. 

"  There  are  no  human  habitations  above  Cinchona,  so 
that  the  Clyde  River,  which  supplies,  it  with  water,  is  pure 
and  without  sources  of  contamination ;  a  more  healthful 
location  could  not  be  found  in  all  the  American  tropics." 

Briefly  e.xpressed,  the  above  scheme  off^ers  the  investigator 
residence  accommodations  and  laboratory  facilities  at 
Cinchona  under  the  most  pleasant  and  advantageous  con- 
ditions, from  which  place  he  may  quickly  transfer  his  work 
to  more  pronounced  tropical  conditions  at  Hope  in  a  dry 
climate,  or  to  Castleton  in  an  extremely  humid  locality. 
The  marine  flora  is  equally  accessible. 

The  locality  furnishes  easy  access  to  an  immense  number 
of  species  of  plants  different  from  those  available  at  any 
other  similar  institution  ;  travelling  and  living  expenses  are 
very  reasonable,  and  Jamaica  may  be  reached  at  intervals 
of  only  a  few  days  by  numerous  steamers  from  England, 
Germany  (Hamburg),  and  nearly  all  ports  of  eastern 
America. 

Yours  sincerely, 

N.  L.  Britton. 

New  York  Botanical  Garden,  Bronx  Park, 
New  York  City,  .August  13. 


Training  of  Forest  Officers. 

In  a  sympathetic  notice  in  the  Indian  Forester  of  the  late 
distinguished  Inspector-General  of  Forests  in  India,  Mr. 
H.  C.  Hill,  Sir  Dietrich  Brandis  stigmatises  as  "  absurd  " 
"  the  idea  which,  until  a  short  time  ago,  was  current  in 
England,  and  which  to  this  day  is  held  by  many  English 
botanists,  that  a  good  botanist  must  necessarily  be  a  good 
forester."  I  quite  agree  that  the  idea  is  absurd;  but  as  I 
am  probably  better  acquainted  with  the  English  botanical 
world  than  Sir  Dietrich  Brandis,  *I  doubt  very  much  whether 
th?  idea  was  ever  current  in  this  country,  or  is  held  at  the 
moment  by  many  English  botanists.  For  my  part  I  entirely 
dissociate  myself  from  it,  as  I  know  many  accomplished 
botanists  who  would  probably  make  very  indifferent  forest 
officers. 

I  am  more  able  to  agree  with  Sir  Dietrich  Brandis  when 
he  says,  "  A  forester,  more  than  almost  anybody  else, 
must  use  his  eyes  and  must  be  able  on  the  spot  to  draw 
conclusions  from  what  he  has  observed."  But  the  power 
of  observation  is  by  no  means  possessed  by  everyone.  A 
further  requisite,  in  which  I  think  Sir  Dietrich  Brandis  also 
agrees,  is  sympathy  with  and  pleasure  in  forest  nature  for 
its  own  sake.  It  appears  to  me  that  neither  point  is  kept 
in  view  in  the  present  mode  of  recruiting  the  Indian  Forest 
.Service. 

Sir  Dietrich  Brandis  lays  great  stress  on  sport,  and  unless 
it  becomes  too  absorbing  a  pursuit,  it  undoubtedly  fulfils 
the  conditions  I  have  stated.  It  would,  howeverj  be  as 
undesirable  to  insist  that  every  forest  officer  should  be  a 
sportsman  as  that  he  should  be  a  botanist. 

But  I  entertain  a  very  strong  opinion  that  a  forest  officer 
will  never  rise  to  the  highest  level  of  efficiency  in  his  work 
unless  he  has  a  scientific  grasp  of  the  principles  which 
underlie  it.  He  should  be  able  to  identify  the  trees  which 
compose  the  forest  vegetation  under  his  charge,  and  for  this 
purpose  he  should  have  such  an  elementary  acquaintance 
with  botany  as  will  enable  him  to  use  intelligently  the  book 
which  Sir  Dietrich  Brandis  has  been  for  several  years 
occupied  at  Kew  in  preparing  for  the  purpose.  He  should 
further  have  some  knowledge  of  the  nature  and  conditions 
of  vegetable  life  ;  he  should  grasp  the  idea  that  a  tree  is  a 
living  organism  the  growth  and  development  of  which  are 
subject  to  adverse  or  favourable  conditions.  He  should 
further  have  some  idea  of  the  enemies  and  diseases  by  which 
trees  are  liable  to  be  attacked,  and  of  how  these  attacks  can 
be  met.  All  this  a  man  of  ordinary  intelligence  can  acquire 
if  he  possesses  a  real  taste  for  nature  without  rising  to  the 


NO.    1766,  VOL.  68] 


level  of  the  professional  botanist,  which  it  would  be  absurd 
to  demand  of  him. 

There  is  the  same  fallacy  underlying  the  view  that  mere 
administrative  efficiency  is  sufficient  for  a  good  forest  officer 
as  in  thinking  that  mere  mechanical  drill,  without  resource 
or  initiative,  will  make  a  good  soldier. 

As  I  have  felt  it  my  duty  to  urge  these  views  officially,  I 
should  be  glad  to  state  them  more  publicly. 

I  should  like  to  take  the  opportunity  of  expressing  my 
regret  at  the  untimely  death  of  Mr.  H.  C.  Hill,  the  late 
Inspector-General.  Largely  as  the  result  of  my  personal 
persuasion  he  accepted  a  mission  in  1900  to  initiate  a 
scientific  forest  administration  in  the  Straits  Settlements. 
His  reports  were  of  the  highest  value,  and  will  be  a  per- 
manent basis  for  the  future  forest  policy  of  that  part  of  the 
Empire.  W.   T.   Thiselton-Dyer. 

Kew,  August  28. 


Peculiar   Clouds, 

Can  any  of  your  correspondents  explain  the  following 
phenomenon?  At  5.20  p.m.  to-day,  the  sky  to  the  VV.  and 
S.  being  covered  with  a  dense  and  unbroken  mass  of  cloud, 
and  the  sun,  therefore,  entirely  obscured,  I  saw  a  broad 
patch  of  iridescent  colours  like  a  piece  of  a  rainbow  on 
the  clouds  to  N.N.E.,  many  points  more  to  N.  than  a  rain- 
bow would  have  been  had  the  sun  been  shining.  No  part 
of  the  sky  was  clear,  but  the  clouds  were  lighter  in  the, 
N.W. 

I  saw  a  similar  phenomenon  at  Colwyn  Bay  on  December 
17,  1898,  the  iridescent  cloud  being  due  E.  at  2.45  p.m., 
the  sun  shining  intermittently.  I  know  true  "  iridescent 
clouds  "  well,  but  they  are  generally  near  the  sun. 

Alfred  O.  Walker. 

Ulcombe,  Maidstone,  August  30. 


THE   EARTHQUAKE    OBSERVATORY    IN 
STRASSBURG. 

NOW  that  the  earthquake  observatory  in  Strass- 
burg  has  been  offered  as  a  centre  for  the  pro- 
posed international  association  for  seismological 
research,  at  which  the  work  of  the  world  so  far  as 
it  bears  upon  earthquakes  and  kindred  phenomena  rnay 
be  concentrated,  a  short  description  ot  this  institution 
and  its  present  output  may  not  be  devoid  of  interest. 

The  building  stands  in  the  back  part  of  the  Uni- 
versity gardens,  and  lies  between  two  streets,  along 
which  heavy  traffic  is  forbidden.  Externally  it 
measures  19  x15m.,  and  essentially  consists  of  four 
rooms,  round  the  walls  of  which  there  is  a  passage 
or  air  space  im.  in  width,  walls,  a  second  air  space, 
and  the  outer  walls.  In  short,  it  is  a  building  with 
its  floor  1.50m.  below  the  surface,  within  two  other 
buildings. 

The  object  of  the  construction  is  to  obtain  roorns 
which  are  light  tight,  free  from  currents  of  air,  and  in 
which  changes  of  temperature  and  moisture  should  be 
small.  For  certain  classes  of  observations  these  con- 
ditions mav  be  imperative,  but  when  recording  earth- 
quakes, which  is  the  chief  work  at  Strassburg,  gloom 
and  a  still  atmosphere  are  distinctly  undesirable.  In 
the  early  days  of  seismometry  the  proper  place  for  an 
earthquake  recorder  was  considered  to  be  a  cellar,  and 
when  we  find  instruments  with  complicated  parts 
which  frequently  require  inspection,  and  which  write 
their  records  on  smoked  paper,  together  with  photo- 
graphic apparatus  designed  to  be  used  in  broad  day- 
light, relegated  to  darkness,  we  realise  that  traditions 
still  survive. 

Although  it  is  well  known  that  different  results  are 
obtained  from  similar  instruments  installed  on  different 
formations,  the  choice  of  site  at  Strassburg  was 
apparently  governed  by  the  advantages  offered  by 
proximity  to  its  University.  In  consequence  of  this, 
town  traffic,  which  includes  that  of  an  electric  service. 


September  3,  1903] 


NATURE 


AM 


which  might  influence  certain  geophysical  ihvesti- 
g^ations,  and  the  fact  that  alluvium  might  mask 
small  tremors,  are  conditions  that  cannot  be  avoided. 

In  the  Beitrdge  ziir  Geophysik  (vi.  Band,  3  Heft) 
issued  *'  Zur  Begriissung  der  ll.  Internationalen  Seis- 
inologischen  Konferenz,"  Prof.  Dr.  Bruno  VVeigand 
gives  an  account  of  the  instruments  now  in  use  at 
Strassburg  Observatory,  and  an  explanation  of  the 
monthiy  reports  issued  from  the  same. 

The  instruments  longest  in  use  are  two  Rebeur- 
Ehlert  horizontal  pendulums.  In  each  instrument 
there  are  three  pendulums  arranged  at  angles  of  120° 
with  each  other,  the  idea  being  that  the  three  records 
would  enable  an  observer  to  determine  the  direction 
in  which  an  earthquake  motion  was  propagated. 
Inasmuch  as  it  has  been  well  known  for  many  years 
past  that  the  movement  of  the  ground  as  recorded  at 
a  given  station  may  be  in  any  azimuth,  we  are  not 
surprised  when  Dr.  Weigand  tells  us  that  no  satis- 
factory result  has  been  obtained. 

The'  records  are  photographic,  the  source  of  light 
and  the  record  receiving  surface  being  at  a  distance 
Oi"  5  metres  from  mirrors  on  the  pendulums.  This 
necessitates  the  use  of  powerful  electric  lamps.  This 
condition,  the  high  sensibility  due  to  high  multipli- 
cation of  the  instrument,  which  on  certain  foundations 
kads  to  wandering  of  the  light  spot,  and  the  cost  of 
photographic  paper,  which  is  run  at  the  rate  of  36cm. 
per  hour,  preclude  the  use  of  this  instrument  except- 
ing at  a  few  selected  stations.  Other  instruments  are 
VViechert's  astatic  pendulum,  Vicentini's  microseismo- 
graph,  and  Onion's  conical  pendulum,  all  of  which 
write  on  smoked  paper,  Milne's  photographic  hori- 
zontal pendulum,  which  is  a  type  adopted  by  the  British 
Association,  and  Schmidt's  trifilar  gravimeter. 

Brief  references  to  the  records  of  these  instruments 
are  published  in  a  Monatsberichte.  All  that  this  gives 
about  the  Strassburg  records  of  an  earthquake  is  a 
time  for  its  commencement  and  its  duration  as  re- 
corded by  a  Von  Rebeur  pendulum.  The  times  of 
maximum  or  other  phases  of  motion,  amplitudes, 
periods,  and  other  information  required  by  seismo- 
logists is  omitted.  A  plus  or  minus  sign  indicates 
whether  other  instruments  did  or  did  not  respond  to 
the  movement,  and  the  latter  signs  predominate. 

With  the  object  of  showing  the  superiority  of  the 
Strassburg  type  of  instrument,  particularly  as  com- 
pared with  the  type  adopted  by  the  British  .Association, 
which  latter,  according  to  his  opinion,  should  cease 
to  exist.  Dr.  Weigand  emphasises  the  discrepancies 
between  his  various  registers.  As  illustrative  of  the 
supposed  want  of  sensibility  in  the  British  .Association 
type,  he  points  out  that  the  Strassburg  Circular  for 
August,  1901,  shows  that  the  Rebeur  pendulum  re- 
corded twenty-four  earthquakes,  whilst  a  British 
Association  type,  in  the  same  building,  only  recorded 
seven.  This  latter  number  he  now  raises  to  ten.  As 
a  matter  of  fact,  seventeen  of  the  Strassburg  records 
correspond  with  seventeen  records  obtained  in  Britain, 
whilst  five  entries  in  the  Strassburg  list  refer  to  verv 
small  disturbances  peculiar  to  that  place,  which  there- 
fore may  well  be  regarded  as  being  of  doubtful  origin. 
The  earthquakes  recorded  in  a  given  period  by  the 
Rebeur  and  British  .Association  pendulums  were  there- 
fore nineteen  and  seventeen.  Dr.  Weigand  published 
these  numbers  as  twenty-four  and  seven,  and  similar 
discrepancies  between  the  records  of  the  Rebeur  pen- 
dulum and  the  records  of  all  other  instruments  in  use 
at  Strassburg  appear  in  each  of  the  Strassburg 
registers. 
J  That  the  Rebeur  pendulums  as  installed  at  Strass- 

burg have  a  higher  sensibility  than  othier  seismographs 
is  well  known,  but  it  must  not  be  overlooked  that  this 
high    sensibility    is    one    factor    which    prevents    their 
NO.    1766,  VOL.   68] 


general  adoption.  That  the  British  Association  type 
of  instrument  is  sufficient  for  the  purposes  for  which 
it  was  intended  is  amply  shown  in  the  reports  issued 
by  the  Association.  Experiments  are  now  in  progress 
to  increase  the  speed  of  the  record  receiving  surface 
connected  with  this  apparatus  about  four  times,  and 
to  reduce  the  cost  of  photographic  material  to  about 
3^.  per  annum.  It  now  costs  61.  los.  per  annum, 
whilst  paper  for  the  Rebeur  apparatus  costs  15^ 

When  Dr.  Weigand  complains  of  the  want  of  sharp- 
ness in  the  trace  yielded  by  the  British  Association 
instrument,  he  should  evidently  look  to  its  adjust- 
ments, for  it  is  its  pronounced  sharpness  that  compen- 
sates for  its  want  of  multiplication.  In  this  respect 
the  records  it  yields  are  far  superior  to  those  obtained 
from  any  other  form  of  photographically  recording 
seismograph. 

That  it  should  be  affected  like  other  instruments 
with  so-called  "  Mikroseismische  Unrulie  "  is  what 
might  be  expected  if  located  in  a  cellar, 

.Altogether,  the  institute  at  Strassburg  as  "  der  Kais. 
Hauptstation  "  might  easily  be  improved,  whilst  if  its 
publications  took  the  form  of  the  excellent  registers 
issued  in  the  Bollcttino  della  Societa  Sismologica 
Italiana,  they  would  be  of  greater  value  to  working 
seismologists.  ..• 


THE  INTERNATIONAL  STUDY  OF  THE  SEA.' 

THE  publications  mentioned  below  are  the  first 
reports  of  the  International  Council  for  the  Study 
of  the  Sea  which  was  constituted  by  the  meeting  ot 
representatives  of  the  maritime  Powers  of  northern 
Europe  at  Christiania  in  1901,  and  now  has  its  seat  at 
Copenhagen.  The  bulletins  deal  with  what  has  come 
to  be  known  as  hydrographic  work  carried  out  on  the 
quarterly  cruises,  in  which  special  ships  of  each  of  the 
participating  States  take  part.  The  word  hydrography 
is  not,  however,  used  in  the  sense  made  tamiliar  by 
the  hydrographic  offices  of  the  various  Admiralties ; 
it  means,  if  we  may  borrow  for  a  moment  the  termin- 
ology of  chemistry,  scarcely  more  than  inorganic 
oceanography.  We  say  scarcely  more,  for  in  these 
bulletins  it  does  include  the  study  of  the  distribution  of 
plankton,  but  for  this  purpose  plankton  are  treated 
rather  as  current-floats  than  as  organisms. 

It  will  be  remembered  that  the  International  Council 
was  formally  constituted  at  a  conference  held  at 
Copenhagen  in  July,  1902,  and  that  no  time  was  lost 
in  getting  to  work  is  plain  from  the  fact  that  the  first 
number  of  the  Bulletin  deals  with  a  series  of  cruises  in 
August,  1902,  the  second  with  a  similar  series  in 
November  or  December,  1902,  and  the  third  with 
February,  1903.  These  cruises  have  since  been  con- 
tinued quarterly,  and  we  understand  that  they 
are  now  more  complete,  and  the  results  obtained 
more  readily  comparable  than  was  possible  when  the 
collaboration  was  only  beginning.  Viewed  from  tne 
standpoint  of  scientific  efticiency,  the  work  of  the 
Council  is  hampered  by  the  very  short  term  for  which 
the  various  Governments  have  granted  the  necessary 
funds  and  the  stringent  conditions  as  to  endeavouring 
to  obtain  practical  results  directly  beneficial  to  fisheries 
which  have  been  insisted  on  in  some  cases.  But  there 
is  reason  to  hope  that  these  very  difficulties  will  act 
as  a  spur. 

The  bulletins  are  mere  records  of  observations,  they 
contain  a  minimum  of  explanatory  letterpress,  and  no 
discussion  at  all.     It  might  be  found  desirable  to  print 

1  Conseil  permanent  international  pour  rExploration  de  la  Mer.  Bulletin 
des  V<e>ultat.s  acqnis  pendant  l<-s  coiir  es  p^riodique<.  Public  par  le  Bureau 
du  Conseil  avec  I'assistance  de  M.  Knudsen,  Charge  du  .Strvice  Hydr.  - 
graphiqu^  Annie  1903-1903.  Nts.  i,  jet  3.  (Copenhague  :  A.  F.  H6st 
et  Kils,  1903.) 


4i8 


NATURE 


[Sei'Temler  3,  1903 


a  little  more -in  formation,  for  instance,  as  to  the  con- 
stitution of  the  International  Council  and  its  adminis- 
trative bureau,  the  address  of  the  ofHice  and  a  brief 
statement  of  the  objects  for  which  the  organisation  has 
been  brought  into  existence.  The  salient  features  of 
the  maps  of  the  physical  conditions  of  the  surface  water 
might  also  be  expressed  in  words,  and  the  stations  at 
which -observations  were  made  ought  to  be  indicated 
on  the  map  of  each  cruise  by  dots.  We  are  inclined 
to  lav  stress  on  this  point,  as  without  some  indication 
of  the  kind  the  maps  are  difficult  to  interpret,  and  the 
scale  is  not  large  enough  to  permit  the  figures  of  each 
observation  to  appear. 

The  Aug'ust  and  November  cruises  were  carried  out 
in  the  Baltic  by  Finland,  Sweden,  Denmark,  and 
Germany,  in  the 'North  Sea  by  Germany  and  Scotland, 
and  in  the  North  Atlantic  and  Arctic  Sea  by  Norway 
and  Russia.  To  these  there  were  added  in  February 
observations  in  the  North  Sea  by  Holland,  and  in  the 
English  Channel  by  England,  England  and  Scotland 
being  separately  represented,  mainly  on  account  of 
the  different  nature  of  the  fishery  problems  in  their 
respective  areas.  It  may  be  noted  that  these  bulletins 
do  not  touch  on  the  fishery  observations,  nor  on  the 
biological  work,  (the  determination  of  plankton  ex- 
cepted), which  occupy  the  Vk'hole  time  of  the  various 
national  staffs  between  the  quarterly  cruises.  They  do 
not  refer  either  to  the  work  of  the  Central  Laboratory 
at  Christiania. 

The  importance  of  the  bulletin  lies  in  the  fact  that 
it  gives  particulars  of  the  temperature  and  salinity  at 
a  great  number  of  points  from  latitude  45°  to  75°  N., 
observed  nearly  simultaneously  and  with  comparable 
instruments  of  the  highest  precision,  the  temperature 
being  determined  by  means  of  the  Pettersson-Nansen 
insulating  water-bottle  and  thermometers  graduated  to 
the  fifth  or  even  the  tenth  of  a  degree  centigrade,  the 
salinity  by  estimation  of  chlorine. 

Both  for  August  and  November  the  central  part  of 
the  North  Sea  appears  to  have  been  left  without  obser- 
vations, but  this  gap  was  partly  filled  up  in  February 
when  the  system  of  quarterly  cruises  was  more  com- 
plete, and  a  number  of  supplementary  observations  by 
trading  steamers  had  been  added.  The  indications  in 
the  published  maps  are  of  a  slight  freshening  along 
the  British  coast,  a  belt  of  maximum  salinity  running 
parallel  to  the  coast  towards  the  middle  of  the  North 
Sea,  increasing  in  salinity  rapidly  to  the  north-west 
between  Scotland  and  Faeroe,  and  to  the  south-west 
towards  the  English  Channel.  The  whole  of  the 
eastern  half  of  the  North  Sea  shows  a  rapid  freshen- 
ing towards  a  stream  issuing  from  the  Baltic  close 
along  the  west  coast  of  Jutland. 

Where  the  temperature  observations  were  sufficiently 
close  and  regular  to  permit  of  isotherms  being  drawn, 
they  present  a  remarkable  relation  to  the  isohalines. 
In  August  the  one  isotherm  shown  is  that  of  12°  C, 
which  runs  from  Aberdeen  to  Lindesnaes,  cutting  the 
isohalines  at  right  angles.  In  the  November  map, 
however,  the  isohalines  and  isotherms  exhibit  a  most 
striking  parallelism,  so  that  the  circulation  of  the  water 
in  that  month  could  be  studied  with  equal  facility  by 
considering  either  the  temperature  or  the  salinity.  Ihus 
at  the  southern  end  of  the  North  Sea  the  isotherm  of 
^3°-5  C.  coincides  with  the  isohaline  of  35.25  per  mille, 
and  the  isotherm  of  13"  C.  with  the  isohaline  of  35.00 
per  mille.  At  the  mouth  of  the  Baltic  the  two  sets  of 
lines  though  parallel  do  not  correspond  symmetrically, 
while  on  the  north-west  side  of  the  Baltic  stream  10° 
lies  close  to  34"/-.,  on  the  east  side  it  lies  close  to  32%., 
Still  the  axis  of  the  Baltic  stream  is  the  same  whether 
it  is  drawn  from  the  one  set  of  lines  or  the  other. 

The  February  map  shows  the  isotherms  parallel 
with  the  isohalines  in  the  south  and  east  of  the.  North 
NO.    1766,  VOL.  68] 


Sea,  but  cutting  them  nearly  at  right  angles  in  the 
more  open  w^aters  of  the  north  and  west.  The  differ- 
ence in  the  broad  action  of  the  Atlantic  in  the  wide 
part  of  the  sea  and  the  river-like  action  of  the  Channel 
in  the  southern  part  is  brought  out  in  a  most  interest- 
ing manner. 

It  is  very  important  to  secure  a  great  extension  of 
surface  observations,  and  this,  we  believe,  is  now  being 
done  by  many  shipmasters  who  make  regular  observ- 
ations'on  the  various  trade  routes  across  the  North 
Sea.  Even  if  these  fall  short  of  the  high  accuracy 
attained  by  the  special  scientific  vessels,  they  will  prove 
invaluable  in  fixing  the  general  run  of  the  isotherms 
during  the  quarterly  cruises,  and  of  following  the 
changes  which  take  place  between  them. 

We  consider  that  these  bulletins  are  satisfactory 
and  full  of  the  promise  of  large  results.  The  too  scanty 
letterpress  is  printed  in  parallel  columns  in  German  and 
English;  the  title  only  is  in  French. 


ARCTIC    GEOLOGY. 

DR.  P.  SCHEI'S  preliminary  sketch  of  the  geo- 
logical work  accomplished  during  Captain 
Sverdrup's  four  years'  exploration  of  the  region  west 
of  Smith  Sound,  an  account  of  which  is  given  in  the 
Geographical  Journal  for  July,  makes  important 
additions  to  our  knowledge  of  Arctic  geology. 

About  a  quarter  of  a  century  ago  Sir  G.  Nares's 
expedition  examined  the  northern  and  eastern  coasts 
of  Grinnell  Land  down  to  the  north-east  corner  of 
Ellesmere  Island.  The  collections  brought  back  by 
the  Fram  continue  the  geological  information  from 
this  district  round  the  southern  part  of  that  land  mass, 
now  named  King  Oscar  Land,  and  all  up  its  w-estern 
shore  to  the  north  of  Greely  Fjord,  including  also  the 
eastern  coast  of  a  newly-discovered  island  called 
Heiberg  Land,  and  the  coast  of  North  Devon,  south 
of  Jones  Sound,  thus  filling  in  the  angle  bet,ween  Smith 
Sound  and  the  group  of  the  Parry  Islands.  Possibly 
they  complete  our  general  knowledge  of  this  region, 
for  Captain  Sverdrup  is  disposed  to  think  no  more 
land  exists  to  the  north  and  north-west  of  Heiberg 
Land. 

Previous  explorations,  summarised  by  Messrs. 
Feilden,  De  Ranee  and  Etheridge  in  the  Quarterly 
Journal  of  the  Geological  Society  for  1878,  proved  the 
existence  of  crystalline  Archaean  rocks  in  the  north-east 
of  Ellesmere  Island,  of  ancient  sedimentaries,  possibly 
Huronian,  along  the  w^estern  coast  of  Kennedy 
Channel  as  far  as  the  north-east  angle  of  Grinnell 
Land,  where  they  were  succeeded  by  Carboniferous 
strata  (with  a  little  Devonian).  West  of  these  were 
Archaean  schists,  and  those  in  the  south  were  parted 
from  the  Huronians  by  a  tract  of  Upper  and  Lower 
Silurian.  Tertiary  deposits,  presumably  of  Miocene 
age,  were  discovered  at  more  than  one  spot  on  both 
sides  of  Smith  Sound  and  the  channel  north  of  it,  and 
ample  proofs  obtained  of  a  comparatively  recent 
general  elevation  of  the  land,  in  some  cases  amounting 
to  a  thousand  feet.  Dr.  Schei  confirms  the  .existence 
of  the  older  Palaeozoics  near  the  middle  of  Ellesmere 
Island.  Archeeans  follow  them  to  the  south,  and  con- 
tinue along  the  coasts  of  Smith  and  Jones  Sounds, 
appearing  also  on  that  of  North  Devon.  On  both 
sides  they  are  succeeded  by  Cambro-Silurian  deposits, 
and  these,  just  at  the  western  end  of  Jones  Sound,  by 
Devonian,  which  occur  on  both  sides  of  the  strait  and 
extend  some  distance  up  the  west  coast  of  King  Oscar 
Land.  That  formation  had  been  already  identified 
in  the  Parry  Islands,  and  is  now  proved  to  extend  over 
a  considerable  area.  The  strait  parting  Ellesmere 
Land  from  Heiberg  Land  is  bordered  bv  Mesozoic 
strata,  which  had  already  been  detected  in  the  Parry 
Islands,    and    these    in    the    most    northern    part    of 


September  3,  igo^ 


NATURE 


41:9- 


Heiberg  Land  are  underlain  by  Carboniferous,  with 
some  interesting-  volcanic  deposits.  Tertiary  strata 
were  detected  on  Baumann  Fjord,  west  of  King  Oscar 
Land,  containing  plant  remains  in  an  unusual  state  of 
preservation.  Towards  the  western  side  glaciers  are 
neither  frequent  nor  large,  owing  probably  to  a 
deficient  precipitation,  and  no  signs  were  found  of 
their  having  had  a  greater  extension. 

Thus  Dr.  Schei's  researches  corroborate  and  carry 
further  the  work  of  his  predecessors.  They  show  that 
a  plateau-like  region  of  Archaean  rocks  was  submerged 
— perhaps  before  the  beginning  of  the-  Palaeozoic — and 
was  buried  beneath  Cambrian,  Ordovician,  and 
Silurian  deposits,  it  mav  be  in  orderly  succession. 
These  were  followed  by  Devonian  and  Carboniferous, 
both  marine,  and  possibly  without  interruption.  After 
a  break,  with  considerable  physical  disturbances,  some 
beds  of  Triassic  age  were  deposited,  which  are 
succeeded  by  Jurassic.     .Another  great  break   is  only 


(.From  the  Ceo^^rap/iical  Jour,ial.) 

interrupted  by  isolated  Tertiary  deposits,  and,  with  the 
e-xception  of  a  considerable  late  or  post-Glacial  sub- 
mergence, terrestrial  conditions  may  have  been 
since  then  generallv  persistent. 

T.     G.     BONNEY. 

FISHERIES    INVESTIGATION   IN   IRELAND. 

IREL.AND  seems  to  be  happier  for  the  moment  than 
either  England  or  Scotland  in  the  organisation 
and  in  the  results  of  its  official  fisheries  research.  In 
England  the  official  Fisheries  Department  has  been  for 
some  years  under  the  Board  of  Trade,  and  is  soon, 
we  believe,  to  be  transferred  to  the  Board  of  Agri- 
culture. It  has  had  no  laboratories,  no  boats,  and 
no  scientific  assistants,   and   it  is  no  reflection   uport 

NO.   1766,  VOL.  68] 


H.M.    Inspectors  of   Fisheries  in   such  circumstance* 
j  to    say    that    they    have    carried    on    no    biological^ 
I  chemical,  or  other  laboratory  investigations. 
!       In  Scotland  there  is  the  well-known  Fikherj^  Board^ 
provided    with    laboratories,    vessels,    arid    a  '  sea-fish 
hatchery,    and   much   good   scientific   work   has   beert 
done  in   the  past  by   Dr.    Fulton  arid  his  able  staff; 
but  it  is  said  that  nearly  all  the  available  funds  (with- 
out which  practical  work  cannot  be  carried  on),  and 
the  energies  of  the  scientific  men,  of  the  Fishery  Board' 
for  Scotland  have  now  been  diverted  for  several  years- 
into  the  service  of  the  international  North  Sea  investi- 
gation scheme. 

In  Ireland  matters  seem  to  be  managed  better^ 
Competent  scientific  men  are  carrying  on  important 
investigations  having  for  the  most  part  a  direct  bear- 
ing on  the  local  fisheries,  and  there  seem  to  be 
sufficient  funds  not  only  to  meet  the  necessary  ex- 
penses of  the  work,  but  also  to  publish  the  results  in 
suitable  form — with  coloured  plates  and  other  good 
ustrations.  Across  tfte  Irish  Sea  there  is  a 
:  "  fisheries  branch  "  in  the  Department  of  Agriculture; 
and  Technical  Instruction,  and  the  two  names  that 
appear  prominently  in  connection  with  the  work — ■ 
YVm.  Spotswood  Green  and  E.  W.  L.  Holt— are  ones 
i  that  command  respect  from  marine  biologists  and  from 
j  fisheries  experts  alike.  Mr.  Green  is  Chief  Inspector 
'  of  Fisheries,  and  Mr.  Holt  is  his  scientifid  adviser,  and 
;  from  what  we  know  of  the  work  accomplished  the 
combination  seems  a  good  one.  The  department  in 
question  has  now  issued  the  "  Report  on  the  Sea  and 
Inland  Fisheries  of  Ireland  for  1901,"  in  which,  for 
'  th'-  first  time,  afe  the  report  of  the  scientific  adviser 
states,  a  part  ii.  on  scientific  investigations  appears- 
as  a  separate  volume.  It  contains  a  couple  of  hundred 
pages  and  more  than  twenty  plates,  and  Mr.  Holt — 
for  it  is  evidently  "very  largely  his  work — and  the  de- 
partment, and  k\l  others  concerned,  are  to  be  con- 
gratulated on  its  appearance.  The  volume  is  entitled 
the  report  for  1901,  but  we  notice  occasional  refer- 
ences to  work  done  in  1902,  and  it  contains  the  trans- 
lation of  a  Norwegian  paper  said  to  be  published  in 
1902.  There  is  no  harm  in  this,  but  we  may  be  allowed 
to  hope  that  the  volumes  for  1902  and  1903  will  follow 
soon. 

After  a  brief  report  from  the  scientific  adviser  to 
the  chief  inspector  dealing  with  sea  fisheries,  inland 
fisheries,  and  the  Cork  Exhibition  (1902),  there  follows 
an  appendix,  which  is  the  main  part  of  the  book  and 
!  contains  a  number  of  memoirs  by  Mr.  Holt  and  his 
colleagues  which  are  of  both  scientific  and  economic 
value.  Amongst  these  we  may  note  a  brief  account 
of  a  fishing  survey  of  the  Porcupine  Bank,  which  is 
supplemented  bv  a'paper  on  the  rock  specimens  trawled 
from  the  floor  of  the  Atlantic  and  examined  by  Prof. 
Grenville  Cole  and  Mr.  T.  Crook  ;  a  paper  on  Copepoda 
and  one  on  Nudibranchiata  by  Mr.  G.  P.  Farran  ;  a 
useful  paper  on  the  British  and  Irish  gobies,  by  Mr. 
Holt  and  Mr,  Byrne,  which  is  illustrated  by  two 
beautiful  coloured"  plates  and  a  number  of  figures  in 
the  text;  an  account  of  an  investigation  of  the  oyster 
beds  of  Wicklow  and  Wexford;  and  a  translation  of 
A.  WoUebaek's  three  papers  ori  oyster  culture  from 
"Norsk  Fiskeritidende. "  The  section  on  inland 
fisheries  has  papers  and  reports  on  salmon,  pollen,  and 
trout.  _ 

It  is  interesting  to  notice  that  Mr.  Holt  speaks  ot 
his  oyster  investigation  as  "  part  of  the  systematic 
examination  of  all  our  eastern  fishing  grounds,  whiclr 
is  an  item  in  the  work  of  the  scientific  section  of  the 
fisheries  branch."  That  is  a  programme  such  as  we 
should  expect  from  Mr.  W.  S.  Green,  and  we  have 
no  doubt  it  will  be  ably  carried  out  by  Mr.  Holt. 


^u 


NA  TURB 


[September  3,  1903 


rUE    SAyjTARY    EXAMINATION    OF     WATER 

SUPPLIES. 
A  N  extremely  valuable  and  interesting  report '  has 
-^"^  been  issued  by  the  sanitary  authorities  of  the 
City  of  Chicago  on  the  results  of  the  chemical  and 
bacteriological  examinations  of  the  waters  between 
Lake  Michigan  at  Chicago  and  the  Mississippi  River 
at  St.  Louis  for  the  purpose  of  determining  their  con- 
dition and  quality  before  and  after  the  opening  of  the 
Sanitary  Canal.  For  the  diversion  from  Lake 
Michigan  of  the  sewage  of  Chicago  and  its  inoffensive 
disposal  towards  the  Mexican  Gulf,  a  canal  was  cut 
to  carry  the  sewage,  much  diluted  with  lake  water, 
into  the  Illinois  River,  a  distance  of  29  miles.  From 
this  point  the  Illinois  River,  after  a  course  of  289 
miles,  discharges  into  the  Mississippi  at  Grafton, 
vyhich  is  about  38  miles  above  St.  Louis.  The  investi- 
gations originated  from  the  fact  that  the  State  of 
Missouri  and  the  City  of  St.  Louis  had  applied  for  a 
Federal  injunction  against  the  further  operation  and 
development  of  the  Sanitary  Canal  of  the  Chicago 
Sanitary  District  on  the  ground  that  the  purity  of  the 
water  supply  of  St.  Louis  was  endangered  thereby. 
Chicago  replied  by  instituting  a  commission  to  examine 
into  the  condition  of  the  waters  between  Chicago  and 
St.  Louis,  a  distance  of  356  miles. 

The  Chicago  Municipal  Laboratory  (Dr.  Gehr- 
mann),  the  University  of  Chicago  (Prof.  Jordan),  and 
the  University  of  Illinois.  (Profs.  Palmer  and  Burrill) 
collaborated  in  the  work,  a  common  plan  of  operation 
was  devised,  a  uniform  scheme  for  the  bacteriological 
and  , chemical  examinations  agreed  upon,  and  forty 
stations  were  fixed  for  taking  the  samples,  of  which 
forty  were,  collected  weekly  and  delivered  to  each  of 
the  three  laboratories.  The  work  extended  over  a 
period  of  about  thirteen  months,  and  during  that  time 
some  8600  samples  were  examined.  The  investi- 
gations show  that  considerable  self-piirification  has 
taken  place  before  the  Sanitary  Canal  discharges  its 
sewage  into  the  Illinois  (29  miles),  and  that  this  con- 
tinues until,  before  Averyville  (159  miles)  is  reached, 
all  trace  of  sewage  pollution  has  disappeared  from  the 
waters  of  the  Illinois.  Since  there  is  still  another  188 
miles  to  be  traversed  before  anv  pollution  could  reach 
M.  Louis,  the  possibility  of  Chicago's  sewage  en- 
dangering the  purity  of  St.  Louis's  water  must  be 
dismissed  as  impossible.  In  all  probability  such  an 
exhaustive  series  of  observations  over  so  extended  a 
stretch ^of  water  for  so  long  a  period  has  never  before 
been  attempted,  and  the  results  obtained  are  of  con- 
siderable general  interest.  A  valuable  feature  of  the 
report  is  the  detailed  description  of  the  methods  em- 
ployed for  both  the  chemical  and  bacteriological  por- 
tions of  the  examinations.  The  report  illustrates  the 
Sl^f  '^.^"1''  ^"  ^hich  a  great  question,  such  as  it 
c-!,  i.r'f  '  T^'^  ^^  approached  and  a  solution  be 
sought  tor,  and  we  commend  its  perusal  to  hygienic 
authorities  in  this  country.  R.  T.  Hewlett. 


NOTES. 

The  British  Rainfall  Organisation,  founded  in  i860  bv 
the  late  Mr.  G.  J.  Symons,  F.R.S.,  will  henceforth  be 
carried  on  under  the  sole  charge  of  Dr.  H.  R.  Mill  Mr. 
Sovverby  Wallis  having  been  •  compelled  bv  ill-health  to 
retire  after  more  than  thirty  years'  connection  with  the 
association. 

The  summer  meeting  of  the  Iron  and  Steel  Institute 
was  opened  on  Tuesday  last  at  Barrow-in-Furness  under  the 

A  ^,"R^P°"  °f  Streams  Examination."  Made  under  the  Direction  of 
Arthur  R.  Reynolds,  M.l).,  Con.missic  ner  of  Heath,  Ciiy  of  Chicago 
December,  1902.  * 


NO.    176'S.   VOL.    68] 


chairmanship  of  Mr.  Andrew  Carnegie,  the  president  of  the 

institute. 

The  whaler  Terra  Nova,  which  has  been  acquired  by  the 
Government  and  fitted  out  as  a  relief  ship  for  the  Discovery, 
left  Portland  on  Wednesday  of  last  week  for  Hobart, 
Tasmania,  where,  as  has  been  mentioned  in  a  former  issue, 
she  will  be  joined  by  the  Morning.  In  order  that  she  may 
reach  her  destination  as  rapidly  as  possible,  she  will  be 
towed  as  far  as  Aden  by  one  of  His  Majesty's  ships;  from 
Aden  she  will  have  to  depend  on  her  own  resources  of  steam 
and  sail.  It  is,  however,  anticipated  that  the  two  ships, 
the  Morning  and  Terra:  Nova,  will  be  able  to  leave  Hobart 
in  order  to  make  their  way  south  through  the  Antarctic 
ice  in  search  of  the  Discovery  by  December  i. 

According  to  a  Reuter  telegram  from  Brest,  the  steamer 
Franfais,  with  the  members  of  the  Charcot  expedition, 
which  is  proceeding  towards  the  South  Pole  in  search  of. 
Dr.  Otto  Nordenskjold,  left  that  place  on  Sunday  afternoon 
last. 

The  German  South  Polar  Expedition  has  arrived  safely 
at  St.  Helena. 

A  TELEGRAM  from  Naples  on  August  26  through  Reuter 's 
Agency  stated  that  on  that  day  a  crater  of  Vesuvius  which 
had  been  quiet  since  1895  opened,  and  a  great  flood  of  lava 
poured  forth. 

A  telegram  from  Wellington,  New  Zealand,  states  that 
an  eruption  of  the  Waimangu  geyser  took  place  on  Satur- 
day last,  causing  the  loss  of  four  lives. 

According  to  a  telegram  from  New  York  a  gold  seeker 
has  just  arrived  at  Vancouver  after  an  absence  of  four 
years,  during  which  time  he  has  been  exploring  the 
Mackenzie  River  district  in  the  direction  of  the  Arctic  circle, 
and  has  brought  with  him  what  purports  to  be  a  piece  of 
silk  which  formed  part  of  the  balloon  of  the  ill-fated  Andr^. 

We  regret  to  have  to  announce  the  death  at  Marstrand, 
Sweden,  at  the  age  of  sixty  years,  of  Prof.  W.  H.  Corfield, 
sanitary  adviser  to  H.M.  Office  of  Works,  and  author  of 
numerous  works  relating  to  hygiene. 

A  monument  to  the  French  chemist  Laurent  was  recently 
unveiled  by  the  French  Minister  of  Agriculture  at  Langres 
(Haute-Marne). 

The  British  Medical  Journal  states  that  Dr.  Stiles,  who, 
it  is  said,  has  discovered  a  parasite  which  he  believes  to  be 
effective  in  destroying  mosquitoes,  is  about  to  put  the 
efficacy  of  the  destroyer  to  the  test  at  Cape  May  or  some 
other  place  in  New  Jersey  where  mosquitoes  are  prevalent. 
The  investigation  is  undertaken  at  the  request  of  Prof. 
Smith,  State  Entomologist  of  New  Jersey,  who  has  helped 
Dr.  Stiles  in  his  search  for  a  parasite  suitable  for  the 
purpose. 

A  Reuter  telegram  from  Lagos  states  that  the  Legislative 
Council  has  passed  a  law  making  it  a  penal  offence  to  in- 
troduce wireless  telegraphy  into  the  colony  without  the 
sanction  of  the  Governor  in  Council. 

According  to  a  telegram  received  through  Laffan's 
Agency,  Mr.  ,Marconi,  on  his  arrival  at  New  York  by  the 
Lucania,  stated  that  the  vessel  was  never  out  of  communica- 
tion with  either  Great  Britain  or  America  on  any  day 
during  the  voyage.  On  Tuesday  night  of  last  week  a 
mes.'sage  was  received  from  Poldhu,  when  the  Lucania  was 
in  mid-ocean,  giving  the  result  of  that  day's  yacht  race.  The 
Nantucket  station  gave  the  result  of  Thursday's  race.     Mr. 


S EPTEMBER  3 .  1 9O3] 


NATURE 


421 


Marconi  added  that  he  was  going  to  consult  Mr.  Edison 
on  four  inventions  he  has  recently  made  for  improving  his 
system,  one  being  a  method  of  reducing  by  one-half  the 
high  power  now  necessary  for  transmitting  messages. 

The  inaugural  address  of  the  new  session  of  the  School 
of  Pharmacy,  in  connection  with  the  Pharmaceutical 
Society,  will  be  delivered  on  October  i  by  Dr.  J.  W.  Swan, 
F.R.S.,  and  the  bust  of  the  late  Mr.  W.  Martindale  will 
be  unveiled  on  the  same  date,  and  the  Hanbury  gold  medal 
presented  to  M.  Eugene  Collin  for  his  researches  in  the 
natural  history  of  drugs. 

The  Swiss  Alpenklub  will,  according  to  the  Athenaeum, 
hold  its  Klubfest  at  Pontresina  on  September  12,  13,  and  14. 
The  Morteratsch  glacier  has  been  chosen  for  the  excursions. 

A  GENERAL  meeting  of  mining  engineers  is  announced  to 
take  place  in  \'ienna  from  September  21  to  26,  at  which 
many. papers  of  interest  will  be  read  and  discussed.  Simul- 
taneously, there  will  be  held  a  meeting  of  the  Boring  and 
Mining  and  Metallurgical  Engineers  for  Styria  and  district. 

The  British  Mycological  Society  will  hold  its  seventh 
annual  week's  fungus  foray  at  Marlborough  from  October 
5  to  10.  On  the  evening  of  Wednesday,  October  7,  Miss 
A.  Lorrain  Smith  will  read  a  note  on  Gloeosporium  Tiliae, 
a  disease  of  lime  leaves,  and  Mr.  Carleton  Rea,  the  hon. 
sec.  of  the  Society,  will  read  a  note  on  the  occurrence  of 
a  Phalloid  new  to  Britain.  On  the  following  evening  the 
Rev.  W.  L.  \V.  Eyre  will  deliver  his  presidential  address, 
entitled  "  Mycology  as  an  Instrument  of  Recreation." 

The  fine  chemical  laboratory  of  the  University  of  Modena, 
Italy,  was  recently  completely  destroyed  by  fire,  and  the 
library  of  scientific  works  in  connection  with  it,  comprising 
60,000  volumes,  also  perished. 

An  exhibition  of  electric  automobile  chairs  is  to  take  place 
in  connection  with  the  World's  Fair  at  St.  Louis  next  year. 
The  chairs,  according  to  the  Electrical  IVorld,  of  New  York, 
will  have  a  uniform  speed  of  three  miles  per  hour,  the 
operator  having  no  control  over  the  speed,  and  the  same 
rate  is  maintained  uphill,  downhill,  or  on  the  level.  The 
chair  takes  the  form  of  a  low  phaeton  without  a  cover. 
There  are  two  large  rear  wheels  and  two  small  ones  under 
the  foot-rest.  All  are  pneumatic-tyred ;  the  seat  is  up- 
holstered in  cane.  Behind  the  seat  is  a  box  which  contains 
the  batteries  to  operate  the  machine.  If  two  persons  desire 
to  occupy  the  chair,  and  the  service  of  a  guide  is  wanted, 
the  latter  can  sit  on  an  adjustable  seat  at  the  rear.  On  the 
inside  of  the  chair,  attached  to  the  arm,  is  a  lever  which 
puts  the  chair  in  motion  or  stops  it  at  the  will  of  the  rider. 
A  long  lever  attached  to  the  front  truck  has  its  handle 
directly  in  the  centre  of  the  chair  within  easy  reach  of  the 
driver.  A  gentle  pressure  guides  the  machine  in  the  desired 
direction.  A  feature  of  the  machine  is  a  "  sensitive  rail  " 
which  surrounds  the  chair  on  all  sides  save  at  the  rear. 
This  prevents  any  accidents,  for  when  the  rail  comes  in 
contact  with  any  object,  even  though  it  weighs  but  i  lb., 
it  presses  against  a  device  that  locks  the  wheels  and  brings 
the  chair  to  a  dead  stop. 

We  learn  from  the  Scientific  American  that  Prof. 
Langley's  i2-foot  aerodrome  was  tested  on  August  8.  The 
model  flew  a  distance  of  600  yards  and  then  sank  in  22  feet 
of  water.  When  it  was  finally  recovered,  all  that  was  left 
was  a  tangled  wreck  of  twisted  wires.  The  time  consumed 
in  flight  was  not  more  than  45   seconds.     The  course  de- 


NO.    1766,  VOL.   68] 


scribed  was  a  semicircle.  According  to  accounts  which 
have  been  published,  the  motor  of  the  machine  and  the 
rudders  failed  to  work  properly.  The  altitude  of  the 
machine  at  the  time  of  the  fall  was  not  greater  than  50  feet. 
The  airship  is  stated  to  have  been  driven  by  an  8  horse- 
power hydrocarbon  engine  connected  up  with  two  two- 
bladed  propellers  located  one  on  each  side  of  the  machine 
at  about  its  middle  point.  One  four-bladed  wind  vane 
rudder  was  mounted  behind  the  engine ;  then  came  the 
rudder  proper.  On  each  side  the  airship  was  supported  by 
a  pair  of  white  silk  wings,  4^  feet  long  by  2  feet  in  width. 
The  propellers  were  located  on  the  side  between  the  wings 
and  turned  toward  each  other.  The  wings,  rudders, 
engine  and  other  running  gear  were  fastened  to  a  central 
cylindrical  tube  of  aluminium  18  inches  in  length  and  about 
4  inches  in  diameter,  and  tapering  at  both  ends.  The  test 
of  the  small  model  will,  it  is  said,  be  followed  at  an  early 
date  by  a  trial  by  the  60-foot  aerodrome  which  is  owned 
by  the  Government,  the  cost  of  which  was  70,000  dollars. 

With  reference  to  the  letter  which  appeared  in  our  issue 
of  August  6  from  Prof.  C.  V.  Boys  concerning  "  The 
American  Tariff  and  the  St.  Louis  Exhibition,"  Mr.  George 
C.  Comstock,  director  of  the  Washburn  Observatory, 
Madison,  Wis.,  U.S.A.,  writes  to  say  that  the  following 
letter  received  by  him  from  the  office  of  the  secretary  of 
the  Treasury  Department,  Washington,  illustrates  the 
manner  in  which,  in  one  class  of  cases,  the  American 
customs  authorities  have  apparently  overruled  the  plain  in- 
tent of  the  statute  cited  by  our  correspondent.  "  The 
Department  is  in  receipt  of  your  letter  of  the  12th  inst.  in 
which  you  inquire  whether  photographic  lenses  imported 
for  colleges  and  universities  can  be  admitted  to  entry  free 
of  duty  as  scientific  apparatus.  Paragraph  638  of  the  Act 
of  July  24,  1897,  provides  for  the  free  entry  of  scientific 
apparatus,  &c.,  when  imported  for  educational  institutions 
and  the  Department,  and  the  Board  of  U.S.  General 
Appraisers,  have  held  that  photographic  apparatus,  dry 
plates,  lantern  slides  and  lenses  are  not  scientific  apparatus 
within  the  meaning  of  said  paragraph  of  law,  and  such 
articles,  therefore,  when  imported  for  the  use  of  educational 
institutions  would  be  liable  to  duty."  Whether  the  above 
represents  a  policy  of  the  Treasury  Department  in  cases 
other  than  those  named  it  is  impossible  to  say,  but  it  may 
serve  to  illustrate  the  danger  of  relying  upon  a  lay  inter- 
pretation of  the  Tariff  Act,  and  the  need  for  determining 
in  each  particular  case  the  policy  pursued  in  the  custom 
house.  The  possibilities  of  interpretation  presented  by  a 
Board  of  Appraisers  that  holds  photographic  lenses  not  to 
bf  scientific  apparatus    seem  unlimited. 

A  FEATURE  of  the  mosquito  as  the  agent  of  malaria  that 
ha.-  in  the  past  been  difficult  to  understand  is  that  occasion- 
ally a  locality  is  found  where  the  physical  conditions  appear 
to  be  such  as  to  favour  the  development  of  malaria, 
susceptible  species  of  anopheles  abound,  and  yet  malaria 
is  absent.  Not  only  do  such  areas  exist  in  some  cases  in 
immediate  proximity  to  active  foci  of  the  disease,  but  the 
introduction  of  persons  whose  blood  contains  the  malarial 
parasite  is  unattended  by  the  development  of  malaria  in 
others.  The  mosquitoes  of  such  immune  areas  appear,  in 
fact,  to  be  insusceptible,  but  the  cause  has  been  hitherto 
unknown.  The  researches  of  Dr.  Schoo,  however,  to  which 
Lieut. -Colonel  Giles  directs  attention  in  the  April  number 
of  the  Indian  Medical  Gazette,  offer  an  explanation.  Dr. 
Schoo  observed  that,  so  long  as  they  were  fed  on  acid  fruits, 
it  was  extremely  difficult  to  infect  mosquitoes  with  the 
malarial  parasite,  while  they  were  easily  infected  when  the 
acid  food   was  withheld.     This  observation  accords  with  a 


42:2 


NATURE 


[September  3,  1903 


point  noticed  by  Prof.  Celli,  who  has  stated  that  one  of  the 
Italian  immune  areas  is  remarkable  for  an  enorrnous  de- 
velopment of  the  cultivation  of  the  tomato,  a  fruit  rich  in 
vegetable  acid,  and  an  attractive  food  for  mosquitoes.  The 
necessity  of  further  investigation  of  this  matter  is  clear,  for 
if  confirmation  is  obtained,  such  knowledge  may  be  of  much 
importance  in  its  practical  application  for  the  prevention  of 
malaria. 

The  micro-balance  exhibited  by  Prof.  Nernst  at  the 
Berlin  congress  is  described  in  a  recent  number  of  the 
Berichte,  and  a  number  of  results  are  given  which  illustrate 
its  remarkable  sensitiveness  and  accuracy.  The  control  is 
a  stretched  quartz  fibre,  and  the  pointer  moves  over  forty 
small  divisions,  each  of  which  represents  oo3763mg.,  and 
can  be  read  to  a  twentieth  part.  The  scale  pan  is  a  tiny 
platinum  tray  weighing  only  2omg.,  and  in  this  the  analyses 
are  carried  out.  Three  analyses  of  calcite,  in  each  of  which 
less  than  3mg.  was  taken,  gave  ۩2  =  43-80,  43-66,  and 
43-81  per  cent.,  theory  43-96,  and  the  ignition  of  a  single 
milligram  of  yttrium  sulphate  gave  the  atomic  weight  as 
88-0  and  87-8,  theory  89.  The  balance  is  specially  suited 
for  the  analysis  of  traces  of  rare  earths,  and  an  attempt  was 
made  to  carry  out  a  fractional  distillation  of  the  chlorides 
of  yttrium,  erbium,  and  ytterbium  in  a  platinum  tube,  but 
analysis  showed  that  the  sublimate  had  the  same  composi- 
tion as  the  residue.  Even  where  considerable  quantities 
of  material  are  available,  as  in  the  analysis  of  the  salts  of 
organic  acids,  the  use  of  the  micro-balance  would  lead  to  a 
great  reduction  of  time  and  trouble,  as  it  would  only  be 
necessary  to  read  the  deflection  before  and  after  igniting 
a  trace  of  the  salt.  The  balance,  in  a  portable  form,  is 
manufactured  by  Messrs.  Spindler  and  Hoyer,  at  Gottingen, 
and  is  sold  at  70  marks. 

Owing  to  the  growing  use  of  fused  quartz  in  physical 
and  chemical  experiments,  considerable  interest  attaches 
to  determinations  of  the  coefficient  of  thermal  expansion  of 
this  substance.  Several  papers  on  this  subject  are  before 
us.  Messrs.  L.  Holborn  and  F.  Hemming,  in  the  Annalen 
der  Physik  (4)  x.,  find  an  average  value  for  the  coefficient 
of  expansion  between  0°  and  1000°  of  5-4x10-%  but  con- 
sider that  the  relation  between  length  and  temperature 
cannot  be  adequately  expressed  even  by  a  quadratic  formula 
within  these  limits.  Mr.  Karl  Sheel,  using  optical  inter- 
ference-methods, and  working  with  the  temperatures  15°, 
56'  and  100°,  obtains  between  these  temperatures  the 
formula 

^t  = 'ol I  +  0'322. 10""/ +  0-00147.  lO-''/^), 

while  for  expansion  of  crystalline  quartz  parallel  to  its 
principal  axis    he  finds 

^«  =  4(i  +  7"i44-iQ~"^'^  +  ooo8is,io-''V2). 

In  the  Biillelin  des  Seances  of  the  French  Physical  Society, 
M.  A.  Dufour,  in  treating  generally  of  the  uses  and  proper- 
ties of  fused  quartz,  refers  to  the  work  of  Holborn  and 
Hemming,  Le  Chatelier  and  Callendar,  and  points  out  the 
difficulty  of  forming  junctions  between  the  quartz  and  metal 
or  glass,  consequent  on  the  low  coefficient  of  dilatation  of 
the  former.  Mr.  Sheel  finds  confirmation  of  his  results  in 
a  recent  paper  by  Chappuis,  who  also  used  optical  methods 
in  his  determinations. 

In  the  July  issue  of  the  Quarterly  Journal  of  Microscopical 
Science,  Dr.  R.  Evans,  of  the  Georgetown  Museum,  de- 
scribes a  new  species  of  Peripatus  from  British  Guinea, 
illustrated  with  a  coloured  plate.  The  species  is  said  to  be 
markedly  different  from  the  other  members  of  the  group 
from  the  same  district.     The  author  remarks  that  measure- 


ments and  descriptions  of  colours  and  markings  from  pre- 
served specimens  are  of  little  value  in  specific  discrimin- 
ation, and  are,  indeed,  liable  rather  to  cause  confusion. 
In  the  same  journal  Dr.  G.  C.  Bourne  describes  and  figures 
a  new  ascidian  {OUgotrema  psammites),  belonging  to  the 
fapiily  Molgulidae,  dredged  off  New  Britain.  The  peculi- 
arities of  the  new  form  are  twofold.  Firstly,  it  differs  in 
general  appearance  and  structure  from  the  other  members 
of  the  group,  presenting  a  superficial  resemblance  to  a  sea- 
anemone.  Secondly,  as  indicated  by  the  occurrence  of 
small  crustaceans  in  its  interior,  it  has  a  different  class  of 
nutriment.  It  is,  in  fact,  "  an  ascidian  which  captures 
and  feeds  on  active  Crustacea  of  large  size  relatively  to  itself, 
and  is  no  longer  dependent  on  minute  organisms  and 
organic  debris  swept  into  its  branchial  chamber  by  ciliary 
currents." 

"  The  Building  of  the  Grampians"  is  perhaps  about  as 
difficult  a  geological  subject  as  could  be  found,  but  thanks 
to  the  labours  of  James  Nicol,  Sir  A.  Geikie,  Prof.  Lap- 
worth,  and  others,  much  has  been  done,  while  the  memoirs 
and  maps  of  the  Geological  Survey  form  a  good  basis  for 
further  work  and  criticism.  Mr.  Peter  Macnair  has  dealt 
boldly  and  confidently  with  the  subject  (Royal  Phil.  Soc, 
Glasgow),  his  object  being  to  bring  out  the  striking 
similarity  which  exists  between  the  structure  of  the 
Grampians  on  the  one  hand  and  the  Alps  on  the  other,  the 
Grampians  being  regarded  as  simply  the  basal  wreck  of 
such  a  mountain  chain  as  the  Alps.  He  is  more  confident 
than  others  are  of  the  succession  of  the  rock-groups  met 
with  in  the  Highland  schists,  but  when  he  comes  to 
criticise  the  belt  of  supposed  Arenig  rocks  along  the 
southern  Highland  frontier,  he  finds  that  there  no  reliance 
can  be  placed  upon  the  apparent  order  of  succession.  He 
may  be  right  in  maintaining  that  there  is  nothing  to  justify 
the  separation  of  this  supposed  Arenig  belt  from  the  crystal- 
lin.^  schists.  He  may  be  right  also  in  his  criticisms  on  the 
structure  of  the  Cowal  region,  with  especial  reference  to 
the  development  of  the  foliation  planes.  This  much  may 
be  said,  that  while  hammering  earnestly  at  the  rocks,  he 
has  also  made  a  careful  study  of  the  work  of  others,  and  he 
attacks  the  Highland  problems  with  evident  enthusiasm  for 
his  subject.  We  must  leave  to  those  concerned  the  defence 
of  the  positions  which  he  assails,  although  in  some  instances 
Mr.  Macnair  has  advanced,  perhaps,  where  others  fear  to 
tread. 

Prof.  Joly  has  done  well  to  undertake  the  petrological 
examination  of  paving  sets.  In  the  first  part  of  his  work 
{Sci.  Proc.  Royal  Dublin  Soc,  vol.  x..  No.  5)  he  deals 
more  particularly  with  certain  granites,  diorites,  and 
dolerites.  In  his  general  remarks  he  observes  that  the  re- 
sistance to  wear  varies  directly,  as  do  the  amounts  of 
quartz  and  felspar,  the  holocrystalline  igneous  rocks  being 
as  a  rule  the  toughest.  Markedly  porphyritic,  vesicular, 
and  glassy  rocks  are  to  be  avoided.  He  deals  with  the 
durability  and  with  the  character  of  the  surface  produced 
by  various  paving  sets,  remarking  that  mechanical  forces 
are  applied  on  the  roads  in  the  most  destructive  form,  the 
attrition  and  crushing  being  combined  with  the  solvent 
action  of  impure  waters.  Fine-grained  rocks,  such  as  the 
diorite  of  Penmaenmawr,  may  become  too  slippery  for  use 
on  inclined  surfaces  ;  a  certain  coarseness  of  grain  is  usually 
desirable. 

We  have  received  the  annual  report  (vol.  xii.)  of  the 
Geological  Survey  of  Canada  for  1899  (dated  1902),  by  Dr. 
Robert  Bell,  acting  director.  This  is  a  bulky  work  made 
up    of   various    independent    reports    lettered    A    to    S,    and 


NO.    1766,  VOL.  68] 


September  3.  1903] 


NATURE 


423 


s?paratrly  pagod.  Reference  has  already  been  made  in 
Nature  to  the  more  important  matters  dealt  with.  A 
general  index  is  appended,  which  gives  the  paging  under 
the  reference  letter  of  each  report.  The  volume  is  accom- 
panied by  maps  of  the  Klondike  Gold-fields,  and  of  parts 
of  British  Columbia,  Ontario,  Quebec,  and  New  Bruns- 
wick. 

.An  orographic  sketch  of  Korea,  with  photographic  illus- 
trations and  an  excellent  map,  has  been  published  by  Dr. 
B.  Kot6  (Journ.  Coll.  Science,  Tokyo,  Japan,  vol.  xix.). 
He  discusses  the  various  faults  and  folds  which  have  in- 
fluenced the  scenery  of  the  peninsula — a  region  which,  as 
h*?  remarks,  in  reference  to  Suess  and  Richthofen,  "  seems 
to  have  interested  cur  two  masters  almost  as  deeply  as  it 
has  the  political  leaders  of  our  times."  The  Cretaceous 
Cephalopoda  from  the  Hokkaido  are  under  description  by 
.Mr.  H.  Yabe.  Part  i.,  dealing  with  Lytoceras,  Gaudry- 
OL-eras,  and  Tetragonites,  is  accompanied  by  seven  plates 
(Journ.  Coll.  Science,  Tokyo,  vol.  xviii.). 

Mr.  F.  Chapman  and  Mr.  H.  J.  Gr.oson  contribute  an 
article  on  "  Red  Rain  "  to  the  Victorian  Naturalist  (vol. 
XX.,  June).  After  discussing  the  subject  generally,  they 
direct  attention  to  falls  of  red  mud  in  Victoria  in  February 
and  March  of  this  year.  In  one  case  the  amount  was 
estimated  to  equal  fifty  tons  per  square  mile.  The  material 
comprised  much  limonite,  and  many  mineral  fragments  and 
diatoms.  The  material  was  probably  derived  from  areas 
from  30  to  300  miles  north  and  west  of  Melbourne,  being 
swept  up  from  the  borders  of  swamps  and  salt  lakes  during 
ai)  abnorn.'al  set^son  of  drought. 

In  a  monograph  supplement  to  the  Psychological  Review 
(vol.  V.  No.  4),  Mr.  J.  B.  Miner  reports  a  study  of  "  Motor, 
Visual,  and  Applied  Rhythms."  It  has  been  frequently 
asserted  that  rhythmical  grouping  of  sensory  impressions 
is  peculiar  to  auditory  and  tactual  perception,  but  Mr. 
Miner  shows  that  a  series  of  similar  visual  impressions 
regularly  repeated  may  fall  into  spontaneous  rhythm,  and 
that,  in  fact,  visual  impressions  obey  laws  of  rhythm  very 
similar  to  those  established  for  auditory  perception.  Since 
rhythm  is,  as  Mr.  Miner  rightly  maintains,  a  feature  of  the 
motor  expression  evoked  by  sensory  impressions  to  which 
the  attention  is  directed,  there  is  no  reason  to  suppose  that 
it  s.hculd  be  limited  to  perception  by  any  one  or  two  of  the 
senses,  and  it  may  be  hoped  that  the  erroneous  statement  to 
that  effect  will  now  disappear  from  the  text-books.  Mr. 
Miner  shows  that  subjects  seem  to  fall  naturally  into  two 
classes,  according  as  their  power  of  concentrated  mental 
work  is  favoured  or  hindered  by  a  concurrent  rhythmical 
stimulus  to  the  senses  ;  that  those  who  naturally  work  most 
rapidly  and  concentratedly  are  most  apt  to  be  hindered, 
while  those  who  work  slowly,  with  less  tense  concentration, 
in  many  cases  produce  better  results  under  the  influence  of 
such  stimulus.  This  unexpected  result  suggests  to  the 
author  certain  pedagogical  reflections. 

The  Barbados  Agricultural  Reporter  of  August  i  contains 
the  text  of  a  petition  to  the  Governor  praying  that  the  de- 
struction of  mongooses  may  be  authorised  in  the  island. 
A  quarter  of  a  century  ago  the  sugar  industry  of  the  island 
suffered  much  from  the  depredations  of  rats,  and  about  1878 
mongooses  were  introduced  for  the  purpose  of  thinning  their 
numbers.  These  carnivores  discharged  their  task  with  con- 
spicuous success,  but  at  the  same  time  they  cleared  off  much 
of  the  indigenous  fauna.  The  destruction  of  the  lizards  has 
led  to  a  large  increase  in  the  number  of  moth-borer  cater- 
pillars, which  perforate  the  sugar-canes  and  thus  give 
entrance  to  the  spores  of  noxious  funguses.  These  cause  a 
NO.    1766,  VOL.  68] 


serious  loss,  which  it  is  hoped  may  be  in  some  degree  miti- 
gated by  the  destruction  of  the  mongooses.  All  this  shows 
the  danger  of  attempting  to  interfere  with  the  equilibrium 
of  nature. 

In  the  annual  report  of  the  Indian  Museum,  Calcutta,  for 
1001-2,  Major  Alcock,  the  director,  states  that  a  bronze 
medallion  portrait  and  inscribed  brass  tablet  have  been 
placed  in  one  of  the  verandahs  of  the  old  museum  building 
ill  memory  of  the  late  Dr.  J.  Anderson,  the  first  superinten- 
dent of  that  institution.  During  the  period  under  review 
the  museum  has  acquired  by  purchase  the  valuable  de 
Nic^ville  collection  of  Oriental  butterflies,  which  includes 
a  large  number  of  type  specimens. 

The  Journal  of  the  Straits  branch  of  the  Royal  Asiatic 
Society  contains  two  important  communications  on  the 
language  of  the  Sakais  and  Semangs  of  the  Malay  Penin- 
sula. Mr.  H.  N.  Ridley  describes  some  new  Malay  orchids, 
while  Mr.  P.  Cameron  continues  his  account  of  the 
Hymenoptera  collected  by  Mr.  R.  Shelford  in  Sarawak.  To 
the  Zoologist  for  August,  Mr.  Shelford  himself  contributes 
some  highly  interesting  notes  on  the  habits  of  Bornean 
species  of  mantises,  with  illustrations  reproduced  from 
photographs  of  these  insects. 

In  the  journal  last  mentioned,  the  Rev.  F.  C.  R.  Jour- 
dain  records  the  occurrence  of  an  example  of  the  harp-seal 
(Phoca  groenlandica)  at  Teignmouth  on  March  10,  on  what 
appears  to  be  sufficient  evidence.  The  carcase  was  seen  on 
a  fishmonger's  barrow,  but  it  is  not  known  how  it  was  dis- 
posed of.  The  species  is  a  very  rare  straggler  to  the  British 
shores. 

The  recent  additions  to  the  Municipal  Museum  of  Hull 
are  made  known  to  the  public  by  means  of  illustrated  notes 
and  short  articles  in  the  Eastern  Morning  News.  These 
are  subsequently  reprinted  as  penny  pamphlets  under  the 
title  of  "  Hull  Museum  Publications."  By  this  means  the 
local  public  are  kept  in  touch  with  the  growth  of  the 
museum,  and  it  certainly  must  benefit  the  museum,  as  well 
as  interest  and  instruct  the  public.  This  system  might  with 
advantage  be  copied  by  other  local  museums.  The  fifteenth 
publication,  entitled  "  Quarterly  Record  of  Additions, 
No.  5,"  has  just  been  published. 

The  report  of  the  Trivandrum  Museum  for  the  year 
iqoi-2  contains  a  reprint,  with  two  coloured  plates,  of  a 
paper  from  the  Journal  of  the  Bombay  Natural  History 
Society,  on  a  couple  of  cetaceans  recently  stranded  on  the 
beach  near  that  city.  One  of  these  has  been  identified  by 
Mr.  Lydekker  with  the  widely  spread  Pseudorca  crassidens, 
while  the  second  is  made  the  type  of  a  new  species,  Tursiops 
fergusoni,  named  in  honour  of  the  director  of  the  museum. 

In  a  third  museum  report  just  to  hand,  that  of  Man- 
chester for  the  year  1902-3,  special  attention  is  directed  to  the 
acquisition  of  the  interesting  series  of  mammalian  remains 
from  a  cave  of  Pliocene  age  ct  Doveholes,  Derbyshire. 
These  remains,  which  it  will  be  remembered  were  exhibited 
at  the  soiree  of  the  Royal  Society  in  the  spring,  have 
recently  been  described  by  Prof.  W.  B.  Dawkins  in  the 
Geological  Society's  Quarterly  Journal. 

The  Zoological  Society  Bulletin,  published  bv  the  New 
York  Zoological  Society,  is  a  brightly  written,  well  illus- 
trated periodical,  and  the  July  issue,  which  nas  just  reached 
us,  contains  quite  a  number  of  interesting  contributions, 
notably  one  on  "Training  Orangs  and  Chimpanzees,"  in 
which  particulars  are  given  of  the  acquired  accomplish- 
ments of  past  and  present  members  of  the  New  York  Zoo- 
logical   Park   collection.       The   training   of   the   orang-utan 


424 


NATURE 


[Septemuer  3,  1903 


and  the  chimpanzee,  remarks  the  writer  of  the  article, 
closely  approaches  the  management  of  an  untaught  child. 
These  creatures  do  not  seem  as  much  like  lower  animals  as 
do  the  majority  of  the  so-called  "  dumb  brutes."  Coaxing 
and  perseverance  have  been  responsible  for  the  exhibitions 
which  from  time  to  time  have  taken  place. 

In  the  Journal  of  Botany  (August)  Dr.  G.  Murray  pub- 
lishes a  short  note  on  Atlantic  diatomaceae.  Some  few 
species  were  obtained  in  all  the  captures,  even  tar  out  at 
sea,  but  an  increase  in  the  quantity  of  the  take  was  generally 
found  to  indicate  the  proximity  to  land.  Miss  A.  L.  Smith 
describes  some  interesting  microfungi,  and  Dr.  W.  G. 
Smith  refers  Nidularia  dentata  to  the  genus  Sphaerobolus. 
Biographical  notices  of  the  botanists  L.  A.  Deschamps  and 
F.  Noronha  are  contributed  by  the  editor. 

The  number  of  the  Minnesota  Botanical  Studies  pub- 
lished in  July  is  mainly  given  up  to  articles  dealing  with 
flowerless  plants.  Mr.  Bruce  Fink  presents  a  list  of  lichens 
collected  on  the  northern  boundary,  and  Mr.  H.  L.  Lyon 
catalogues  the  pteridophyta  which  grow  in  the  State.  Con- 
tributions to  the  algal  flora  are  furnished  by  Dr.  H.  F. 
Schrader,  who  describes  a  new  species  of  Alaria,  and  by 
Mr.  Skinner,  who  discusses  the  tide  pool  vegetation  at 
Port  Renfrew.  The  distribution  differs  considerably  from 
that  found  on  our  coasts,  seeing  that  a  CoralUna  extends 
throughout  the  whole  tidal  range,  while  a  Codium  is  associ- 
ated with  it  in  the  higher  pools. 

The  Agricultural  News  of  Barbados  for  August  15  re- 
prints from  the  India  Rubber  World  an  interesting  article 
on  the  subject  of  the  preparation  of  Para  rubber  in  Ceylon, 
in  which  full  and  detailed  instructions  are  given  for  collect- 
ing and  coagulating  the  rubber.  The  text  is  elucidated  by 
illustrations. 

A  PAMPHLET  on  "  The  Boiling  Lake  of  Domimca,"  by 
Mr.  F.  Sterns-Fadelle,  has  lately  been  published  (office  of 
the  Dominican,  price  is.).  It  gives  an  historical  and 
general  account  of  this  well-known  geyser,  which  will  be 
useful  to  travellers  in  the  West  Indies. 

The  annual  report  of  the  Yorkshire  Philosophical  Society 
for  1902  contains  part  ix.  of  a  catalogue  of  British  plants 
in  the  herbarium  of  the  Society,  and  a  popular  article  on 
"Sea  Sand,"  by  Mr.  Hugh  Richardson,  in  which  the 
characters  and  origin  of  the  grains  of  sand  are  discussed. 

In  the  Proceedings  of  the  Nova  Scotian  Institute  of 
Science  (vol.  x.  part  iv.)  Dr.  H.  M.  Ami  shows  that  the 
slates  yielding  Dictyonema  Websteri,  and  which  were  re- 
garded by  Sir  J.  W.  Dawson  as  Upper  Silurian,  belong  to 
the  Upper  Cambrian. 

A  PAMPHLET  entitled  "  A  Historical  Sketch  of  the  Experi- 
mental Determination  of  the  Resistance  of  the  Air  to  the 
Motion  of  Projectiles,"  by  the  Rev.  Francis  Bashforth,  has 
recently  been  published  by  the  Cambridge  University  Press. 

Messrs.  Charles  Griffin  and  Co.,  Ltd.,  have  published 
a  second  edition  of  "  Animal  and  Vegetable  Fixed  Oils, 
Fats,  Butters,  and  Waxes,"  by  the  late  Dr.  C.  R.  Alder 
Wright.  The  new  edition  has  been  revised  and  partly  re- 
written by  Mr.  C.  Ainsworth  Mitchell,  who,  though  he  has 
retained  the  general  arrangement  of  the  original  work, 
has,  especially  in  the  chapters  dealing  with  the  manu- 
facturing processes,  modified  the  text  and  brought  it  up  to 
date. 

A  NINTH  edition  of  Bloxam's  "  Chemistry  "  has  been  pub- 
lished by  Messrs.  J.  and  A.  Churchill.     The  book  has  been 
NO.    I  766,   VOL.   68] 


rewritten  and  revised  by  Prof.  J.  M.  Thomson,  F.R.S., 
and. Mr.  A.  G.  Bloxam.  A  change  has  been  made  in  the 
present  edition  in  the  order  of  treatment  of  the  non-metallic 
elements,  and  carbon  is  now  considered  after  hydrogen, 
oxygen,  and  nitrogen.  The  plan  of  making  no  division,  in 
the  portion  of  the  book  dealing  with  organic  chemistry, 
between  the  treatment  of  the  fatty  and  aromatic  compounds 
has  again  been  followed. 

A  NEW  edition — the  twelfth— of  "  The  Art  of  Retouch- 
ing," by  Mr.  J.  Hubert,  has  just  been  issued  by  Messrs. 
Hazell,  Watson  and  Viney,  Ltd. 

Messrs.  George  Routledge  and  Sons,  Ltd.,  announce 
for  early  appearance  a  series  of  "  Nature-Study  Readers  " 
for  general  school  use,  under  the  editorship  of  Mr.  John 
C.  Medd.  The  aim  of  the  books  is  to  present  varied  aspects 
under  which  nature  may  be  most  conveniently  studied  alike 
in  urban  and  in  rural  districts.  Each  subject  is  to  be 
treated  by  a  different  writer,  who  has  devoted  special  atten- 
tion to  it,  and  knows  from  personal  experience  what  is 
within  the  capacity  of,  and  calculated  to  interest,  children 
of  from  nine  to  thirteen  years  of  age. 

Mr.  R.  Lydekker,  F.R.S.,  will  shortly  issue,  through 
Messrs.  Hutchinson  and  Co.,  a  volume  of  zoological  essays 
entitled  "Mostly  Mammals." 

The  additions  to  the  Zoological  Society's  Gardens  during 
th-=!  past  week  include  a  Himalayan  Bear  {Ursus  tibetanus) 
from  East  Asia,  presented  by  Lady  Constance  Mackenzie  ; 
a  Common  Otter  (Lutra  vulgaris)  from  Scotland,  presented 
by  Mr.  J.  B.  A'Deane;  a  Rock  Thrush  (Monticola  saxatilis), 
European,  presented  by  Mr.  W.  H.  St.  Quintin  ;  a  Dela- 
lande's  Gecko  {Tarentola  delalandii)  from  West  Africa, 
presented  by  Mr.  P.  C.  Challice  ;  a  Black  Lemur  {Lemur 
macaco),  a  Black-headed  Lemur  (Lemur  brunneus)  from 
Madagascar,  a  Black  Sternothere  (Sternothoerus  niger) 
from  West  Africa,  seven  Dalmatian  Lizards  (Lacerta 
mosorensis)  from  Dalmatia,  twelve  Sharp-headed  Lizards 
(Lacerta  dugesi)  from  Madeira,  an  Indian  Eryx  (Eryx  johni) 
from  India,  a  Black-tailed  Snake  (Ungalia  melanura),  a 
Black-spotted  Snake  (Ungalia  pardalis),  a  Cuban  Snake 
(Liophis  andreae)  from  Cuba,  deposited. 


OUR  ASTRONOMICAL   COLUMN. 

Spuctrum  of  Comet  1903  c. — Observations  of  the  visual 
and  photographic  spectra  of  this  comet  were  obtained  at 
the  Meudon  Observatory,  and  were  communicated  to  the 
Academic  by  M.  Deslandres,  whose  communication  appears 
in  the  Comptes  reiidus  for  August  17. 

A  spectrograph  containing  a  60°  heavy  flint  glass  prism 
was  especially  constructed  for  these  observations,  and  was 
used  in  conjunction  with  the  large  double  telescope.  The 
faint  light  of  the  comet  was  concentrated  from  a  wide  slit 
by  having  the  collimator  of  the  spectroscope  55cm.  long, 
whilst  the  focal  length  of  the  observing  telescope  or  camera 
was  only  12cm. 

The  spectrum  generally  is  of  the  characteristic  hydro- 
carbon type,  but  near  to  the  nucleus  of  the  comet  it  contains 
several  extra  faint  lines  ;  the  brightest  bands  are  those  at 
W  3881,  4681,  4314  and  4052,  their  relative  intensities  being 
10,  8,  7  and  7  respectively.  The  blue  bands  at  \  473  are 
separated  into  their  several  groups,  thus  affirming  the 
presence  of  the  hydrocarbon  spectrum  ;  this  separation  was 
also  noticed  in  the  spectrum  of  Rordame's  comet  (1893  b) 
obtained  by  Campbell  at  Lick  in  1893,  with  which 
Deslandres's  spectruin  is  practically  identical. 

M.  Deslandres  proceeds  to  note  the  similarities  and 
differences  of  the  cometary  spectrum  and  the  cyanogen 
spectrum  as  obtained  in  laboratory  experiments,  and 
suggests,  as  an  explanation  of  the  differences,  that,  although 


September  3.  1903J 


NA  rURli 


425 


the  temperature  of  the  comet  is  of  the  same  order  as  the 
laboratory  temperature,  and  high  enough  to  produce  in- 
candescence, yet  it  is  not  sufficiently  high  to  dissociate  the 
compounds  and  thus  produce  the  hydrogen  and  nitrogen 
spectra  as  obtained  in  the  laboratory. 

In  the  concluding  portion  of  his  communication  M. 
Deslandres  describes  some  experiments,  similar  to  those  by 
which  he  has  obtained  such  excellent  results  in  determining 
planetary  rotations,  whereby  the  differential  movements  of 
a  comet's  various  parts  may  be  determined  from  the  in- 
'  lination  of  its  spectral  lines  to  the  lines  of  two  comparison 
pectra  photographed  alongside  the  spectrum  of  the  comet. 

The  Spectrum  of  Nova  Geminorum. — A  telegram  from 
Prof.  Pickering,  published  in  No.  3895  of  the  AsUonomische 
Nachrichteti,  announces  that  the  spectrum  of  Nova 
Geminorum  was  observed  by  Dr.  H.  D.  Curtis  at  the  Lick 
Observatory  on  August  17,  and  was  seen  to  be  of  the 
nebular  type  which  is  characteristic  of  the  spectra  of  de- 
'lining  temporary  stars. 

United  States  Naval  Observatory. — Vol.  iii.  (second 
-<  ries)  of  the  United  States  Naval  Observatory  Publications 
has  been  received,  and  contains  some  550  pages  of  useful 
observational  details  and  results. 

Part  i.  is  devoted  to  observations  of  Eros  made  with  the 
twenty-six  inch  equatorial  and  the  Clark  micrometer 
"  No.  ii,"  during  1900-1901,  by  Messrs.  T.  J.  J.  See  and 
G.  K.  Lawton.  After  a  description  of  the  instrument, 
which  has  recently  been  supplied  with  an  entirely  new 
mounting  by  Messrs.  Warner  and  Swasey,  Dr.  See  proceeds 
to  give  details  of  the  instrumental  constants  and  their 
determination,  and  then  gives  the  results  of  the  individual 
observations  for  each  night. 

Assistant-astronomer  King  has  used  the  nine-inch  transit 
circle  for  observations  of  Eros  and  the  reference  stars 
suggested  by  the  Conference  Astrographique  Internationale 
of  July,  1900,  and,  in  part  ii.  of  the  report,  gives  the  in- 
dividual results  of  his  observations. 

Part  iii.  is  a  detailed  description  of  the  observations  of 
495  zodiacal  stars  made  with  the  nine-inch  transit  circle 
by  Prof.  Eichelberger  in  accordance  with  Sir  David  Gill's 
catalogue  of  2798  zodiacal  stars  which  it  was  intended  to 
observe,  but  in  November,  1900,  it  was  found  that  the 
pivots  of  the  instrument  were  badly  worn,  and  therefore 
the  work  is  suspended  until  the  necessary  repairs  have  been 
effected. 

In  part  iv.  Mr.  Updegraff  gives  a  description,  a  photo- 
graph, and  a  diagrammatic  sketch  of  the  six-inch  steel 
transit  circle,  and  in  a  lengthy  introduction  gives  minute 
details  of  the  determination  and  reduction  of  the  instru- 
mental constants,  followed  by  the  separate  observations  of 
130  comparison  stars  for  the  planets,  including  a  large 
number  of  observations  of  reference  stars  for  Eros.  This 
section  is  concluded  by  two  catalogues  of  stars  and  their 
positions,  the  first  containing  139  zodiacal  stars,  and  the 
second  the  Eros  reference  stars. 

Part  v.  concludes  this  publication,  and  contains  the  in- 
dividual observations  made  with  the  prime-vertical  transit 
instrument  from  1882  to  1884  bv  Lieutenants  Ingersoll  and 
Bowman    and  Ensign  Taylor,  all  of  the  U.S.A.  Navy. 

The  White  Spots  on  Saturn. — In  the  Astronomische 
Xiichrichten,  No.  3894,  SenOr  J.  Comas  Sold,  of  Barcelona, 
publishes  his  observations  of  Barnard's  white  spot  and  the 
smaller  white  spots  which  have  been  recently  observed  on 
Saturn. 

Using  a  six-inch  equatorial,  he  easilv  observed  Barnard's 
spot  and  several  smaller  ones.  On  'June  26  the  former 
crossed  the  central  meridian  at  i3h.  19m.  (G.M.T.),  and 
was  seen  to  be  double,  whilst  in  contact  with  it,  and  on  the 
lefti^ide  (reversed  image)  a  small  spot  was  observed.  On 
July  id.  i3h.  55m.  ±  a  feebler  spot,  which  also  appeared 
double,  was  observed  to  cross  the  central  meridian  in  the 
same  zone  as  the  larger  one.  By  July  20,  when  it  crossed 
the  meridian  at  iih.  32m.,  the  large  spot  was  seen  to  be 
much  feebler  and  apparently  elongated,  and  on  July  28 
(time  of  transit  =iih.  15m.)  it  was  yet  feebler,  and  a  rather 
difficult  object  for  the  six-inch. 

Several  other  spots  were  observed,  and  their  times  of 
transit  recorded,  by  Senor  Sold,  and,  as  a  first  approxim- 
ation, he  finds  the  rotation  period  of  the  planet  to  be 
loh.  38-4m. 

NO.    1766,   VOL.  681 


THE    TEACHING    OF   PSYCHOLOGY   IN    UNI- 
VERSITIES   OF    THE    UNITED   STATES.' 

A  TRUE  estimate  of  the  position  of  psychology  in  the 
■"•  curriculum  of  American  universities  can  hardly  be 
formed  without  a  brief  survey  of  the  general  system  of 
education  which  prevails  there.  In  earlier  years,  one  need 
hardly  say,  the  training  was  far  narrower  and  less  liberal 
than  it  is  now.  The  candidate  for  the  B.A.  degree  had  his 
educational  career  as  carefully  prescribed  for  him  as  if  he 
were  still  at  school,  and  he  had  little  or  no  opportunity 
to  deviate  from  it.  At  the  present  day,  the  various  uni- 
versities of  the  United  States  offer  every  gradation  between 
relatively  elective  and  relatively  non-elective  systems  of 
study.  In  most  universities  the  undergraduate  will  find 
his  course  of  work  strictly  defined  during  at  least  his  first 
or  freshman  year.  Little  by  little,  however,  the  elective 
is  gradually  replacing  the  non-elective  system.  Quite 
recently.  Harvard,  for  example,  determined  to  allow  a  very 
considerable  measure  of  optional  subjects,  from  which  the 
student  has  to  make  his  choice  from  the  moment  he  is 
admitted  to  the  university. 

The  danger  of  such  a  system  is  increased  by  the  absence 
of  any  special  ad  hoc  examination  for  the  B.A.  degree. 
As  a  rule,  this  degree  is  conferred  solely  on  the  results  of 
the  terminal  examinations  held  biannually,  so  that,  unless 
proper  precautions  were  taken,  it  would  be  possible  for  a 
student,  after  having  passed  his  three  or  four  years  at 
college,  to  graduate  on  the  basis  of  a  superficial  and  very 
elementary  knowledge  of  many  subjects,  and  a  detailed 
knowledge  of  none.  This  drawback  American  universities 
have  largely  succeeded  in  overcoming  by  a  series  of  appro- 
priate regulations  concerning  the  relative  number  of 
elementary  and  advanced  lectures  at  which  attendance  is 
required,  and  concerning  the  conditions  of  admission  to 
advanced  lectures.  At  Yale,  for  example,  undergraduate 
studies  are  ranged  under  three  heads  :- — (i)  Languages  and 
literature ;  (2)  mathematics,  physical  and  natural  science ; 
(3)  philosophy,  history  and  the  social  sciences.  Every 
student  is  required  to  have  attended  advanced  courses  in 
at  least  one  of  these  departments,  and  to  show  at  least  an 
elementary  knowledge  of  subjects  in  the  two  other  depart- 
ments. 

It  will  now  be  evident  why  subjects  which  in  English 
universities  are  studied  by  the  few  are  in  America  taken 
up  by  the  many.  Take  Yale,  for  instance,  with  her  de- 
partment of  philosophy,  history  and  the  social  sciences. 
Every  undergraduate  has  to  show  at  least  an  elementary 
knowledge  of  some  subject  in  this  department,  i.e.  of  philo^ 
sophy,  psychology,  ethics,  pedagogics,  logic,  ancient, 
mediiEval  and  modern  history,  economics,  politics  or 
sociology.  Large  numbers  of  American  students  take  a 
course  of  economics.  At  one  university  I  was  told  that,  on 
an  average,  every  student  takes  two  courses  of  economics 
during  his  undergraduate  career.  This  fact  may  be  ranged 
beside  another,  viz.  that  there  are  twenty-four  professors, 
lecturers  and  instructors  of  political  economy  at  Harvard. 

So  also  it  comes  about  that  a  great  number  of 
students  take  up  psychology,  either  by  itself  or  with  allied 
subjects.  250  students,  chit  fly  in  their  second  or  sophomore 
year,  attend  the  year's  course  at  Harvard,  which  is  equally 
divided  between  the  study  of  logic  and  the  study  of 
elementary  psychology.  At  Yale  a  similar  year's  course 
on  ethics  and  psychology  was  attended  this  year  by  225 
students.  At  Cornell  the  year's  course  on  psychology, 
logic  and  ethics  is  attended  by  200  students.  Princeton 
goes  so  far  as  to  make  psychology  a  compulsory  subject, 
without  which  the  B.A.  degree  cannot  be  obtained.  The 
popularity  of  psychology  is  also  shown  in  that  it  is  taught 
in  the  upper  forms  of  some  of  the  better  schools. 

Experimental  work  in  the  laboratory  is  only  performed 
by  students  who  intend  to  proceed  further  in  psychology. 
Their  number  is  a  very  small  fraction^ — from  one-tenth  to 
one-fifteenth — of  those  who  attend  the  preliminary  course. 
At  Columbia  they  are  expected  to  have  attended  either  a 
general  course  on  experimental  psychology  or  a  special 
course,  in  which  no  less  than  eight  lecturers  take  part,  each 
being  responsible  for  a  few  lectures  in  his  own  department 
of    psychology,    be    it    physiological,    genetic,    comparative, 

1  Paper  re.id  before  ihe  Tsych  lo;ical  S.-c'^'y  .it  Cambridge,  July  25, 
by  Dr.  C.  S.  Myers 


426"' 


NATURE 


[September  3,  1903 


pathologieal,  experimental,  historical  or  philosophical. 
By  this  means  the  student  comes  into  relation  with  most 
of  the  teaching  staff  of  the  department  in  which  he  is 
interested.  Later,  more  advanced  courses  are  open  to  him 
in  analytical  psychology,  educational  psychology,  the 
philosophy  of  mind,  genetic  psychology,  and  so  on.  At 
Pennsylvania  the  student  spends  two  years  at  psychology, 
devoting  the  first  half-year  to  analytical  psychology,  the 
second  hailf-year  to  physiological  psychology,  the  third  half- 
year  to  synthetic  psychology,  and  the  fourth  half-year  to 
experimental  "psychology.  Each  of  these  half-courses  com- 
prises lectures  and  practical  work,  of  an  hour  and  two 
hours'  duration  respectively  per  week. 

It  would  be  wearisome  to  follow  out  at  further  length 
the  various  lines  of  undergraduate  study  pursued  in 
psychology  at  the  several  universities  visited  by  me.  You 
will,  however,  hear  with  interest  that  men  are  offered  at 
Yale  a  course  of  recent  German  psychology  in  their  fourth 
or  senior  year,  the  class  reading  extracts  from  the  works 
of  Brentano,  Wundt,  Stumpf,  Kiilpe,  and  others,  while  the 
dilTcrent  attitudes  of  these  psychologists  are  explained  by 
th-:  instructor.  At  Harvard  a  half-year's  course  on  the 
mental  life  of  animals  is  offered,  accompanied  by  lectures 
and  demonstrations.  At  Cornell  a  course  on  the  history  of 
the  psychophysical  work  of  Weber,  Fechner,  and  others  is 
given. 

This  brings  me  to  the  more  detailed  '  consideration  of 
experimental  work  in  the  United  States.  The  laboratory 
in  Harvard  University  has  eleven  rooms,  in  Yale  it  has 
seven,  in  Columbia  nineteen,  in  Princeton  five,  in  Cornell 
ten,  and  in  Clark  ten  ;  these  numbers  generally  include  all 
public  and  private  rooms  of  the  department.  Cornell  has 
undoubtedly  the  best  equipped  laboratory,  so  far  as  human 
psychology  is  concerned.  Two  rooms  here  are  devoted  to 
vision,  one  to  acoustics,  one  to  touch,  one  to  taste  and 
smell,  one  to  chronometric  apparatus,  one  is  a  special 
research  room,  and  there  is  a  lecture  room  and  a  work- 
shop. Both  Clark  and  Harvard  have  rooms  devoted  to 
experiments  on  animals.  Partly  for  this  reason  the 
Harvard  laboratory  suffers  from  lack  of  space ;  a  new  one 
will  be  built  in  the  near  future.  Most  laboratories  have 
a  departmental  library,  or  at  least  a  seminary,  in  which 
me  siuuents  can  reau  or  meet  for  discussion.  Practically 
all  the  laboratories  have  a  workshop,  and  employ  a  trained 
mechanician,  who  is  able  to  turn  out  even  complicated  and 
expensive  apparatus. 

The  methods  of  conducting  the  experimental  work 
naturally  differ  in  the  various  laboratories.  At  Harvard 
and  Columbia  lectures  are  given  in  connection  with  the 
experiments,  but  at  many  other  universities  lectures  and 
practical  work  are  wholly  independent.  At  Yale,  Harvard, 
Princeton  and  Cornell,  students  work  together  in  pairs, 
each  member  of  a  pair  serving  alternately  as  subject  and 
as  experimenter.  At  Pennsylvania  students  work  together 
in  groups  of  three,  the  third  recording  the  results  obtained 
by  the  two  others.  Stress  is  laid  in  most  laboratories  on 
the  careful  keeping  of  note-books.  Many  of  those  in 
Cornell  are  models  of  neatness  and  diligence ;  there  they 
are  inspected,  marked  and  initialled  monthly  by  the 
as'feistants.  At  Princeton,  the  times  are  so  arranged  that 
only  a  single  pair  of  students  is  working  in  the  laboratory 
at  any  one  hour ;  they  thus  secure  the  undivided  attention 
of  the  instructor.  At  Harvard  and  Pennsylvania  the  entire 
class  is  engaged  upon  the  same  kind  of  experiment  simul- 
taneously ;  the  Pennslyvania  students  are  each  provided 
with  lockers  containing  the  simpler  apparatus  thev  are 
likely  to  use.  At  Yale  and  Cornell,  on  the  other  'hand, 
students  are  simultaneously  engaged  at  different  experi- 
ments ;  one  pair,  for  instance,  is  working  on  colour-vision, 
another  on  reaction-times,  another  on  tactile  sensibility, 
and  so  on.  Save  at  Cornell,  the  students  are  each  taken 
through  all  the  laboratory  experiments  commonly  described 
in  the  text-books.  But  at  Cornell  it  is  held  sufficient  for 
the  student  to  devote  himself  to  the  investigation  of  a 
single  sense,  working  over  perhaps  fifteen  experiments 
therein,  and  then  to  proceed  to  one  or  two  experi- 
ments on  the  expression  of  the  affective  states,  thence  to 
some  of  the  experiments  in  attention  and  reaction,  and  so 
on.  whereby  he  acquires  a  practical  experience,  less 
extensive,    but   probably   more   thorough   than    that   usually 


NO.    1766,   VOL.   68] 


obtained.  He  works  four  and  a  half  months  in  qualitative, 
and  four  and  a  half  months  in  quantitative,  experimental 
work  during  his  third  year.  His  fourth  year  is  devoted 
to  some  special  problem,  and  he  writes  an  essay  on  his 
results. 

If,  having  taken  his  B.A.  degree,  the  graduate  deter-' 
mines  to  pursue  his  studies  further,  he  enters  the  post- 
graduate school  in  order  to  proceed  to  his  doctor's  degree. 
After  two  or  three  years'  post-graduate  study,  he  may  pre- 
sent himself  for  examination  in  a  chosen  division,  e.g. 
philosophy,  and  within  the  division  he  must  name  some 
special  field  of  study,  e.g.  psychology,  in  which  he  is  liable 
to  minute  examination  and  must  offer  a  thesis,  showing 
evidence  of  independent  research.  In  psychology,  as  in 
all  subjects,  advanced  lectures  are  delivered  to  suit  his 
requirements.  At  Cornell  during  his  first  year  of_  post- 
graduate study,  the  student  does  not  start  any  special  re- 
search work ;  he  reads  and  roams  about  the  laboratory, 
observing  what  his  senior  fellow-students  are  doing.  ^  A 
very  large  proportion  of  post-graduate  students  at  Yale 
and  Harvard  consists  of  graduates  from  smaller  universi- 
ties. At  Harvard  I  found  no  less  than  sixteen  students 
engaged  in  the  psychological  laboratory  at  original  work 
for  their  Ph.D.  degree.  They  attended  there  at  fixed 
times  in  the  mornings  only,  working  in  pairs  alternately 
as  subject  and  as  experimenter.  Weekly  seminary  meet- 
ings are  held  at  Harvard,  Yale,  and  Clark  for  post- 
graduate students.  At  Harvard  three  papers  are  read  at 
each  evening  meeting  by  the  students,  and  are  discussed 
by  themselves  and  their  professors.  At  the  Yale  semin- 
aries, a  post-graduate  student  presents  a  paper  weekly,  deal- 
ing with  the  system  of  some  well-known  mental  philosopher. 
At  Clark,  the'  students  meet  each  week  at  the  professor's 
house  to  narrate  and  criticise  their  progress  in  research 
work. 

A  very  large  proportion  of  theses,  written  for  the  Ph.D. 
degree  in  psychology,  sees  light  in  the  pages  of  American 
psychological'  journals.  In  many  instances  this  must  turn 
out  to  be  the  one  piece  of  original  work  such  men  have 
performed  in  their  life.  They  drift  away  in  various  direc- 
tions. The  best  are  chosen  by  their  professors  to  be 
laboratory  instructors  for  a  year  or  more.  Thence  they  go 
to  becom'e  assistant  professors  in  other  universities,  or  de- 
part earlier  to  teach  educational  psychology  in  the  State 
normal  schools  or  in  other  teachers'  training  colleges. 
Mainly  through  lack  of  leisure,  the  majority  put  forth 
little  in  the  way  of  further  and  mature  research.  There 
is  a  strong  tendency,  too,  for  psychologists  in  America  to 
turn  to  editorial  or  literary  work,  to  become  busy  with 
the  organisation  of  science,  or  to  deal  with  purely  philo- 
sophical, ethical,  or  religious  problems. 

But  apart  from  such  drawbacks,  which  are  the  result 
rather  of  American  ways  of  life  and  character  than  of 
deficient  interest  or  training,  I  have  said  enough,  I  hope, 
to  show  what  a  living  subject  of  education  psychology  is 
in  the  United  States.  It  is  becoming  recognised  there  that 
a  man  of  culture  should  know  something,  not  only  of  the 
works,  but  also  of  the  working,  of  the  human  mind. 
Psychology  in  the  United  States  is  not  a  subject  of  the 
philosophical  few,  as  it  is  in  our  country.  If  it  pays  the 
penalty  for,  it  also  reaps  the  advantage  of,  its  position. 
Numbers  of  undergraduate  students  acquire  a  notion,  how- 
ever dim  and  imperfect,  of  the  range  and  importance  of 
psychology,  so  that,  if  ever  they  become  successful  busi- 
ness men,'  as  many  of  them  do,  they  are  prepared  to  lend 
it  financial  assistance  in  later  life.  Future  medical  students 
take  up  psychology  during  their  academic  career,  and  turn 
their  knowledge  of  it  to  account  when  they  come  to  deal 
with  the  problems  of  insanity.  Zoologists  pass  from  their 
museums  to  study  it,  and  return  to  work  out  the  psychology 
of  animal  life.  'Teachers  obtain  a  useful  smattering  of 
it,  suflficient  to  interest  and  improve  them  in  their  arduous 
career.  At  Pennsylvania,  for  example,  they  have  the 
opportunity  of  attending  a  "  pedagogical  clinic,"  at  which 
children  with  various  mental  disorders  are  brought  before 
their  notice,  so  that  they  may  recognise  them  hereafter. 

From  these  facts  it  "will  be  seen  that  America  provides 
us  with  a  lesson  in  the  organised  teaching  of  a  subject 
the  success  of  which  we  have  so  much  at  heart,  and  with 
an  example  which  we  should  do  well  to  follow. 


September  3,  1903] 


NATURE 


427 


AUERICAU  ETHNOLOGY. 
TT  is  with  melancholy  interest  that  we  receive  the  nine- 
-»■  teenth  annual  report  of  the  Bureau  of  American 
Ethnology,  as  this  was  the  last  report  that  was  edited  by 
the  late  director;  Major  Powell's  name  for  so  many  years 
has  been  associated  with  the  publications  of  the  bureau 
which  he  initiated  that  the  two  have  come  to  be  irresistibly 
associated  in  our  minds.  We  can  only  say  that  his  last 
report  fully  maintains  that  high  standard  to  which  he  has 
accustomed  us. 

Sociologists  as  well  as  ethnologists  will  be  mterested 
in  Mr.  James  Mooney's  historical  study  of  the  Cherokee, 
forming  part  i.  of  the  nineteenth  report.  The  title  "  Myths 
of  the  Cherokee  "  is  misleading,  as  the  memoir  includes 
oral  and  documentary  history,  legendary  history,  legends 
and  mvths,  with  a  valuable  appendix  of  notes  and  parallels 
to  the' mvths.  The  true  history  of  Sequoya,  the  inventor 
of  the  Cherokee  alphabet,  is  given,  and  the  remarkable 
effect  of  this  innovation  on  the  Cherokee  nation  is  admir- 
ably sketched,  but  the  promise  of  progress  was  ruthlessly 
destroyed  by  the  action  of  the  Georgia  Legislature.  In  the 
temperate  language  of  a  scientific  historian,  Mr.  Mooney 
narrates  the  invariable  fate  of  a  native  population  when 
the  white  man  wants  his  country,  and  now  the  five  civilised 
tribes  are  meditating  wholesale  removal  from  the  Indian 
territory  where  they  are  still  being  harassed.  There  seems 
a  determined  purpose  on  the  part  of  many  full-bloods  to 
emigrate  either  to  Mexico  or  South  America,  and  there 
purchase  new  homes  for  themselves  and  families. 

The  second  part  of  the  report  contains  one  or  two  studies 
of  the  Hopi,  or  Moqui,   Indians  of  Arizona.     These  pueblo 
Indians   are  among   the  few   surviving   tribes  of  American 
aborigines    which    still    retain    an    ancient    ritual    that    is 
apparently  unmodified  by  the  Christian  religion.     The  im- 
portance of  a  careful  investigation  of  these  people  is  fully 
realised  by  American  anthropologists,   and   the  bureau   has 
in   Dr.   J.   Walter   Fewkes   a   trained   observer   of   the   first 
rank.     It  is  impossible  to  interpret  the  Hopi  ritual  without 
a  clear  idea  of  the  present  relationship  between  the  existing 
clans  and  of  their  connection   with   the  religious  societies. 
The  growth  of  the  ritual  has  increased  with  the  successive 
addition  of  new  clans  to  the  pueblo,  and  its  evolution  can- 
not be  comprehended  without  an  understanding  of  the  social 
development  and  clan  organisation  of  the  pueblo.     Appreci- 
ating this.  Dr.  Fewkes  deals  with  Tusayan  migration  tradi- 
tions, and  unravels  the  history  of  the  accretion  of  the  clans 
into    a    community.       The    localisation    of    these    clans    in 
various    pueblos    is    described    by    Cosmos    Mindeleff,    and 
mapped    in    several    plans ;    the    localisation    of    clans    was 
rigidly   enforced   in  ancient   times,   but   it   is  now  breaking 
down.     May  we  suggest  to  American  workers  in  the  field 
that  valuable  sociological  results  would  be  obtained  if  they 
adopted  genealogical  methods  devised  by  Dr.  Rivers  (Journ. 
Anthrop.   Inst.,  xxx.,   1900,   p.  74).     Dr.   Fewkes  also  gives 
some  details  of  the  famous  Snake  dance  ;   this   dance  was 
primarily    a    part    of    the    ritual    of    the    Snake    clan,    and 
ancestor    worship    is    very    prominent    in    it,    indeed,    Dr. 
Fewkes    suggests    it    is    "  totemistic    ancestor    worship." 
There  still  remain  to  be  investigated  various  episodes  and 
the  sacred  songs.     The  Flute  ceremony,  which  lasts  for  nine 
days,   is  one  of  the  most  complicated   in   the   Hopi   ritual. 
Three  elements  appear  to  be  prominent  in  the  Flute  observ- 
ance— sun,   rain,   and  corn  worship,   symbols  of  which  are 
the   most   prominent   on    the   altars   and    their   accessories. 
The  same  is  true  of  the  Snake  dance  ;  but  in  both  rites  the 
cultus  heroes  and  cjan  mothers  are  special  deities    to  which 
the  supplications  for  rain  and  corn  are  addressed.     This  is 
interpreted  as  a  form  of  totemism  in  which  the  ancestors 
of  the  clan  take  precedence.     The  Sun  as  the  father  of  all 
cultus  heroes,   and   the   Earth   as  the  mother  of  all   gods, 
ancestral  and  otherwise,  necessarily  form  an  important  part 
of     the     worship.       The     relation     between     religion     and 
sociology  is  brought  out  by  the  author. 

*'  The  Wild  Rice  Gatherers  of  the  Upper  Lakes,"  by  Dr. 
A.  E.  Jenks,  is  a  sociological  study  of  great  interest  and 
value,  and  should  form  a  model  for  other  researches  on 
sociological  economics.  The  Indians  in  the  wild-rice  dis- 
trict exhibited  some  social  aspects  that  were  quite  unique 


quently  spoken  of.  The  wild  rice  led  to  the  peaceful  mass- 
ing together  of  various  tribes  and  to  love  for  a  common 
country,  but  being  a  precarious  food-supply,  much  progress 
in  culture  was  impossible  to  these  barbarians. 

Other  papers  in  the  report  are  "  Mounds  in  Northern 
Honduras,"  by  Thomas  Gann ;  "Mayan  Calendar 
Systems  "  and  "  Numeral  Systems,  of  Mexico  and  Central 
America,"  by  Cvrus  Thomas.  The  number  20  is  the  base 
of  the  numeral  system  of  the  Mexican  and  Central  American 
tribes,  but  it  does  not  appear  to  have  been  used  as  a  mystic 
number  in  rites.  There  are  other  peoples  who  use  the 
vigesimal  system,  but  no  others  are  known  who  adopt  the 
twenty-day  month  or  eighteen-month  year.  W'e  cannot 
conceive  how  a  twenty-day  period  could  have  grown  out 
of  a  lunar  count ;  probably  two  time  systems,  a  secular  and 
a  sacred  one,  were  in  use  at  the  same  time,  and  the  latter 
finally  obscured  the  former.  The  author's  conclusion  is 
that  the  priests  adopted  a  method  of  counting  time  for  their 
ceremonial  and  divinatory  purposes  which  would  fit  most 
easily  into  their  numeral  system,  and  this  system,  in  con- 
sequence of  the  overwhelming  influence  of  the  priesthood, 
caused  the  lunar  count  to  drop  into  disuse.  Prof.  W-  J. 
McGee  publishes  a  characteristic  essay  on  "  Primitive 
Numbers."  The  memoirs  in  these  two  volumes  are 
copiously  illustrated  with  numerous  excellent  plates,  some 
of  which  are  coloured.  A.  C.   H. 


AGRICULTURAL    NOTES. 

FROM  a  recent  number  of  a  Scotch  agricultural  news- 
paper it  appears  that  the  Earl  of  Rosebery  has  a 
private  station  for  agricultural  research  on  his  home  farm 
near  Edinburgh,  but  the  gratification  which  this  inform- 
ation might  otherwise  have  afforded  is  tempered  by  a 
perusal  of  an  account,  given  by  the  newspaper,  of  a  visit 
paid  by  a  party  of  agriculturists  to  the  place.  The  experi- 
ments, we  gather,  have  been  in  existence  for  several  years, 
but  no  reports  on  the  station's  work  have  been  published, 
and  we  are  left  to  glean  something  of  its  character  from 
the  statements  made  by  the  estate  agent  and  the  district 
analyst,  who  respectively  represent  practice  and  science  in 
the  control  of  the  work.  In  speeches  which  are  reported 
at  some  length,  first  the  agent  and  then  the  analyst  pro- 
ceeded to  ridicule  the  work  done  at  other  experiment 
stations.  Rothamsted,  Woburn,  the  East  of  Scotland 
Agricultural  College,  and  the  Highland  and  Agricultural 
Society  were  singled  out  for  condemnation,  and  one  is 
dismayed  to  find  that  "  great  laughter  "  was  evoked  by  a 
quotation  of  what  purported  to  be  the  words  of  the  late 
Sir  Henry  Gilbert,  whose  fifty  years'  devoted  service  has 
earned  the  respect  of  all  right-minded  agriculturists.  The 
claims  made  for  Dalmeny — the  experiment  station — were 
as  amusing  as  the  references  to  others  were  offensive.  We 
hear,  for  example,  that  "  the  Dalmeny  station  was  the  only 
agricultural  experiment  station  in  the  world  where  the  re- 
search work  was  carried  out  on  biological  lines,"  and  that 
"  if  imitation  was  the  sincerest  form  of  flattery,  Dalmeny 
had  been  very  sincerely  flattered  of  late  years,  for  so-called 
new  lines  of  investigation  were  being  taken  up  and  books 
were  being  written  which  were  simply  plagiarisms  of 
Dalmeny  work  and  its  results."  Until  some  change  is 
made  in  the  management  of  Dalmeny  experiment  station 
it  is  clear  that  no  serious  consideration  need  be  given  to 
the  work  being  done  there. 

For  the  past  three  years  Mr.  S.  H.  Collins,  agricultural 
chemist  at  the  Durham  College  of  Science,  has  been  investi- 
gating the  composition  of  the  Swedish  turnip,  the  chief 
root  crop  of  the  north  of  England.  A  large  number  of 
varieties  have  been  grown  under  identical  conditions  and 
also  under  different  conditions  of  soil,  climate,  and 
manuring.  The  work  is  still  in  progress,  but  certain  con- 
clusions which  have  been  come  to  are  stated  in  the  eleventh 
report  of  the  college  agricultural  department.  They  are 
(i)  the  higher  the  percentage  of  dry  matter  in  swedes  the 
greater  the  feeding  value  ;  (2)  swedes  are  very  variable  in 
composition,  and  not  less  than  fifty  roots  should  be  sampled 
the  purpose  of   analysis ;   (3)   the   average   composition 


for  .      . 

of  some  varieties  is  much  better  than  that  of  others  ;  (4)  the 
Their  superior  physique  and  peaceful  disposition  were  fre- J  varieties  which  are  best  at  one  farm  will   also  be  best  at 


NO.   1766,  VOL.  68] 


428 


NA  TURE 


[Sei'TEmber  3,  1903 


other  farms  ;  (5)  next  to  variety,  season,  and  then  soil,  most 
affect  the  composition  of  swedes;  the  influence  of  manurmg 
is  not  marked.  The  fourth  conclusion  is  warranted  by  the 
facts  which  Mr.  Collins  brings  forward,  but  this  point  is 
one  on  which  further  information  is  wanted,  for  it  seems 
probable  that  the  relative  position  of  different  varieties 
might  change  if  the  varieties  were  exposed  to  markedly 
different  conditions. 

A  Bulletin  recently  issued  by  the  U.S.  Department  of 
Agriculture,  entitled  "  The  Mango  in  Porto  Rico,"  dis- 
cusses the  prospects  of  mango  cultivation  on  the  island. 
Porto  Rico  grows  mangoes  in  abundance;  the  climate  is 
very  favourable,  and  the  trees  are  free  from  disease,  but 
hitherto  seedling  trees  only  have  been  grown,  and  one  is 
not  surprised  to  read  that  the  mangoes  have  met  with  but 
little  favour  in  the  American  markets.  The  fame  of  the 
Bombay  mango  is  due  to  the  fruit  of  grafted  trees,  and  it 
is  rarely  that  trees  raised  from  seed  produce  fruit  worth 
eating.  Seedling  trees  abound  in  every  village,  but  first- 
rate  trees  are  very  uncommon.  The  short  list  given  in 
Woodrow's  "  Gardening  for  India  "  shows  how  rare  really 
good  seedlings  are.  When  the  Americans  import  fine 
strains  and  take  to  growing  grafted  mango  trees  the  in- 
dustry is  certain  to  make  rapid  progress.  We  gather  from 
the  Bulletin  that  this  subject  is  likely  to  engage  the  atten- 
tion of  the  local  experiment  station.  We  hope  it  may,  for 
if  the  matter  is  taken  up  with  the  energy  characteristic  of 
the  American  stations,  there  is  every  prospect  of  a  great 
increase  in  the  supply  of  the  finest  of  tropical  fruits. 


REPORT    OF    THE    MALARIA    EXPEDITION 
TO    THE    GAMBIA. 

THE  Liverpool  School  of  Tropical  Medicine  has  just 
issued  a  most  important  and  practical  report  upon  the 
prevention  of  malaria  in  the  tropics.'  Dr.  Dutton,  who 
conducted  the  expedition  with  conspicuous  success,  shows 
with  striking  clearness  how  a  great  deal  of  disease  is  due 
to  the  want  of  knowledge  of  the  nature  of  malaria,  and 
that  during  the  dry  season  the  residents  are  largely  to 
blame  for  the  appearance  of  the  disease.  It  is  one  of  the 
most  hopeful  reports  ever  issued  by  the  school,  and  it  shows 
that  the  governors  and  others  in  authority  upon  the  coast 
are  fully  alive  to  the  importance  of  stamping  out  malarial 
diseases.  The  report  is  an  immense  step  forward  in  pre- 
ventive medicine. 

The  object  of  the  expedition  was  to  investigate  the  con- 
ditions under  which  mosquitoes  were  propagated  in  the  town 
of  Bathurst  and  at  the  principal  stations  of  the  colony,  and 
to  suggest  methods  of  destroying  these  insects.  Malaria 
was  found  to  be  prevalent  in  the  colony  ;  80  per  cent,  of 
the  native  children  examined  harboured  malaria  parasites  in 
their  blood.  The  liability  to  infection  of  the  Europeans  com- 
mences soon  after  the  rains  are  established,  lasting  up  to  the 
end  of  November.  The  various  breeding  places  of  mosquitoes 
are  described  in  detail  in  chapter  iv.  of  the  report,  particular 
mention  being  made  of  the  wells,  canoes,  boats,  lighters, 
cutters  on  the  foreshore,  and  of  the  grass-clogged  trenches 
in  many  of  the  streets,  which  together  supply  Bathurst 
with  the  majority  of  its  mosquitoes  during  the  wet  season 
and  for  part  of  the  dry  season.  The  number  of  mosquito 
breeding  places  present  in  compounds  was  found  to  vary 
with  the  social  position  of  the  occupier.  They  increased 
in  extent  and  number  in  proportion  to  the  wealth  and  posi- 
tion of  the  occupier. 

An  account  of  the  examination  of  one  of  the  large  com- 
pounds illustrates  to  what  extent  mosquitoes  are  bred  by 
the  white  man  in  the  tropics  on  his  own  premises. 

In  one  factory  yard  were  found  six  barrels,  and  in  the 
garden  there  were  seventeen  tubs  and  eight  small  wells,  all 
breeding  quantities  of  Culex,  Stegomyia,  and  Anopheles 
mosquitoes.  Besides  these  dry  season  breeding  places,  dis- 
carded domestic  utensils  were  scattered  about  the  yard  and 
garden  which,  in  the  wet  season,  would  have  acted  as 
breeding  plates.  It  is  pointed  out  that  during  the  dry 
season,  from  November  to  May,  natural  breeding  places  for 

i  "  Report  of  the  Malaria  Kxpeiition  to  the  Gambia.  7902,  of  the  I  iver- 
pool  School  of  Tropical  Medicine  and  Medical  Parasitology."  By  J.  E. 
Button,  M.B  ,  and  an  appendix  by  F.  V.  Theobald,  M.A.  Pp.  46+xi! 
(Liverpool:  University  Press,  1903.) 

NO.    1766,  VOL.   68] 


mosquitoes  in  Bathurst  cease  to  exist,  and  from  this  period 
the  people  breed  mosquitoes  solely  in  their  own  compounds. 

In  chapter  v.,  which  deals  with  the  prevention  of  malaria 
in  Bathurst,  a  campaign  against  the  mosquito  is  advocated  ; 
the  town  is  judged  especially  suitable  for  its  success.  Thus 
Bathurst  is  situated  on  a  practically  isolated  piece  of  land 
surrounded  on  nearly  all  sides  by  a  broad  expanse  of  sea 
water.  The  amount  of  land  to  be  dealt  with  is  compara- 
tively small,  viz.  about  a  square  mile.  The  surface  is  fairly 
level,  sandy,  absorbing  water  readily.  In  this  area  the 
breeding  places  of  mosquitoes  are  a  known  quantity,  the 
artificial,  or  those  made  by  man,  being  in  excess  of  the 
natural.  The  rainfall  is  very  small,  and  rain  occurs  only 
during  four  out  of  the  twelve  months  of  the  year. 

The  probability  of  the  introduction  into  Bathurst  of 
yellow  fever  from  Senegal  is  pointed  out  as  another  reason 
for  attacking  the  mosquito.  The  expedition  was  informed 
by  His  Excellency  the  acting  Governor,  H.  M.  Brandford 
Griffith,  of  the  intention  on  the  part  of  the  Colonial  Govern- 
ment to  enter  upon  a  crusade  against  the  mosquito,  and 
on  November  18  the  preliminary  removal  of  rubbish  from 
houses  and  compounds  began ;  a  sanitary  inspector  was 
appointed,  and  received  special  instruction  in  the  work. 
Under  him  worked  a  gang  of  labourers,  and  at  the  time  of 
the  departure  of  the  expedition  (January  10)  363  houses  and 
compounds  had  been  inspected.  From  these  131  cartloads 
of  old  tin  pots  and  other  rubbish  were  removed.  On  the  re- 
turn of  His  Excellency  the  Governor,  Sir  George  C.  Denton, 
the  inspector  and  a  sufficient  staff  of  labourers  were 
appointed  permanently,  and  a  grant  of  200J.  per  annum 
was  given  for  the  special  anti-mosquito  work.  Anti- 
mosquito  regulations  have  been  drawn  up  by  the  Colonial 
Government.     These  are  given  at  the  end  of  the  report. 

An  apoendix,  bv  Mr.  F.  V.  Theobald,  is  attached  to  the 
report ;  in  it  are  described  the  various  species  of  mosquitoes 
collected  by  the  expedition,  many  of  which  were  new  to 
science. 


ZONES  IN  THE  CHALK. 
TN  Nature  for  August  8,  1901,  attention  was  directed  to 
■^  the  second  part  of  Dr.  A.  W.  Rowe's  researches  on 
the  zones  of  the  White  Chalk.  We  have  now  had  the  satis- 
faction of  receiving  the  third  part  of  this  most  interesting 
and  important  work,  which  deals  with  the  Chalk  of  Devon 
{Proc.   Geol.  Assoc,  vol.  .xviii.  part  i.,    1903). 

Working  the  palaeontology  with  such  aids  as  can  be 
gathered  from  the  local  stratigraphy  and  lithology,  the 
author,  assisted  as  before  by  Mr.  C.  D.  Sherborn,  has 
added  extensively  to  our  knowledge  of  the  successive  forms 
of  life  that  are  met  with  in  the  Chalk  between  Sidmouth 
and  Lyme  Regist  Whether  or  not  the  limits  of  the 
zones  happen  to  coincide  with  definite  stratigraphical 
limits,  these  latter  afford  useful  data,  and  one  marl  band 
to  which  the  author  directs  special  attention,  forms  the 
plane  of  division  between  the  zones  of  Terebratulina  gracilis 
and  Holaster  planus.  Such  definite  and  continuous  bands 
of  rock  (so  far  as  they  can  be  traced)  must  afford 
even  more  precise  evidence  of  contemporaneity  than 
the  presence  of  this  or  that  fossil.  Even  a  tabular  flint- 
band  has  proved  "  an  .almost  constant  feature  throughout 
th''  coast  " — an  interesting  fact,  and  one  that  was  not  to 
be  expected.  It  is  admitted  that  the  name-fossils  are  not 
always  confined  to  their  zones.  Holaster  planus  is  found 
by  Dr.  Rowe  throughout  the  zone  of  Terebratulina  gracilis. 
But  the  guide-fossils,  the  general  assemblages  associated 
with  the  name-fossils,  while  they  exhibit  here,  as  else- 
where, local  variations,  tell  the  same  story  of  the  successive 
zones  or  stages  of  life,  and  indicate  their  approximate  limits. 
Perhaps  too  much  importance  is  given  to  the  effort  to  fix 
a  precise  divisional  plane  between  zones.  When  such 
divisions  depend  on  the  forms  of  life,  and  the  succession 
of  life  is  continuous  though  gradually  varying,  there  can 
be  no  absolute  planes  of  division,  except  through  the 
absence  or  erosion  of  strata  belonging  to  a  particular  period 
of  time. 

The  work  before  us  is  rich  in  its  stores  of  interesting 
facts.  The  zone  of  Rhynchonella  Cuvieri  presents  noteworthy 
features  in  the  presence  of  Micraster  cor-bovis  and  M. 
h'skei,  the  zone  of  Terebratulina  gracilis^  is  "  singularly 
rich  in  fossils,"  while  in  the  zones  of  Holaster  planus  and 


Septemuek 


1903] 


NATUKE 


429 


MicrasXcr  cor-tcstudinarium  the  group-form  of  Micraster 
is  almost  vvhollv  absent.  Nor  are  the  lithological  devi- 
ations less  noteworthy,  for  the  particular  characters  of  the 
Chalk  vary  at  different  stages,  and  the  same  division  may 
be  nodular  or  smooth,  and  have  many  or  no  belts  of  flmts. 
The  value  of  a  detailed  paLneontological  study  of  our  strata 
is  abundantly  manifested  in  this  essay,  and  not  the  least 
interesting  part  of  it  is  in  the  light  it  throws  on  the  geo- 
graphical as  well  as  geological  distribution  of  the  fossils. 

A  most  excellent  series  of  plates  of  cliff-sections,  from 
photographs  taken  by  Prof.  H.  E.  Armstrong,  accompany 
this  work.  H.  B.  W. 


THE   PHYSIOLOGY    OF   BREEDING.' 

T  T  is  a  remarkable  fact  that  the  system  of  organs  in  the 
-*■  animal  body  to  which  they  are  themselves  indebted  for 
their  existence 'is  very  largely  neglected  by  physiologists; 
that  a  number  of  secretory,  vascular  and  nervous  phenomena 
intimately  concerned  with  fertility,  with  the  power  of  con- 
ception a'nd  the  ability  to  bear  young  are  neither  under- 
stood nor  investigated';  and  that  a  wide  field  of  research 
as  to  the  influences  of  various  kinds  of  food  supplied  to 
the  rnother  both  on  her  capacity  for  breeding  and  on  the 
growth,  constitution,  and  variation  of  the  embryo  is  as 
yet  untouched.  As  a  contribution  to  the  subject  of  "  breed- 
ing," therefore,  this  paper  is  specially  welcome,  and  the 
author  is  to  be  congratulated  both  upon  the  careful  work 
he  has  done  and  the  treatment  he  has  accorded  the  subject. 

The  wide  variations  in  the  power  of  breeding  which 
different  breeds  of  sheep  and  different  individuals  of  the 
same  breed  are  subject  to  is  shown,  and  the  effect  of 
altitude,  climate  and  food  referred  to. 

The  histological  changes  which  take  place  in  the  uterus 
of  the  sheep  during  the  oestrous  cycle  are  carefully  described 
and  figured,  and  the  homology  of  these  changes  with  those 
elsewhere  described  for  the  bitch  and  monkey  clearly 
established.  A  brief  resume  of  the  author's  work  on  the 
same  phenomena  in  the  ferret  is  given,  and  their  essential 
similarity  with  that  of  the  bitch  shown. 

Suggestive  information  follows  on  the  question  of  ovula- 
tion in  sheep  and  other  mammals,  on  the  stimulus  neces- 
sary to  bring  about  that  process  under  various  conditions, 
on  the  artificial  methods  adopted  by  some  flock  masters 
to  stimulate  breeding  in  their  ewes,  and  on  the  effect  of 
these  methods  on  fertility.  Here  a  subject  is  touched  upon 
which  is  of  vital  importance  to  breeders,  and  one  which 
requires  and  deserves  careful  study.  Atresia  among  the 
follicles  of  the  sheep's  ovary  is  then  studied,  and  its  relation 
to  the  proportion  of  twins  and  to  barrenness  examined. 

The  remainder  of  the  paper  is  occupied  with  a  descrip- 
tion of  the  formation  of  the  corpus  luteum  of  the  sheep 
and  an  examination  of  the  views  of  the  most  recent 
writers  on  that  subject.  The  lutein  cells  are  stated  to  be 
the  much  hypertrophied  epithelial  cells  of  the  undischarged 
follicle,  while  the  connective  tissue  element  is  supplied  by 
ingrowth  from  both  theca  interna  and  externa. 

Finally,  the  relation  between  the  development  of  the 
corpus  luteum  and  the  changes  which  take  place  in  the 
uterus  during  pregnancy  is  touched  upon,  and  the  view  ex- 
pressed that,  while  the  functions  of  ovulation  and  oestrus 
do  not  represent  cause  and  effect,  they  are  primarily  con- 
nected, inasmuch  as  each  is  dependent  largely  upon  the 
same  cause. 


UNIVERSITY    AND    EDUCATIONAL 
INTELLIGENCE. 

The  new  prospectus  of  the  department  of  dyeing  and 
tinctorial  chemistry  of  the  Yorkshire  College,  Leeds,  shows 
that  special  facilities  are  provided  for  the  study  of  the 
chemistry  of  the  colouring  matters  and  for  research  work 
upon  coal  tar  products.  .\n  effort  is  being  made  to  com- 
bine the  standard  of  scientific  teaching  of  a  university  with 
the  practical  training  of  a  technical  school,  and  to  encourage 
the  prosecution  of  original  investigation  in  what  is  certainly 
the  most  scientific,   yet  unfortunately,    in  this  country,   the 

1  "The  CEstrous  Cycle  anrt  the  Formation  of  the  Corpus  luteum  in  the 
Sheep."     By  Francis  H.  A.  Marshall.     iPhil.  Trans. ^  vol.  cxcvj.,  1903.) 


NO.    1766,  VOL.  68] 


least  studied  branch  of  applied  chemistry.  The  dyeing  de- 
partment was  built,  equipped,  and  endowed  by  the  Cloth- 
workers'  Company,  and  is  provided  with  lecture-rooms, 
pattern  and  diagram  rooms,  museums,  experimental  and 
practical  dye-houses,  as  well  as  with  adequate  provision 
for  research  work. 

The  (Ireat  Western  Railway  Company  now  offer  facili- 
ties, in  conjunction  with  the  Swindon  Education  Com- 
mittee, to  their  apprentices  to  enable  them  to  gain  technical 
scientific  knowledge.  A  limited  number  of  selected  students 
may  attend  day  classes  at  the  Technical  School.  They 
must  have  spent  at  least  one  year  in  the  factory,  and  must 
have  regularly  attended  for  at  least  one  session  in  the  pre- 
paratory group  of  evening  classes  at  the  Technical  School. 
The  number  of  studentships  will  be  limited  to  thirty  at  any 
one  time.  For  each  year's  course  there  will  be  a  com- 
petitive examination,  successful  students  passing  on  from 
one  year's  course  to  the  next.  The  course  of  study  for  each 
year  will  consist  of  practical  mathematics,  practical 
mechanics,  geometrical  and  machine  drawing,  heat,  elec- 
tricity, and  chemistry.  Those  attending  the  classes  will 
have  their  wages  paid  as  if  at  work  in  the  factory,  and 
the  Great  Western  Railway  Company  will  pay  their  school 
fees.  The  students  attending  the  day  classes  will  be  ex- 
pected to  give  some  time  each  evening  to  private  study. 
Students  who  distinguish  themselves  .will  be  allowed  to 
spend  part  of  their  last  year  in  the  drawing  office  and 
chemical  laboratory.  The' whole  of  the  arrangements  will 
at  all  times  be  under  the  direction  of  the  chief  mechanical 
engineer. 

The  report  on  the  secondary  and  higher  education  of 
the  City  of  Sheffield,  prepared  by  Prof.  Michael  E.  Sadler, 
has  been  published  in  pamphlet  form  by  the  Education  Com- 
mittee of  Sheffield.  The  schools  and  colleges  now  in  exist- 
ence in  Sheffield  are  described  and  their  work  passed  in 
review.  A  series  of  recommendations  is  then  made  with  a 
view  to  equip  the  city  with  a  complete  educational  system. 
Prof.  Sadler  says  that  the  weakest  spot  in  the  educational 
arrangements  of  Sheffield  is  in  the  secondary  education 
provided  for  boys.  .'\  promising  boy  ought  to  have  the 
best  educational  opportunities  within  his  reach,  but  at  pre- 
sent the  equipment  of  such  higher  education  in  Sheffield 
is  very  much  behind  the  standard  in  the  progressive  cities 
of  Germany  and  the  United  States.  Dr.  Sadler  also  re- 
commends a  development  of  the  work  of  the  Technical 
College.  He  reniarks,  "  the  work  of  the  Technical 
College,  admirable  as  it  is,  would  greatly  gain  in  force 
and  depth  if  it  were  supported  by  a  strong  department  of 
pure  science."  .As  the  report  rightly  insists,  what  is  wanted 
is  that  a  workman  should  be  able  to  deal  with  new  problems, 
and  in  order  to  do  this  he  must  have,  as  a  foundation  for 
his  technological  skill,  a  thorough  knowledge  of  the  pure 
s.ience  which  it  is  his  task  to  apply  to  practical  problems. 
The  probable  additional  net  annual  cost  to  Sheffield  of  carry- 
ing out  Prof.  Sadler's  chief  recommendations  is  estimated 
at  about  8500/.,  which  would  mean  a  rate  of  less  than 
three  halfpence.  It  now  remains  for  the  Education  Com- 
mittee of  Sheffield  to  put  into  practice  some  of  the  excellent 
suggestions  in  the  report. 

The  volume  of  "  General  Reports  on  Higher  Education 
for  ic)02,"  just  published  by  the  Board  of  Education,  contains 
with  other  information  of  importance  an  account  of  the 
secondary  schools,  science  classes,  art  classes,  and  evening 
schools  of  the  southern  and  eastern  divisions  of  England,  the 
former  by  Mr.  Buckmaster  and  the  latter  by  Dr.  Hoffert. 
Speaking  of  the  evening  schools  in  London,  Mr.  Buckmaster 
says  "  the  impression  formed  in  early  visits  has  not  been 
removed  on  more  complete  acquaintance,  and  the  School 
Board,  in  its  laudable  anxiety  to  throw  the  educational  net 
as  wide  as  possible,  has  secured  quantity  at  the  expense  of 
quality.  As  missionary  agencies  the  schools  abundantly 
justify  their  existence,  they  bring  the  opportunities  for  im- 
provement near  to  all  in  all  parts  of  the  metropolis,  but 
as  centres  for  real  solid  work  they  are  not  so  successful,  in 
spite  of  the  best  efforts  of  the  teachers,  the  majority  of 
whom  are  most  enthusiastic  and  devoted  to  their  work." 
Several  methods  for  the  improvement  of  these  schools  are 
suggested,  such  as  the  alteration  of  the  rule  that,  where 
the  average  attendance  falls  below  25  per  teacher,  a  xf- 
duction   in   the   number  of  teachers   should   be  made ;   tt'at 


439 


NA  TURE 


[September:  3,  1903 


means  should  be  taken  to  improve  the  attendance;  and  to 
encourage  homework.  The  polytechnics  are  to  some  extent 
fed  by  students  from  these  evening  classes,  and  it  is  of 
importance  that  their  work  should  be  as  serious  as  possible. 
Dr.  Hoffert  is  able  to  report  considerable  progress  in  the 
organisation  of  higher  education  in  the  eastern  division  of 
England,  especially  the  increased  attention  now  being  paid 
fo  the  improvement  of  secondary  education.  In  another 
place  Dr.  Hoffert  refers  to  the  question  of  higher  elementary 
schools,  and  expresses  the  opinion  that  schools  of  this  type 
might  verv  profitablv  be  distributed  at  suitable  intervals 
over  London.  "  They  appear  destined  to  fill  an  important 
place  in  any  future  'organised  scheme  of  elementary  and 
secondary  education,  and  to  form  the  natural  completion 
of  the  elementary  system." 


SOCIETIES  AND  ACADEMIES. 

London. 

Royal  Society,  June  i8.  — "  Radiation  in  the  Solar  System  : 
its  Effect  on  Temperature  and  its  Pressure  on  Small 
Bodies."  Bv  J.  H.  Poynting:,  Sc.D.,  F.R.S.,  Professor 
of  Pfiysics  iri  the  University  of  Birmingham. 

Part  L — Temperature. 

We  can  calculate  an  upper  limit  to  the.  temperatures  of 
fully  absorbing  or  "  black  "  surfaces  receiving  their  heat 
from  the  sun,  and  on  certain  assumptions  we  can  find  the 
temperatures  of  planetary  surfaces,  if  we  accept  the  fourth 
power  law  of  radiation,  since  we  know  approximately  the 
solar  constant,  that  is,  the  rate  of  reception  of  heat  from 
the  sun,  and  the  radiation  constant,  that  i§,  the  energy 
radiated  at  i°  abs.  by  a  fully  radiating  surface.^ 

The  effective  temperature  of  space  calculated  from  the 
very  uncertain  data  at  our  command  is  of  the  order  io°  abs. 
Bodies  in  interplanetary  space  and  at  a  much  higher  tempera- 
ture may,  therefore,  be  regarded  as  being  practically  in  a 
zero  temperature  enclosure  except  in  so  far  as  they  receive 
heat  from  the  sun. 

The  first  case  considered  is  that  of  an  ideal  earth,  more 
or  less  resembling  the  real  earth,  and  it  is  shown  that  the 
temperature  of  its  surface  is,  on  the  average,  325°,  302°,  or 
290°  abs.  according  as  we  take  for  the  solar  constant 
Angstrom's  value  4  cal./min.,  Langley's  value  3  cal./min., 
or  a  value  deduced  from  Rosetti's  work  2-5  cal./min.  The 
lowest  value  found,  290°  abs.,  is  very  near  the  average 
temperature  of  the  earth's  surface,  which  may  be  taken  as 
289°  abs.  As  the  earth's  effective  temperature  must,  if  any- 
thing, be  below  this,  and  cannot  differ  much  from  that  of 
the  ideal  planet,  Rosetti's  value  for  the  solar  constant, 
2-5  cal./min.  or  0175x10'  ergs. /sec.  is  probably  nearest 
to  the  true  value,  and  is  therefore  used  in  the  following 
calculations. 

The  preceding  calculations  may  be  turned  the  other  way. 
It  is  shown  that,  on  certain  assumptions,  the  effective 
temperature  of  the  sun  is  215  times  that  of  the  ideal  earth. 
If  we  consider  that  the  real  earth  with  a  temperature  289° 
abs.  sufficiently  resembles  the  ideal,  we  get  a  solar  tempera- 
ture 21-5x289=6200°  abs. 

The  upper  limit  to  the  temperature  of  the  surface  of  the 
moon  is  determined  and  is  shown  to  be  412°  abs.  when  no 
heat  is  conducted  inwards.  But  Langley  finds  that  the 
actual  temperature  is  not  much  above  the  freezing  point 
on  the  average.  This  leads  us  to  the  conclusion  that  it  is 
not  higher  than  four-fifths  the  highest  possible  value,  the 
reduction  being  due  to  inward  conduction. 

The  temperature  of  a  small  body,  dimensions  of  the  order 
of  I  cm.  or  less,  but  still  so  large  that  it  absorbs  radiation, 
is  shown  to  be  nearly  uniform,  and  at  the  distance  of  the 
earth  from  the  sun  about  300°  abs. 

Under  otherwise  similar  conditions  temperatures -must 
vary  inversely  as  the  square  root  of  the  distance  from  the 

1  W.  Wien  ("  Cong.  Int.  de  Physique,"  vol.  ii.  p.  30)  has  pointed  out  that 
btelan  s  law  enables  us  to  calculate  the  temperatures  of  celestial  bodies 
which  receive  their  light  from  the  sun,  by  equating  the  energy  which  they 
radiate  to  the  energy  which  they  receive  from  the  sun,  and  remarks  that 
the  temperature  of  Neptune  should  be  below  -200°  C. 


sun.  Thus  Mars,  if  an  earth-like  planet,  has  a  temperature 
nowhere  above  253°  abs.,  and  if  a  moon-like  planet,  the 
upper  limit  to  the  temperature  of  the  hottest  part  is  about 
270°. 

Part   II. — Radiation   Pressure. 

The  ratio  of  radiation  pressure  due  to  sunlight  to  solar 
gravitation  increases,  as  is  well  known,  as  the  receiving 
body  diminishes  in  size.  But  if  the  radiating  body  also 
diminishes  in  size,  this  ratio  increases.  It  is  shown  that  if 
two  equal  and  fully  radiating  spheres  of  the  temperature 
and  density  of  the  sun  are  radiating  to  each  other  in  a 
zero  enclosure,  at  a  distance  large  compared  with  their 
radii,  then  the  radiation  push  balances  the  gravitation  pull 
when  the  radius  of  each  is  335  metres.  If  the  temperature 
of  two  equal  bodies  is  300°  abs.  and  their  density  i,  the 
radius  for  a  balance  between  the  two  forces  is  19-62  cm. 
If  the  density  is  that  of  the  earth,  55,  the  balance  occurs 
with  a  radius  3-4  cm.  If  the  temperatures  of  the  two  are 
different,  the  radiation  pressures  are  different,  and  it  is 
possible  to  imagine  two  bodies,  which  will  both  tend  to 
move  in  the  same  direction,  one  chasing  the  other,  under 
the  combined  action  of  radiation  and  gravitation. 

The  effect  of  Doppler's  principle  will  be  to  limit  the 
velocity  attained  in  such  a  chase.  The  Doppler  effect  on  a 
moving  radiator  is  then  examined,  and  an  expression  is 
found  for  the  increase  in  pressure  on  the  front,  and  the 
decrease  in  pressure  on  the  back  of  a  radiating  sphere  of 
uniform  temperature  moving  through  a  medium  at  rest. 
It  is  proportional  to  the  velocity  at  a  given  temperature. 
The  equation  to  the  orbit  of  such  a  body  moving  round  the 
sun  is  found,  and  it  is  shown  that  meteoric  dust  within  the 
orbit  of  the  earth  will  be  swept  into  the  sun  in  a  time  com- 
parable with  historical  times,  while  bodies  of  the  order  of 
I  cm.  radius  will  be  drawn  in  in  a  time  comparable  with 
geological  periods. 

"  The  Phenomena  of  Luminosity  and  their  possible 
Correlation  with  Radio-Activity. "  By  Henry  E.  '  Arm- 
str-ongr,  F.R.S.,  and  T.  Martin  Lowry,  D.Sc.    ' 

The  possibility  of  regarding  luminous  manifestations 
generally — including  radio-activity — as  the  outcome  of 
oscillatory  changes  in  molecular  structure  was  pointed  out 
by  one  of  the  authors  more  than  a  year  ago  in  a  com- 
munication to  the  Society  in  which  the  kind  of  change 
contemplated  was  exemplified  by  reference  to  the  case  of 
nitrocamphor.  As  the  phenomena  of  radio-activity  are 
exciting  so  much  interest,  it  is  thought  desirable  to  enter 
somewhat  more  fully  into  an  explanation  of  the  argument 
underlying  this  conception  of  the  origin  of  luminous  appear- 
ances. 

In  the  note  referred  to,  it  was  suggested  that  tribo- 
Itiminescent  substances,  i.e.  substances  which  become 
luminous  at  the  moment  of  crushing,  might  conceivably,  at 
the  same  time,  manifest  radio-activity.  Sir  William 
Crookes,  at  Dr.  Armstrong's  request,  has  recently  examined 
saccharin  from  this  point  of  view. 

His  remarks  are  described;  they  seem  to  show  that 
saccharin  is  slightly  radio-active  towards  barium  platino- 
cyanide  when  crushed.  The  authors  have  been  unable 
hitherto  to  detect  any  effect  on  the  electrometer. 

Triboluminescence. — The  authors  consider  the  nature  of 
the  change  involved  in  the  production  of  the  luminous  flash, 
in  order  that  it  may  be  clear  why,  in  their  opinion,  if  radio- 
activity were  observed  in  such  a  case,  it  would  have  been 
as  the  concomitant  to  chemical  change. 

There  is  distinct  evidence,  they  think,  that  the  pheno- 
mena of  triboluminescence  may  be  correlated  with  the 
occurrence  of  the  form  of.  isomeric  change  which  attends 
the  passage  of  a  compound  into  the  isodynamic  form  of 
lower  potential.  Tschugaeff,  who  has  examined  more  than 
500  inorganic  and  organic  compounds,  found  that  about  25 
per  cent,  of  the  latter  gave  a  more  or  less  intense  flash 
when  crushed ;  of  these  a  considerable  proportion  appear 
to  be  such  as  could  exist  in  isodynamic  forms.  Onlv  about 
5  per  cent,  of  the  inorganic  substances  flashed. 

To  take  the  case  of  saccharin,  the  two  conceivable  forms 
are  : — 

CO\  /C.OH, 


NO.    1766,  VOL.   68] 


Coiii\ 


^SO, 


>NH 


CfiHZ. 


\ 


-SO, 


'September  3.  1903] 


""^kT^RE 


431 


Comparable   with   these   are   the   two   igodynamic   forms  of 
■K    and  /3-bromonitrocamphor,  for  ^Xai?i^le  : — • 


/CH.NO2 
QH^Br/   I  - 

Normal  neutral  form. 


.C:NO„H 


C8H,3Br< 


Pseudo-acid  form. 


In  the  solid  state,  both .  forms  of  ir-bromonitrocamphor 
are  stable;  when  either  form  is  dissolved  in  a  liquid, 
isomeric  change  sets  in  ;  sooner  or  later,  it  may  be  only  in 
the  course  of  a  few  hours  or  even  days,  a  state  of  equilibrium 
is  established,  about  b  per  cent,  of  the  material  being  pre- 
sent in  the  pseudo  form,  and  94  per  cent,  in  the  normal 
form.  The  change,  however,  does  not  occur  spontaneously, 
but  is  undoubtedly  dependent  on  the  presence  of  a  catalyst, 
a«  equilibrium  is  established  with  great  rapidity  if  a  trace 
of  alkali  be  added ;  acids  have  only  a  slight,  although 
definite,  accelerating  effect.  In  the  case  of  3-bromonitro- 
camphor,  solutions  in  benzene  of  the  neutral  as  well  as 
of  the  acid  form  which  have  been  kept  during  several 
days  without  undergoing  change,  when  transferred  to 
another  vessel,  have  rapidly  passed  to  a  condition  of 
equilibrium — doubtless  because  this  vessel  had  been  less 
successfully  cleansed  than  that  first  used.  It  can,  therefore, 
scarcely  be  doubted  that  the  change  occurs  within  a  com- 
plex system — one  which,  it  is  only  reasonable  to  suppose, 
constitutes  an  electrolytic  circuit.  The  process  is  reversed 
when  crystallisation  sets  in ;  if  the  evaporation  of  the 
solvent,  take  place  sufficiently  slowly,  the  whole  of  the 
material  is  converted  into  and  crystallises  out  in  the  less 
soluble  form  ;  if,  however,  evaporation  take  place  rapidly, 
the  isomeric  change  may  lag  behind  the  crystallisation  arid 
both  forms  "may  separate.  In  the  case  of  nitrocamphor,  the 
normal  form  is  the  one  that  separates  from  the  solution  ; 
but  in  the  case  of  ir-  and  /3-bromonitrocamphor,  although 
the  pseudo.  form  is  the  minor  constituent  .in  the  solution, 
being  much  less  soluble  thah  the  isomeride,  it  is. one  to 
separate  on  crystallisation.  ■  •  '      ' 

The  passage  of  the  one  form  into  the  other  in  the  case 
of  saccharin,  for  e.xample,  may  be  pictured  as  involving  the 
as    are    represented    in    the 


occurrence    of    changes    such 
equation  : — 

■  ±NaOH 


CeH4< 


/OH    ±NaOH 
^  „  /  ?  ^ONa 


-^- 


-^ 


CfiH, 


xF-9.^^ 


i^*\ 


SO2- 


Supposing  the  stable  form  of  loWer  potential  to  crystallise' 
out,  the  crystals,  in  almost  every  case,  would  contain  a 
minute  and  variable  amount  of  the  isodynamic  form  en- 
.tangled,  as  it  were,  in  the^mass.  In  the  solid^  reversion  to 
the  stable  form  would  take  place  very  slowly.  Presumably, 
however,  sudden  '  crushing  of  the  crystals  would  afford' 
opportunity  for  the  change  to  take  place  and  for  the  sudden 
iiberation  of  energy — hence  the  momentary  flash.  • 

It  is  not,  at  present,  necessary  to  assume  that  the  pheno- 
mena are  limited  to  cases  of  isomeric  change  ;  obviously, 
changes  such  as  those  considered  may  be  regarded  broadly 
as  dissociative  or  reversible  changes;'  and  from  this  point 
of  view,  it  is  sufficient  to  regard  the  phenomena  as  the  out- 
come of  a  lo^  of  potential  consequent  on  the  passage  from 
an  unstable  to  a  stable  system.  .1     . 

From  the  point  of  view  here  advocated, -it  would  be  im- 
possible to,  construct  a  .  condenser  from  a' />«re  dielectric  ; 
and  if  the  dielectric  of  a  charged  condenser  were  suddenly 
smashed  under  suitable  conditions,  it  might,  exhibif/the 
phenomenon  of  triboluminosity  and  perhaps, radio-activitvi 

Fluorescence. — It  was  originally  suggested  by  one  of  the 
authors,  in.  discussing  the  origin  of  Visible  colour,  that 
fluorescence- is  the  ".beginning  of  colour."  Subsequently, 
Dr.  J.  T.  Hewitt,  in  a.  paper  on  the  relation  between  con- 
.stitution  and  fluorescence,  published  early. in  1900,  took  the 
important  step  of  associating  the  appearance  of  fluorescence 
not  with  the  mere  occurrence  of  the  quinonoid  type  of  strjJi- 
;ture,  but  with  the  continued  </cTTc/o/)m<?nr  of"  such* a  "struc- 
ture—in other  words,  he  has  regarded  it  as  the  outcome  of 
NO.   1766,  VOL.  68] 


oscillatory  changes  in  the  course  of  which  a  non-quinonoid 
compound  undergoes  conversion  into  the  isodynamic 
quinonoid  compound. 

According  to  Hewitt,  "  all  the  molecules  will  be  under- 
going tautomeric  change  continuously  and  frequently,  and 
energy  absorbed  when  the  molecules  have  one  configuration 
will  be,  to  an  appreciable  extent,  emitted  when  they  corre- 
spond to  the  other  configuration.  It  is  practically  certain 
that  the  vibration  frequency  of  fluorescein  is  different  in  the 
two  states,  and  hence  every  opportunity  is  offered  for  energy 
of  a  rapid  vibration  frequency  to  be  largely  transformed  into 
energy  of  greater  wave-length." 

Hewitt  obviously  does  not  regard  fluorescence  as  a  "  flash 
phenomenon,"  but  as  a  form  of  colour,  as  it  were. 

While  agreeing  with  Hewitt  that  the  origin  of  the  effect 
is  to  be  sought  in  the  occurrence  of  reversible  changes*in- 
volving  the  production  of  dynamic  isomerides,  the  authors 
think  that  fluorescence  is  to  be  regarded  as  something  apart 
from  colour,  which,  more  often  than  not,  is  superposed 
upon  colour.  The  character  of  the  colour  effect  in  fluores- 
cence is  quite  distinctive ;  it  is  not  only  remarkable  on 
account  of  its  intensity,  but  there  is  in  it  an  indefinable 
qualitative  difference  which  seems  to  separate  it  from 
ordinary  colour.  If  regarded  as  a  "flash  phenomenon" 
this  difficulty  disappears. 

Hewitt  appears  to  regard  fluorescence  as  the  outcome  of 
mere  intramolecular  wobble.  To  the  authors  it  seems  likely 
that  the  change  is  conditioned  by  a  catalyst,  and  that  it 
occurs  within  a  complex  electrolytic  circuit. 

Phosphorescence. — The  phenomena  of^  phosphorescence 
need  to  be  considered  with  reference  both  to  cases  in  which 
the  manifestation  attends  oxidative  or  other  kinds  of 
chemical  change  (the  glow  of  phosphorus,  the  glow-worm, 
phosphorescent  bacteria)  and  to  those  in  which  it  is  induced 
by  exposure  to  light  (luminous  sulphides).  The  former 
might  well  almost  be  regarded  as  cases  of  fluorescence,  as 
a  continual  supply  of  energy  is  derived  from  the  continued 
occurrence  of  a  chemical  change  involving  loss  of  energy.  • 
With  regard  to  the  latter,  it  would  seem  that  it  is  not  a 
property  of  pure  substances. 

.  The  phosphorescent  medium  may.  be  pictured  as  a  com- 
plex system  capable  of  undergoing  "  electrolytic  "  deform- 
ation under  the  influence  of  light  of  high  refrangibility  ;  as 
the  changes  thus  induced  are  reversed,  the  energy  stored 
up  during  insolation  becomes  liberated,  and  the  persistence 
of  the  effect  is  but  a  consequence  of  the  fact  that  the  change 
takes  place  under  restraint  in  a  viscous  medium. 

Dewar's  remarkable  observations  on  phosphorescence  at 
low  temperatures  clearly  foreshadow  the  conclusion  that  the 
property  is  to  be  correlated  with  structure. 

KaJio-.ictivity. — Pursuing  the  argument  a  stage  further, 
it  appears  to  the  authors  justifiable  to  regard  the  activity 
of  radium  tentatively  as  but  an  exaggerated  form  of 
fluorescence  in  which  radiations  unnoticed  by  substances 
generally — capable  of  penetrating  substances  generally — 
become  absorbed  and  rendered  obvious.  Such  an  explan- 
ation, from  the  chemist's  point  of  view,  is  at  least  as 
•rational  as  one  which  assumes  that  nature  has  endowed 
radium  alone  of  all  the  elements  with  incurable  suicidal 
monomania. 

■  There  seems  to  be  no  good  reason  for  assurning  that  in 
fluorescent  and  other  ordinary  substances  we  possess 
screens  capable  of  arresting  rays  of  every  conceivable  kind  ; 
it  may  well  be  that  our  knowledge  of  solar,  radiations  is 
not  yet  complete.  " 

•  With  regard  to  "thorium  and  thorium  X/'  the  facts, 
as  stated  by  Rutherford  and  Soddy,  do  not  seem  to  be  in- 
compatible with  the  view  that  these  are  but  isodynamic 
forms  of  thorium  or  their  equivalent,  their  behaviour  being 
very  similar  to  that  of  the  isodynamic  forms  of  nitro- 
camphor. In  any  case,  it  appears  desirable  to  approach 
the  problem  from  this  point  of  view,  and  to  investigate 
the  phenomena  far  more  thoroughly  on  the  chemical  side. 

Whatever  the  ultimate  value  of  the  considerations 
advanced  in  the  note,  they  at  least  serve  to  show  that  much 
may  be  learnt  by  further  study  of  the  extent  to  which 
luminous  phenomena  generally ..!are,  to  be  correlated  with 
structure  and  structural  changes.  •        -• 

July  21.—"  On  the  Oxidising,  Action- orthej Rays- iirom 
Radium  Bromide  as  shown  bv  the  Pecompp^ition  i)f  Iodo- 
form."   By  W.    B.   Hardi[,'^.R.S/,''Gaius.eoHe^e,   Cam- 


4-3- 


NATURE 


[September  3,  1903 


bridge,  and  Miss  E.  G.  Willcock,  Newnham  College, 
Cambridge. 

A  solution  of  iodoform  dissolved  in  chloroform  rapidly 
becomes  purple  owing  to  the  liberation  of  free  iodine.  This 
reaction,  which  seems  not  to  have  been  previously  described, 
takes  place  in  all  the  solvents  tried,  namely,  chloroform, 
benzene,  carbon  bisulphide,  carbon  tetrachloride,  pyridine, 
amyl  alcohol,  and  ethylic  alcohol,  but  oxygen  is  always 
necessary  to  the  change. 

The  decomposition  of  iodoform  in  solution  is  not,  as  it 
at  first  sight  appears  to  be,  a  spontaneous  change.  It  is 
due  ordinarily  to  the  action  of  light.  The  solvent  has  a 
great  effect  on  the  rate  of  decomposition — the  solution  in 
chloroform  is  very  sensitive,  that  in  benzene  relatively 
stable.  The  solution  in  chloroform  furnishes  a  delicate 
tegt  for  oxygen  and  for  obscure  radiations.  It  suffers 
change  in  gas  light,  faint  daylight,  and  in  X-rays  or  radium 
rays.  The  intensity  of  the  action  can  easily  be  measured 
in  time  units  by  choosing  some  standard  coloi^r  and  match- 
ing the  fluids  under  examination  with  it. 

The  action  of  light  is  due  to  the  ordinary  light  waves, 
that  is  to  say,  any  opaque  screen  completely  arrests  the 
action  even  of  sunlight.  Solutions  in  chloroform  enclosed 
in  opaque  cardboard  boxes  have  remained,  unchanged  near 
a  window  for  four  days. 

The  action  of  radium  is  due  to  the  more  penetrating  rays. 
By  screening  off  the  various  rays,  it  can  be  shown  that  the 
a  rays  have  no  influence — the  oxidation  appears  to  be  due 
solely  to  the  /8  apd  7  rays,  that  is,  to  the  negative  electrons 
(j3  rays)  and  to  the  very  penetrating  ethereal  waves  (7  rays), 
which  are  said  to  be  identical  with  X-rays.  The  action 
of  the  radium  rays,  therefore,  will  take  place  through  as 
much  as  8mm.  of  lead,  though,  of  course,  relatively  very 
slowly,  owing  to  the  stopping  of  the  /3  rays. 

Some  idea  of  the  intensity  of  the  action  of  radium  may 
be  obtained  from  the  fact  that  a  solution  in  chloroform  in 
an  ordinary  test  tube  is  changed  to  deep  purple  in  twelve 
minutes  by  resting  the  point  of  the  tube  upon  a  mica  plate 
covering -5  milligrammes  of  radium  bromide.  Radium  rays, 
however,  are  much  less  active  than  daylight,  as  is  shown 
by  the  fact  that  the  more  stable  solution  of  iodoform  in 
benzene  resists  their  action  for  forty-eight  hours,  though  it 
becomes  purple  in  about  fifteen  minutes  in  the  least  lighted 
part  of  an  ordinary  room.  Seeing  that  the  thinnest  opaque 
screen  seems  completely  to  stop  the  active  rays  of  sunlight, 
it  is  obvious  that  sunlight,  as  it  reaches  the  surface  of  the 
earth,  can  contain  at  the  most  exceedingly  few  /8  and  7 
rays. 

M.  Blondlot  has  described  recently  the  presence  in  sun- 
light of  certain  rays  which  traverse  metals  but  are  arrested 
by  water  (N  rays).  These  rays  have  no  detectable  action 
upon  iodoform  ;  the  action  of  sunlight  is  not  delayed  appreci- 
ably by  interposing  a  water  screen  many  inches  in  thick- 
ness, and  the  action  is  completely  arrested  by  even  an 
opaque  deposit  of  lampblack  or  by  aluminium  foil. 

The  fact  that  light  waves  '  exert  a  chemical  activity  more 
intense  than  that  of  radium  rays  compels  us  for  the  present 
to  refer  the  profound,  and  often  lethal,  physiological  action 
of  the  latter  to  their  power  of  penetration  rather  than  to 
any  novel  or  peculiarly  intense  action  upon  the  tissues. 
They  reach  parts  which  ordinarily  are  shielded  by  a  cuticle 
impervious  to  light  waves. 

One  of  us  has  already  shown  that  the  o  rays  profoundlv 
modify  the  physical  state  of  colloidal  solutions  (Journal  of 
Physiology,  vol.  xxix.  p.  29).  If  the  colloid  particles  be 
electrically  negative,  the  o  rays  act  as  coagulants;  if  the 
colloid  particles  be  electrically  positive  they  act  as  solvents, 
that  is  to  say,  the  rays  decrease  the  average  size  of  the 
particles. 

As  a  provisional  basis  for  the  investigation  of  the  physio- 
logical action  of  radium  rays,  we  may  therefore  regard 
the  a  rays  as  altering  the  physical  state  of  the  living 
matter,  the  $  and  7  rays  as  altering  the  chemical 
processes,  especially,  perhaps,  the  oxidation  processes  of  the 


let  waves.     Hardy  and  D'Arcy  have 


I  Including   of  course,  the  utra  violet  .......     ..„,„^  „.,„  ^  „„y  „,,, 

shown  that  the  production  of  "active"  oxygen  by  light  falling  upon  a 
moist  surface  IS  limited  m  the  spectrum  to  rays  from  the  ultra-violet  to  the 
blue  end  of  the  green  {Journal  of  Physiology,  xvii.  1894,  p.  390) 


NO.    1766,  VOL.  68] 


Paris. 
Academy  of  Sciences,  August  24. — M.  Albeit  Gaudry  in 
the  chair. — Batteries  with  several  different  liquids,  but 
identical  .  metallic  electrodes,  byM.  Berthelot. — Observ- 
ations of  the  sun  made  at  the  Observatory  of  Lygns  with 
the  Briinner  ^6cm.  equatoriar  during  the  second  quarter  of 
1903,  by  M.  J.  Guillaume.  Observations  were  possible 
on  sixty-seven  days  during  the  quarter  •  the  results  are 
given  in  three  tables  showing  the  number  of  sun-spots, 
their  distribution  in  latitude,  and  the  distribution  of  the 
faculae  in  latitude.— On  the  problem  of  S.  Lie,  by  M.  N. 
Saltykovw. — On  the  Fourier-Cauchy  integrals,  by  M.  Carl 
St6rmer.^-On  the  function  of  the  metallic  core  in  induction 
coils,  by  M..  B.  E^rinitis.  The  effect  of  the  core  varies 
with  its  shape,  material,  the  temperature  of  the  sparking 
poles,  their  nature  and  explosive  distance,  and  also  on  the 
self-induction  of  the  coil. — On  the  constitution  of  the 
phospho-organic  acid  in  the  reserve  material  of  green 
plants,  and  on  the  first  reduction  product  of  carbonic  acid 
in  the  act  of.  chlorophyll  assimilation,  by  M.  S.  Posternak. 
The  acid,  heated  with  dilute  mineral  acids,  is  quantitatively 
hydrolysed  into,  inosite  and  phosphoric  acid.  From  this, 
and  its  crvoscopic  behaviour  in  aqueous  solution,  the 
formula  0[CH,.O.PO(OH)2]2,  the  anhydride  of  oxymethyl- 
ene-diphosphoric  acid,  is  given  to  the  substance,  and  con- 
clusions are  drawn  from  this  as  to  the  nature  of  chlorophyll 
assimilation. — On  the  general  equation  of  curves  of  fatigue, 
by  M.  Charles  Henry  and  Mile.  J.  Joteyko. 


CONTENTS.  PAGE 

Psychometric  Observations  in  Murray  Island.     By 

F.  G.  . 409 

A  Revision  of  Principles.     By  R.  W.  H.  T.  H.  .    .    .  410 
Electrochemical     Analysis.      By    Dr.     F.    MoUwo 

Perkin 41 2 

Tectonics  of  the  Eastern  Alps.     By  G.  A.  J.  C.    .    .  413 
Our  Book  Shelf:— 

Ebner  :  "  A  Koelliker's  Handbuch  der  Gewebelehre 

des  Menschen." — E.  A.  S 414 

Clark:  '*  Building  Superintendence' 414 

Pradeau  :    "A  Key   to    the  Time  Allusions    in    the 

Divine  Comedy  of  Dante  Alighieri." — W.  T.  L.    ,  414 

Hall  and  Stevens  :  *'A  School  Geometry,"  Part  iii    .  415 
Letters  to  the  Editor  : — 

American  Botanic    Laboratory  in   Jamaica.  — N,    L. 

Britton       ........                    415 

Training  of  Fore«t  Officers.  — Sir  W.  T,  Thiselton- 

Dyer,  K.C.M.G..  F.R.S 416 

Peculiar  Clouds.— Alfred  O.  Walker 416 

The  Earthquake  Observatory  in  Strassburg  .    .    .    .  416 

The  International  Study  of  the  Sea 417 

Arctic    Geology.       {Illustraled.)      By    Prof.    T.     G. 

Bonney,  F.R  S 418 

Fisheries  Investigation  in  Ireland.     By  W   A.  H.    .  419 
The  Sanitary  Examination  of  Water  Supplies.     By 

Prof.   R,  T.  Hewlett .  420 

Notes 420 

Our  Astronomical  Column  : — 

Spectrum  of  Comet  1903  c 424 

The  Spectrum  of  Nova  Geminorum    ........  425 

United  States  Naval  Observatory 425 

The  White  Spots  on  Saturn 425 

The  Teaching  of  Psychology  in  Universities  of  the  ■ 

United  States.     By  Dr.  C.  S.  Myers  ......  425 

American  Ethnology.     By  A.  C.  H 427 

Agricultural  Notes .    .  427 

Report  of  the  Malaria  Expedition  to  the  Gambia    .  428 

Zones  in  the  Chalk.   By  H.  B.  W.  .    .    , 428 

The  Physiology  of  Breeding 429 

University  and  Educational  Intelligence    .....  429 

Societies  and  Academies 430 


NATURE 


433 


THURSDAY,     SEPTEMBER    lo,    1903. 


RECENT  MINERALOGY. 
Mineralogy  :  an  Introduction  to  the  Scientific  Study  of 
Minerals.  By  Henry  A.  Miers,  D.Sc,  M.A.,  P'.R.S. 
Pp.  xviii  +  584;  with  two  coloured  plates  and  716 
illustrations  in  the  text.  (London  :  Macmillan  and 
Co.,  Ltd.,  1902.)     Price  255.  net. 

THE  author  of  this  work  has  various  qualifications 
for  the  difficult  task  undertaken  by  him,  a  task 
which  has  occupied  the  leisure  hours  of  many  years 
of  an  otherwise  busy  life.  For  thirteen  years  he  was 
closely  associated  with  the  most  beautiful  and  extensive 
of  mineral  collections;  during  that  time  he  became 
tiioroughly  familiar  with  such  objects  as  are  described 
in  his  book,  and  attained  scientific  distinction  by  reason 
of  the  thoroughness  and  delicacy  of  his  varied  scientific 
researches ;  further,  he  visited  not  only  all  the  best 
collections  in  the  world,  but  also  many  noted  mineral 
localities,  and  viewed  the  specimens  in  their  own 
homes.  He  introduced,  and  for  several  years  taught, 
the  subject  of  crystallography  to  the  students  of  the 
City  and  Guilds  Technical  Institute,  invited  thereto, 
and  encouraged  therein,  by  that  far-seeing  and 
enthusiastic  chemist  Prof.  Henry  Armstrong ;  he  thus 
prepared  the  way  for  the  brilliant  discoveries  since 
made  by  his  crystallographic  pupil  Dr.  Pope,  and  at 
the  same  time  not  only  became  familiar  with  the 
difficulties  met  with  by  students,  but  was  compelled 
to  discover  the  best  ways  of  surmounting  them. 
During  the  last  eight  years  he  has  been  at  O.xford  as 
occupant  of  the  Waynflete  chair  of  mineralogy,  in 
succession  to  the  veteran  mineralogist  and  crystallo- 
grapher  Prof.  Maskelyne,  and  by  his  development  of 
mineralogical  study  in  that  university  has  more  than 
justified  his  appointment. 

The  volume,  though  announced  to  be  merely  "  an 
introduction  to  the  scientific  study  of  minerals,"  im- 
mediately impresses  even  a  superficial  observer  with 
the  magnitude  of  the  subject,  for  its  pages  are  at  once 
large  and  numerous  (584).  But  the  reader,  on  open- 
ing it,  instead  of  being  immediately  repelled  by  the 
obvious  details  and  technicalities  of  a  difficult  subject, 
is  at  once  attracted  by  the  artistic  character  of  the 
workmanship,  for  both  paper  and  type  are  excellent, 
and  the  pages  are  adorned  with  no  fewer  than  716 
illustrations,  most  of  them  of  a  style  to  which  we  are 
quite  unaccustomed.  Every  artist  knows  the  difficulty 
of  making  even  a  fair  representation  of  the  aspect  of 
minerals,  and  both  authors  and  students  have  thus  had 
to  remain  content  with  mere  diagrammatic  figures  in 
illustration  of  mineral  "habit."  In  this  case  the 
author  has  been  able  to  make  many  experiments  by 
presuming  on  his  relationship  and  exercising  the 
artistic  patience  of  a  sister;  as  a  result,  they  have 
evolved  a  series  of  figures  most  of  which  leave  little 
•  to  be  desired ;  these  are  process  reproductions  of  shaded 
drawings  of  actual,  not  imaginary,  specimens,  and, 
through  the  emphasis  given  by  the  artist  to  the  leading 
lines  of  the  figures,  are  as  good  substitutes,  in  tw:. 
dimensions,  for  the  actual  specimens  as  can  be  wished. 
NO.    1767,  VOL.  68] 


Among  the  most  striking  are  Figs.  402,  flos  ferri; 
407,  calcite  showing  conchoidal  fracture  and  cleavage ; 
422,  diamond;  437,  cryolite;  447,  blende;  478, 
corundum;  486,  rutile ;  506,  quartz  twinned;  519, 
chrysoberyl;  554,  witherite;  587,  chiastolite;  627, 
harmotome.  For  the  diagrammatic  figures  of 
crystals,  the  author  is  indebted  partly  to  the  same 
artist.  Miss  J.  Miers,  and  partly  to  the  assistant,  Mr. 
R.  Graham,  whom  he  has  trained  in  crystallography 
and  perhaps  represented,  on  p.  263,  in  the  very  act 
of  crystal  measurement.  Further,  there  are  two 
coloured  plates  which  have  been  executed  at  the  Oxford 
University  Press  by  the  three-colour  collotype  method, 
and  are  the  outcome  of  much  experiment;  unfortu- 
nately, the  method  is  as  yet  found  to  be  too  costly  for 
general  use.  One  of  these  plates  represents  the  simple 
biaxial  figure  shown  by  a  section  of  an  orthoclase 
crystal  when  viewed  in  the  polariscope  by  blue,  green, 
and  red  monochromatic  lights  respectively ;  the  other 
represents  the  complex  figure  yielded  by  the  same 
section  when  viewed  by  white  light.  The  actual 
chromatic  effect  of  the  "  inclined  dispersion  "  so 
characteristic  of  the  mineral  is  thus  beautifully  re- 
produced by  photography  instead  of  being  diagram- 
matically  represented,  as  is  usually  the  case,  by  a  more 
or  less  plausible  arrangement  of  colours.  The  trouble 
taken,  and  the  expense  incurred,  to  obtain  this  result 
are  characteristic  of  the  book  in  general. 

The  author  himself  points  out  that  the  treatise  is 
no  exhaustive  introduction  to  the  study  of  mineralogy, 
and  that  he  has  deliberately  abstained  from  giving  a 
systematic  account  of  the  modes  of  occurrence  of 
minerals,  their  geological  distribution,  their  origin, 
their  alterations,  and  their  artificial  production. 
Indeed,  the  account  and  discussion  of  the  essential 
characters  of  only  the  more  prominent  of  the  minerals 
which  are  so  common  as  to  be  found  in  all  museums 
occupies  a  volume  which,  to  put  it  mildly,  is  quite  as 
large  as  a  student  of  average  strength  can  conveniently 
carry  about  and  handle ;  the  other  subjects  are  of 
necessity  left  for  treatment  in  one  or  more  later 
volumes. 

The  present  volume  is  divided  into  two  nearly  equal 
parts;  the  first  deals  with  the  properties  of  minerals 
in  general  (286  pages) ;  the  second  gives  a  description 
of  the  more  important  species  (244  pages) ;  these  are 
followed  by  28  pages  of  tables  and  a  most  elaborate 
and  useful  index  (22  pages).  One  of  the  tables  gives 
in  a  compact  form  a  classified  arrangement  of  the 
mineral  species  and  a  simple  chemical  formula  for 
each,  thus  enabling  the  mind  to  grasp  more  readily 
some  of  the  chemical  relationships  of  the  species.  Of 
the  tables  useful  in  the  practical  determination  of 
minerals,  the  most  noteworthy  are  those  giving  the 
arrangement  of  the  species  according  to  the  increasing 
magnitude  of  the  mean  refractive  index,  the  bire- 
fringence, the  optic  axial  angle,  and  the  specific 
gravity  respectively. 

Part  i.  is  subdivided  into  four  books,  treating  of  (i) 
crystalline  properties  (179  pages);  (2)  general  proper- 
ties (23  pages);  (3)  relations  between  the  properties 
(30  pages) ;  (4)  description  and  determination  of 
minerals  (44  pages).     Of  the  three  latter  and  shorter 

U 


434 


NATURE 


[September  io,  1903 


books,  the  second  contains  a  chapter  on  the  chemical 
properties,  more  especially  with  regard  to  the  problem 
of  the  classification  of  species;  the  third  contains 
several  articles  which  have  not  previously  found  their 
way  into  text-books  of  mineralogy  (pp.  228-41);  they 
relate  to  the  crystalline  form  and  physical  properties  of 
"solid  solutions,"  and  are  especially  useful  in  the 
discussion  of  the  felspars ;  the  fourth  contains  a  chapter 
-on  the  determination  of  minerals,  and  affords  many 
useful  and  practical  hints  suggested  by  a  long  ex- 
perience. 

The  first  book  is  by  far  the  longest,  and  is  itself 
divided  into  two  nearly  equal  sections;  the  first  {98 
pages)  deals  with  the  geometrical  properties  of  crystals, 
the  second  (81  pages)  with  their  physical  properties. 
It  may  be  objected  that  it  is  impossible  to  give  to  the 
student,  within  the  compass  of  98  pages,  an  adequate 
idea  of  the  theory  of  crystallography,  but  it  must  be 
remembered  that,  in  a  work  on  mineralogy,  minute 
crystallographic  detail  would  be  out  of  place;  such 
detail  is  already  given  to  the  student  in  the  special 
treatises  of  Prof.  Maskelyne  ("The  Morphology  of 
Crystals  "),  of  Prof.  Lewis  ("  A  Treatise  on  Crystallo- 
graphy "),  and  of  Mr.  Hilton  ("  Mathematical  Crystal- 
lography and  the  Theory  of  Groups  of  Movements  "). 
What  the  mineralogical  student  requires  is  a  brief 
sketch  of  the  whole  subject  to  enable  him  to  grasp  the 
general  bearings ;  this  the  author  has  given,  and  it  is 
all  that  should  be  expected  from  him.  It  may  be 
mentioned  that  the  author  has  sought  to  bring  about 
uniformity  of  nomenclature  of  the  thirtj'-two  classes 
-of  symmetry  by  coming  to  an  understanding  with  Prof. 
E.  S.  Dana,  the  editor  of  the  well-known  "  System  of 
Mineralogy";  but  notwithstanding  their  agreement 
we  find  it  difficult  to  reconcile  ourselves  to  a  nomen- 
clature which  compels  one  to  say  that  a  crystal  of 
cinnabar  (HgS)  belongs  to  the  quartz  class;  the 
systematic  nomenclature  suggested  on  p.  280  seems 
more  full  of.  promise.  Attention  may  be  directed  to 
the  form  of  student's  goniometer,  as  improved  by  the 
author,  which  is  figured  on  p.  loi,  and  also  to  the 
convenient  goniometer  designed  by  him  for  fixing  on 
the  stage  of  a  microscope  (p.  178). 

The  chapters  treating  of  the  optical  properties  (70 
pages)  will  probably  be  the  most  generally  appreci- 
ated by  students,  owing  to  the  great  use  made  of  these 
properties  in  the  determination  of  the  mineral  con- 
stituents of  rock-sections  by  means  of  the  polarising 
microscope.  It  gives  to  the  student  a  sufificiently 
precise  sketch  of  the  subject  without  entering  into 
mathematical  discussions,  and  proves  once  more  that 
it  is  possible  to  give  to  the  student  an  idea  of  the 
optical  characters  of  biaxial  crystals  without  any  un- 
satisfactory hypothesis  as.  to  optical  elasticity  and  its 
variability  with  crystallographic  direction. 

Part  ii.,  which  gives  a  description  of  the  more  im- 
portant mineral  species,  is  subdivided  merely  into 
sections  dealing  with  the  various  mineral  groups.  It 
differs  from  other  works  of  a  similar  kind  in  that  it  is 
in  great  part  readable,  instead  of  being  a  minera- 
logical dictionary.  The  readable  part  and  the 
dictionary  part  are  kept  quite  distinct  from  each  other, 
both  in  position  and  in  the  size  of  type.  Further,  there 
NO.    1767,  VOL.   68] 


is  no  attempt  to  give  long  lists  of  localities ;  these  are 
left  to  be  sought  for  in  the  books  of  mere  reference ; 
the  author  is  satisfied,  and  doubtless  the  student  will 
be  satisfied,  with  descriptions  of  specimens  from  the 
more  noteworthy  localities,  and  with  accounts  of  the 
more  important  modes  of  occurrence,  and  of  these  we 
think  the  author  has  made  a  judicious  selection.  As 
for  the  readable  portion,  it  is  full  of  interesting  and 
valuable  information. 

The  author  has  a  simple  and  pleasant  style  which 
attracts  the  reader,  occasionally  relieving  the  technic-^ 
ality  with  a  touch  of  the  driest  humour,  as,  for  in- 
stance, when  he  finds  it  convenient  (p.  350)  to  treat 
dihydric  oxide  as  a  member  of  an  anhydrous  series. 

The  English  student  of.  crystallography  and  miner- 
alogy is  to-day  in  a  happy  position  as  compared  with 
his  forerunners ;  his  path  is  continually  made  more 
and  more  easy  by  the  publication  of  excellent  text- 
books ;  but  there  will  long  remain  sufficient  inherent 
difficulty  to  prevent  these  subjects  of  study  from  losing 
their  educational  value,  and,  as  regards  research,  the 
recent  discovery  of  radium  in  the  long-known  mineral 
pitchblende  shows  that  the  statement  made  by  the 
alchemist  several  centuries  ago  is  still  true — "  a  man 
may  consume  his  whole  life  in  the  study  of  a  single 
mineral  without  arriving  at  the  knowledge  of  all  its 
qualities." 


SCHOOL    MATHEMATICS. 
A  Junior  Geometry.     By  Noel  S.  Lydon.     Pp.  vi+171. 

(London  :  Methuen  and  Co.,  1903.)     Price  25, 
Technical  Arithmetic  and  Geometry.     By  C.  T.  Millis, 

M.I.M.E.     Pp.    xiv  +  254.     (London:    Methuen    and 

Co.,   1903.)     Price  3s.  6d. 
The  Modern  Arithmetic  for  Advanced  Grades.     Wood- 
ward Series.    By  Archibald  Murray  (Harvard).    Pp. 

464.     (St.   Louis  :  Woodward  and  Tiernan  Printing 

Co.,  n.d.) 
The   Junior   Arithmetic,    being   an   Adaptation   of    the 

Tutorial    Arithmetic,    suitable    for    Junior    Classes. 

By   R.    H.    Chope,    B.A.     Pp.    viii  +  363.     (London: 

W.  B.  Clive,  1903.)     Price  25.  6d. 

MR.  LYDON 'S  book,  which  is  meant  for  young 
pupils,  has  many  good  points  and  a  few  bad 
ones.  Like  many  other  very  recent  books  on  geo- 
metry, it  ignores  Euclid's  order,  method,  and 
language.  In  this  way  it  appeals  more  readily  to  the 
understanding  of  the  pupil  than  the  orthodox  Euclidean 
works  do;  but  the  definition  "a  straight  line  is  one 
which  lies  '  evenly  '  between  its  extreme  points,"  and 
the  words  "  notice  that  the  line  you  have  ruled  lies 
evenly  between  its  extreme  points  A  and  B,"  show  a 
strong  conservatism.  The  pupil  will  indeed  be  cle\a>r 
if  he  can  give  a  clear  indication  of  the  thing  which 
he  notices.  The  use  of  the  terms  vertical  and  hori- 
zojital  in  the  following  manner  must  be  very  strongly 
condemned  : — 

"When  a  straight  line  is  drawn  upright  on  th^ 
paper  it  is  called  a  vertical  line,  when  drawn  in  a 
slanting  direction  it  is  called  an  oblique  line,  and  when 
drawn  level  on  the  paper  it  is  called  a  horizontal  line." 

Early  teaching  of  this  kind  is  responsible  for  the 
flagrant  misuse  of  the  terms  vertical  and  horizontal 


September  io,  1903] 


NATURE 


435 


which  is  so  frequently  exhibited  by  draughtsmen  and 
.students  of  engineering-. 

Again,  the  definition  of  an  angle — "  an  angle  is  the 
difference  in  direction  of  two  lines  drawn  from  a 
point  " — has  nothing  really  quantitative  about  it,  and 
should  be  used  rather  as  a  familiar  description  than 
as  a  quantitative  definition. 

After  the  definition  of  parallel  lines — *'  parallel  lines 
are  such  as  are  the  same  distance  apart  throughout 
their  whole  length  " — we  have  the  warning  "  be 
careful  to  distinguish  between  parallel  and  horizontal," 
which  unintelligibility  is,  doubtless,  in  some  way  con- 
nected with  the  strange  conception  of  horizontal  above 
noticed. 

We  are  now  done  with  the  blemishes;  for  the  rest 
we  have  nothing  but  commendation.  The  book  is 
divided  into  a  series  of  lessons,  each  of  which  is 
followed  by  several  exercises  in  the  copying  of  various 
figures  and  patterns  on  squared  paper,  accompanied 
by  arithmetical  calculation.  The  little  pupil  is  led 
easily  into  the  subject,  and  he  meets  with  nothing  like 
severe  reasoning  until  lesson  vii.  is  reached.  The 
grouping  of  propositions  and  constructions  is  through- 
out very  good,  and  the  chapters  on  areas  particularly 
excellent.  The  most  useful  propositions  of  Euclid's 
books  ii.  and  iii.  are  included,  and  the  concluding 
lessons  deal  with  loci,  ratio  and  proportion,  similar 
figures,  &c.,  and  include  a  large  number  of  important 
problems,  theorems,  and  constructions.  This  portion 
of  the  book  (the  most  important)  can  scarcely  be  im- 
proved upon,  and,  indeed,  for  this  part  of  the  subject, 
we  do  not  know  of  any  work  for  beginners  which 
deserves  higher  commendation. 

The  book  by  Mr.  Millis  can  be  very  strongly  re- 
commended as  one  the  study  of  which  should  go  hand 
in  hand  with  that  of  books  on  purely  deductive  geo- 
metry. It  begins  with  the  definitions  and  figures  of 
geometry,  and  the  use  of  instruments  for  the  solutions 
of  the  problems  which  are  usually  treated  of  in  geo- 
metrical drawing.  Then  follows  the  treatment  of 
fractions,  vulgar  and  decimal,  their  nature  being  ex- 
plained and  illustrated  by  geometrical  construction. 
Contracted  methods  of  multiplication  and  division  are 
explained.  The  nature  of  ratio  and  proportion  follows, 
and  then  the  enlargement  and  reduction  of  figures, 
square  root,  propositions  relating  to  areas— in  the 
whole  of  which  work  arithmetic  goes  hand  in  hand 
with  geometry.  After  the  usual  figures  of  elementary 
plane  geometry  are  dealt  with,  conic  .sections  and 
irregular  curvilinear  figures  are  taken,  and  their 
properties  illustrated  by  arithmetical  examples,  with 
the  use  of  squared  paper.  Simpson's  rule  and 
Henrici's  method  are  explained.  The  last  third  of  the 
book  deals  very  fully  with  the  mensuration  of  solids. 

The  pupil  who  uses  this  work  will  receive  a  thorough 
drilling  in  neat  and  accurate  drawing — a  thing  which 
was  very  much  needed  when  Euclid  held  sole  sway  in 
the  schools. 

Mr.  Murray's  book  is  a  sequel  to  the  work  which 
we  noticed  some  months  ago.  It  is  meant  for  teachers, 
inasmuch  as  no  answers  are  given  to  the  various  ques- 
tions. Comparing  the  work  with  either  of  the  two 
books  on  arithmetic  now  noticed,  it  would  appear  that 
NO.    1767,  VOL.  68] 


in  the  American  schools  the  subject  is  taught  in  a  very 
leisurely  manner,  since  there  is  nothing  of  a  very 
advanced  nature  in  this  work,  and  a  great  deal  of  the 
mere  elements  is  included.  This,  of  course,  may  in 
the  end  make  for  thoroughness.  It  seems  somewhat 
strange  that  addition  and  subtraction  of  decimals  are 
employed  in  the  beginning  (p.  31,  &c.),  while  the 
subject  of  decimals  is  subsequently  taken  (p.  127, 
&'C.)  and  treated  ab  initio. 

.Arithmetic  and  a  certain  amount  of  elementary 
algebra  go  hand  in  hand  in  the  book — an  arrangement 
which  makes  things  simple  for  the  beginner;  but  the 
purpose  of  several  pages  on  very  elementary  algebra 
at  the  end  of  the  chapter  on  percentage  is  not  clear. 

The  metric  system  is,  of  course,  explained  and  illus- 
trated, but  the  large  amount  of  space  devoted  to 
English  weights  and  measures,  with  their  antediluvian 
lawlessness  and  complexity,  induces  sad  reflections  on 
the  utter  waste  of  time  which  we  impose  upon  our 
youth. 

The  chapter  on  "  Computations  and  Approxim- 
ations "  contains  a  useful  exposition  of  the  use  of 
squared  paper  for  the  plotting  of  curves  and  the  deter- 
mination of  missing  values  by  graphic  interpolation. 
As  compared  with  our  English  works,  the  most 
striking  characteristic  of  this  book  is,  perhaps,  the 
absence  of  complexity  and  useless  difficulty  in  the 
various  examples.  It  is  a  merit  of  the  author  that 
he  is  very  particular  about  the  accurate  use  of 
language— a  great  desideratum  in  these  davs  of  slip- 
shod writing,  when  English  grammar  and  a  logical 
arrangement  of  thought  are  steadily  vanishing  from 
our  scientific  treatises. 

Teachers  everywhere  will  find  the  work  very  helpful 
and  suggestive  for  a  natural  and  logical  way  of  teach- 
ing the  subject  to  young  pupils,  inasmuch  as  the 
methods  employed  are  the  result  of  many  years'  prac- 
tical experience  in  the  work  of  instruction. 

Mr.  Chope  has  prepared  a  treatise  of  the  usual  kind 
on  arithmetic.  It  contains  a  very  large  collection  of 
examples  illustrating  the  various  rules,  and  is  just  as 
good  a  handbook  of  the  subject  as  the  student  can 
desire. 


THE   NEURONE   THEORY. 
Die    Neuronenlehre    und    ihre    Anhanger.       By    Dr 
Franz  Nissl.     Pp.  vi  +  478.     (Jena  :  Gustav  Fischer.) 
Price  12  marks. 

/^NE  approaches  this  work  with  rather  mixed  feel- 
V-y  ings.  While  there  is  no  doubt  that  an  ex- 
haustive survey  of  our  present  knowledge  in  any 
branch  of  science  is  certain  to  well  repay  the  investi- 
gator, yet  a  book  of  the  magnitude  of  \he  one  now 
under  consideration,  which  contains  only  a  contro- 
versial view  of  already  known  facts,  wi'thout  intro- 
ducing anything  beyond  what  is  familiar  to  us,  leaves 
on  the  mind  of  the  reader  something  of  a  feeling  of 
weariness,  and  a  suspicion  that  the  same  amount  of 
labour  would  have  been  better  expended  in  quarrying 
fresh  knowledge  rather  than  reshaping  the  blocks  that 
have  been  already  brought  out.  The  author  himself 
has  realised  this,  and  in  the  preface  gives  the  reasons 
which  induced  him  to  give  the  present  form  to  the 


436 


NA  TURE 


[September  lo,  1903 


book.  That  even  scientific  men  are  too  prone  to  take 
a  plausible  hypothesis  as  proved,  and  to  fill  in  the 
little  gaps  in  the  observed  facts  with  more  or  less 
probable  assumptions,  is  unfortunately  true  in  many 
branches  of  research  besides  the  one  in  question,  and 
the  work  even  of  an  advocatus  Diaboli  may  be  of  value 
if  only  to  point  out  the  places  in  the  theory  where  these 
assumptions  occur.  Particularly  has  this  been  the 
case  in  the  domain  of  nerve  physiology,  and  the  present 
volume  is  a  useful  corrective. 

The  earlier  part  of  the  book  is  occupied  with  a 
historical  review.  Commencing  with  Waldeyer,  His 
and  Forel,  Dr.  Nissl  gives  an  account  of  the  origin 
and  development  of  the  neurone  theory,  with  the 
various  additions,  alterations,  and  subtractions  made 
by  Hoche,  Miinger,  Verworn,  and  the  other  investi- 
gators who  have  treated  the  subject.  Allowing  for 
a  little  very  pardonable  controversial  bias,  the  summary 
is  a  just  and  able  one,  and  Dr.  Nissl's  comments  are 
well  conceived ;  so  that,  although  there  are  a  few 
points  on  which  different  opinions  may  be  held — for 
example,  as  to  the  weight  to  be  attached  to  the  work 
of  Forel — yet,  as  a  whole,  we  may  take  the  history  of 
the  neurone  theory  here  presented  to  us  as  the  most 
complete  and  trustworthy  one  yet  published. 

The  latter  part  of  the  book  contains  the  author's 
reasons  for  dissenting  from  the  generally  received 
opinion  of  the  structural  unity  of  the  elements  known 
as  "  neurones."  He  points  out  that  the  idea  of  con- 
tact of  nerve  elements  as  opposed  to  that  of  continuity 
is  not  necessarily  dependent  on  the  neurone  theory, 
and  that  the  present  methods  of  microscopic  technique 
are  not  sufficient  to  give  a  final  answer  in  the  matter. 
The  conclusion  is  therefore  not  so  much  that  Dr. 
Nissl's  own  views  are  necessarily  correct  as  that  the 
rival  opinions  of  the  authors  already  mentioned  have 
not  sufficient  basis  in  observed  facts,  and  should  be 
received  with  very  much  more  reserve  than  has 
commonly  been  the  case.  It  is  not,  however,  possible 
to  give  a  fair  abstract  of  Dr.  Nissl's  contentions  within 
the  compass  of  a  review,  and  the  book  itself  must  be 
consulted  for  further  details.  It  will  be  found  to  well 
repay  careful  reading,  though  the  unwieldy  size,  the 
absence  of  an  alphabetical  index — partly  made  up  for 
by  very  full  chapter-headings — and  the  fact  that,  follow- 
ing the  German  custom,  the  author  has  given  no  sum- 
marised conclusion,  render  it  difficult  without  consider- 
able labour  to  disentangle  the  essential  from  the  non- 
essential portions  of  the  treatise. 


OUR    BOOK   SHELF. 
The  Cloud   World,  its  Features  and  Significance.     By 

Samuel  Barber.     Pp.  xii+139.     (London:  E.  Stock, 

1903.)  Price  7s.  6d. 
In  this  volume  Mr.  Barber's  object  has  not  been  to 
write  a  scientific  treatise  on  cloud  formation,  but  rather 
to  put  before  us  his  own  carefully  made  observations, 
and  "  to  commend  to  the  tourist,  the  cyclist,  and  the 
•city  man  a  delightful  and  refreshing  field  of  study 
which  may  add  a  charm  to  a  summer  holiday."  With 
this  object  the  book  has  been  illustrated  with  a  large 
number  of  excellent  photographs  and  sketches,  and 
contains  many  hints  on  the  prognostic  value  of 
different  appearances  of  the  sky.  We  cannot  help 
thinking  that  it  would  have  gained  in  value  if  Mr. 

NO.    1767,   VOL.  68] 


Barber  had  added,  or,  better  still,  prefaced,  a  short 
chapter  on  the  classification  of  clouds  adopted  by  the 
International  Committee.  This  would  have  familiar- 
ised his  readers  with  the  generally  accepted  termin- 
ology of  the  subject ;  the  glossary  partly  answers  this 
purpose,  but  it  enumerates  so  many  different  cloud 
forms  that  it  might  become  confusing  to  one  entirely 
unfamiliar  with  the  subject.   . 

When  dealing  with  the  physics  of  the  atmosphere 
Mr.  Barber  is  distinctly  less  happy.  Though  the  book 
is  not  a  scientific  treatise,  it  ought  not  to  contain  state- 
ments such  as  the  following. 

In  discussing  the  question  of  the  suspension  of 
water  particles  in  the  atmosphere  we  read,  "  The 
mechanical  problem  is  exactly  analogous  to  that  of  a 
bird's  flight.  If  the  bird  is  shot  it  drops  for  want  of 
a  propelling  force  :  just  so  with  the  water  vapour.  It 
is  not  sufficient  to  assume  the  vesicular  form  of  water 
in  cloud  molecules ;  we  should  need  to  assume  a  higher 
temperature  in  the  air  enclosed  by  the  vesicles  than  in 
the  surrounding  atmosphere.  How  can  this  be  main- 
tained, especially  at  great  elevations?  "  The  hypo- 
thesis that  clouds  consist  of  hollow  water  vesicles 
received  its  death  blow  about  the  middle  of  last 
century  when  Stokes  calculated  the  limiting  velocity 
of  a  falling  drop ;  since  that  date  the  suspension  of 
water  globules  in  the  atmosphere  has  ceased  to  be 
a  stumbling  block  to  physicists.  A  few  pages  later 
we  find  the  statement,  "  Various  forces  affect  water 
and  ice  particles ;  e.g.  heat,  electricity,  gravity  between 
particles,  gravity  towards  mountains  and  other 
prominences,  gravity  to  the  earth,  and  last,  but  not 
least,  the  force  of  crystallisation.  .  .  .  Let  anyone 
watch  the  formation  of  ice  crystals  on  still  water,  and 
he  will  have  an  idea  of  the  extent  of  this  force."  Are 
we  to  understand  from  this  that  "  gravity  towards 
mountains  "  affords  an  explanation  of  the  tendency 
of  clouds  to  form  near  the  summit  of  a  mountain? 

The  reader  who  is  inclined  to  make  the  study  of  the 
appearance  of  the  sky  his  hobby  will  find  much  to 
interest  him  in  the  descriptive  part  of  the  book,  but 
he  must  be  prepared  to  take  many  of  the  physical  ex- 
planations it  contains  cum  grano  satis. 

Graphical    Statics    Problems,    with    Diagrams.       By 

W.  M.  Baker,  M.A.       Pp.  60.       (London  :  Edward 

Arnold,  n.d.)  Price  2s.  6d. 
This  is  a  compilation  of  sixty  problems  in  graphical 
statics,  many  of  them  taken,  by  permission,  from  the 
army  entrance  examination  papers.  Each  problem  is 
accompanied  by  a  diagram,  and  has  a  separate  page 
allotted  to  it.  This  leaves  plenty  of  room  for  the 
problem  to  be  worked  graphically  on  the  page  itself, 
without  requiring  the  diagram  to  be  transferred  to 
drawing  paper.  The  pages  are  perforated,  and  are 
easily  removed  if  desired. 

There  is,  perhaps,  some  unnecessary  repetition  and 
not  enough  diversity  in  the  problems.  We  would 
suggest  for  a  future  edition  that  problems  be  included 
involving  a  direct  appeal  to  experiment  in  verification 
of  the  principles  of  the  polygon  and  the  lever ;  and  the 
scope  of  the  subject  might  well  be  extended  by  the 
introduction  of  position,  displacement,  velocity,  and 
momentum  vectors,  including  vector  differences,  thus 
helping  very  materially  to  an  adequate  understanding 
of  Newton's  great  law.  Students  should  always 
measure  their  graphical  results,  and  an  appendix  con- 
taining numerical  answers  would  have  been  found 
very  useful  in  this  connection. 

But  the  design  of  the  book  and  the  arrangement  of 
the  problems  greatly  facilitates  the  work  of  the  teacher, 
and  the  volume  can  be  strongly  recommended  to  all 
who  wish  to  include  this  very  important  branch  of 
geometry  in  their  curriculum. 


September  io,  1903] 


NATURE 


437 


LETTER  TO  THE  EDITOR. 
[The  Editor  does  not  hold  himself  responsible  for  opinions 
expressed  by  his  correspondents.  Neither  can  he  undertake 
to  return,  or  to  correspond  with  the  writers  of,  rejected 
manuscripts  intended  for  this  or  any  other  part  of  Nature. 
No  notice  is  taken  of  anonymous  communications.] 

A  Mite  whose  Eggs  survive  the  Boiling  Point. 

In  several  preparations  of  boiled  flax  seeds  for  fungus- 
rulture  it  was  observed  that  numbers  of  mites  (Tyroglyphus 
histiostoma)  made  their  appearance.  A  petri  dish  contain- 
ing mites  was  boiled,  and  in  about  three  weeks  there  were 
again  large  numbers  of  them  present,  though  the  cover  had 
never  been  removed  since  boiling. 

On  June  6  a  decoction  of  flax  seeds  containing  mites  in 
a  test  tube  was  boiled  for  five  minutes,  and  the  neck 
plugged  with  cotton  wool.  On  Jime  15  a  similar  pre- 
paration was  made,  but  the  test  tube  was  covered  with 
ail  indiarubber  cap  in  addition  to  the  plug  of  cotton  wool. 
On  August  24  both  test  tubes  contained  living  mites.  So 
the  inference  seems  justified  that  the  eggs,  though  saturated 
with  water,   must  have  survived  the  boiling  point. 

The  mite  is  about  2/5mm.  in  length.  The  bean-shaped 
eggs  (108-5^  x66-5/i)  are  enclosed  in  two  transparent  valves 
like  watch  glasses. 

I  am  much  indebted  to  Mr.  G.  H.  Carpenter  for  identify- 
ing the  species.  J.  Adams. 

Royal  College  of  Science,  Dublin,  September  2. 


THE    BERLIN    CONFERENCE    ON    WIRELESS 
TELEGRAPHY. 

■\\7'E  have  on  two  or  three  occasions  referred  in 
*  *  these  columns  to  the  International  Conference 
on  Wireless  Telegraphy  which  was  held  last  month  at 
Berlin.  The  conclusions  at  which  the  conference 
arrived  have  now  been  published  in  the  Cologne 
Gazette,  and  were  summarised  in  the  Times  last 
week.  In  considering  these  conclusions  it  is  as  well 
to  bear  in  mind  that  the  conference  was  only  pre- 
liminary ;  though  representatives  of  nearly  all  the 
important  States  were  present,  it  was  not  intended 
that  the  recommendations  should  be  final,  but  rather 
that  they  should  serve  as  a  basis  for  discussion  at  a 
future  conference  with  more  definite  powers.  Still, 
the  decisions  are  of  interest  as  they  indicate  more 
or  less  clearly  the  general  state  of  opinion  on  the 
present    position    of   wireless    telegraphy. 

We  have  frequently  pointed  out  in  Nature  that 
for  the  present  at  any  rate  it  should  be  the  aim  of 
those  directly  interested  in  the  development  of  wire- 
less telegraphy  to  perfect  it  as  far  as  possible  as  a 
means  of  communication  between  ships  at  sea  and 
between  ship  and  shore.  This  is  really  an  infinitely 
more  important  object  than  the  more  ambitious  and 
more  striking  attainment  of  Transatlantic  com- 
munication, and  such  seems  to  have  been  the  opinion 
of  the  conference.  Within  the  last  few  days  it  has 
been  announced  that  Mr.  Marconi  is  now  practically 
in  a  position  to  reopen  Transatlantic  communication  on 
a  commercial  basis,  but  even  if  the  attempt  proves 
successful  on  this  occasion  less  will  have  been  gained 
than  seems  to  be  the  case  at  first  sight.  We  have 
already  means  of  communicating  telegraphically 
across  the  Atlantic,  and  though  wireless  telegraphy 
may  add  another,  and  possibly  a  cheaper,  method, 
the  gain  will  be  trifling  compared  with  the  advantage 
of  perfecting  it  in  a  direction  in  which  we  have  no 
other  resources,  whereas  should  the  working  of  the 
high  power  long-distance  stations  in  any  way  inter- 
fere with  or  hinder  the  development  of  the  less  pre- 

NO.   1767,  VOL.  68] 


tentious  short-distance  signalling,  the  loss  to  the 
community  generally  will  be  very  great.  Un- 
fortunately, the  actual  condition  of  affairs  at  the 
present  time  is  difficult  to  determine ;  important  facts 
are  kept  quiet  for  what  are  doubtless  sound  com- 
mercial reasons,  and  assertions  and  counter  assertions 
are  rife.  On  the  one  hand  we  are  assured  that  the 
big  stations  do  not  interfere  with  the  small  ones,  and 
on  the  other  we  have  undeniable  evidence  that  these 
monstrous  etheric  disturbances  may  affect  all  ap- 
paratus in  their  neighbourhood.  It  may  be  possible 
to  avoid  this  interference  by  suitable  adjustment,  but 
it  ought  not  to  be  permissible  to  make  this  necessary 
any  more  than  it  should  be  permissible  for  a  factory 
to  belch  forth  smoke  from  its  chimneys  on  the  ground 
that  those  who  wish  for  cleanliness  and  health  can 
move  their  firesides  to  the  country. 

W'ireless  telegraphy,  indeed,  presents  a  somewhat 
peculiar  and  difficult  problem ;  in  the  first  place  its 
medium  of  communication  is  one  to  which  all  people 
have  an  equal  right,  and  which,  therefore,  one  person 
or  set  of  persons  must  not  be  allowed  to  use  to  the 
detriment  of  others ;  secondly,  its  utility  depends 
directly  on  its  availability  under  all  conditions,  and 
at  all  places,  so  that  to  be  most  useful  there  must  be 
either  a  world  monopoly  or  else  a  perfectly  free  inter- 
change between  competing  systems.  The  second 
consideration  is  a  strong  argument  in  favour  of  State 
monopoly  of  any  means  of  communication,  whilst 
the  first  is  an  additional  reason  for  international 
control  of  wireless  communication.  At  the  same  time 
it  is  naturally  unjust  that  those  who  have  spent  time 
and  money  and  energy  in  pioneering  development 
should  be  deprived  of  the  legitimate  reward  of  their 
labours.  It  is  obvious  that  a  solution  to  the  difficulties 
is  only  to  be  found  by  a  fair  compromise  between 
conflicting  interests,  that  of  the  public  at  large  on 
the  one  hand  and  those  of  the  various  wireless  tele- 
graphy companies  on  the  other.  The  resolutions  of 
the  Berlin  conference  indicate  the  only  way  we  can 
see  in  which  such  a  compromise  can  be  arranged. 
Two  of  these,  which  are  concerned  with  rates  and 
the  method  of  charging,  are  not  of  particular  im- 
portance ;  the  others  propose  that  coast  stations  shall 
be  obliged  to  receive  and  forward  all  telegrams  from 
vessels  at  sea  by  whatever  system  transmitted,  that 
telegrams  referring  to  wrecks  or  calling  for  assist- 
ance shall  have  precedence,  that  stations  shall  be  ar- 
ranged to  give  the  minimum  of  interference,  and  that 
any  necessary  technical  details  of  the  working  of 
apparatus  shall  be  published.  The  first  of  these  is 
naturally  the  most  important,  and  at  the  same  time 
is  the  one  which  it  will  be  most  difficult  to  ratify.  It 
is,  of  course,  well  known  that  the  Marconi  Company 
has  refused  to  acquiesce  in  such  an  arrangement, 
by  which,  as  far  the  largest  and  most  powerful  wire- 
less telegraphy  company,  they  have  least  to  gain  and 
most  to  lose ;  their  position  as  undeniably  the  pioneers 
o!  practical  wireless  telegraphy  entitles  them  to  special 
consideration.  For  this  reason  the  delegates  of  Italy 
and  Great  Britain  did  not  sign  this  recommendation. 
The  Italian  Government  is  bound  by  a  fourteen  years' 
agreement  with  the  Marconi  Co.,  so  that  all  the 
delegates  could  do  was  to  undertake  to  suggest  to 
the  company  the  amendment  of  the  agreement  in 
the  desired  direction.  The  British  Government  is  in 
an  almost  equally  difficult  position,  for  the  Marconi 
Co.  is  a  British  company,  and  holds  already  a  prac- 
tical monopoly  in  this  countrj-.  Still,  it  is  to  be 
hoped  that  these  difficulties  will  not  stand  in  the 
way  of  an  ultimate  settlement.  There  is  not  un- 
naturally a  suspicion  that  so  far  as  other  countries 
are  concerned  there  is  a  desire  to  benefit,  if  possible,  by 


438 


NATURE 


[September  io,  1903 


the  organisation  which  the  Marconi  Co.  has  buih 
up,  and  to  enable  home-bred  systems  to  reap  some 
of  the  reward  of  the  enterprise  of  others.  To  a 
certain  extent  this  is  unavoidable,  but  it  should  be 
possible  to  arrange  matters  so  that  little  or  no  in- 
justice is  done  to  the  Marconi  Co.  whilst  securing 
to  the  public  the  very  fullest  benefit  that  wireless 
telegraphy  can  confer,'  and  it  must  not  be  forgotten 
that  the  interests  of  the  British  public,  especially 
where  shipping  is  concerned,  extend  all  over  the 
world.  Maurice  Solomon. 


THE       SOUTH  PORT       MEETING       OF       THE 
BRITISH  ASSOCIATION. 

THE  seventy-third  meeting  of  the  British  Association 
was  opened  yesterday,  when  the  President,  Sir 
Norman  Lockyer,  K.C.B.,  F.R.S.,  delivered  his  ad- 
dress in  the  Opera  House. 

Everything  points  to  a  highly  successful  meeting, 
though  the  number  attending  will  probably  fall  short 
of  that  of  the  previous  Southport  meeting  twenty 
years  ago.  In  other  respects,  however,  this  year's 
meeting  will  probably  surpass  in  interest  that  of  1883. 
The  second  edition  of  the  local  programme  shows 
some  additional  arrangements  made  since  our  last 
article. 

The  list  of  excursions  is  given  in  greater  detail,  and 
a  dredging  excursion  has  been  added  on  Thursday, 
September  17.  A  good  deal  of  interest  is  being 
manifested  in  the  motor  car  excursion  on  Saturday 
afternoon  to  Hoole  and  Rufford.  A  number  of  South- 
port  gentlemen  have  placed  their  cars  at  the  disposal 
of  the  local  committee,  and  the  show  of  automobiles 
will  in  itself  attract  attention.  The  excursion  has  a 
further  interest,  as  Hoole  is  being  visited,  so  that 
an  opportunity  may  be  given  of  seeing  the  place  where 
Jeremiah  Horrocks,  the  astronomer,  lived  at  the  time 
of  his  observation  of  the  transit  of  Venus.  A  pro- 
posal has  recently  been  mooted  in  Liverpool  and 
Southport  to  erect  a  memorial  to  Horrocks,  and  a  good 
deal  of  attention  has  been  given  to  the  Lancashire 
astronomer  in  the  local  Press.  The  Liverpool  Cor- 
poration has  kindly  lent  Mr.  Eyre  Crowe's  picture 
of  Horrocks  at  Hoole  to  the  Southport  committee,  and 
it  will  be  exhibited  in  one  of  the  reception  rooms 
during  the  meeting.  The  accuracy  of  Mr.  Crowe's 
delineation  of  Horrocks 's  astronomical  apparatus  hav- 
ing been  disputed,  a  Southport  gentleman  who  has 
made  a  special  study  of  Horrocks  and  his  works  has 
had  painted  by  a  local  artist  a  picture  representing 
the  same  subject  depicted  by  Mr.  Eyre  Crowe,  and  the 
two  pictures  will  hang  in  the  same  room. 

The  dredging  excursion  arranged  for  Thursday, 
September  17,  is  being  organised  by  Prof.  Herdman, 
and  has  been  made  possible  through  the  courtesy  of 
Mr.  R.  Dawson,  the  superintendent  of  the  Lancashire 
and  Western  Sea  Fisheries,  who  has  kindly  put  the 
Sea  Fisheries  steamer,  John  Fell,  at  the  disposal  of 
the  local  committee  for  that  purpose. 

It  is  yet  uncertain  whether  the  kite-frying  ex- 
periments for  investigating  the  upper  atmosphere  can 
be  successfully  carried  out  at  Southport.  As  men- 
tioned in  our  issue  of  August  13,  the  Admiralty  vessel 
put  at  the  disposal  of  the  kite-flying  committee  is 
no  longer  available,  and  it  has  been  found  impossible 
to  bring  the  Renown  (the  boat  from  which  the  ex- 
periments are  being  conducted  by  Mr.  W.  H.  Dines 
at  Crinan)  to  Southport.  The  local  committee  has 
been  ofifered  the  use  of  the  John  Fell  by  the  Lanca- 

NO.    1767,  VOL.  68] 


shire  and  Western  Sea  Fisheries  Board  for  three  days 
(Monday,  Tuesday,  and  Wednesday,  September  14, 
15,  and  16),  but  it  is  feared  that  the  deck  space  will 
be  insufTicient  for  the  proper  conducting  of  the  ex- 
periments. It  is,  therefore,  possible  that  Mr.  Dines 
will  merely  exhibit  the  apparatus  at  Southport,  though 
every  endeavour  will  be  made  to  make  use  of  the 
boat. 

Prof.  Pernter,  of  Vienna,  has  had  forwarded  to 
Southport  one  of  the  cannons  used  on  the  Continent 
for  firing  on  clouds  so  as  to  arrest  hailstorms.  Test 
experiments  in  horizontal  firing  of  vortex  rings  will 
be  carried  out  on  the  Southport  shore  by  permission 
of  the  Corporation. 

A  lecture  has  been  arranged  for  Wednesday  night, 
September  16,  on  "  Garden  Cities,"  by  Mr.  Ebenezer 
Howard,  the  founder  of  the  Garden  Cities  Association, 
following  an  excursion  on  the  same  day  to  Port 
Sunlight,  Cheshire,  the  model  village  erected  by 
Messrs.    Lever  Brothers. 

The  local  loan  exhibition  which  is  situated  in  the 
corridor  near  the  reception  room  is  in  the  hands  of 
a  small  committee  drawn  from  the  Southport  Literary 
and  Philosophical  Society,  Society  of  Natural  Science, 
and  Photographic  Society,  and  comprises  local 
botanical  and  geological  exhibits,  photographs  and 
drawings  illustrating  the  antiquities  of  the  district, 
and  various  exhibits  of  general  scientific  interest. 
The  canoe  which  was  dug  out  of  the  bed  of  Martin 
Mere  in  1899  is  being  exhibited  during  the  time  of  the 
meeting  in  the  lecture  room  of  Section  H  (Anthro- 
pology) in  the  Town  Hall.  The  canoe  is  seventeen 
feet  long  and  four  feet  wide. 

The  reception  and  writing  rooms  in  the  Art  Gallery 
are  rendered  specially  attractive  by  the  presence  on 
the  walls  of  a  portion  of  the  Southport  Corporation 
permanent  collection  of  pictures. 

The  Mayor  of  Southport  (Mr.  T.  T.  L.  Scarisbrick) 
is  extending  an  almost  lavish  hospitality  at  his  resi- 
dence, Greaves  Hall,  Banks,  and  the  local  committee 
and  the  Southport  Corporation  are  doing  their  utmost 
to  make  the  meeting  a  memorable  one  so  far  as 
social  entertainment  is  concerned.  The  Mayor  has 
invited  members  of  the  Association  to  attend  Em- 
manuel Church  on  Sunday  morning,  when  the 
preacher  will  be  the  Bishop  of  Ripon.  Other  special 
preachers  in  Southport  the  same  day  include  the 
Bishop  of  Liverpool,  the  Dean  of  Peterborough,  the 
Rev.  T-  D.  Bevan,  the  Rev.  A.  L.  Cortie,  S.J.,  the 
Rev.  T.  J.  Walshe,  the  Rev.  J.  H.  Moulton  and  the 
Rev.  Frank  Ballard  (Wesleyan),  the  Rev.  Dr.  John 
Hunter  (Congregational),  the  Rev.  Dr.  S.  R.  Macphail, 
Moderator  of  the  Presbyterian  Church  of  England,  and 
the  Rev.  R.  A.  Armstrong  (Unitarian). 

In  connection  with  the  Mayor's  and  the  committee's 
receptions  to-night  and  on  Tuesday  next,  a  portion 
of  the  municipal  gardens  in  front  of  the  Cambridge 
Hall  will  be  enclosed.  These  gardens  are  illuminated  by 
electricity  at  night,  more  than  4000  glow-lamps  being 
installed  among  the  foliage  of  the  trees.  The  instal- 
lation is  quite  unique  in  this  country.  Special  fittings 
had  to  be  designed,  as,  being  an  outdoor  installation, 
the  electrical  conditions  are  very  severe.  More  than 
sixteen  miles  of  underground  and  overhead  cable  are 
used. 

The  Mayor's  dinner  at  Greaves  Hall  on  Wednes- 
day, September  16,  promises  to  be  a  very  brilliant 
function,  and  the  lecture  by  Prof.  Forsyth  before  _tl\e 
Literary  and  Philosophical  Society  on  the  following 
night  on  "  Universities  "  will  be  largely  attended  by 
members  of  the  British  Association,  a  large  number 
of  whom  have  accepted  the  invitation  to  be  present. 


September  io,  1903] 


NA  TURE 


439 


Inaugural  Address  by  Sir  Norman  Lockyer,  K.C.B., 

LL.D.,     F.R.S.,     CORRESPONDANT     DE     l'INSTITUT     DE 

France,  President  of  the  Association. 
The  Influence  of  Brain-power  on  History. 
My  first  duty  to-night  is  a  sad  one.  I  have  to  refer  to  a 
great  loss  which  this  Nation  and  this  Association  have  sus- 
tained. By  the  death  of  the  great  Englishman  and  great 
statesman  who  has  just  passed  away,  we  members  of  the  British 
Association  are  deprived  of  one  of  the  most  illustrious  of  our 
confreres.  We  have  to  mourn  the  loss  of  an  enthusiastic  student 
of  science  who  conferred  honour  on  our  body  by  becoming  its 
President.  VVe  recognise  that  as  Prime  Minister  he  was  mindful 
of  the  interests  of  science,  and  that  to  him  we  owe  a  more  general 
recognition  on  the  part  of  the  State  of  the  value  to  the  nation  of 
the  work  of  scientific  men.  On  all  these  grounds  you  will  join 
in  the  expression  of  respectful  sympathy  with  Lord  Salisbury's 
family  in  their  great  personal  loss  which  your  council  has 
embodied  this  morning  in  a  resolution  of  condolence. 

Last  year,  when  this  friend  of  science  ceased  to  be  Prime 
Minister,  he  was  succeeded  by  another  statesman  who  also 
has  given  many  proofs  of  his  devotion  to  'philosophical  studies, 
and  has  shown  in  many  utterances  that  he  has  a  clear  under- 
standing of  the  real  place  of  science  in  modern  civilisation. 
We  then  have  good  grounds  for  hoping  that  the  improvement  in 
the  position  of  science  in  this  country  which  we  owe  to  the  one 
will  also  be  the  care  of  his  successor,  who  has  honoured  the 
Association  by  accepting  the  unanimous  nomination  of  your 
council  to  be  your  President  next  year,  an  acceptance  which 
adds  a  new  lustre  to  this  chair. 

On  this  we  may  congratulate  ourselves  all  the  more  because 
I  think,  although  it  is  not  generally  recognised,  that  the  century 
into  which  we  have  now  well  entered  may  be  more  momentous 
than  any  which  has  preceded  it,  and  that  the  present  history 
of  the  world  is  being  so  largely  moulded  by  the  influence  of  brain- 
power, which  in  these  modern  days  has  to  do  with  natural  as  well 
as  human  forces  and  laws,  that  statesmen  and  politicians  will  have 
in  the  future  to  pay  more  regard  to  education  and  science,  as 
empire-builders  and  empire-guarders,  than  they  have  paid  in 
the  past. 

The  nineteenth  century  will  ever  be  known  as  the  one  in 
which  the  influences  of  science  were  first  fully  realised  in 
civilised  communities ;  the  scientific  progress  was  so  gigantic 
that  it  seems  rash  to  predict  that  any  of  its  successors  can  be 
more  important  in  the  life  of  any  nation. 

Disraeli,  in  1873,  referring  to  the  progress  up  to  that  year, 
spoke  as  follows  : — "  How  much  has  happened  in  these  fifty 
years — a  period  more  remarkable  than  any,  I  will  venture  to 
say,  in  the  annals  of  mankind.  I  am  not  thinking  of  the  rise 
and  fall  ot  Empires,  the  change  of  dynasties,  the  establishment 
of  Governments.  I  am  thinking  of  those  revolutions  of  science 
which  have  had  much  more  etfect  than  any  political  causes, 
which  have  changed  the  position  and  prospects  of  mankind  more 
than  all  the  conquests  and  all  the  codes  and  all  the  legislators 
that  ever  lived."  ^ 

The  progress  of  science,  indeed,  brings  in  many  considerations 
which  are  momentous  in  relation  to  the  life  of  any  limited 
community — any  one  nation.  One  of  these  considerations 
to  which  attention  is  now  being  greatly  drawn  is  that  a  relative 
decline  in  national  wealth  derived  from  industries  must  follow  a 
relative  neglect  of  scientific  education. 

It  was  the  late  Prince  Consort  who  first  emphasised  this  when 
he  came  here  fresh  from  the  University  of  Bonn.  Hence  the 
"  Prince  Consort's  Committee,"  which  led  to  the  foundation  of 
the  College  of  Chemistry  and  afterwards  of  the  Science  and  Art 
Department.  From  that  time  to  this  the  warnings  of  our 
men  of  science  have  become  louder  and  more  urgent  in  each 
succeeding  year.  But  this  is  not  all ;  the  commercial  output 
of  one  country  in  one  century  as  compared  with  another  is 
not  alone  in  question ;  the  acquirement  of  the  scientific  spirit 
and  a  knowledge  and  utilisation  of  the  forces  of  Nature  are 
very  much  further  reaching  in  their  effects  on  the  progress  and 
decline  of  nations  than  is  generally  imagined. 

Britain  in  the  middle  of  the  last  century  was  certainly  the 
country  which  gained  most  by  the  advent  of  science,  for  she  was 
then  in  full  possession  of  those  material  gifts  of  Nature,  coal 
and  iron,  the  combined  winning  and  utilisation  of  which,  in  the 
pioduction  of  machinery  and  in  other  ways,  soon  made  her  the 
richest  country  in  the  world,  the  seat  and  throne  of  invention 


'  Nature,  November  27,  1873,  vol. 

NO.    1767,  VOL.  68] 


p.  71 


and  manufacture,  as  Mr.  Carnegie  has  called  her.  Being  the 
great  producers  and  exporters  of  all  kinds  of  manufactured 
goods,  we  became  eventually,  with  our  iron  ships,  the  great 
carriers,  and  hence  the  supremacy  of  our  mercantile  marine 
and  our  present  command  of  the  sea. 

The  most  fundamental  change  wrought  by  the  early  applica- 
tions of  science  was  in  relation  to  producing  and  carrying  power. 
With  the  winning  of  mineral  wealth  and  the  production  of 
machinery  in  other  countries,  and  cheap  and  rapid  transit 
between  nations,  our  superiority  as  depending  upon  our  first  use 
of  vast  material  resources  was  reduced.  Science,  which  is  above 
all  things  cosmopolitan— planetary,  not  national— international- 
ises such  resources  at  once.     In  every  market  of  the  world 

"  things  of  beauty,  things  of  use, 
Which  one  fair  planet  can  produce, 
Brought  from  under  every  star," 

were  soon  to  be  found. 

Hence  the  first  great  effect  of  the  general  progress  of  science 
was  relatively  to  diminish  the  initial  supremacy  of  Britain  due 
to  the  first  use  of  material  resources,  which  indeed  was  the  real 
source  of  our  national  wealth  and  place  among  the  nations. 

The  unfortunate  thing  was  that,  while  the  foundations  of  our 
superiority  depending  upon  our  material  resources  were  being 
thus  sapped  by  a  cause  which  was  beyond  our  control,  our 
statesmen  and  our  universities  were  blind  leaders  of  the  blind, 
and  our  other  asset,  our  mental  resources,  which  was  within 
our  control,  was  culpably  neglected. 

So  little  did  the  bulk  of  our  statesmen  know  of  the  part  science 
was  playing  in  the  modern  world  and  of  the  real  basis  of  the 
nation's  activities,  that  they  imagined  political  and  fiscal  problems 
to  be  the  only  matters  of  importance.  Nor,  indeed,  are  we 
very  much  better  off  to-day.  In  the  important  discussions 
recently  raised  by  Mr.  Chamberlain,  next  to  nothing  has  been 
said  of  the  effect  of  the  progress  of  science  on  prices.  The 
whole  course  of  the  modern  world  is  attributed  to  the  presence 
or  absence  of  luxes  on  certain  commodities  in  certain  countries. 
The  fact  that  the  great  fall  in  the  price  of  food-stuffs  in 
England  did  not  come  till  some  thirty  or  forty  years  after  the 
removal  of  the  corn  duty  between  1847  and  1849  gives  them  no 
pause  ;  for  them  new  inventions,  railways  and  steamships  are 
negligible  quantities  ;  the  vast  increase  in  the  woild's  wealth  in 
free  trade  and  protected  countries  alike  comes  merely  according 
to  them  in  response  to  some  political  shibboleth. 

We  now  know,  from  what  has  occurred  in  other  States,  that 
if  our  Ministers  had  been  more  wise  and  our  universities  more 
numerous  and  efficient,  our  mental  resources  would  have  been 
developed  by  improvements  in  educational  method,  by  the 
introduction  of  science  into  schools,  and,  more  important  than 
all  the  rest,  by  the  teaching  of  science  by  experiment,  observ- 
ation and  research,  and  not  from  books.  It  is  because  this  was  not 
done  that  we  have  fallen  behind  other  nations  in  properly  apply- 
ing science  to  industry,  so  that  our  applications  of  science  to  in- 
dustry are  relatively  less  important  than  they  were.  But  this  is 
by  no  means  all  ;  we  have  lacked  the  strengthening  of  the  national 
lile  produced  by  fostering  the  scientific  spirit  among  all  classes, 
and  along  all  lines  of  the  nation's  activity  ;  many  of  the  re- 
sponsible authorities  know  little  and  care  less  about  science  ;  we 
have  not  learned  that  it  is  the  duty  of  a  State  to  organise  its 
forces  as  carefully  for  peace  as  for  war  ;  that  universities  and  other 
teaching  centres  are  as  important  as  battleships  or  big  battalions  ; 
are,  in  fact,  essential  parts  of  a  modern  State's  machinery,  and 
as  such  to  be  equally  aided  and  as  efficiently  organised  to 
secure  its  future  well  being. 

Now  the  objects  of  the  British  Association  as  laid  down 
by  its  founders  seventy-two  years  ago  are  *'  To  give  a 
stronger  impulse  and  a  more  systematic  direction  to  scientific 
inquiry — to  promote  the  intercourse  of  those  who  cultivate 
science  indifferent  parts  of  the  British  Empire  with  one  another 
and  with  foreign  philosophers — to  obtain  a  more  general  atten- 
tion to  the  objects  of  science  and  a  removal  ol  any  disadvantages 
of  a  public  kind  which  impede  its  progress." 

In  the  main,  my  predecessors  in  this  chair,  to  which  you  have 
done  me  the  honour  to  call  me,  have  dealt,  and  wiih  great  benefit 
to  science,  with  the  objects  first  named. 

But  at  a  critical  lime  like  the  present  I  find  it  imperative  to 
depart  from  the  course  so  generally  followed  by  my  predecessors 
and  to  deal  with  the  last  object  named,  for  unless  by  some 
means  or  other  we  "obtain  a  more  general  attention  to  the 
objects  of  science   and   a  removal  of  any  disadvantages   of  a 


440 


NATURE 


[September  io,  1903 


public  kind  which  impede  its  progress,"  we  sh.iU  suffer  in  com- 
petition with  other  communities  in  which  science  is  more 
generally  utilised  for  the  purposes  of  the  national  life. 

The  Struggle  for  Existence  in  Modern  Communities. 
Some  years  ago,  in  discussing  the  relations  of  scientific 
instruction  to  our  industries,  Huxley  pointed  out  that  we  were 
in  presence  of  a  new  "struggle  for  existence,"  a  struggle 
which,  once  commenced,  must  go  on  until  only  the  fittest 
survives. 

It  is  a  struggle  between  organised  species— nations— not 
between  individuals  or  any  class  of  individuals.  It  is,  moreover, 
a  struggle  in  which  science  and  brains  take  the  place  of  swords 
and  sinews,  on  which  depended  the  result  of  those  conflicts 
which,  up  to  the  present,  have  determined  the  history  and  fate 
of  nations.  The  school,  the  university,  the  laboratory  and  the 
workshop  are  the  battlefields  of  this  new  warfare. 

But  it  is  evident  that  if  this,  or  anything  like  it,  be  true,  our 
industries  cannot  be  involved  alone  ;  the  scientific  spirit,  brain- 
power, must  not  be  limited  to  the  workshop  if  other  nations 
utilise  it  in  all  branches  of  their  administration  and  executive. 

It  is  a  question  of  an  important  change  of  front.  It  is  a 
question  of  finding  a  new  basis  of  stability  for  the  Empire  in 
face  of  new  conditions.  I  am  certain  that  those  familiar  with 
the  present  state  of  things  will  acknowledge  that  the  Prince  of 
Wales's  call,  "  Wake  up,"  applies  quite  as  much  to  the  members 
of  the  Government  as  it  does  to  the  leaders  of  industry. 

What  is  wanted  is  a  complete  organisation  of  the  resources  of 
the  nation,  so  as  to  enable  it  best  to  face  all  the  new  problems 
which  the  progress  of  science,  combined  with  the  ebb  and  flow 
of  population  and  other  factors  in  international  competition, 
are  ever  bringing  before  us.  Every  Minister,  every  public 
department,  is  involved,  and  this  being  so,  it  is  the  duty  of  the 
whole  nation — King,  Lords,  and  Commons — to  do  what  is  neces- 
sary to  place  our  scientific  institutions  on  a  proper  footing  in 
order  to  enable  us  to  "face  the  music"  whatever  the  future 
may  bring.  The  idea  that  science  is  useful  only  to  our  in- 
dustries comes  from  want  of  thought.  If  anyone  is  under  the 
impression  that  Britain  is  only  suffering  at  present  from  the 
want  of  the  scientific  spirit  among  our  industrial  classes, 
and  that  those  employed  in  the  State  service  possess  adequate 
brain-power  and  grip  of  the  conditions  of  the  modern  world 
into  which  science  so  largely  enters,  let  him  read  the 
report  of  the  Royal  Commission  on  the  War  in  South 
Africa.  There  he  will  see  how  the  whole  "system"  employed 
was,  in  Sir  Henry  Brackenbury's  words  applied  to  a  part  of  it, 
"  iiHsuited  to  the  reqtiiretnents  of  an  Army  which  is  maintained 
to  enable  us  to  make  war."  Let  him  read  also,  in  the 
address  of  the  president  of  the  Society  of  Chemical  Industry 
what  drastic  steps  had  to  be  taken  by  Chambers  of  Commerce 
and  "a  quarter  of  a  million  of  working  men  "  to  get  the  Patent 
Law  Amendment  Act  into  proper  shape,  in  spite  of  all  the 
advisers  and  ofKcials  of  the  Board  of  Trade.  Very  few  people 
realise  the  immense  number  of  scientific  problems  the  solution 
of  which  is  required  for  the  State  service.  The  nation  itself  is  a 
gigantic  workshop,  and  the  more  our  rulers  and  legislators, 
administrators  and  executive  officers  possess  the  scientific 
spirit,  the  more  the  rule  of  thumb  is  replaced  in  the  State  service 
by  scientific  methods,  the  more  able  shall  we  be,  thus  armed 
at  all  points,  to  compete  successfully  with  other  countries  along 
all  lines  of  national  as  well  as  of  commercial  activity. 

It  is  obvious  that  the  power  of  a  nation  for  war,  in  men  and 
arms  and  ships,  is  one  thing  ;  its  power  in  the  peace  struggles 
to  which  I  have  referred  is  another  ;  in  the  latter,  the  source  and 
standard  of  national  efficiency  are  entirely  changed.  To  meet 
war  conditions,  there  must  be  equality  or  superiority  in  battle- 
ships and  army  corps.  To  meet  the  new  peace  conditions,  there 
must  be  equality  or  superiority  in  universities,  scientific  organ- 
isation and  everything  which  conduces  to  greater  brain  power. 

Our  Industries  are  suffering  in  the  Present  International 
Competition. 

The  present  condition  of  the  nation,  so  far  as  its  industries 
are  concerned,  is  as  well  known,  not  only  to  the  Prime 
Minister,  but  to  other  political  leaders  in  and  out  of  the 
Cabinet,  as  it  is  to  you  and  to  me.  Let  me  refer  to  two 
speeches  delivered  by  Lord  Rosebery  and  Mr.  Chamberlain  on 
two  successive  days  in  January,  1901. 

Lord  Rosebery  spoke  as  follows  :— 

"...  The  war  I  regard  with  apprehension  is   the   war  of 

NO.    1767,  VOL.  68] 


irade  which  is  unmistakably  upon  us.  .  .  .  When  I  look  round 
me  I  cannot  blind  my  eyes  to  the  fact  that  so  far  as  we  can 
predict  anything  of  the  twentieth  century  on  which  we  have  now 
entered,  it  is  that  it  will  be  one  of  acutest  international  conflict 
in  point  of  trade.  We  were  the  first  nation  of  the  modern 
world  to  discover  that  trade  was  an  absolute  necessity.  For 
that  we  vvere  nicknamed  a  nation  of  shopkeepers  ;  but  now  every 
nation  wishes  to  be  a  nation  of  shopkeepers  too,  and  I  am 
bound  to  say  that  when  we  look  at  the  character  of  some  of 
these  nations,  and  when  we  look  at  the  intelligence  of  their 
preparations,  we  may  well  feel  that  it  behoves  us  not  to  fear, 
but  to  gird  up  our  loins  in  preparation  for  what  is  before  us." 

Mr.  Chamberlain's  views  were  stated  in  the  following 
words : — 

"  I  do  not  think  it  is  necessary  for  me  to  say  anything  as  to 
the  urgency  and  necessity  of  scientific  training.  ...  It  is  not 
too  much  to  say  that  the  existence  of  this  country,  as  the  great 
commercial  nation,  depends  upon  it.  .  .  .  It  depends  very 
much  upon  what  we  are  doing  now,  at  the  beginning  of  the 
twentieth  century,  whether  at  its  end  we  shall  continue  to 
maintain  our  .supremacy  or  even  equality  with  our  great 
commercial  and  manufacturing  rivals." 

All  this  refers  to  our  industries.  We  are  suffering  because 
trade  no  longer  follows  the  flag  as  in  the  old  days,  but  because 
trade  follows  the  brains,  and  our  manufacturers  are  too  apt  to 
be  careless  in  securing  them.  In  one  chemical  establishment  in 
Germany,  400  doctors  of  .science,  the  best  the  universities  theie 
can  turn  out,  have  been  employed  at  different  times  in  late 
years.  In  the  United  States  the  most  successful  students  in 
the  higher  teaching  centres  are  snapped  up  the  moment  they 
have  finished  their  course  of  training,  and  put  into  charge 
of  large  concerns,  so  that  the  idea  has  got  abroad  that  youth  is 
the  password  of  success  in  American  industry.  It  has  been 
forgotten  that  the  latest  product  of  the  highest  scientific  educa- 
tion must  necessarily  beyourg,  and  that  it  is  the  training  and 
not  the  age  which  determines  his  employment.  In  Britain,  on 
the  other  hand,  apprentices  who  can  pay  high  premiums  are  too 
often  preferred  to  those  who  are  well  educated,  and  the  old  rule- 
of-lhumb  processes  are  preferred  to  new  developments — a  con- 
servatism too  often  depending  upon  the  master's  own  want  of 
knowledge. 

I  should  not  be  doing  my  duty  if  I  did  not  point  out  that  the 
defeat  of  our  industries  one  after  another,  concerning  which  both 
Lord  Rosebery  and  Mr.  Chamberlain  express  their  anxiety,  is  by 
no  means  the  only  thing  we  have  to  consider.  The  matter  is 
not  one  which  concerns  our  industrial  classes  only,  for  know- 
ledge must  be  pursued  for  its  own  sake,  and  since  the  full  life  of 
a  nation  with  a  constantly  increasing  complexity,  not  only  of 
industrial,  but  of  high  national  aims,  depends  upon  the  universal 
presence  of  the  scientific  spirit — in  other  words,  brain-power — 
our  whole  national  life  is  involved. 

71ie  Necessity  for  a  Body  dealing  with  the  Organisation  oj 
Science. 

The  present  awakening  in  relation  to  the  nation's  real  needs 
is  largely  due  to  the  warnings  of  men  of  science.  But  Mr. 
Balfour's  terrible  Manchester  picture  of  our  present  educa- 
tional condition '  shows  that  the  warning  which  has  been 
going  on  now  for  more  than  fifty  years  has  not  been  forcible 
enough;  but  if  my  contention  that  other  reorganisations 
besides  that  of  our  education  are  needed  is  well  founded, 
and  if  men  of  scieiice  are  to  act  the  part  of  good  citizens  in 
taking  their  share  in  endeavouring  to  bring  about  a  better  state 
of  things,  the  question  arises,  has  the  neglect  of  their  warnings  so 
far  been  due  to  the  way  in  which  these  have  been  given  ? 

Lord  Rosebery,  in  the  address  to  a  Chamber  of  Commerce 
from  which  I  have  already  quoted,  expressed  his  opinion  that 
such  bodies  do  not  exercise  so  much  influence  as  might  be  ex- 
pected of  them.  But  if  commercial  men  do  not  use  all  the 
power  their  organisation  provides,  do  they  not  by  having 
built  up  such  an  organisation  put  us  students  of  science  to 
shame,  who  are  still  the  most  disorganised  members  of  the 
community? 

Here,  in  my  opinion,  we  have  the  real  reason  why  the  scientific 
needs  of  the  nation  fail  to  command  the  attention  either  of  the 
public  or  of  successive  Governments.  At  present,  appeals  on 
1  "  The  existing  educational  system  of  this  country  is  chaotic,  is  in- 
eflfectual,  is  utterly  behind  the  age,  makes  us  the  laughing-stock  of  every 
advanced  nation  in  Europe  and  America,  puts  us  behind,  not  only  our 
American  cousins,  but  the  German  and  the  Frenchman  and  the  Italian." — 
Times,  October  15,  1902. 


September  io,  1903] 


NATURE 


44 


this  or  on  that  behalf  are  the  appeals  of  individuals;  science 
has  no  collective  voice  on  the  larger  national  questions  ;  there 
is  no  organised  body  which  formulates  her  demands. 

During  many  years  it  has  been  part  of  my  duty  to  consider  such 
matters,  and  I  have  been  driven  to  the  conclusion  that  our  great 
crying  need  is  to  bring  about  an  organisation  of  men  of  science 
and  all  interested  in  science,  similar  to  those  which  prove  so 
effective  in  other  branches  of  human  activity.  For  the  last 
few  years  I  have  dreamt  of  a  Chamber,  Guild,  League,  call  it 
what  you  will,  with  a  wide  and  large  membership,  which  should 
give  us  what,  in  my  opinion,  is  so  urgently  needed.  Quite 
recently  I  sketched  out  such  an  organisation,  but  what  was  my 
astonishment  to  find  that  I  had  been  forestalled,  and  by  the 
founders  of  the  British  Association  ! 

The  British  Association  such  a  Body. 

At  the  commencement  of  this  address  I  pointed  out  that  one 
of  the  objects  of  the  Association,  as  stated  by  its  founders,  was 
"to  obtain  a  more  general  attention  to  the  objects  of  science 
and  a  removal  of  any  disadvantages  of  a  public  kind  which 
impede  its  progress." 

Everyone  connected  with  the  British  Association  from  its 
beginning  may  be  congratulated  upon  the  magnificent  way  in 
which  the  other  objects  of  the  Association  have  been  carried 
out,  but  as  one  familiar  with  the  Association  for  the  last  forty 
years,  I  cannot  but  think  that  the  object  to  which  [  have 
specially  referred  has  been  too  much  overshadowed  by  the  work 
done  in  connection  with  the  others. 

A  careful  study  of  the  early  history  of  the  Association  leads 
me  to  the  belief  that  the  function  I  am  now  dwelling  on  was 
strongly  in  the  minds  of  the  founders  ;  but  be  this  as  it  may,  let 
me  point  out  how  admirably  the  organisation  is  framed  to  enable 
men  of  science  to  influence  public  opinion  and  so  to  bring  pres- 
sure to  bear  upon  Governments  which  follow  public  opinion, 
(i)  Unlike  all  the  other  chief  metropolitan  societies,  its  outlook 
is  not  limited  to  any  branch  or  branches  of  science.  (2)  We 
have  a  wide  and  numerous  fellowship,  including  both  the  leaders 
and  the  lovers  of  science,  in  which  all  branches  of  science  are 
and  always  have  been  included  with  the  utmost  catholicity — 
a  condition  which  renders  strong  committees  possible  on  any 
subject.  (3)  An  annual  meeting  at  a  time  when  people  can  pay 
attention  to  the  deliberations,  and  when  the  newspapers  can 
print  reports.  (4)  The  possibility  of  beating  up  recruits  and 
establishing  local  committees  in  different  localities,  even  in  the 
King's  dominions  beyond  the  seas,  since  the  place  of  meeting 
changes  from  year  to  year,  and  is  not  limited  to  these  islands. 

We  not  only,  then,  have  a  scientific  parliament  competent  to 
deal  with  all  matters,  including  those  of  national  importance,  re- 
lating to  science,  but  machinery  for  influencing  all  new  councils 
and  committees  dealing  with  local  matters,  the  functions  of 
which  are  daily  becoming  more  important. 

The  machinery  might  consist  of  our  corresponding  societies. 
We  already  have  affiliated  to  us  seventy  societies  with  a  mem- 
bership of  25,000  ;  were  this  number  increased  so  as  to  include 
every  scientific  society  in  the  Empire,  metropolitan  and  pro- 
vincial, we  might  eventually  hope  for  a  membership  of  half  a 
million. 

I  am  glad  to  know  that  the  Council  is  fully  alive  to  the  im- 
portance of  giving  a  greater  impstus  to  the  work  of  the  corre- 
sponding societies.  During  this  year  a  committee  was  appointed 
to  deal  with  the  question  ;  and  later  still,  after  this  committee  had 
reported,  a  conference  was  held  between  this  committee.and  the 
corresponding  societies  committee  tn  consider  the  suggestions 
made,  some  of  which  will  be  gathered  from  the  following 
extract : — 

"  In  view  of  the  increasing  importance  of  science  to  the  nation 
at  large,  your  committee  desire  to  call  the  attention  of  the 
Council  to  the  fact  "hat  in  the  corresponding  societies  the 
British  Association  has  gathered  in  the  various  centres  repre- 
sented by  these  societies  practically  all  the  scientific  activity  of 
the  provinces.  The  number  of  members  and  associates  at  pre- 
sent on  the  list  of  the  corresponding  societies  approaches  25,000, 
and  no  organisation  is  in  existence  anywhere  in  the  country 
better  adapted  than  the  British  Association  for  stimulating,  en- 
couraging and  coordinating  all  the  work  being  carried  on  by 
the  seventy  societies  at  present  enrolled.  Your  committee  are 
of  opinion  that  further  encouragement  should  be  given  to  these 
societies  and  their  individual  working  members  by  every  means 
within  the  power  of  the  association  ;  and  with  the  object  of 
keeping  the   corresponding  societies  in  more  permanent  touch 

NO.    1767,  VOL.   68] 


with  the  Association  they  suggest  that  an  official  invitation  on 
behalf  of  the  Council  be  addressed  to  the  societies  through  the 
corresponding  societies  committee  asking  them  to  appoint 
standing  British  Association  sub-committees,  to  be  elected  by 
themselves  with  the  object  of  dealing  with  all  those  subjects  of 
investigation  common  to  their  societies  and  to  the  British  Asso- 
ciation committees,  and  to  look  after  the  general  interests  of 
science  and  scientific  education  throughout  the  provinces  and 
provincial  centres.   .   .   , 

*'  Your  committee  desire  to  lay  special  emphasis  on  the  ne- 
cessity for  the  extension  of  the  scientific  activity  of  the 
corresponding  societies  and  the  expert  knowledge  of  many  of 
their  members  in  the  direction  of  scientific  education.  They 
are  of  opinion  that  immense  benefit  would  accrue  to  the  country 
if  the  corresponding  societies  would  keep  this  requirement 
especially  in  view  with  the  object  of  securing  adequa  e  repre- 
sentation for  scientific  education  on  the  Education  Committees 
now  being  appointed  under  the  new  Act.  The  educational  sec- 
tion of  the  Association  having  been  but  recently  added,  the 
corresponding  societies  have  as  yet  not  had  much  opportunity 
for  taking  part  in  this  branch  of  the  Association's  work  ;  and  in 
view  of  the  reorganisation  in  education  now  going  on  all  over 
the  country  yourcommittee  are  of  opinion  that  no  more  opportune 
time  is  likely  to  occur  for  the  influence  of  scientific  organisations 
tomaJ<e  itself  felt  as  a  real  factor  in  national  education.   .  .   ." 

I  believe  that  if  these  suggestions  or  anything  like  them— for 
some  better  way  may  be  found  on  inquiry— are  accepted,  great 
good  to  science  throughout  the  Empire  will  come.  Rest 
assured  that  sooner  or  later  such  a  guild  will  be  formed  be- 
cause it  is  needed.  It  is  for  you  to  say  whether  it  shall  be,  or 
form  part  of,  the  British  Association.  We  in  this  Empire 
certainly  need  to  organise  science  as  much  as  in  Germany  they 
find  the  need  to  organise  a  navy.  The  German  Navy  League, 
which  has  branches  even  in  our  Colonies,  already  has  amemtier- 
ship  of  630,000,  and  its  income  is  nearly  20,000/.  a  year. 
A  British  Science  League  of  500,000  with  a  sixpenny  subscription 
would  give  us  12,000/.  a  year,  quite  enough  to  begin  with. 

I  for  one  believe  that  the  British  Association  would  be  a  vast 
gainer  by  such  an  expansion  of  one  of  its  existing  functions.  In- 
creased authority  and  prestige  would  follow  its  increased  utility. 
The  meetings  would  possess  a  new  interest ;  there  would  be  new 
subjects  for  reports  ;  missionary  work  less  needed  than  formerly 
would  be  replaced  by  efforts  much  more  suited  to  the  real 
wants  of  the  time.  This  magnificent,  strong  and  complicated 
organisation  would  become  a  living  force,  working  throughout 
the  year,  instead  of  practically  lying  idle,  useless  and  rusting 
for  51  weeks  out  of  the  52  so  far  as  its  close  association  with  its 
members  is  concerned. 

If  this  suggestion  in  any  way  commends  itself  to  you,  then  when 
you  begin  your  work  in  your  sections  or  general  committee  see 
to  it  that  a  body  is  appointed  to  inquire  how  the  thing  can  be 
done.  Remember  that  the  British  Association  will  be  as  much 
weakened  by  the  creation  of  a  new  body  to  do  the  work  I  have 
shown  to  have  been  in  the  minds  of  its  founders  as  I  believe  it 
will  be  strengthened  by  becoming  completely  effective  in  every 
one  of  the  directions  they  indicated,  and  for  which  effective- 
ness we  their  successors  are  indeed  responsible.  The  time  is 
appropriate  for  such  a  reinforcement  of  one  of  the  wings  of  our 
organisation,  for  we  have  recently  included  Education  among 
our  sections. 

There  is  another  matter  I  should  like  to  see  referred  to  the 
committee  I  have  spoken  of,  if  it  please  you  to  appoint  it  The 
British  Association,  which  as  I  have  already  pointed  out  is  now 
the  chief  body  in  the  Empire  which  deals  with  the  totality  of 
science,  is,  I  believe,  the  only  organisation  of  any  consequence 
which  is  without  a  charter,  and  which  has  not  His  Majesty  the 
King  as  patron. 

The  First  Work  of  such  an  Organisation. 

I  suppose  it  is  my  duty  after  I  have  suggested  the  need  of 
organisation  to  tell  you  my  personal  opinion  as  to  the  matters 
where  we  suffer  most  in  consequence  of  our  lack  of  organisation 
at  the  present  time. 

Our  position  as  a  nation,  our  success  as  merchants,  are  in 
peril  chiefly — dealing  with  preventable  causes — because  of  our 
lack  of  completely  efficient  universities,  and  our  neglect  of 
research.  This  research  has  a  double  end.  A  prof^essor  who 
is  not  learning  cannot  teach  properly  or  arouse  enthusiasm  in  his 
students ;  while  a  student  of  anything  who  is  unfamiliar  with 
research   methods,  and   without   that   training  which   research 


442 


NA  TURE 


[September  io,  1903 


brings,  will  not  be  in  the  best  position  to  apply  his  knowledge  in 
after  life.  From  neglect  of  research  comes  imperfect  education 
and  a  small  output  of  new  applications  and  new  knowledge 
to  reinvigorate  our  industries.  From  imperfect  education  comes 
the  unconcern  touching  scientific  matters,  and  the  too  frequent 
absence  of  the  scientific  spirit,  in  the  nation  generally  from  the 
Court  to  the  parish  council. 

I  propose  to  deal  as  briefly  as  I  can  with  each  of  these  points. 

Universities. 

I  have  shown  that  so  far  as  our  industries  are  concerned,  the 
cause  of  our  failure  has  been  run  to  earth  ;  it  is  fully  recognised" 
that  it  arises  from  the  insufficiency  of  our  universities  both  in 
numbers  and  efficiency,  so  that  not  only  our  captains  of  in- 
dustry, hut  those  employed  on  the  nation's  work  generally,  do 
not  secure  a  training  similar  to  that  afforded  by  other  nations. 
No  additional  endowment  of  primary,  secondary  or  technical 
instruction  will  mend  matters.  This  is  not  merely  the  opinion 
of  men  of  science  ;  our  great  towns  know  it,  our  Ministers 
know  it. 

It  is  sufficient  for  me  to  quote  Mr.  Chamberlain  : — 

"  It  is  not  everyone  who  can,  by  any  possibility,  go  forward 
into  the  higher  spheres  of  education  ;  but  it  is  from  those  who 
do  that  we  have  to  look  for  the  men  who,  in  the  future,  will  carry 
high  the  flag  of  this  country  in  commercial,  scientific  and 
economic  competition  with  other  nations.  At  the  present  moment, 
I  believe  there  is  nothing  more  important  than  to  supply  the 
deficiencies  which  separate  us  from  those  with  whom  we  are  in 
the  closest  com|)etition.  In  Germany,  in  America,  in  our  own 
colony  of  Canada  and  in  Australia,  the  higher  education  of  the 
people  has  more  support  from  the  Government,  is  carried  further, 
than  it  is  here  in  the  old  country  ;  and  the  result  is  that  in 
every  ]irofession,  in  every  industry,  you  find  the  places  taken  by 
men  and  by  women  who  have  had  a  university  education.  And 
I  would  like  to  see  the  time  in  this  country  when  no  man  should 
have  a  chance  for  any  occupation  of  the  better  kind,  either  in 
our  factories,  our  workshops  or  our  counting-houses,  who  could 
not  show  proof  that,  in  the  course  of  his  university  career,  he 
had  deserved  the  position  that  was  offered  to  him.  What  is  it 
that  makes  a  country?  Of  course  you  may  say,  and  you  would 
be.quite  right,  '  The  general  qualities  of  the  people,  their  reso- 
lution, their  intelligence,  their  pertinacity,  and  many  other  good 
qualities.'  Yes;  but  that  is  not  all,  and  it  is  not  the  main 
creative  feature  of  a  great  nation.  The  greatness  of  a  nation 
is  made  by  its  greatest  men.  It  is  those  we  want  to  educate. 
It  is  to  those  who  are  able  to  go,  it  may  be,  from  the  very  lowest 
steps  in  the  ladder,  to  men  who  are  able  to  devote  their  time  to 
higher  education,  that  we  have  to  look  to  continue  the  position 
which  we  now  occupy  as,  at  all  events,  one  of  the  greatest  \ 
nations  on  the  face  of  the  earth.  And,  feeling  as  I  do  on  these  i 
subjects,  you  will  not  be  surprised  if  I  say  that  I  think  the  time  \ 
s  coming  when  Governments  will  give  more  attention  to  this  ! 
matter,  and  perhaps  find  a  little  more  money  to  forward  its  i 
interests"  (  Ti'w^j-,  November  6,  1902).  1 

Our   conception   of   a  university  has   changed.      University 
education  is  no  longer  regarded  as  the  luxury  of  the  rich  which  j 
concerns  only  those  who  can  afford  to  pay  heavily  for  it.    The  i 
Prime  Minister  in    a  recent  speech,  while  properly  pointing  out   [ 
that  the  collective  effect  of  our   public  and  secondary  schools  ! 
upon   British   character  cannot   be  overrated,  frankly  acknow-  \ 
ledged  that  the  boys  of  seventeen  or  eighteen   who  have  to  be  \ 
educated  in  them  "  do  not  care  a  farthing  about  the  world  they  \ 
live  in  except  in  so  far  as  it  concerns  the  cricket-field  or  the 
football-field  or  the  river."     On  this  ground  they  are  not  to  be 
taught  science,  and  hence,  when  they  proceed  to  the  university, 
their  curriculum  is  limited  to  subjects  which  were  better  taught 
before  the  modern   world  existed,    or  even  Galileo    was  born. 
But  the  science  which  these  young  gentlemen  neglect,  with  the 
full  approval  of  their  teachers,  on  their  way  through  the  school 
and  the  university  to  politics,  the  Civil  Service,  or  the  manage- 
ment of  commercial  concerns,  is  now  one  of  the  great  necessities 
of  a   nation,   and  our  universities   must    become  as   much  the 
insurers  of  the  future   progress  as  battleships  are  the   insurers 
of  the   present  power  of  States.    In    other    words,  university 
competition  between  States  is  now  as  potent  as   competition 
in  building  battleships,  and  it  is  on  this  ground  that  our  uni- 
versity conditions  become  of  the  highest  national  concern   and 
therefore  have  to  be  referred  to  here,  and  all  the  more  because 
our  industries  are  not  alone  in  question. 

NO.    1767,  VOL,   68] 


Why  we  have  not  more  Universities. 
Chief  among  the  causes  which  have  brought  us  to  the  terrible 
condition  of  inferiority  as  compared  with  other  nations  in  which 
we  find  ourselves  are  our  carelessness  in  the  matter  of  edu- 
cation and  our  false  notions  of  the  limitations  of  State  functions 
in  relation  to  the  conditions  of  modern  civilisation. 

Time  was  when  the  Navy  was  largely  a  matter  of  private 
and  local  efiort.  William  the  Conqueror  gave  privileges  to  the 
Cinque  Ports  on  the  condition  that  they  furnished  fifty-iwo  ships 
when  wanted.  In  the  time  of  Edward  III.,  of  730  sail  engaged  in 
the  siege  of  Calais,  705  were  "  people's  ships."  All  this  has 
passed  away  ;  for  our  first  line  of  defence  we  no  longer  depend  on 
private  and  local  cfibrt. 

Time  was  when  not  a  penny  was  spent  by  the  State  on 
elementary  education.  Again,  we  no  longer  depend  upon 
private  and  local  effort.  The  Navy  and  primary  education  are 
now  recognised  as  properly  calling  upon  the  public  for  the 
necessary  financial  support.  But  when  we  pass  from  primary  ta 
university  education,  instead  of  State  endowment  we  find  State 
neglect  ;  we  are  in  a  region  where  it  is  nobody's  business  to  see 
that  anything  is  done. 

We  in  Great  Britain  have  thirteen  universities  competing 
with  134  State  and  privately  endowed  in  the  United  States  and 
twenty-two  State  endo  Aed  in  Germany.  I  leave  other  countries 
out  of  consideration  for  lack  of  time,  and  I  omit  all  reference  to 
higher  institutions  for  technical  training,  of  which  Germany 
alone  possesses  nine  of  university  rank,  because  they  are  less 
important;  they  instruct  rather  than  educate,  and  our  want  is 
education.  The  German  State  gives  to  one  university  more 
than  the  British  Government  allows  to  all'  the  universities 
and  university  colleges  in  England,  Ireland,  Scotland,  and 
Wales  put  together.  These  are  the  conditions  which  regulate 
the  production  of  brain-power  in  the  United  Slates,  Germany, 
and  Britain  respectively,  and  the  excuse  of  the  Government 
is  that  this  is  a  matter  for  private  effort.  Do  not  our  Ministers 
of  State  know  that  other  civilised  countries  grant  efficient 
State  aid,  and  further,  that  private  effort  has  provided  in  Great 
Britain  less  than  10  per  cent,  of  the  sum  thus  furnished  in  the 
United  States  in  addition  to  State  aid  ?  Are  they  content 
that  we  <;hould  go  under  in  the  great  struggle  of  the  modern 
world  because  the  Ministries  of  other  States  are  wiser,  and 
because  the  individual  citizens  of  another  country  are  more 
generous,  than  our  own  ? 

If  we  grant  that  there  was  some  excuse  for  the  State's  neg- 
lect so  long  as  the  higher  teaching  dealt  only  with  words,  and 
books  alone  had  to  be  provided  (for  the  streets  of  London  and 
Paris  have  been  used  as  class  rooms  at  a  pinch),  it  must  not  be 
forgotten  that  during  the  last  hundred  years  not  only  has  knowledge 
been  enormously  increased,  but  things  have  replaced  words,  and 
fully  equipped  laboratories  must  take  the  place  of  books  and  class 
rooms  if  university  training  woithy  of  the  name  is  to  be  pro- 
vided. There  is  much  more  difference  in  size  and  kind  between 
an  old  and  new  university  than  there  is  between  the  old  caravel 
and  a  modern  battleship,  and  the  endowments  must  follow  suit. 

What  are  the  facts  relating  to  private  endowment  in  this 
country?  In  spite  of  the  munificence  displayed  by  a  small 
number  of  individuals  in  some  localities,  the  truth  must  be 
spoken.  In  depending  in  our  country  upon  this  form  of  endow- 
ment, we  are  trusting  to  a  broken  reed.  If  we  take  the  twelve 
English  university  colleges,  the  forerunners  of  universities  unless 
we  are  to  perish  from  lack  of  knowledge,  we  find  that  private 
effort  during  sixty  years  has  found  less  than  4,000,000/.,  that  is, 
2,000,000/.  for  buildings  and  40,000/.  a  year  income.  This  gives 
us  an  average  of  166,000/.  for  buildings  and  3300/.  for  yearly 
income. 

What  is  the  scale  of  private  effort  we  have  to  compete  with 
in  regard  to  the  American  univer.sities? 

In  the  United  States,  during  the  last  few  years,  universities 
and  colleges  have  received  more  than  40,000,000/.  from  this 
source  alone  ;  private  effort  supplied  nearly  7,000,000/.  in  the 
years  1 898- 1900. 

Next  consider  the  amount  of  State  aid  to  univer.sities  afforded 
in  Germany.  The  buildings  of  the  new  University  of  Strassburg 
have  already  cost  nearly  a  million  ;  that  is,  about  as  much  as  has 
yet  been  found  by  private  effort  for  buildings  in  Manchester, 
Liverpool,  Birmingham,  Bristol,  Newcastle  and  Sheffield.  The 
Government  annual  endowment  of  the  same  German  university 
is  more  than  49,000/. 

This  is  what  private  endowment  does  for  us  in  England, 
against  State  endowment  in  Germany. 


September  io,  1903J 


NATURE 


443 


But  the  Slate  does  really  concede  the  principle  ;  its  present 
contribution  to  our  Universities  and  colleges  amounts  to  1 55,600/. 
a  year  ;  no  capital  sum,  however,  is  taken  for  buildings.  The 
State  endowment  of  the  University  of  Berlin  in  1891-2 
amounted  to  168,777/. 

When,  then,  we  consider  the  large  endowments  of  university 
education  both  in  the  United  States  and  Germany,  it  is  obvious 
that  State  aid  only  can  make  any  valid  competition  possible  with 
either.  The  more  we  study  the  facts,  the  more  statistics  are  gone 
into,  the  more  do  we  find  that  we,  to  a  large  extent,  lack  both 
of  the  sources  of  endowment  upon  one  or  other  or  both  of  which 
other  nations  depend.  We  are  between  two  stools,  and  the  pro- 
spect is  hopeless  without  some  drastic  changes.  And  first  among 
these,  if  we  intend  to  get  cut  of  the  present  slough  of  despond, 
must  be  the  giving  up  of  the  idea  of  relying  upon  private  effort. 

That  we  lose  most  where  the  State  does  least  is 
known  to  Mr.  Chamberlain,  for  in  his  speech,  to  which 
I  have  referred,  on  the  University  of  Birmingham,  he  said  :  — 
"As  the  importance  of  the  aim  we  are  pursuing  becomes  more 
and  more  impressed  upon  the  minds  of  the  people,  we  may  find 
that  we  shall  be  more  generously  treated  by  the  State." 

Later  still,  on  the  occasion  of  a  visit  to  University  College 
School.  Mr.  Chamberlain  spoke  as  follows  ; — 

"  When  we  are  spending,  as  we  are,  many  millions — 
I  think  it  is  13,000,000/. — a  year  on  primary  education,  it 
certainly  seems  as  if  we  might  add  a  little  more,  even  a  few 
tens  of  thousands,  to  what  we  give  to  University  and  secondary 
education"  {Times,  November  6,  1902). 

To  compete  on  equal  grounds  with  other  nations  we  must 
have  more  universities.  But  this  is  not  all — we  want  a  far 
better  endowment  of  all  the  existing  ones,  not  forgetting  better 
opportunities  for  research  on  the  part  of  both  professors  and 
students.  Another  crying  need  is  that  of  more  professors  and 
better  pay.  Another  is  the  reduction  of  fees  ;  they  should  be 
reduced  to  the  level  in  those  countries  which  are  competing 
with  us,  to,  say,  one-fifth  of  their  present  rates,  so  as  to  enable 
more  students  in  the  secondary  and  technical  schools  to 
complete  their  education. 

In  all  these  ways,  facilities  would  be  afforded  for  providing 
the  highest  instruction  to  a  much  greater  number  of  students. 
At  present  there  are  almost  as  many  professors  and  instructors 
in  the  universities  and  colleges  of  the  United  States  as  there 
are  day  students  in  the  universities  and  colleges  of  the  United 
Kingdom. 

Men  of  science,  our  leaders  of  industry,  and  the  chiefs  of  our 
political  parties  all  agree  that  our  present  want  of  higher  educa- 
tion— in  other  words,  properly  equipped  universities — is  heavily 
handicapping  us  in  the  present  race  for  commercial  supremacy, 
because  it  provides  a  relatively  inferior  brain-power  which  is 
leading  to  a  relatively  reduced  national  income. 

The  facts  show  that  in  this  country  we  cannot  depend  upon 
private  effort  to  put  matters  right.     How  about  local  effort  ? 

Anyone  who  studies  the  statistics  of  modern  municipalities 
will  see  that  it  is  impossible  for  them  to  raise  rates  for  the 
building  and  upkeep  of  universities. 

The  buildings  of  the  most  modern  university  in  Germany 
have  cos-:  a  million.  For  upkeep  the  yearly  sums  found,  chiefly 
by  the  State,  for  German  universities  of  different  grades, 
taking  the  incomes  of  seven  out  of  the  twenty-two  universities 
as  examples,  are  : — 

£, 
1st  Class     ...        Berlin 130,000 

2nd  Class    ...     |?«.""  I 

(^Gottmgen        J 

3rd  Class     ...     i  ;5^""igf berg 
-"  \  btrassburg 

4th  Class       .     /Heidelberg      \ 


}.., 


56,000 
48,000 


\  Marburg  /■" 


37,000 


Thus  if  Leeds,  which  is  to  have  a  university,  is  content 
with  the  4th  class  German  standard,  a  rate  must  be  levied  of  "jd. 
in  the  pound  for  yearly  expenses,  independent  of  all  buildings. 
But  the  facts  are  that  our  towns  are  already  at  the  breaking 
strain.  During  the  last  fifty  years,  in  spite  of  enormous  increases 
in  rateable  values,  the  rates  have  gone  up  from  about  2s.  to 
about  7.>-.  in  the  pound  for  real  local  purposes.  But  no  university 
can  be  a  merely  local  institution. 

How  to  gei  more  Universities. 

What,  then,  is  to  be  done  ?  Fortunately,  we  have  a  precedent 
admirably  in  point,  the  consideration  of  which  may  help  us  to 
answer  this  question. 

NO.    1767,  VOL.   68] 


I  have  pointed  out  that  in  old  days  our  Navy  was  chiefly  pro- 
vided by  local  and  private  effort.  Fortunately  for  us,  those  day5 
have  passed  away ;  but  some  twenty  years  ago,  in  spite  of  a 
large  expenditure,  it  began  to  be  felt  by  those  who  knew, 
that  in  consequence  of  the  increase  of  foreign  navies,  our  sea- 
power  was  threatened,  as  now,  in  consequence  of  the  increase  of 
foreign  universities,  our  brain-power  is  threatened. 

The  nation  slowly  woke  up  to  find  that  its  enormous 
commerce  was  no  longer  insured  at  sea,  that  in  relation  to 
foreign  navies  our  own  had  been  suffered  to  dwindle  to  such 
an  extent  that  it  was  no  longer  capable  of  doing  the  duty 
which  the  nation  expected  of  it  even  in  times  of  peace.  At  first, 
this  revelation  was  received  with  a  shrug  of  incredulity,  and  the 
peace-at-any-price  party  denied  that  anything  was  needed  ;  but 
a  great  teacher  arose  ;  ^  as  the  facts  were  inquired  into  the 
.suspicion  changed  into  an  alarm  ;  men  of  all  parties  saw  that 
something  must  be  done.  Later,  the  nation  was  thoroughly 
aroused,  and  with  an  universal  agreement  the  principle  was 
laid  down  that,  cost  what  it  might  to  enforce  our  sea-power, 
our  Navy  must  be  made  and  maintained  of  a  strength  greater 
than  those  of  any  two  possibly  contending  Powers.  After 
establishing  this  principle,  the  next  thing  to  do  was  to  give 
effect  to  it.  What  did  the  nation  do  after  full  discussion  and 
inquiry?  A  Bill  was  brought  in  in  1888,  and  a  sum  of 
21,500,000/.  was  voted  in  order,  during  the  next  five  years, 
to  inaugurate  a  large  ship-building  programme,  so  that  Britain 
and  Britain's  commerce  might  be  guarded  on  the  high  seas 
in   any  event. 

Since  then  we  have  spent  120,000,000/.  on  new  ships,  and 
this  year  we  spend  still  more  millions  on  still  more  new 
ships.  If  these  prove  insufficient  to  safeguard  our  sea-power, 
there  is  no  doubt  that  the  nation  will  increase  them,  and  I 
have  not  heard  that  anybody  has  suggested  an  appeal  to  private 
effort. 

How,  then,  do  we  stand  with  regard  to  universities,  recognising 
them  as  the  chief  producers  of  brain-power  and  therefore  the 
equivalents  of  battleships  in  relation  to  sea-power  ?  Do  their 
numbers  come  up  to  the  standard  established  by  the  Admiralty 
principle  to  which  I  have  referred  ?  Let  us  attempt  to  get  a 
rough  and-ready  estimate  of  our  educational  position  by  counting 
universities  as  the  Admiralty  counts  battleships.  I  say  rough 
and  ready  because  we  have  other  helps  to  greater  brain-power 
to  consider  besides  universities,  as  the  Admiralty  has  other  ships 
to  consider  besides  ironclads. 

In  the  first  place,  let  us  inquire  if  they  are  equal  in  number 
to  tho.se  of  any  two  nations  commercially  competing  with  us. 

In  the  United  Kingdom,  we  had  until  quite  recently  thirteen. ^ 
Of  these,  one  is  only  three  years  old  as  a  teaching  university 
and  another  is  still  merely  an  examining  board. 

In  Germany  there  are  twenty-two  universities;  in  France, 
under  recent  legislation,  fifteen  ;  in  Italy  twenty-one.  It  is  difficult 
to  give  the  number  in  the  United  States,  because  it  is  clear,  from 
the  tables  given  in  the  Report  of  the  Commissioner  of  Education, 
that  some  colleges  are  more  important  than  some  universities, 
and  both  give  the  degree  of  Ph.D.  But  of  universities  in  title 
we  have  134.  Among  these,  there  are  forty-six  with  more  than 
fifty  professors  and  instructors,  and  thirteen  with  more  than 
150.     I  will  take  that  figure* 

Suppose  we  consider  the  United  States  and  Germany,  our 
chief  commercial  competitors,  and  apply  the  Admiralty  principle. 
We  should  require,  allowing  for  population,  eight  additional 
universities  at  the  very  lowest  estimate. 

We  see,  then,  that  instead  of  having  universities  equalling  in 
number  those  of  two  of  our  chief  competitors  together,  they  are 
by  no  means  equal  to  those  of  either  of  them  singly. 

After  this  statement  of  the  facts,  anyone  who  has  belief  in 
the  importance  of  higher  education  will  have  no  difficulty 
in  understanding  the  origin  of  the  present  condition  of  British 
industry  and  its  constant  decline,  first  in  one  direction  and  then 
in  another,  since  the  tremendous  efforts  made  in  the  United 
States  and  Germany  began  to  take  effect. 

If,  indeed,  there  be  anything  wrong  about  the  comparison, 
the  error  can  only  arise  from  one  of  two  sources  ;  either 
the  Admiralty  is  thoughtlessly  and  wastefully  spending  money, 
or  there  is  no  connection  whatever  between  the  higher 
intelligence   and    the  prosperity   of  a   nation.     I  have  already 

1  Capt.ain  Mahan,  of  the  U.S.  Navy,  who.se  book,  "On  the  Influence 
of  Sea-power  on  History,"  has  .suggested  the  title  of  my  address. 

-  These  .ire  O.vford,  Cambridge,  Durham,  Victoria,  Wales,  Birmingham, 
Loridon,  St.  Andrews,  Glasgow,  Aberdeen,  Edinburgh,  Dublin,  and  Royal 
University. 


444 


NATURE 


[September  io,  1903 


referred  to  the  views  of  Mr.  Chamberlain  and  Lord  Rosebery 
on  this  point ;  we  know  what  Mr.  Chamberlain  has  done  at 
Birmingham ;  we  know  the  strenuous  efforts  made  by  the 
commercial  leaders  of  Manchester  and  Liverpool  ;  we  know, 
also,  the  opinion  of  men  of  science. 

If  while  we  spend  so  freely  to  maintain  our  sea-power  our 
export  of  manufactured  articles  is  relatively  reduced  because 
our  competitors  beat  us  in  the  markets  of  the  world,  what  is  the 
end  of  the  vista  thus  opened  up  to  us  ?  A  Navy  growing  stronger 
every  year  and  requiring  larger  votes  to  guard  our  commerce 
and  communications,  and  a  vanishing  quantity  of  commerce  to 
guard — a  reduced  national  income  to  meet  an  increasing 
taxation  ! 

The  pity  is  that  our  Government  has  considered  sea-power 
alone  ;  that  while  so  completely  guarding  our  commerce,  it  has 
given  no  thought  to  one  of  the  main  conditions  on  which  its 
production  and  increase  depend  :  a  glance  could  have  shown  that 
other  countries  were  building  universities  even  faster  than  they 
were  building  battleships  ;  were,  in  fact,  considering  brain-power 
first  and  sea- power  afterwards. 

Surely  it  is  my  duty  as  your  President  to  point  out  the  danger 
ahead  if  such  ignoring  of  the  true  situation  should  be  allowed 
to  continue.  May  I  express  a  hope  that  at  last,  in  Mr. 
Chamberlain's  words,  "  the  time  is  coming  when  Govern- 
ments will  give  more  attention  to  this  matter"  ? 

What  will  they  cost  ? 
The  comparison  shows  that  we  want  eight  new  universities, 
some  of  which,  of  course,  will  be  colleges  promoted  to  university 
rank  and  fitted  to  carry  on  university  work.     Three   of  them 
are  already  named  :  Manchester,  Liverpool,  Leeds. 

Let  us  take  this  number  and  deal  with  it  on  the  battleship 
condition,  although  a  modern  university  on  American  or  German 
models  will  cost  more  to  build  than  a  battleship. 

If  our  present  university  shortage  be  dealt  with  on  battleship 
conditions,  to  correct  it  we  should  expend  at  least  8,000,000/.  for 
new  construction,  and  for  the  pay-sheet  we  should  have  to 
provide  (8  x  50,000/.)  400,000/.  yearly  for  personnel  and  up- 
keep, for  it  is  of  no  use  to  build  either  ships  or  universities 
without  manning  them.  Let  us  say,  roughly,  capitalising  the 
yearly  payment  at  2\  per  cent.,  24,000,000/. 

At  this  stage,  it  is  important  to  inquire  whether  this  sum, 
arrived  at  by  analogy  merely,  has  any  relation  to  our  real 
university  needs. 

I  have  spent  a  year  in  making  inquiries,  as  full  as  I  could 
make  them,  of  friends  conversant  with  the  real  present  needs  of 
each  of  the  universities  old  and  new,  I  have  obtained  statistics 
which  would  fill  a  volume,  and  personally  I  believe  that  this 
sum  at  least  is  required  to  bring  our  university  system  up  to 
anything  like  the  level  which  is  insisted  upon  both  in  the 
United  States  and  in  Germany.  Even  Oxford,  our  oldest 
university,  will  still  continue  to  be  a  mere  bundle  of  colleges, 
unless  three  millions  are  provided  to  enable  the  university 
properly  so-called  to  take  her  place  among  her  sisters  of  the 
modern  world  ;  and  Sir  Oliver  Lodge,  the  principal  of  our 
very  youngest  university,  Birmingham,  has  shown  in  detail 
how  five  millions  can  be  usefully  and  properly  applied  in  that 
one  locality,  to  utilise  for  the  good  of  the  nation  the  enthusiasm 
and  scientific  capacity  which  are  only  waiting  for  adequate 
opportunity  of  development. 

How  is  this  money  to  be  raised?  I  reply  without  hesitation, 
duplicate  the  Navy  Bill  of  1888-9  5  do  at  once  for  brain- 
power what  we  so  successfully  did  then  for  sea-power. 

Let  24,000,000/.  be  set  apart  from  one  asset,  our  national 
wealth,  to  increase  the  other,  brain-power.  Let  it  be  assigned 
and  borrowed  as  it  is  wanted  ;  there  will  be  a  capital  sum 
for  new  buildings  to  be  erected  in  the  next  five  or  ten  years, 
the  interest  of  the  remainder  to  go  towards  increased  annual 
endowments. 

There  need  be  no  difficulty  about  allocating  money  to  the 
various  institutions.  Let  each  university  make  up  its  mind  as 
to  which  rank  of  the  German  universities  it  wishes  to  emulate. 
When  this  claim  has  been  agreed  to,  the  sums  necessary  to  pro- 
vide the  buildings  and  teaching  staff  of  that  class  of  university 
should  be  granted  without  demur. 

It  is  the  case  of  battleships  over  again,  and  money  need  not 
De  spent  more  freely  in  one  case  than  in  the  other. 

Let  me  at  once  say  that  this  sum  is  not  to  be  regarded  as 
practically  gone  when  spent,  as  in  the  case  of  a  short-lived 
ironclad.     //  is  a  loan  which  will  bear  a  high  rate  of  interest. 

NO.    1767,  VOL.   68] 


This  is  not  my  opinion  merely ;  it  is  the  opinion  of  those  con- 
cerned in  great  industrial  enterprises  and  fully  alive  to  the 
origin  and  effects  of  the  present  condition  of  things. 

I  have  been  careful  to  point  out  that  the  statement  that  our 
industries  are  suffering  from  our  relative  neglect  of  science  does 
not  rest  on  my  authority.  But  if  this  be  true,  then  if  our  annual 
production  is  less  by  only  two  millions  than  it  might  have  been, 
having  two  millions  less  to  divide  would  be  equivalent  to  our 
having  forty  or  fifty  millions  less  capital  than  we  should  have 
had  if  we  had  been  more  scientific. 

Sir  John  Brunner,  in  a  speech  connected  with  the  Liverpool 
School  of  Tropical  Medicine,  stated  recently  that  if  we  as  a 
nation  were  now  to  borrow  ten  millions  of  money  in  order  to  help 
science  by  putting  up  buildings  and  endowing  professors,  we 
should  get  the  money  back  in  the  course  of  a  generation  a 
hundredfold.  He  added  that  there  was  no  better  investment 
for  a  business  man  than  the  encouragement  of  science,  and  that 
every  penny  he  possessed  had  come  from  the  application  of 
science  to  commerce. 

According  to  Sir  Robert  Giffen,  the  United  Kingdom  as  a 
going  concern  was  in  1901  worth  16,000,000,000/. 

Were  we  to  put  aside  24,000,000/.  for  gradually  organising, 
building  and  endowing  new  universities,  and  making  the 
existing  ones  more  efficient,  we  should  still  be  worth 
15,976,000,000/.,  a  property  well  worth  defending  by  all  the 
means,  and  chief  among  these  brain-power,  we  can  command. 

If  it  be  held  that  this,  or  anything  like  it,  is  too  great  a  price 
to  pay  for  correcting  past  carelessness  or  stupidity,  the  reply  is 
that  the  i«o,ooo,ooo/.  recently  spent  on  the  Navy,  a  sum  five 
times  greater,  has  been  spent  to  correct  a  sleepy  blunder,  not 
one  whit  more  inimical  to  the  future  welfare  of  our  country 
than  that  which  has  brought  about  our  present  educational 
position.  We  had  not  sufficiently  recognised  what  other  nations 
had  done  in  the  way  of  ship  building,  just  as  until  now  we  have 
not  recognised  what  they  have  been  doing  in  university  building. 

Further,  I  am  told  that  the  sum  of  24,000,000/.  is  less  than 
half  the  amount  by  which  Germany  is  yearly  enriched  by  having 
improved  upon  our  chemical  industries,  owing  to  our  lack  of 
scientific  training.  Many  other  industries  have  been  attacked 
in  the  same  way  since,  but  taking  this  one  instance  alone,  if 
we  had  spent  this  money  fifty  years  ago,  when  the  Prince 
Consort  first  called  attention  to  our  backwardness,  the  nation 
would  now  be  much  richer  than  it  is,  and  would  have  much 
less  to  fear  from  competition. 

Suppose  we  were  to  set  about  putting  our  educational 
house  in  order,  so  as  to  secure  a  higher  quality  and  greater 
quantity  of  brain-power,  it  would  not  be  the  first  time  in  history 
that  this  has  been  done.  Both  Prussia  after  Jena  and  France 
after  Sedan  acted  on  the  view  :— 

"  When  land  is  gone  and  money  spent, 
Then  learning  is   most  excellent." 

After  Jena,  which  left  Prussia  a  "  bleeding  and  lacerated  mass," 
the  King  and  his  wise  counsellors,  among  them  men  who  had 
gained  knowledge  from  Kant,  determined,  as  they  put  it,  "  to 
I  supply  the  loss  of  territory  by  intellectual  effort." 

What  did  they  do?  In  spite  of  universal  poverty,  three 
I  universities,  to  say  nothing  of  observatories  and  other  institutions, 
were  at  once  founded,  secondary  education  was  developed,  and 
in  a  few  years  the  mental  resources  were  so  well  looked  after 
that  Lord  Palmerston  defined  the  kingdom  in  question  as  "  a 
country  of  damned  professors." 

After  Sedan,  a  battle,  as  Moltke  told  us,  "  won  by  the  school- 
master," France  made  even  more  strenuous  efforts.  The  old 
University  of  France,  with  its  "academies"  in  various  places, 
was  replaced  by  fifieen  independent  universities,  in  all  of  which 
are  faculties  of  letters,  sciences,  law  and  medicine. 

The  development  of  the  University  of  Paris  has  been  truly 
marvellous.  In  1897-8,  there  were  12,000  students,  and  the  cost 
was  200,000/.  a  year. 

But  even  more  wonderful  than  these  examples  is  the  "in- 
tellectual effort "  made  by  Japan,  not  after  a  war,  but  to  prepare 
for  one. 

The  question  is,  shall  we  wait  for  a  disaster  and  then  imitate 
Prussia  and  France  ?  or  shall  we  follow  Japan,  and  thoroughly 
prepare  by  "intellectual  effort"  for  the  industrial  struggle 
which  lies  before  us  ? 

Such  an  effort  seems  to  me  to  be  the  first  thing  any  national 
or  imperial  scientific  organisation  should  endeavour  to  bring 
about. 


September  io,  1903] 


NATURE 


445 


Research. 


When  dealing  with  our  universities,  I  referred  to  the  import- 
ance of  research,  as  it  is  now  generally  acknowledged  to  be  the 
most  powerful  engine  of  education  that  we  possess.  But  educa- 
tion alter  all  is  but  a  means  to  the  end  which,  from  the  national 
point  of  view,  is  the  application  of  old  and  the  production  of  new 
knowledge. 

Its  national  importance  apart  from  education  is  now  so 
generally  recognised  that  in  all  civilised  nations  except  our 
own  means  of  research  are  being  daily  more  amply,  provided  for 
all  students  after  they  have  passed  through  their  university 
career,  and  more  than  this,  for  all  who  can  increase  the  country's 
renown  or  prosperity  by  the  making  of  new  knowledge  upon 
which  not  only  commercial  progress,  but  all  intellectual  advance 
must  depend. 

I  am  so  anxious  that  my  statement  of  our  pressing,  and  indeed 
imperative,  needs  in  this  direction  should  not  be  considered  as 
resting  upon  the  possibly  interested  opinion  of  a  student 
of  science  merely,  that  I  must  trouble  you  with  still  more 
quotations. 

Listen  to  Mr.  Balfour  :  — 

"  I  do  not  believe  that  any  man  who  looks  round  the  equip- 
ment of  our  universities  or  medical  schools,  or  other  places  of 
education,  can  honestly  say  in  his  heart  that  we  have  done 
enough  to  equip  research  with  all  the  costly  armoury  which 
research  must  have  in  these  modern  days.  We,  the  richest 
country  in  the  world,  lag  behind  Germany,  France,  Switzerland 
and  Italy.  Is  it  not  disgraceful  ?  Are  we  too  poor  or  are  we 
too  stupid  ?"i 

It  is  imagined  by  many  who  have  given  no  thought  to  the 
matter  that  this  research  should  be  closely  allied  with  some 
application  of  science  being  utilised  at  the  time.  Nothing 
could  be  further  from  the  truth  ;  nothing  could  be  more  unwise 
than  such  a  limitation. 

Surely  all  the  laws  of  Nature  will  be  ultimately  of  service, 
and  therefore  there  is  much  more  future  help  to  be  got  from  a 
study  of  the  unknown  and  the  unused  than  we  can  hope  to 
obtain  by  continuing  the  study  of  that  which  is  pretty  well 
known  and  utilised  already.  It  was  a  King  of  France, 
Louis  XIV.,  who  first  commended  the  study  of  the  mcme 
inutile.  The  history  of  modern  science  shows  us  more  and 
more  as  the  years  roll  on  the  necessity  and  advantage  of  such 
studies,  and  therefore  the  importance  of  properly  endowing 
them,  for  the  production  of  new  knowledge  is  a  costly  and  un- 
remunerative  pursuit. 

Vears  ago  we  had  Faraday  apparently  wasting  his  energies 
and  time  in  playing  with  needles;  electricity  now  fills  the 
world.  To-day  men  of  science  in  all  lands  are  studying  the 
emanations  of  radium  ;  no  research  could  be  more  abstract ; 
but  who  knows  what  advance  in  human  thought  may  follow  or 
what  gigantic  world-transforming  superstructure  may  eventually 
be  raised  on  the  minute  foundation  they  are  laying  ? 

If  we  so  organise  our  teaching  forces  that  we  can  use  them 
at  all  stages  from  the  gutter  to  the  university  to  sift  out  for 
us  potential  Faradays— to  utilise  the  mental  products  which 
otherwise  would  be  wasted— it  is  only  by  enabling  such  men  to 
continue  their  learning  after  their  teaching  is  over  that  we  shall 
be  able  to  secure  the  greatest  advantage  which  any  educational 
system  can  afford. 

It  is  now  more  than  thirty  years  ago  that  my  attention  was 
specially  drawn  to  this  question  of  the  endowment  of  research, 
first  by  conversations  with  M.  Dumas,  the  permanent  secretary 
ofthe  Academy  of  Sciences,  who  honoured  me  by  his  friendship, 
and  secondly  by  my  association  with  Sir  Benjamin  Brodie  and 
Dr.  Appleton  in  their  endeavours  to  call  attention  to  the  matter  in 
this  country.  At  that  lime  a  general  scheme  of  endowment  sug- 
gested by  Dumas  was  being  carried  out  by  Duruy.  This  took  the 
form  of  the  "  Ecole  speciale  des  Hautes  Etudes"  ;  it  was  what 
our  fellowship  system  was  meant  to  be— an  endowment  of  the 
research  of  post-graduate  students  in  each  seat  of  learning.  The 
French  effort  did  not  begin  then. 

I  may  here  tell,  as  it  was  told  me  by  Dumas,  the  story 
of  Leon  Foucault,  whose  many  discoveries  shed  a  glory  on 
France,  and  revived  French  industry  in  many  directions.^  In 
1851,  when  Prince  Napoleon  was  President  of  the  Republic, 
he  sent  for  Dumas  and  some  of  his  colleagues  and  told  them 
that  during  his  stay  in  England,  and  afterwards  in  his  study 
of  the  Great  Exhibition  of  ihat   year,  he   had  found  there  a 

'  Nature,  May  30,  1901 

'■'  See  Froc.  R.S.  vol.  xvii.,  p.  Ixxxiii. 


NO.    1767,  VOL.  68] 


greater  industrial  development  than  in  France,  and  more 
applications  of  science,  adding  that  he  wished  to  know  how 
such  a  state  of  things  could  be  at  once  remedied.  The  answer 
was  that  new  applications  depended  upon  new  knowledge, 
and  that  therefore  the  most  direct  and  immediate  way  was  to 
find  and  encourage  men  who  were  likely  by  research  in  pure 
science  to  produce  this  new  knowledge.  The  Prince  President 
at  once  asked  for  names ;  that  of  Leon  Foucault  was  the  only 
one  mentioned  during  the  first  interview. 

Some  time  afterwards,  to  be  exact  at  about  1 1  in  the  morning 
of  December  2,  Dumas's  servant  informed  him  that  there  was  a 
gentleman  in  the  hall  named  Foucault  who  wished  to  see  him, 
and  he  added  that  he  appeared  to  be  very  ill.  When  shown 
into  the  study,  Foucault  was  too  agitated  to  speak,  and  was  blind 
with  tears.  His  reply  to  Dumas's  soothing  questions  was  to 
take  from  his  pockets  two  rolls  of  bank  notes  amounting  to 
200,000  francs  and  place  them  on  the  table.  Finally,  he  was 
able  to  say  that  he  had  been  with  the  Prince  President  since 
8  o'clock  that  morning  discussing  the  possible  improvement  of 
French  science  and  industry,  and  that  Napoleon  had  finally 
given  him  the  money  requesting  him  to  do  all  in  his  power  to 
aid  the  State.  Foucault  ended  by  saying  that  on  realising  the 
greatness  of  the  task  thus  imposed  upon  him,  his  fears  and 
feelings  had  got  the  better  of  him,  for  the  responsibility  seemed 
more  than  he  could  bear.^ 

The  movement  in  England  to  which  I  have  referred  began  in 
1872,  when  a  society  for  the  organisation  of  academical  study 
was  formed  in  connection  with  the  inquiry  into  the  revenues  of 
Oxford  and  Cambridge,  and  there  was  a  famous  meeting  at 
the  Freemasons'  Tavern,  Mark  Pattison  being  in  the  chair. 
Brodie,  Rolleston,  Carpenter,  Burdon-Sanderson,  were  among 
the  speakers,  and  the  first  resolution  carried  was,  "  That  to  have 
a  class  of  men  whose  lives  are  devoted  to  research  is  a  national 
object."  The  movement  died  in  consequence  of  the  want  of 
sympathy  of  the  university  authorities.  ^ 

In  the  year  1874  the  subject  was  inquired  into  by  the  late  Duke 
of  Devonshire's  Commission,  and  after  taking  much  remarkable 
evidence,  including  that  of  Lord  Salisbury,  the  Commission 
recommended  to  the  Government  that  the  then  grant  of  1000/. 
which  was  expended,  by  a  committee  appointed  by  the  Royal 
Society,  ori  instruments  needed  in  researches  carried  on  by 
private  individuals  should  be  increased,  so  that  personal  grants 
should  be  made.  This  recommendation  was  accepted  and  acted 
on  ;  the  grant  was  increased  to  4000/. ,  and  finally  other  societies 
were  associated  with  the  Royal  Society  in  its  administration. 
The  committee,  however,  was  timorous,  possibly  owing  to  the 
apathy  of  the  universities  and  the  general  carelessness  on  such 
matters,  and  only  one  personal  grant  was  made  ;  the  whole 
conception  fell  through. 

Meantime,  however,  opinion  has  become  more  educated  and 
alive  to  the  extreme  importance  of  research  to  the  nation,  and 
in  1891  a  suggestion  was  made  to  the  Royal  Commission  which 
administers  the  proceeds  of  the  1851  Exhibition  that  a  sum  of 
about  6000/.  a  year  available  for  scholarships  should  be  em- 
ployed in  encouraging  post-graduate  research  throughout  the 
whole  Empire.  As  what  happened  is  told  in  the  Memoirs  of 
Lord  Playfair,  it  is  not  indiscreet  in  me  to  state  that  when  I 
proposed  this  new  form  of  I  he  endowment  of  research, 
it  would  not  have  surprised  me  if  the  suggestion  had  been 
declined.  It  was  carried  through  by  Lord  Playfair's  enthu- 
siastic support.  This  system  has  been  at  work  ever  since,  and 
the  good  that  has  been  done  by  it  is  now  generally  conceded. 

It  is  a  supreme  satisfaction  to  me  to  know  that  m  this  present 
year  of  grace  the  national  importance  of  the  study  of  the  menie 
inutile  is  more  generally  recognised  than  it  was  during  the  times 
to  which  I  have  referred  in  my  brief  survey,  and,  indeed,  we 
students  are  fortunate  in  having  on  our  side  in  this  matter  two 
members  of  His  Majesty's  Government,  who  two  years  aga 
spoke  with  no  uncertain  sound  upon  this  matter. 

•'  Do  we  lack  the  imagination  required  to  show  what  these 
apparently  remote  and  abstract  studies  do  for  the  happiness  of 
mankind  ?  We  can  appreciate  that  which  obviously  and 
directly  ministers  to  human  advancement  and  felicity,  but  seem, 

1  In  order  to  show  flow  fiistory  i-i  written,  what  actiuiUy  happened  on 
a  fateful  morning  may  be  compared  with  the  account  given  by  King- 
lake  :— "  Prince  Louis  rode  home  and  went  in  out  of  sight.  Then  for  the 
most  part  he  remained  close  shut  up  in  the  Elysee.  There,  in  an  inner 
room,  still  decked  in  red  trousers,  but  with  his  back  to  the  daylight,  the^ 
say  he  sat  bent  over  a  fireplace  for  hours  and  hours  together,  resting  his 
elbows  on  his  knees,  and  burying  his  (ace  in  his  hands  "i"  Crimean  War," 
i.  p.  245). 

'■'  See  Nature,  November  and  December,  1872. 


446 


NATURE 


[September  io,  1903 


somehow  or  another,  to  be  deficient  in  that  higher  form  of 
imagination,  in  that  longer  sight,  which  sees  in  studies  which 
have  no  obvious,  necessary,  or  immediate  result  the  foundation 
of  the  knowledge  which  shall  give  far  greater  happiness  to 
mankind  than  any  immediate,  material,  industrial  advancement 
can  possibly  do  ;  and  I  fear,  and  greatly  fear,  that,  lacking  that 
imagination,  we  have  allowed  ourselves  to  lag  in  the  glorious 
race  run  now  by  civilised  countries  in  pursuit  of  knowledge,  and 
we  have  permitted  ourselves  so  far  to  too  large  an  extent  to 
•depend  upon  others  for  those  additions  to  our  knowledge  which 
surely  we  might  have  made  for  ourselves." — Mr.  Balfour, 
Nature,  May  30,  1901. 

"  I  would  remind  you  that  all  history  shows  that  progress — 
national  progress  of  every  kind — depends  upon  certain  indivi- 
•duals  rather  than  upon  the  mass.  Whether  you  take  religion, 
or  literature,  or  political  government,  or  art,  or  commerce,  the 
new  ideas,  the  great  steps,  have  been  made  by  individuals  of 
superior  quality  and  genius  who  have,  as  it  were,  dragged  the 
mass  of  the  nation  up  one  step  to  a  higher  level.  So  it  must 
be  in  regard  to  material  progress.  The  position  of  the  nation 
to-day  is  due  to  the  efforts  of  men  like  Watt  and  Arkwright,  or, 
in  our  own  time,  to  the  Armstrongs,  the  Whitworths,  the 
Kelvins,  and  the  Siemenses.  These  are  the  men  who,  by  their 
discoveries,  by  their  remarkable  genius,  have  produced  the 
ideas  upon  which  others  have  acted  and  which  have  permeated 
the  whole  mass  of  the  nation  and  affected  the  whole  of  its 
proceedings.  Therefore  what  we  have  to  do,  and  this  is  our 
special  task  and  object,  is  to  produce  more  of  these  great  men." 
— Mr.  Chamberlain,  Times,  January  18,  1901. 


I  finally  come  to  the  political  importance  of  research.  A 
country's  research  is  as  important  in  the  long  run  as  its  battle- 
ships. The  most  eloquent  teaching  as  to  its  national  value 
we  owe  to  Mr.  Carnegie,  for  he  has  given  the  sum  of  2,000,000/. 
to  found  a  system  of  endowments,  his  chief  purpose  bjing,  in  his 
own  words,  "  to  secure  if  possible  for  the  United  States  of 
America  leadership  in  the  domain  of  discovery  and  the  utilisation 
of  new  forces  for  the  benefit  of  man." 

Here  is  a  distinct  challenge  to  Britain.  Judging  by  experience 
in  this  country,  in  spite  of  the  magnificent  endowment  of  research 
by  Mond  and  Lord  Iveagh,  the  only  sources  of  possible  competi- 
tion in  the  British  interest  is  the  State,  which  certainly  could 
not  put  the  1/8000  part  of  the  accumulated  wealth  of  the  country 
to  better  use,  for  without  such  help  both  our  universities  and 
our  battleships  will  become  of  rapidly  dwindling  importance. 

It  is  on  this  ground  that  I  have  included  the  importance  of 
endowing  research  among  the  chief  points  to  which  I  have  been 
anxious  to  draw  your  attention. 

The  Need  of  a  Scientific  National  Council. 

In  referring  to  the  new  struggle  for  existence  among  civilised 
communities,  I  pointed  out  that  the  solution  of  a  large 
number  of  scientific  problems  is  now  daily  required  for  the 
State  service,  and  that  in  this  and  other  ways  tne  source  and 
standard  of  national  efficiency  have  been  greatly  changed. 

Much  evidence  bearing  upon  the  amount  of  scientific  know- 
ledge required  for  the  proper  administration  of  the  public 
departments  and  the  amount  of  scientific  work  done  by  and  for 
the  nation  was  brought  before  the  Royal  Commission  on  Science 
presided  over  by  the  late  Duke  of  Devonshire  now  more  than  a 
•quarter  of  a  century  ago. 

The  Commission  unanimously  recommended  that  the  State 
•should  be  aided  by  a  scientific  council  in  facing  the  new 
problems  constantly  arising. 

But  while  the  home  Government  has  apparently  made  up  its 
mind  to  neglect  the  advice  so  seriously  given,  it  should  be  a 
source  of  gratification  to  us  all  to  know  that  the  application  of 
the  resources  of  modern  science  to  the  economic,  industrial  and 
agricultural  development  of  India  has  for  miny  years  engaged 
the  earnest  attention  of  the  Government  of  that  country.  The 
Famine  Commissioners  of  1878  laid  much  stress  on  the  institu- 
tion of  scientific  inquiry  and  experiment  designed  to  lead  to  the 
gradual  increase  of  the  food-supply  and  to  the  greater  stability 
of  agricultural  outturn,  while  the  experience  of  recent  years  has 
indicated  the  increasing  importance  of  the  study  of  the  economic 
products  and  mineral-bearing  tracts. 

Lord  Curzon  has  recently  ordered  the  heads  of  the  various 
scientific  departments  to  form  a  board,  which  shall  meet  twice 


NO.    1767,  VOL.  68] 


annually,  to  begin  with,  to  formulate  a  programme  and  to  review 
past  work.  The  board  is  also  to  act  as  an  advisory  committee 
to  the  Government, 1  providing  among  other  matters  for  the 
proper  coordination  of  all  matters  of  scientific  inquiry  affecting 
India's  welfare. 

Lord  Curzon  is  to  be  warmly  congratulated  upon  the  step 
he  has  taken,  which  is  certain  to  bring  benefit  to  our  great 
dependency. 

The  importance  of  such  a  board  is  many  times  greater  at  home, 
with  so  many  external  as  well  as  internal  interests  to  look  after, 
problems  common  to  peace  and  war,  problems  requiring  the 
help  of  the  economic  as  well  as  of  the  physical  sciences. 

It  may  be  asked.  What  is  done  in  Germany,  where  science  is 
fostered  and  utilised  far  more  than  here  ? 

The  answer  is,  there  is  such  a  council.  I  fancy  very  much 
like  what  our  Privy  Council  once  was.  It  consists  of  repre- 
sentatives of  the  Ministry,  the  universities,  the  industries,  and 
agriculture.  It  is  small,  consisting  of  about  a  dozen  members, 
consultative,  and  it  reports  direct  to  the  Emperor.  It 
does  for  industrial  war  what  military  and  so  called  defence 
councils  do  for  national  armaments  :  it  considers  everything 
relating  to  the  use  of  brain-power  in  peace,  from  alterations  in 
school  regulations  and  the  organisation  of  the  universities,  to 
railway  rates  and  fiscal  schemes,  including  the  adjustment  of 
duties.  I  am  informed  that  what  this  council  advises  generally 
becomes  law. 

It  should  be  pretty  obvious  that  a  nation  so  provided  must 
have  enormous  chances  in  its  favour.  It  is  a  question  of  drilled 
battalions  against  an  undisciplined  army,  of  the  use  of  the 
scientific  spirit  as  opposed  to  the  hope  of  "  muddling  through." 

Mr.  Haldane  has  recently  reminded  us  that  "  the  weapons 
which  science  places  in  the  hands  of  those  who  engage  in  great 
rivalries  of  commerce  leave  those  who  are  without  them,  how- 
ever brave,  as  badly  off  as  were  the  dervishes  of  Omdurman 
against  the  Maxims  of  Lord  Kitchener." 

Without  such  a  machinery  as  this,  how  can  our  Ministers  and 
our  rulers  be  kept  completely  informed  on  a  thousand  things  of 
vital  importance?  Why  should  our  position  and  requirements 
as  an  industrial  and  thinking  nation  receive  less  attention  from 
the  authorities  than  the  headdress  of  the  Guards  ?  How,  in  the 
words  of  Lord  Curzon,-'  can  "  the  life  and  vigour  of  a  nation  be 
summed  up  before  the  world  in  the  person  of  its  sovereign  " 
if  the  national  organisation  is  so  defective  that  it  has  no  means 
of  keeping  the  head  of  the  State  informed  on  things  touching  the 
most  vital  and  lasting  interests  of  the  country  ?  We  seem  t'>  be 
still  in  the  Palaeolithic  age  in  such  matters,  the  chief  differeace 
being  that  the  sword  has  replaced  die  flint  implement. 

Some  may  say  that  it  is  contrary  to  our  habit  to  expect 
the  Government  to  interest  itself  too  much  or  to  spend  money 
on  matters  rela'.ing  to  peace  ;  that  war  dangers  are  the  only  ones 
to  be  met  or  to  be  studied. 

Bat  this  view  leaves  science  and  the  progress  of  science  out  of 
the  question.  Every  scientific  advance  is  now,  and  will  in  the 
future  be  more  and  more,  applied  to  war.  It  is  no  longer  a 
question  of  an  armed  force  with  scientific  corps,  it  is  a  question 
of  an  armed  force  scientific  from  top  to  bottom.  Thank  God 
the  Navy  has  already  found  this  out.  Science  will  ultimately  rule 
all  the  operations  both  of  peace  and  war,  and  therefore  the 
industrial  and  the  fighting  population  must  both  have  a  large 
common  ground  of  education.  Already  it  is  not  looking  too  far 
ahead  to  see  that  in  a  perfect  State  there  will  be  a  double  use  of 
each  citizen,  a  peace  use  and  a  war  use,  and  the  more  science 
advances  the  more  the  old  difference  between  the  peaceful 
citizen  and  the  man  at  arms  will  disappear ;  the  barrack,  if  it 
still  exists,  and  the  workshop  will  be  assimilated,  the  land  unit, 
like  the  battleship,  will  become  a  school  of  applied  science,  self- 
contained,  in  which  the  officers  will  be  the  efficient  teachers. 

I  do  not  think  it  is  yet  recognised  how  much  the  problem  of 
national  defence  has  thus  become  associated  with  that  with 
which  we  are  now  chiefly  concerned. 

These,  then,  are  some  of  the  reasons  which  compel  me  to 
point  out  that  a  scientific  council,  which  might  be  a  scientific 
committee  of  the  Privy  Council,  in  dealing  primarily  with  the 
national  needs  in  times  of  peace,  would  be  a  source  of  strength 
to  the  nation. 

To  sum  up,  then.  My  earnest  appeal  to  you  is  to  gird  up 
your  loins  and  see  to  it  that  the  science  of  the  British  Empire 

i  Nature,  September  4,  1902. 
-  Tillies,  September  30,  1902. 


September  io,  1903] 


NATURE 


447 


shall  no  longer  remain  unorganised.  I  have  endeavoured  to 
point  out  to  you  how  the  nation  at  present  suffers  from  the 
absence  of  a  powerful,  continuous,  reasoned  expression  of  scien- 
tific opinion,  urging  in  season  and  out  of  season  that  we  shall 
be  armed  as  other  nations  are  with  efficient  universities  and 
facilities  for  research  to  uphold  the  flag  of  Britain  in  the 
domain  of  learning  and  discovery,  and  what  they  alone  can 
bring. 

I  have  also  endeavoured  to  show  how,  when  this  is  done,  the 
nation  will  still  be  less  strong  than  it  need  be  if  there  be  not 
added  to  our  many  existing  councils  another,  to  secure  that,  even 
during  peace,  the  benefits  which  a  proper  coordination  of 
scientific  effort  in  the  nation's  interest  can  bring  shall  not  be 
neglected  as  they  are  at  present. 

Lest  some  of  you  may  think  that  the  scientific  organisation 
which  I  trust  you  will  determine  to  found  would  risk  success  in 
working  on  such  large  lines,  let  me  remind  you  that  in  1859, 
when  the  late  Prince  Consort  occupied  this  chair,  he  referred  to 
"impediments"  to  scientific  progress,  and  said,  "  they  are  often 
such  as  can  only  be  successfully  dealt  with  by  the  powerful  arm 
of  the  State  or  the  long  purse  of  the  nation." 

If  the  Prince  Consort  had  lived  10  continue  his  advocacy  of 
science,  our  position  to-day  would  have  been  very  different. 
His  early  death  was  as  bad  for  Britain  as  the  loss  of  a  great 
campaign.  If  we  cannot  regain  what  we  have  lost,  matters  can- 
not   mend. 

I  have  done  what  I  feel  to  be  my  duty  in  bringing  the 
present  condition  of  things  before  you.  It  is  now  your  duty, 
if  you  agree  with  me,  to  see  that  it  be  put  right.  You  can  if 
you  will. 

SECTION  A. 
mathematics  and  physics. 

Opening  Address  by  Charles  Vernon   Boys,    F".R.S., 
President  of  the  Section. 

The  first  duty  of  every  occupant  of  this  Chair  is  a  sad 
one.  Year  by  year  the  record  grows  of  those  who  have 
devoted  their  lives  to  the  development  of  mathematical  and 
physical  science,  of  those  who  have  completed  their  work. 
The  past  year  has  added  many  names  to  the  record — more, 
it  seems,  than  its  fair  share.  The  names  include  some  of 
the  most  brilliant  and  active  of  our  race,  of  those  to  whom 
this  .Association  is  deeply  indebted,  and  also  of  our  fellow 
workmen  in  other  countries  whose  loss  is  no  less  to  be 
deplored. 

Lord  Salisbury's  devotion  to  the  empire,  of  which  this 
is  not  the  occasion  to  speak,  left  him  but  little  time  for 
those  scientific  pursuits  in  which  he  took  so  keen  an  interest. 
Once,  however,  as  President  of  this  Association,  he  showed 
our  members  that,  unlike  the  majority  of  our  statesmen, 
science  was  not  to  him  a  phantom.  His  Address  at  Oxford 
will  remain  in  the  memories  of  all  who  heard  it.  The 
eloquence,  the  humour,  the  satire,  the  subtlety  provided  an 
intellectual  treat  cf  the  rarest  kind. 

Of  Sir  Gecrge  Gabriel  Slokes  and  his  work  it  is  not 
possible  for  me  to  speak.  Any  attempt  on  my  part  to 
appreciate  or  gauge  the  value  of  the  work  of  such  a  giant 
would  be  an  impertinence.  This  can  only  fitly  be  done  by 
one  cf  our  leaders,  and  Lord  Kelvin  has  paid  a  fitting 
tribute  in  the  pages  of  Nature.  I  can  only  record  the  fact 
that  Stokes  was  for  seven  years  Secretary,  and  twice  Presi- 
dent of  this  Section,  ^nd  in  1869  was  President  of  the 
Association. 

Dr.  Gladstone,  for  fifty-three  years  a  member  of  this 
Association,  was  not  only  an  unfailing  attendant  at  our 
meetings,  but  an  active  member  whose  steady  stream  of 
original  communications  on  subjects  connecting  physics  and 
chemistry  earned  for  him  the  designation  of  Creator  of 
Physical  Chemistry.  His  investigations  on  spectroscopy, 
refractivity  and  electrclytics  are  known  to  every  student  of 
physics.  His  researches  upon  early  metallurgical  history, 
while  of  less  importance  to  the  progress  of  science,  are 
none  the  less  interesting.  .\n  ardent  apostle  of  education, 
he  was  for  twenty-one  years  a  member  of  the  London  School 
Board,  and  three  years  vice-chairman.  Dr.  Gladstone  was 
the  first  President  of  the  Physical  Society.  He  has  been 
President  of  the  Chemical  Society,  and  at  the  last  meeting 
of  the  British  Association  at  Southport — as  also  in  1872 — 
he  was  President  of  the  Chemical  Section.     So  long  ago,  he 


said,  in  urging  the  importance  of  science  as  a  factor  in 
education,  that  the  so-called  educated  classes  were  not  only 
ignorant  of  science,  but  had  not  arrived  at  the  knowledge 
of  their  own  ignorance. 

It  is  not  possible  to  pass  on  without  paying  a  tribute, 
in  which  all  who  knew  Dr.  Gladstone  will  share,  to  his 
character  no  less  than  to  his  genius. 

Sir  William  Roberts-Austen  was  probably  one  of  the  most 
active  members  that  this  Association  has  known.  Not  only 
had  he  for  many  years  made  the  subject  of  metals  and 
alloys  his  own,  but  he  worked  for  the  Association  in  many 
wavs.  At  three  meetings  have  audiences  been  charmed  by 
his'  fascinating  and  brilliant  evening  lectures,  all  relating 
to  metals.  He  was  President  of  the  Chemical  Section  at 
the  Cardiff  meeting  in  1891,  and  not  only  did  he  perform 
these  duties,  but  he  accepted  the  more  laborious  and  more 
thankless  task,  for  which  his  unfailing  courtesy  and  tact 
so  well  fitted  him,  of  acting  as  our  General  Secretary  for 
four  years.  His  labours  in  the  important  field  of  research 
which  he  tilled  were  appreciated  by  numerous  technical 
societies  and  institutions  of  which  he  was  an  honorary 
member,  or  had  been  president  or  vice-president.  Many 
branches  of  the  public  service  had  the  advantage  of  his  skill 
and  experience,  which  received  the  official  reward  in  1899. 

Dr.  Common's  skill  as  a  designer  and  constructor  of 
instruments  was  well  known.  His  instinct  or  judgment  in 
producing  planes  and  figured  concave  mirrors  of  great 
dimensions  was  rare,  for  this  is  an  art  almost  unknown  in 
the  laboratory.  His  generosity  and  his  valu'able  advice  have 
been  appreciated  by  many  besides  myself. 

Rev  H  W.  Watson,  Second  Wrangler  and  Smith  s  Prize- 
man in  1850.  was  a  Vice-President  of  the  British  Associ- 
ation in  18S6.  Mathematical  physicists  are  familiar  with 
the  joint  work  of  himself  and  Burbury  on  Generalised 
Co-ordinates,"  and  with  his  mathematical  articles. 

In  Otto  Hilger,  the  brother  of  the  late  Adam  Hilger, 
who  between  them  brought  to  this  country  German 
thoroughness  and  French  skill  in  instrument  manufacture, 
we  have  lost  one  of  our  first  and  most  valuable  constructors. 
Noted  for  the  high  class  of  all  the  optical  work  turned  out 
bv  the  firm.  Otto  Hilger  was  not  afraid  of  attacking  the 
problem  of  manufacturing  the  Michelson  echelon  grating. 
This   little   bundle   of   glass   plates   requires   for   its   success 


perfection  and  precision  commen 


surable  only  with  the  genius 


of  the  inventor.     This  Otto  Hilger  supplied. 

Dean  Farrar,  a  life  member  of  the  British  Association, 
whose  activity  lay  in  another  direction,  showed  his  appreci- 
ation of  the  value  of  science  in  education  by  appointing  the 
first  science  master  at  Marlborough  when  he  became  head- 
master in  the  year  1870.  As  I  was  a  boy  at  the  school  at 
that  time,  I  can  speak  of  the  incredulity  with  vvhich  such 
an  announcement  was  at  first  received  and  of  the  general 
feeling  that  such  an  action  was  akin  to  a  ]oke.  I  was, 
however  by  no  means  the  onlv  boy  who  hailed  the  news 
with  delight.  We  devoured  the  feast  of  chemistry  and 
physics  put  before  us  by  Rodwell  and  the  books  which  at 
once  became  available.  Out  of  gratitude  to  the  late  Dean 
of  Canterbury  I  recall  this  episode. 

lames  Wimshurst,  the  inventor  of  the  influence  machine 
which  has  carried  his  name  into  every  corner  of  the  scien- 
tific world  was  not  a  member  of  this  Association,  but  he 
fostered  and  encouraged  the  scientific  spirit  in  young  men 
who  bv  good  fortune,  came  to  know  him.  I  do  not  think 
I  have'  heard  anyone  spoken  of  with  such  gratitude  and 
appreciation  as  VVimshurst,  by  men  who  in  their  younger 
days  were  allowed  the  run  of  his  well-equipped  workshop. 

Tames  Glaisher,  best  known  as  a  balloonist  in  the  sixties, 
has  died  at  the  great  age  of  ninety-three.  1  he  balloon 
ascent  with  Coxwell  on  September  5,  1862,  when  they 
attained  the  altitude  of  37,000  feet,  will  long  remain  in  the 
popular  imagination,  not  on  account  simply  of  the  great 
altitude,  but  by  reason  of  the  sensational  account  of  their 
having  been  paralysed  with  cold,  and  of  their  being  able 
to  stop  the  ever-increasing  ascent  onlv  by  the  presence  of 
mind  of  Coxwell,  who,  with  his  limbs  frozen,  seized  the 
valve  rope  with  his  teeth,  and  so  let  out  the  gas. 

While  this  event  remains  in  everyone's  mind,  the  more 
prosaic  work  of  Glaisher  in  astronomy,  meteorology,  and 
photography,  when  most  of  us  were  children,  and  many 
yet  unborn;  led  to  his  being  elected  president  of  various 
learned  societies. 


NO.    T767,  VOL.   68] 


448 


NATURE 


[September  io,  1903 


He  gave  one  of  the  evening  lectures  of  the  British 
Association  in  1863,  the  subject  being  balloon  ascents. 

A.  F.  Osier,  the  inventor  of  the  self-recording  direction 
and  pressure  anemometer  and  rain  gauge,  whose  active 
meteorological  work  was  carried  out  in  the  first  half  of  the 
last  century,  when  he  contributed  papers  to  the  British 
Association  and  the  Literary  and  Philosophical  Society  of 
Birmingham,  has  died  at  the  still  greater  age  of  ninety- 
five.  He  was  Vice-President  of  the  British  Association  in 
1865. 

Of  other  countries,  America  has  lost  Prof.  J.  Willard 
Gibbs,  a  mathematical  physicist  whose  very  learned  and 
original  contributions  to  the  knowledge  of  the  world  on  the 
thermodynamical  properties  of  bodies,  on  vectors,  the  kinetic 
theory  of  gases,  and  other  abstruse  subjects,  have  received 
the  highest  recognition  that  the  learned  societies  of  this 
country  can  bestow.  Prof.  Harkness,  the  astronomer,  and 
Prof.  Rood,  the  skilled  experimental  physicist  of  Troy,  have 
also  maintained  the  high  standard  that  we  now  look  for  in 
American  science. 

Germany  has  lost  Prof.  Deichmiiller,  Professor  of 
Astronomy  at  Bonn,  at  an  early  age.  Sweden  has  lost  Prof. 
Bjerknes,  whose  hydrodynamical  experiments  showing 
attraction  and  repulsion  were  so  much  admired  when  he  per- 
formed them  at  a  meeting  of  the  Physical  Society  some 
twenty-five  years  ago.  Switzerland  has  lost  Prof.  C.  Dufour, 
the  astronomer  ;  and  Italy  has  lost  Prof.  Luigi  Cremona,  a 
foreign  member  of  this  Association,  Principal  of  the 
Engineering  School  in  Rome,  whose  contributions  to  pure 
geometry  and  to  its  applications  have  made  him  famous. 

Of  the  events  of  the  last  year,  one  stands  out  beyond  all 
others,  not  only  for  its  intrinsic  importance  and  revolutionary 
possibilities,  but  for  the  excitement  that  it  has  raised  among 
the  general  public.  The  discovery  by  Prof,  and  Madame 
Curie  of  what  seems  to  be  the  everlasting  production  of  heat 
in  easily  measurable  quantity  by  a  minute  amount  of  a 
radium  compound  is  so  amazing  that,  even  now  that  many  of 
us  have  had  the  opportunity  of  seeing  with  our  own  eyes  the 
heated  thermometer,  we  hardly  are  able  to  believe  what  we 
see.  This,  which  can  barely  be  distinguished  from  the  dis- 
covery of  perpetual  motion,  which  it  is  an  axiom  of  science 
to  call  impossible,  has  left  every  chemist  and  physicist  in  a 
state  of  bewilderment.  Added  to  this.  Sir  William  Crookes 
has  devised  an  experiment,  characteristic  of  him,  if  I  may  say 
so,  in  which  a  particle  of  radium  keeps  a  screen  bombarded 
for  ever,  so  it  seems,  each  collision  producing  a  microscopic 
flash  of  light,  the  dancing  and  multitude  of  which  forcibly 
compel  the  imagination  to  follow  the  reasoning  faculties,  and 
realise  the  existence  of  atomic  tumult.  Thanks  to  the  in- 
dustry and  genius  of  J.  J.  Thomson,  Rutherford  and  Soddy, 
Sir  William  and  Lady  Huggins,  Dewar  and  Ramsay,  and 
others  in  this  country,  besides  Prof,  and  Madame  Curie  and 
a  host  of  others  abroad,  this  mystery  is  being  attacked,  and 
theories  are  being  invented  to  account  for  the  marvellous  re- 
sults of  observation  ;  but  the  theories  themselves  would  a  few 
years  ago  have  seemed  more  wonderful  and  incredible  than 
the  facts,  as  we  believe  them  to  be,  do  to-day.  An  atom  of 
radium  can  constantly  produce  an  emanation,  that  is  some- 
thing like  a  gas,  which  escapes  and  carries  with  it  wonderful 
properties  ;  but  the  atom,  the  thing  which  cannot  be  divided, 
remains,  and  retains  its  weight.  The  emanation  is  truly 
wonderful.  It  is  self-luminous,  it  is  condensed  by  extreme  cold 
and  vaporises  again  ;  it  can  be  watched  as  it  oozes  through 
stopcocks  or  hurries  through  tubes,  but  in  amount  it  is  so 
small  that  it  has  not  yet  been  weighed.  Sir  William  Ramsay 
has  treated  it  with  a  chemical  cruelty  that  would  well-nigh 
have  annihilated  the  most  refractory  or  permanent  known 
element ;  but  this  evanescent  emanation  comes  out  of  the 
ordeal  undimmed  and  undiminished. 

Not  content  with  manufacturing  so  remarkable  a  sub- 
stance, the  radium  atom  sends  out  three  kinds  of  rays,  one 
kind  being  much  the  same  as  Rontgen  rays,  but  wholly  dif- 
ferent in  ionising  power,  according  to  the  experiments  of 
Strutt.  Each  of  these  consists  of  particles  which  are  shot 
out,  but  they  have  different  penetrative  power  ;  they  are  dif- 
ferently deflected  by  magnets  and  also  by  electricity,  and  the 
quantity  of  electricity  in  relation  to  the  weight  is  different, 
and  yet  the  atom,  the  same  atom,  remains  unchanged  and 
unchangeable.  Not  only  this,  but  radium  or  its  emanations 
or  its  rays  must  gradually  create  other  bodies  different  from 

NO.    1767,  VOL.  68] 


radium,  and  thus,  so  we  are  told,  one  at  least  of  those  new 
gases    which  but  yesterday  were  discovered    has  its  origin. 

Then,  again,  just  as  these  gases  have  no  chemical 
properties,  so  the  radium  which  produces  them  in  some  re- 
spects behaves  in  a  manner  contrary  to  that  of  all  proper 
chemicals.  It  does  not  lose  its  power  of  creating  heat  even 
at  the  extreme  cold  of  liquid  air,  while  at  the  greater  degree 
of  cold  of  liquid  hydrogen  its  activity  is  found  by  Prof.  Dewar 
to  be  actually  greater. 

Unlike  old-fashioned  chemicals  which,  when  they  are 
formed,  have  all  their  properties  properly  developed,  radium 
and  its  salts  take  a  month  before  they  have  acquired  their 
full  power  (so  Dewar  tells  us),  and  then,  for  anything  we 
know  to  the  contrary,  proceed  to  manufacture  heat  eman- 
ations, three  kinds  of  rays,  electricity,  and  gases  for  ever. 
For  ever  ;  well,  perhaps  not  for  ever,  but  for  so  long  a  time 
that  the  loss  of  weight  in  a  year,  calculated,  I  suppose,  rather 
than  observed,  is  next  to  nothing.  Prof.  Rutherford  believes 
that  thorium  or  uranium,  which  act  in  the  same  kind  of  way, 
but  with  far  less  vigour,  would  last  a  million  years  before 
there  was  nothing  left,  or  at  least  before  they  were  worn 
out ;  while  the  radium,  preferring  a  short  life  and  a  merry 
one,  could  not  expect  to  exist  for  more  than  a  few  thousand 
years. 

In  this  time  one  gramme  of  radium  would  evolve  one 
thousand  million  heat  units,  sufficient,  if  converted  into  work, 
to  raise  five  hundred  tons  a  mile  high  ;  whereas  a  gramme  of 
hydrogen,  our  best  fuel,  burned  in  oxygen,  only  yields  thirty- 
four  thousand  heat-units,  or  one  thirty-thousandth  part  of 
the  output  of  radium.  I  believe  that  this  is  no  exaggeration 
of  what  we  are  told  and  of  what  is  believed  to  be  experi- 
mentally proved  with  regard  to  radium  ;  but  if  the  half  of 
it  is  true  the  term  "  the  mystery  of  radium  "  is  inadequate  : 
the  miracle  of  radium  is  the  only  expression  that  can  be 
employed. 

With  all  this  mystery  before  us,  which  I  must  confess  my- 
self wholly  unable  to  follow,  I  feel  sure  that  members  of  the 
Association  who  are  interested  in  the  work  of  this  Section 
will  welcome  the  discussion,  for  which  oui-  secretaries  have 
been  able  to  arrange,  and  hear  from  the  lips  of  Prof.  Ruther- 
ford the  conclusions  to  which  his  researches  have  at  present 
brought  him.  No  one  is  more  fitted  than  Prof.  Rutherford 
to  open  such  a  discussion,  for  no  one  has  attacked  the  theo- 
retical side  with  such  originality  and  daring,  or  with  such 
ingenuity  of  experiment. 

As  an  example  of  the  activity  of  mind  and  of  research  to 
which  the  activity  of  radium  has  given  rise,  I  may  mention 
the  fact  that  the  last  number  of  the  Proceedings  of  the  Royal 
Society  is  wholly  concerned  with  radium,  there  being  four 
papers,  all  of  the  first  importance,  dealing  with  entirely  dif- 
ferent phenomena. 
i  It  is  not  my  purpose  to  review  these  or  the  subject  of 
radium  generally  ;  I  am  in  no  way  fitted  to  do  so.  But  I 
cannot  well  let  the  present  opportunity  pass  of  referring  to 
I  another  mystery  of  which  a  conspicuous  example  is  now 
j  leaving  us.  I  refer  to  the  mystery  of  the  comet  and  its 
I  tails.  What  is  a  comet?  of  what  does  its  tail  consist?  Gravi- 
tational astronomy  has  told  us  for  many  years  past  that  com- 
pared with  the  planets  or  their  satellites  a  comet  does  not 
weigh  anything.  It  weighs  pounds  or  perhaps  hundreds, 
thousands,  or  millions  of  tons  ;  but  in  comparison  with  in- 
conspicuous satellites  it  weighs  nothing.  Yet  some  of  them 
as  they  approach  the  sun  from  remote  regions  begin  to  shoot 
out  streamers  which  pour  away  as  though  repelled  by  the 
sun,  not  being  left  as  a  trail  behind  the  comet,  as  is  so  ofterr 
supposed.  These  streamers,  ejected  towards  the  sun,  bend 
round  and  pour  away  at  speeds  which  are  enormous  com- 
pared with  that  of  the  comet  itself,  thus  producing  the  taiL 
Now  these  streams  separate  very  often,  and  give  rise  to 
comets  with  two  or  three  tails.  Let  me  read  one  paragraph 
from  "  The  History  of  Astronomy,"  by  Miss  Gierke  : — 

"  The  amount  of  tail  curvature,  he  [Olbers]  pointed  out, 
depends  in  each  case  upon  the  proportion  borne  by  the 
velocity  of  the  ascending  particles  to  that  of  the  comet  in  its 
orbit ;  the  swifter  the  outrush  the  straighter  the  approach- 
ing tail.  But  the  velocity  of  the  ascending  particles  varies 
with  the  energy  of  their  repulsion  by  the  sun,  and  this  again, 
it  may  be  presumed,  by  their  quality.  Thus  multiple  tails 
are  developed  when  the  same  comet  throws  off,  as  it  ap- 
proaches perihelion,  specifically  distinct  substances.  The 
long  straight  ray  which  proceeded  from  the  comet  of  1807, 


September  io,  1903] 


NATURE 


449 


for  example,  was  doubtless  made  up  of  particles  subject  to  a 
much  more  vigorous  solar  repulsion  than  those  formed  into 
th?  shorter  curved  emanation  issuing  from  it  nearly  in  the 
same  direction.  In  the  comet  of  1811  he  calculated  that 
the  particles  expelled  from  the  head  travelled  to  the  remote 
extremity  of  the  tail  in  eleven  minutes,  indicating  by  this 
enormous  rapidity  of  movement  (comparable  to  that  of  the 
transmission  of  light)  the  action  of  a  force  much  more 
powerful  than  the  opposing  one  of  gravity.  The  not  un- 
common phenomena  of  multiple  envelopes,  on  the  other 
hand,  he  explained,  are  due  to  the  varying  amounts  of 
repulsion  exercised  by  the  nucleus  itself  on  the  different 
kinds  of  matter  developed  from  it." 

It  is  impossible  not  to  be  struck  by  the  similarity  both  of 
phenomenon  described  and  of  language  used  in  this  para- 
graph and  in  almost  any  of  (he  papers  on  radium.  I  know 
this  mere  superficial  similarity  is  worth  very  little,  if  any- 
thing ;  but  for  centuries  the  sky  has  shown  us  a  pheno- 
menon still  not  entirely  understood,  and  the  inability  to 
remove  all  difficulty  by  the  aid  of  radium  or  similar  material 
is  no  reason  for  dismissing  the  idea  of  connection  without 
further  thought. 

The  comet's  tail  is  still  a  mystery.  Let  me  take  the  most 
recent  explanation,  which  was  set'  forth  only  three  months 
ago  in  the  Astrophysical  Journal  in  the  United  States. 
Those  admirable  experimentalists  Nichols  and  Hull  have 
for  some  years  been  investigating  the  back  pressure  exerted 
by  the  action  of  light  upon  bodies  on  which  it  falls.  In 
this  they  have  followed  the  Russian  physicist  Lebedew,  but 
in  minuteness  and  delicacy  of  measurement,  and  in  their 
successful  elimination  of  disturbances,  their  results  are  un- 
equalled. It  is  sufficient  to  say  that,  difficult  and  minute 
as  the  experiment  is,  their  success  is  such  that  the  dis- 
crepancy between  the  calculated  force  and  that  which  thev 
have  found  is  under  i  per  cent.  Perhaps  I  may  express 
some  satisfaction  that  in  this  measurement  use  was  made 
of  the  quartz  fibre. 

Having  now  definite  and  accurate  confirmation  of  the 
existence  of  the  fcrce  produced  by  the  action  of  light,  or 
rather  radiation,  Nichols  and  Hull  proceed  to  examine  the 
question  as  to  how  far  such  repulsion  may  be  competent 
to  overcome  the  gravitative  attraction  of  the  sun  and  drive 
away  the  matter  which  pours  out  from  the  comet.  It  is 
interesting  to  note  here  that  Kepler  put  forward  this  very 
idea,  and  that  Newton,  the  inventor  of  the  corpuscular 
theory  of  light,  looked  upon  the  suggestion  with  some 
favour. 

Coming  now  to  this  recent  paper  of  Nichols  and  Hull, 
we  find  first  the  consideration  of  the  relation  of  the  attrac- 
tion by  gravitation,  and  the  repulsion  by  light  upon  par- 
tirles  of  different  sizes  and  densities.  '  Densitv  has  no 
influence  on  the  action  of  light,  while  it  is  favourable  to 
,u;iavitation,  and  therefore  unfavourable  to  tail  formation, 
size  is  favourable  to  both,  but  more  to  gravitation  than  to 
light,  for  if  the  diameter  of  a  particle  be  doubled,  one  is 
increased  eightfold  and  the  other  only  four.  So  size  favours 
gravitational  attraction.  Conversely,  of  course,  smallness 
favours  repulsion  by  light,  which  relatively  should  get 
LTreater  and  greater  as  the  particles  diminish  in  size.  At 
last,  then,  a  degree  of  smallness  may  be  reached  in  which 
the  repulsion  by  light  will  actually  be'equal  to  the  attraction 
by  gravitation,  and  such  a  particle  would  remain  in  space, 
its  motion  unaffected  by  our  sun.  Let  the  diminution  of 
size  continue,  and  then  the  repulsion  will  be  in  excess,  and 
if  the  law  were  to  continue  it  would  with  sufficient  diminu- 
tion become  relatively  as  large  as  we  please. 

The  law,  however,  does  not  continue.     Schwarzschild  has 
shown  that  when  the  particles  are  small  enough,  light  does 
not  act  upon  them  in  the  same  way.     Owing  to  diffraction, 
the  effect  of  light  is  unduly  great  for  a  certain  very  small 
size   of    particle,    while    it    fails    almost    entirelv    when    the  I 
particle   is    made    much    smaller.     Thus    it    is    that    the    in- 
definite increase  in  the  repulsion  by  light  as  compared  with  ' 
the    attraction    by    gravitation    with    diminution    of    size    of 
particle  is  checked,  and  when,  according  to  theory,  with  a  I 
particular   density   of   particle,    the   light   pressure'  is   about  i 
twenty   times  as  great   as  gravitational   attraction,    further 
diminution  of  size  ceases  to  f;:vcur  the  action  of  light,  and 
it    begins   to   fall   off   again.     The   distance   cf   the   parlide 
from  the  sun  has  no  influence  upon  the  relation  between  the 


two  kinds  cf  forces,  for  they  rise  and  fall  together.  Nichols 
and  Hull,  therefore,  while  not  denying  that  other  causes 
may  operate,  believe  that  light  pressure  is  adequate  to 
account  for  the  phenomena,  and  that  where  the  material 
coming  from  the  head  or  comet  proper  is  of  two  or  three 
kinds,  whether  of  density  or  of  size  of  particle,  the  separ- 
ation of  the  two  or  three  tails  should  naturally  follow. 

This  theory  presupposes  that  the  nucleus  of  a  comet  will 
be  able,  owing  to  the  evolution  of  gas  under  the  sun's  heat, 
to  send  out  enormous  quantities  of  dust,  the  finer  and 
lighter  the  better,  so  long  as  it  is  not  unduly  small  with 
respect  to  a  wave-length  of  light.  Such  dust  would  account 
for  any  reflected  solar  light  that  the  spectroscope  may  show, 
but  it  is  not  easy  to  see  how  the  spectrum  of  hydrocarbons, 
of  sodium,  and  of  other  metal,  should  be  produced  for  lack 
of  temperature.  It  is  not  easy,  to  see  why  fortuitous  dust 
should  be  graded  of  such  sizes  as  to  give  well  separated  and 
defined  tails  ;  it  is  not  easy  to  see  how  the  dust  could  be 
produced  in  sufficient  quantity  to  provide  visible  illumin- 
ation to  millions  of  millions  of  cubic  miles  of  space  through 
which  it  may  be  passing  at  ultra-planetary  velocity,  even 
though  in  looking  through  a  million  miles  or  so  one  grain 
of  dust  in  a  hundred  miles  might  suffice  to  supply  the  light. 

Other  theories  of  the  comet's  tail  require  an  electrified 
sun,  the  existence  of  which  is  explained  by  .Arrhenius  as 
being  caused  by  the  emission  by  the  sun  of  negatively 
charged  electrons  which,  picking  up  condensing  gases  as 
Aitken's  dust  picks  up  moisture  from  the  atmosphere,  are 
driven  away  by  the  light  pressure.  Arrhenius  believes  that 
these  acting  on  the  matter  in  the  tail  would  give  rise  to 
the  bright  line  spectra  which  have  been  observed.  The 
result  of  all  this  escape  of  negative  electricity  is  a  positively 
charged  sun,  but  what  limits  the  charge  in  the  sun  it  is  as 
difficult  to  see,  as  it  is,  why  the  electrostatic  attraction 
helped  by  gravitation  does  not  ultimately  stop  the  action. 
I  mav  be  displaying  my  ignorance,  of  which  I  am  sufficiently 
sensible,  but  I  am  not  aware  of  any  evidence  for  the 
existence  of  the  stream  of  electrified  grains  or  drops  im- 
agined bv  Arrhenius. 

Nichols  and  Hull,  while  calling  to  their  aid  the  researches 
of  Schwarzschild  to  give  them  a  repulsive  force  some  twenty 
times  as  great  as  gravitative  attraction,  do  not  seem  to 
have  given  due  weight  to  the  extremely  small  range  of  size 
of  particle  for  which  this  high  effect  is  available.  The 
maximum  effect  for  any  wave-length  according  to  Schwarz- 
schild is  produced,  when  the  size  is  such  that  a  wave-length 
will  just  reach  round  it ;  that  is,  with  ordinary  light  when 
the  diameter  is  between  one  hundred  thousandth  and  one 
hundred  and  fifty  thousandth  of  an  inch.  If  the  diameter 
is  two-and-a-half  times  the  wave-length  the  action  of  light 
is  only  equal  to  gravity  with  a  material  of  the  density  of 
water  ;  or  again,  if  it  is  reduced  to  one-eighth  of  a  wave- 
length it  again  becomes  equal,  and  in  these  two  cases 
there  is  no  resultant  action.  With  either  larger  or  smaller 
particles  gravity  rapidly  gets  the  better  of  light,  while  the 
high  advantage  of  light  over  gravity  is  confined  to  very 
narrow  limits. 

What  the  sifting  process  can  be  that  will  give  rise  to 
such  a  quantity  of  this  microscopic  dust  we  can  hardly 
expect  to  be  told,  nor  why  even  if  tTie  material  should  in 
some  mysterious  way  be  graded,  the  ungraded  wave-lengths 
of  the  solar  spectruiri  should  allow  of  the  marked  separation 
in  some  instances  of  comets'  tails. 

One  thing,  however,  they  do  assert,  and  that  is  that  the 
light  pressure  can  have  no  action  on  a  gas,  so  that  if  what 
we  see  is  considered  to  be  gaseous  the  light  pressure  theory 
must  be  thrown  over  for  some  other. 

I  cannot  leave  this  excursion  of  Nichols  and  Hull  into 
a  speculative  domain  of  science  without  expressing  my 
admiration  of  the  experimental  work  which  they  have 
accomplished,  and  my  appreciation  of  the  ingenuity  and 
daring  with  which  they  have  attempted  the  hitherto 
up.heard-of  feat  of  making  a  comet. 

\\  hile  the  theory  just  referred  to  may  be  the  most  recent 
it  must  net  on  that  account  be  supposed  to  displace  all  that 
has  gone  before  ;  the  authors  themselves  do  ret  sueeest  this  ; 
it  is  the  last  thing  that  would  occur  to  them.  They  have 
referred  to  the  researches  of  Bredechin  that  occupy  so  large 
a  proportion  of  the  annals  of  the  Observatory  of  Sloscow. 

It  is  impossible  to  read  even  a  tithe  of  these  without  feel- 
ing that  the  subject  of  comets  and  their  tails  is  one  which 


NO.    1767,   VOL.   68] 


450 


NA  TURE 


[September  io,  1903 


Bredechin,  by  his  amazing  industry,  has  made  his  own  pro- 
perty, aad  that  any  stranger  casually  passing  by  and  taking 
a  random  shot  should  receive  the  severe  penalty  awarded  to 
poachers  in  this  country.  Bredechin  has  dealt  unmercifully 
— I  do  not  say  unjustly — with  the  author  of  at  least  one  such 
random  theory. 

It  is  therefore  with  the  greater  diffidence  and  more  urgent 
plea  for  forbearance  that  I  venture  to  draw  certain  parallels 
and  hazard  certain  suggestions  which  I  admit  freely  have  not 
reached  a  stage  at  which  detailed  comparisons  with  known 
comets  are  possible. 

It  does  not  seem  possible  now  to  contemplate  the 
phenomena  of  the  comet,  of  the  divided  tails,  of  their 
tenuity  and  transparency,  of  the  pale  luminosity,  partly 
reflected  solar  light,  partly  light  as  from  a  glowing  gas ;  of 
the  gradual  wearing  out  and  disappearance  of  those  comets 
which  constantly  pay  visits  to  solar  regions,  with  all  the 
mysteries  of  radium  now  so  much  in  evidence  without  tracing 
the  features  in  which  they  resemble  one  another.  By  radium, 
of  course,  I  mean  any  material  with  the  remarkable  radio- 
active properties  that  radium  exhibits  with  such  pre-eminent 
splendour,  whether  known  in  the  laboratory  or  not. 

How  many  physicists  have  been  peering  at  comets  through 
radium  spectacles,  or  how  many  astronomers  detect  the 
sparkle  of  radium  in  the  fairy  tresses  of  their  hirsute  stars  I 
know  not.  One  writer,  however,  T.  C.  Chamberlin,  so 
long  ago  as  July,  1901,  looked  upon  a  connection  between 
radio-active  materials  such  as  were  then  known  and  comets 
as  at  least  worth  considering.  Chamberlin 's  paper  in  the 
Astrophysical  Journal  was  mainly  on  the  tidal  disruption  of 
gravitating  bodies  and  the  possible  evolution  of  comets, 
nebulae  and  meteorites,  and  he  did  not  pursue  this  consider- 
ation in  any  detail  ;  indeed,  the  enormous  accumulation  of 
new  properties  of  radium  was  not  then  available. 

Whatever  may  be  imagined  as  to  the  constitution  of  a 
comet,  difficulties  still  remain.  All  I  suggest  now  is  that 
the  curious  properties  of  radium  and  of  similar  bodies  should 
be  kept  in  mind.  Radium  at  least  supplies  the  means  by 
which,  if  the  increasing  warmth  or  the  tidal  action  of  the 
sun  should  awaken  its  activity,  Rutherford's  a-rays  should 
be  shot  out  at  the  speed  that  he  has  measured  of  a  thousand 
million  inches  a  second,  i.e.  one-twelfth  the  velocity  of  light. 
These  a-rays,  according  to  Rutherford,  consist  of  helium  ; 
they  weigh  each  twice  as  much  as  a  hydrogen  atom,  and  so 
the  same  weight  of  comet  matter  that  would  make  one  of 
Nichols  and  Hull's  best  particles,  i.e.  one  that  would  be  just 
visible  with  a  microscope,  would  be  sufficient  for  about  400 
millions  of  Rutherford's  o-ray  particles,  an  advantage  surely 
where  diffuseness  seems  so  miraculous. 

These  particles,  shot  out  at  a  velocity  one-twelfth  that  of 
light,  go  so- fast  that,  if  they  were  to  start  horizontally  on  the 
surface  of  the  earth,  the  gravitative  attraction  of  the  earth 
would  curve  their  path  to  the  infinitesimal  extent  of  a  curve 
with  a  radius  of  forty  thousand  million  miles.  Yet  so  great 
is  the  electric  charge  they  carry  that  a  visible  curvature  can 
be  imposed  upon  them  in  a  practicable  electrostatic  field. 

Now  imagine  these  transferred  into  space  at  a  distance 
from  the  sun,  for  instance,  equal  to  that  of  Venus.  Gravity 
there  due  to  the  sun  is  only  one-thousandth  of  what  it  is  here, 
so  gravity  there  would  be,  to  the  same  extent,  less  able  to 
impose  visible  curvature  on  their  paths.  But  their  electric 
charges  are.  still  available,  and  unless  I  have  made  an  arith- 
metical blunder  of  a  considerable  order,  it  would  require  no 
very  heavy  electrification  of  the  sun  to  bend  these  rays  round 
in  a  curve  with  a  radius  of  1000  miles.  An  electrostatic  field 
of  under  t\yo  ten-thousandths  of  a  unit  should  be  sufficient,  a 
field  which  would  be  produced  if  the  sun  were  only  charged 
with  a  surface  density  of  one  electrostatic  unit  on  every 
three  square  centimetres. 

Whether  these  figures  are  correct  or  not — ^and  I  know  the 
risk  of  getting  just  thirt\  thousand  million  times  too  large  or 
too  small  a  result — does  not  much  matter.  An  electrified  sun, 
which  after  all  others  besides  Arrhenius  have  postulated, 
would  be  sufficient  to  turn  the  rays  and  send  them  away  at 
rapidly  increasing  speed  so  as  to  form  the  tail.  The  speed 
would  in  a  short  time  reach  the  velocity  of  light  if  it  were  not 
for  the  change  in  properties  of  matter  which  supervenes 
when  any  such  velocity  is  nearly  reached.  Thus,  according 
to  the  ratio  of  charge  to  mass,  particles  such  as  Rutherford's 
o-rays  would  be  sent  away  each  with  its  limiting  velocity, 
giving  rise  to  streaks  more  or  less  well  defined,  and  double, 

NO.    1767,  VOL.   68] 


triple,  or  multiple  according  to  the  number  of  kinds  of  ray 
which  the  various  radio-active  materials  were  able  to 
generate. 

Not  only  should  streaks  pointing  away  from  the  sun  be 
formed,  but  any  negatively  charged  rays  such  as  radium  is 
said  to  give  out  should  form  a  tail  directed  towards  the  sun. 
Perhaps  this  might  be  expected  to  be  general,  but  while  not 
common  one  was  described  by  Hind  in  the  comet  of  1823-24, 
and  three  or  four  more  have  been  observed. 

The  head  or  coma  would  be  the  envelope  of  all  the  in- 
dependent orbits,  leaving  the  nucleus  in  all  directions — orbits 
which  while  their  velocities  are  still  of  the  Rutherford  order 
would  be  hyperbolas  convex  to  the  sun. 

If  this  should  not  appear  to  be  absolute  nonsense  it  would 
seem  as  if  another  difficulty  should  become  less  than  it  has 
been.  I  refer  to  the  visibility,  luminosity,  and  spectral 
character. 

Lodge,  as  an  interpreter  of  Larmor,  tells  us  that  an  elec- 
trified ion  subject  to  acceleration,  whether  transverse  or  in 
the  line  of  motion,  radiates  energy.  The  streamers  from  the 
nucleus  subject  to  the  greatest  acceleration  may  be  bright 
almost  as  the  nucleus  itself ;  then,  as  they  have  become  dis- 
sipated into  regions  where  far  less  acceleration  becomes  pos- 
sible, the  radiation  falls  off  and  the  tail  is  lost  in  space. 

The  observations  made  last  month  by  Sir  William  and 
Lady  Huggins  of  the  spectrum  given  by  a  piece  of  radium 
in  the  air  may  have  some  bearing  upon  the  luminosity  of  the 
comet.  It  is  possible  that  the  internal  motions  set  up  by  the 
separate  parts,  each  pursuing  its  individual  orbit,  may  pro- 
duce collisions  numerous  and  violent  enough  to  account  for 
all  the  light  that  is  seen,  and  for  temperature  sufficient  to 
bring  out  the  spectral  lines  that  have  been  identified. 
Whether  this  is  so  or  not,  radio-active  bodies  and  their  emana- 
tions can  produce  light  independently  of  such  action  ;  and  now 
these  observers  have  found  that  in  the  case  of  radium  in  air 
this  light  gives  the  spectrum,  line  by  line,  of  nitrogen.  Is  it 
possible  that  the  enveloping  nitrogen  has  had  its  atoms  so 
harried  by  the  activity  of  the  radium  as  to  give  a  response 
hitherto  only  awakened  by  electric  discharge?  The  ability  to 
obtain  such  a  response  opens  up  a  new  possible  interpreta- 
tion of  these  spectra,  which  hitherto  have  been  assumed,  with 
our  laboratory  experience  only  to  guide  us,  to  have  required 
for  their  production  temperature  above  a  red  heat.  li 
further  observation  should  confirm  this,  the  hydrogen,  the 
hydrocarbon,  and  possibly  even  the  sodium  or  iron  spectrum 
that  has  been  observed,  may  have  come  from  cold  atoms  ; 
and  it  is  not  even  quite  beyond  the  limits  of  imagination  to 
picture,  not  from  the  comet  matter  itself,  but  from  loose 
residual  and  highly  attenuated  matter  through  which  the 
comet  is  passing. 

There  is  one  other  feature  of  this  remarkable  observation 
of  equal  interest.  The  lines  of  the  spectrum  were  not 
exactly  in  their  proper  place,  but  were  all  shifted  towards  the 
red  end  of  the  spectrum  about  twice  the  distance  between 
the  D  lines.  If  only  one  or  two  lines  had  been  so  observed 
a  different  origin  might  well  have  been  suspected  ;  but  when 
the  whole  series  are  faithfully  reproduced  it  is  reasonable  to 
look  upon  the  spectrum  as  modified  to  that  extent  as  though 
the  works  of  the  nitrogen  atom  had  not  only  been  set  in 
movement,  but  had  been  loaded  with  the  radium  emanation. 
Before  dismissing  these  random  speculations  on  the  pos- 
sible connection  between  radio-activity  and  comets  I  would 
ask  your  leave  to  refer  once  more  to  Bredechin 's  conclusions. 
He  has  found  that  it  is  merely  necessary  to  postulate  three 
kinds  of  matter,  issuing  from  the  nucleus  with  three  initial 
velocities,  and  subject  to  repulsion  from  the  sun  with  three  sets 
of  forces  of  repulsion — i.e.  as  compared  with  ordinary  gravita- 
tive attraction — for  the  whole  of  the  phenomena  of  all  sorts 
of  comets  to  be  very  completely  accounted  for.  His  highest 
initial  velocity  is  only  about  five  miles  a  second,  and  his 
lowest  about  a  quarter  of  a  mile  a  second.  His  highest 
repulsion,  after  deducting  gravitative  attraction,  is  only 
eleven  times  gravity,  and  his  lowest  only  a  fifth  of  gravity. 
If,  then,  with  such'velocities  and  forces  the  phenomena  can 
be  exactly  accounted  for,  it  would  seem  futile  to  consider 
the  possibility  of  initial  velocities  from  4000  to  80,000  times 
as  great  and  effective  repulsions  of  a  corresponding  order 
being  able  to  produce  effects  with  anything  in  common. 
This  is  not  necessarily  the  case,  for  with  the  comparatively 
slow  separation  of  the  atoms  of  Bredechin 's  matter  from 
the  nucleus,   each  one  describing  its  own  hyperbola  convex 


September  io,  1903] 


NATURE 


45 


to  the  sun,  liie  »ail  at  any  moment  represents  the  then  posi- 
tion of  any  number  of  atoms  which  left  the  nucleus  for 
some  distance  back,  whereas  with  the  enormous  velocities 
and  effective  forces  now  discussed  the  comet  moves  so 
slowly  in  comparison  that  the  tail  would  practically  repre- 
sent the  path  at  the  time. 

It  has  taken  me  far  longer  to  throw  out  this  not  very 
luminous  ray  than  I  had  expected  or  than  it  is  worth.  I 
tear  that  it  is  a  sort  of  ray  in  which  the  ratio  of  its  dead 
\v,eight  to  its  vitalising  charge  is  too  small  to  enable  it  to 
penetrate  the  lightest  screen  of  examination. 

These  are  the  days  of  rays,  and  now  before  we  have  quite 
become  familiar  with  the  rays  of  radio-active  bodies  Blondlot 
has  presented  us  with  N  rays,  which  issuing  from  the 
mantle  of  an  incandescent  gas  burner  penetrate  wood  or 
aluminium,  and  then  increase  the  light  without  increasing 
the  heat  of  hot  bodies  on  which  they  fall.     ' 

Passing  now  from  the  amusement  of  speculation  to  more 
seiious  duties,  I  find  myself  confronted  with  the  difficulties 
ihat  prevent  us  in  this  country  from  succeeding  as  we  used 
to  do  in  the  international  struggle — a  struererle  the  issue  of 
which  is  daily  becoming  more  and  more  a  question  of  brains, 
<;f  education,  of  skill  and  enterprise  in  manufacture — and 
lirally  of  that  great  virtue  extolled  by  the  President  of  the 
L  nited  States,   strenuousness. 

It  is  the  duty  of  everyone  who  sees  the  wav  in  which 
we  are  being  outstripped  in  the  race  to  do  what  in  him  lies 
to  scrape  ofif  the  rust  which  is  clogging  our  educational 
machinery.  I  now  refer  to  the  defects  which  hamper  the 
ir.lellectual  progress  of  the  majority  of  our  youth.  I  believe 
the  public  school  mathematics  in  this  country  stands  on  a 
level  of  its  own,  well  below  that  of  any  other.  In  England, 
owing  to  our  complicated  system  of  weights  and  measures, 
which  our  Ministers  and  our  Parliament  dare  not  abolish 
for  our  own  good,  the  scanty  hours  allowed  for  mathematics 
are  devoted  to  the  learning  of  tables  which  should  never 
have  to  be  learned  at  all,  to  compound  reductions  designed 
merely  to  puzzle  but  not  to  lead  to  any  new  step  ;  and,  even 
if  our  present  system  were  not  futile  enough,  to  learning 
lists  of  antique  values  which  serve  the  useful  purpose  of 
giving  the  boys  something  to  do.  The  result  is  that  beyond 
having  time  to  acquire  a  few  elementary  algebraical  rules 
the  boy  is  never  introduced  to  algebra  proper  ;  he  has  no 
idea  of  algebraical  reasoning  ;  his  trigonometry  often  does 
not  exist,  and  the  very  sound  or  suggestion  of  coordinate 
geometry  or  of  the  differential  calculus,  which  might  be 
well  within  his  reach,  produces  a  shiver  of  dismay. 
Geometry  is  presented  for  the  first  time  in  the  form  of 
Euclid,  a  form  as  repulsive  to  most  boys  as  it  well  could 
be.  I  must  confess  to  having  been  attracted  and  not  re- 
pelled by  Euclid  ;  but  the  boy  does  not  care  for  time.  Now 
that  I  look  at  Euclid  again  I  have  also  to  confess  that  any 
lingering  regard  for  an  old  friend  vanishes  before  the 
archaic  language  and  the  unnecessary  circumlocution.  If 
Euclid  must  be  retained  let  it  be  translated  into  English,  the 
English  that  any  parent  would  use  in  explaining  the  ideas 
to  his  son ;  let  it  be  illustrated  by  constant  reference  to 
real  things  so  as  to  appeal  to  the  boy  who  does  not  revel 
in  the  abstract.  Let  the  ideas  and  the  terms  first  be  pre- 
sented in  the  form  of  experiments  and  of  measurements  with 
instruments;  let  the  schoolmaster  dare  to  throw  over  the 
intolerable  conservatism  which  prevents  our  doing  anything 
ten  times  as  well  lest  some  item  should  prove  to  be  a  trifle 
worse  ;  in  fact,  let  us  take  some  heed  of  the  possiblv  ex- 
treme, but  none  the  less  genuine  and  valuable  preaching 
I  Prof.  Perry.  I  have  so  far  referred  only  to  the  miserable 
i>f>  that  is  made  of  the  odd  hours  grudgingly  given  to  what 
is  called  mathematics.  Is  it  any  use  to  repeat  the  long- 
standing complaint  of  (he  way  in  which  the  schoolmaster 
insists  upon  overdoing  his  Latin  and  Greek  under  the  belief 
that  they  are  at  least  essential  to  intellectual  development 
if,  indeed,  they  do  not  supply  the  only  stimulus?  As  society 
is  constituted  they  are  essential  to  education  as  an  extensive 
knowledge  of  Confucius  is  essential  to  an  educated  China- 
man, so  that  we  may  mix  one  with  another,  appreciate  the 
works  of  our  great  authors,  understand  the  same  allusions, 
and  have  the  same  kind  of  knowledge  of  the  development 
of  our  civilisation.  Few  men  of  science,  perhaps  none,  wish 
to  see  all  of  this,  some  of  which  is  essential  to  a  general 
education,    abolished ;   all    that   we  ask   is   that   the   school- 


NO,    1767,  VOL.   68] 


master  shall  not  continue  to  impose  upon  the  community 
the  unbalanced  learning  which  corresponds  to  mathematics 
and  science  without  letters.  The  time  given  to  t lassies  is 
exorbitant ;  more  must  be  reserved  for  those  pursuits  which 
draw  out  the  habit  of  independent  thought,  creation  and 
originality.  It  would  be  well  if  every  schoolmaster  could 
read  an  admirable  article  by  James  Swinburne  on  the  two 
types  of  mind  fostered  by  the  two  complementary  types  of 
education,  but  this  is  buried  away  in  an  inaccessible  number 
of  the   W estminster  Review. 

Ihe  classic  is  unfortunately  still  in  possession,  and  where, 
as  is  still  often  the  case,  he  is  innocent  of  any  appreciation 
of  the  educational  value  of  post-Newtonian  studies  \^^  is 
not  surprising  that  he  thrusts  into  odd  moments  the  subjects 
he  does  not  understand,  and  which  he  therefore  despises, 
and  that  the  boys  committed  to  his  charge  and  living  in 
such  an  atmosphere  are  half  ashamed  of  showing  any 
interest  in  the  scanty  science  which  is  within  their  reach. 
It  is  almost  impossible  to  believe  that  such  can  be  the  case, 
but  I  have  referred  to  the  impression  to  which  the  appoint- 
ment of  the  first  science  master  at  my  own  school  gave  rise. 
I  now  refer  to  the  contribution  to  a  discussion  on  education 
but  a  year  or  two  ago  by  that  experienced  teacher.  Principal 
Griffiths.  Fortunately  our  public  schools  are  not  the  only 
ones  in  the  country.  Smaller  and  less  fashionable  schools 
pay  more  attention  to  education  and  suffer  less  from  what, 
in  defiance  of  all  rule,  I  can  only  call  didactatorial  method. 

I  am  not  aware  that  the  result  of  this  almost  total  ex- 
clusion of  tabooed  subjects  in  favour  of  Latin  and  Greek  is 
producing  a  standard  of  classical  attainment  in  our  youth 
greatly  in  advance  of  that  to  be  found  in  other  countries, 
but  it  is  certain  that  in  history,  modern  languages,  mathe- 
matics, and  science  the  product  of  our  public  schools  is  sadly 
deficient. 

There  is  another  point  related  to  our  deficient  general 
scientific  training  on  which  I  wish  to  offer  some  remarks, 
and  that  is  in  relation  to  manufacture.  It  is  the  fashion 
among^  some  of  our  scientific  people  to  talk  of  our  manu- 
facturers as  if  they  were  a  very  ignorant  lot  and  to  suppose 
that  one  word  from  some  professor  who  has  never  seen 
outside  a  laboratory  would  be  sufficient  to  put  them  right. 
Now  in  my  somewhat  varied  experience  I  have  had  occasion 
to  become  acquainted  with  corners  of  our  great  manu- 
facturing areas,  and  while  my  experience  is  small  and  not 
enough  to  generalise  upon,  it  is  nevertheless  several  times 
as  great  as  that  of  some  who  are  ready  to  adopt  the  superior 
attitude,  but  have  none. 

The  loss  of  one  industry  after  another  is  only  too  patent. 
Ii  so  far  as  this  may  be  due  to  want  of  enterprise  in  our 
men  of  business  we  are  not  concerned  with  the  cause  in  this 
Section  ;  in  so  far  as  it  may  be  due  to  want  of  that  little 
assistance  which  the  fiscal  arrangements  in  other  countries 
make  possible  for  our  rivals  again  we  are  not  concerned  in 
this  Section;  in  so  far  as  our  patent  laws  are  unique  among 
those  of  manufacturing  nations  in  allowing  the  foreigner 
to  manufacture  in  his  own  country  under  the  protection  of 
our  patent  law,  so  that  the  most  valuable  school  we  possess, 
the  manufactory,  as  well  as  the  manufacture,  is  conducted 
to  the  advantage  of  our  rivals — a  point  which  I  suppose  it 
is  unnecessary  to  commend  to  the  notice  of  Mr.  Chamber- 
lain— with  this,  too,  we  have  no  concern  in  this  Section  ; 
but  in  so  far  as  this,  or  the  want  of  enterprise  or  of  fore- 
sight that  leads  to  it,  is  due  to  ignorance  and  to  want  of 
appreciation  of  scientific  advance  we  are  very  much  con- 
cerned with  it.  If  I  may  refer  to  my  own  limited  experi- 
ence, there  is  a  lamentable  contrast  in  the  manner  in  which 
a  great  number  of  our  own  countrymen  look  at  any  pro- 
position put  before  them  and  that  in  which  the  alert 
American  does.  It  is  useless  to  explain  that  which  would 
be  self-evident  to  a  man  with  a  moderate  knowledge  of 
chemistry  and  physics  such  as  our  schools  ought  to  supply, 
or  for  which  they  should  at  least  lay  the  foundation,  for  the 
words  have  no  meaning ;  they  are  merely  words.  He  dis- 
trusts anything  new  ;  he  has  heard  of  a  new  process  before 
that  did  not  work  out  well ;  experience  on  the  Continent  to 
him  is  no  experience  at  all,  for  he  believes  the  inhabitants 
in  such  distant  parts  of  the  earth  are  not  capable  of  know- 
ing as  well  as  the  enlightened  Englishman  whether  a  thing 
is  properly  done  or  not,  and  so  he  goes  on  as  he  did  before, 
perfectly  content.  This  attitude  would  not  be  possible  with 
the  most  elementary  understanding  of  common  principles. 


452 


NATURE 


[September  io,  1903 


But  there  is  another  side  to  this  picture.  Anyone  who  has 
discussed  any  scheme  with  the  board  of  directors,  the 
manager,  the  engineer,  and  the  chemist  of  one  of  our  great 
manufactories  must  have  been  strucli  with  the  concentrated 
ability  there  found  in  harness.  It  has  often  seemed  to  me 
that  it  is  a  great  misfortune  that  our  professors  of  mechanics, 
of  physics,  and  of  chemistry  are  in  so  many  instances  pre- 
cluded from  a  better  acquaintance  with  the  working  of  these 
great  machines — .a  misfortune  not  for  the  works,  at  least 
directly,  but  for  the  professors,  and  more  especially  for  their 
pupils. 

Nowhere  are  scientific  problems  of  greater  complexity  con- 
stantly having  to  be  solved  than  in  a  great  manufactory  ; 
nowhere  is  such  concentrated  talent  necessary  as  in  a  works 
organised  and  carried  on  in  competition  with  all  the  world. 
I  look  upon  these  as  our  most  valuable  schools,  and  the 
closer  the  touch  between  them  and  those  whose  province  it  is 
to  teach,  the  better  for  the  teacher  and  the  pupil. 

It  is,  perhaps,  hardly  desirable  to  mention  any  one  where 
there  are  so  many.  I  am  tempted  to  dwell  upon  the  problem 
which  has  been  at  last  successfully  solved  bv  Parsons,  this 
being  the  joint  product  of  the  school  and  of  the  works';  but 
there  is  one  picture — a  contrast,  I  will  not  say  of  light  and 
shade,  but  of  colour  and  colour — to  which  I  must  refer.  I 
remember  in  my  early  days,  in  the  surroundings  of  a 
classical  atmosphere,  the  general  feeling  of  contempt  for  the 
manufacturer,  the  intellectually  inferior  creature  who  only 
made  money,  but  who  knew  nothing  of  rvirrw  or  rfrv/xfial. 
I  am  not  sure  that  some  such  feeling  does  not  still  exist 
among  those  whose  horizon  is  limited  to  the  Latin  and 
Greek  that  they  have  learned — or  should  I  sav  limited  by  in- 
stead of  to?  This  recollection  came  back  to  me  when  not 
long  ago  I  was  visiting  one  of  the  best  organised  and  most 
skilfully  conducted  works  in  the  country— I  mean  Willans 
and  Robinson — when  I  remembered  that  another  great  manu- 
factory, conducted  on  American  lines,  was  near  by,  and  when 
across  the  road  I  saw  the  walls  of  one  of  our  most  famous 
English  schools.  I  pictured  the  old  contrast  :  on  the  one 
hand  the  conviction  impressed  upon  me  when  a  bov  that  there 
IS  something  intellectually  superior  in  the  struggle  with  a 
paragraph  of  Xenophon  or  a  page  of  Homer,  while  manu- 
facture is  merely  mechanical,  sordid  .and  base,  with  what  I 
believe  to  be  the  reality  on  the  other.  I  wondered  in  what 
spirit  the  erection  of  these  works  was  viewed  at  the  school 
and  to  what  extent  the  high  intellectual  attainment  there  so 
essential   and   so  evident   is  properly   appreciated. 

Of  the  last  of  the  three  headings,'  Strenuousness,  we  have 
plenty,  but  at  school  it  is  most  apparent  in  cricket'and  foot- 
ball, and  in  after  life  in  various  expensive  wavs  of  murdering 
defenceless  animals. 

However,  a  change  is  alreadv  beginning  to  be  felt.  The 
public  schools  no  longer  withhold  the  elements  of  chemistry 
and  physics,  and  those  who  have  benefited,  even  in  small 
degree,  are  taking  responsible  places  vacated  bv  those  who 
had  no  such  opportunity.  The  numerous  polytechnics  are 
providing  more  serious  instruction  to  thousands'of  our  young 
men,  and  it  may  be  hoped  that  in  time  even  the  official— I 
mean  the  mere  official  whose  only  conception  of  activity  is 
centred  in  obstructing  progress  and  enlightenment— will 
have  some  appreciation  of  things  as  well  as  of  words. 


SECTION   D. 


OlENING     AdDRUSS     HY     PrOF.      SydNEY     J.      HiCKSON,      M.A., 

D.Sc,  F.R..S.,  President  of  the  Section. 
At  the  last  meeting  of  the  British  Association  which  was 
held  in  Southport,  the  President  of  Section  D,  Prof.  E.  Rav 
Lankester,  delivered  an  impressive  address  on  the  provision 
1.1  this  country  for  the  advancement  of  Biological  Science, 
in  which  he  pointed  out  the  very  inadequate  encouragement 
which  existed  at  that  time  for  those  who,  bv  education  and 
inclination,  were  fitted  to  pursue  original  investigation  in 
Zcology  and  Botany.  Twenty  years  have  passed  since  that 
Address  was  written,  and  yet  we  have  to  acknowledge  that, 
notwithstanding  the  important  part  which  our  branch  of 
Science  has  played  in  contributing  to  the  sum  of  useful 
human  knowledge  during  the  last  two  decades,  the  progress 
made  in  the  direction  indicated  by  Prof.  Lankester  is  far 
from  satisfactory.     I  do  not  propose  in  this  Address  to  make 


NO.    1767.   VOL.  68] 


any  detailed  statement  of  the  number  of  posts  in  this  country 
that  are  now  open  to  zoologists,  or  of  the  amount  of  the 
present-day  endowments  for  the  encouragement  of  Zoo- 
logical Science  as  compared  with  those  of  twenty  years  ago  ; 
but  I  wish  to  point  out  that  neither  in  the  older  Universities 
of  Oxford  and  Cambridge,  nor  in  the  Colleges  and  National 
Institutions  situated  in  London,  nor  in  the  newer  Universi- 
ties and  Colleges  of  the  provinces,  have  any  new  posts  been 
created  or  adequately  endowed  which  enable  the  holder  to 
devote  a  reasonable  amount  of  his  time  to  the  pursuit  of  bio- 
logical knowledge.  It  is  true  that  there  are  a  few  more 
posts  now  than  there  were,  in  which  a  small  stipend  or 
salary  is  offered  to  young  trained  zoologists  for  their  services 
as  teachers  of  Elementary  Biological  Science  to  medical 
students  and  others  ;  but  the  emoluments  of  such  posts  are 
so  small,  depending  as  they  do,  almost  entirely,  upon  a 
share  of  the  fees  paid  by  the  students,  and  the  duties  so 
arduous  and  prolonged,  that  they  really  offer  very  little  in- 
ducement to  the  pursuit  of  continuous  and  systematic 
original  research. 

In  one  respect,  however,  we  may  notice  and  acknowledge, 
with  gratitude,  an  improvement  in  our  position.  In  the 
laboratory  accommodation,  both  in  our  Universities  and  on 
the  sea  coast,  we  are  a  good  deal  better  off  than  we  were. 
Twenty  years  ago  there  was  no  biological  laboratory  on 
the  whole  of  the  long  line  of  the  British  Coast.  Now, 
thanks  to  the  efforts  made  by  biologists  and  their  friends, 
we  have  at  Plymouth  an  institution  for  the  study  of  the 
marine  fauna  and  flora  under  favourable  conditions,  and 
similar  institutions  at  Port  Erin  in  the  Isle  of  Man,  at  Piel, 
at  Millport,  and  at  St.  Andrews,  and  a  provisional  laboratory 
for  the  study  of  fishery  problems  at  Grimsby.  New  labor- 
atories for  the  study  of  zoology  have  also  been  built  at 
Oxford,  at  Cambridge,  at  the  University  of  Manchester, 
at  Edinburgh  University,  and  elsewhere,  and  I  may  add  that 
a  fine  new  laboratory  is  now  in  course  of  construction  for 
the  department  of  Zoology  in  the  University  of  Liverpool. 

These  new  institutions,  however,  only  emphasise,  they 
certainly  do  not  ameliorate,  the  weakness  of  our  position 
in  having  so  little  encouragement  to  offer  to  competent  and 
well-trained  men  who  wish  to  devote  their  lives  to  the 
advancement  of  Zoological  Science.  Moreover,  I  would 
point  out  that  these  institutions  have  been  built  and  are 
being  maintained  almost  entirely  by  funds  supplied  by 
private  benefactors,  or  out  of  the  inadequate  resources  of 
the  Universities. 

The  Treasury  has  made  a  provisional  grant  of  loooZ.  per 
annum  towards  the  maintenance  of  the  work  done  bv  the 
Marine  Biological  Association,  and  it  may  be  supposed  that 
a  small  share  of  the  annual  Government  grant  made  to  the 
University  Colleges  and  Scotch  Universities  goes  to  the 
support  of  the  zoological  departments  ;  but,  apart  from  this, 
there  has  been  no  increase  in  the  support  given  to  us  from 
public  funds. 

If  we  were  to  compare  our  progress  in  the  matter  of  the 
public  appreciation  of  our  science  during  the  past  two  years 
with  that  in  other  countries,  we  should  find  that  our  posi- 
tion is  by  no  means  satisfactory.  In  Germany,  France, 
Belgium,  Holland,  and  more  particularly  in  the  United 
States  of  America,  progress  has  been  rapid  and  continuous. 
The  number  of  persons  in  these  countries  who  by  the  aid 
of  university  or  public  endowments  are  able  to  devote  them- 
selves to  original  work  in  zoology  has  considerably  in- 
creased of  late  years,  and  the  number  of  magnificently 
equipped  institutions  that  have  been  built  for  their  accom- 
modation and  convenience  makes  our  efforts  in  the  same 
direction  appear  very  small. 

It  would  not  be  difficult  for  me  to  bring  facts  and  figures 
before  you  in  support  of  these  general  statements  ;  but  my 
object  is  not  so  much  to  lament  over  the  past  and  to  mourn 
for  the  present  position  of  our  science  in  this  country,  as 
to  suggest  directions  in  which  we  may  wcrk  together  for 
its  development  and  progress. 

Upon  one  matter,  however,  I  think  we  may  congratulate 
ourselves.  If  the  research  done  by  English  zoologists  has 
not  been  as  great  in  amount  as  it  might  have  been,  I  think 
it  may  be  truly  said  that  we  have  fully  maintained  its 
standard  as  regards  quality. 

The  contributions  that  have  been  made  to  the  Science  of 
Zoology  by  our  countrymen  during  the  past  twenty  years 
in  general  interest  and  in  theoretical  importance  are  of  such 
a    nature   that   any    civilised    race    might    well    be    proud    of 


September  io,  1903] 


NATURE 


53 


them,  and  I  venture  to  say  they  compare  favourably  with 
those  of  any  other  country.  I  may  remind  you  that  the 
discovery  and  description  of  the  Okapi,  Ca;nolestes,  Nycto- 
therus  Rhabdopleura,  Cephalodiscus,  Limnocodium,  and 
Pelagohydra,  the  rediscovery  of  Lepidosiren  and  Ctenopiana, 
the  most  important  features  of  the  development  of  Balano- 
tjlossus,  Lepidosiren,  Amphioxus,  Peripatus  Hatteria,  and 
some  of  the  Marsupialia,  and  that  the  discovery  of  the 
important  character  of  the  fauna  of  the  deep  seas  involving 
the  discovery  of  many  new  genera  and  species,  were  the 
work  of  British  zoologists.  Moreover,  that  the  prolonged 
.md  painstaking  investigations  carried  on  in  our  laboratories 
have  thrown  much  light  upon  the  character  and  relations  of 
icvlomic  cavities,  the  homologies  of  the  nephridia  and  genital 
ducts,  and  many  other  important  morphological  problems. 

In  the  field  of  evolutionary  theories  we  have  done  much 

important  work  in  the  study  of  the  facts  of  protective  and 

i^gressive  mimicry  in  insects,   in  the  statistical  estimation 

f  variations,  and  in  the  experimental  inquiry  into  the  value 

f  current  theories  of  heredity. 

The  list  is  far  from  complete ;  but  with  such  a  record  of 
good  work  done  with  the  scanty  means  at  our  disposal  there 
is  no  reason  to  suppose  that  the  science  is  on  the  decline 
in  this  country,  or  that  our  countrymen  are  not  as  capable 
as  any  others  of  grasping  the  importance  of  biological 
problems  and  ultimately  wresting  from  Nature  the  secrets 
that  are  hidden. 

Whilst  we  may  thus  congratulate  ourselves  upon  the 
achievements  of  the  past  and  upon  our  strength  and  ability 
to  carry  on  good  work  in  the  future,  I  cannot  help  feeling 
that  the  time  has  come  for  us  to  make  a  united  effort  to 
place  before  the  general  public  of  this  country,  and  more 
particularly  the  educated  and  influential  part  of  it,  the  dis- 
advantages under  which  we  suffer,  and  our  need  for  help 
in  the  further  develepment  of  our  subject. 

We  have  all  realised  that  in  this  country,   more  than   in 
any  other  that  is  called  civilised,   there  prevails  among  all 
classes  an  extraordinary  ignorance  of  the  first  principles  of 
biological  science.     It  is  this  ignorance  on  the  part  of  the 
general   public,    I   believe,   which  prevents  us  from  gaining 
tliat    sympathy    for   our   aims   and   that    assistance   for   our 
itorts  which  we  think  is  necessary  not  only  for  the  reputa- 
ion,    but   also   for   the   welfare   of  our   country.     We   must 
remember  that  the  science  of  Natural  History  is  as  a  closed 
book  to  most  of  those  who  after  a  public  school  and  uni- 
versity  education    have    attained    to   positions   of   trust    and 
<  sponsibility    in    the   government   of   our   country   and    our 
ities.       Moreover,    and    this    is    perhaps    the    most    serious 
spect  of  the  question,  there  are  many  who  have  gained  a 
high    position    as    men    of    science,    and    whose    opinion    is 
frequently    quoted    as    authoritative    on    questions    affecting 
-  ience    in    general,    who    are    more    ignorant    of    the    first 
linciples  of  the  science  of  biology  than  the  Dutch  schoolboy 
'  fifteen  years  of  age. 
It   appears   to   me,    then,    that   it   is   of   fundainental    im- 
portance for  the  zoologists  of  this  country  to  consider  and 
report   upon    the   necessity   for   the   extension   and    improve- 
nirnt  of  the  teaching  of  Natural  History  in  our  schools  and 
illeges.     We  shall  have  to  meet  the  objections  that  there 
-  not  time  for  Natural  History  in  the  school  curricula,  and 
that  it  is  not  a  suitable  subject  for  the  instruction  of  boys 
and   girls.       These  objections   can   be   met,    I    believe,    and 
overcome. 

In    many    foreign    countries    Natural    History    is    a    com- 
ulsory    school    subject    for    all    scholars.     In    Holland,    for 
xample,  by  the  law  of  April  28,    1876,  all  scholars  of  the 
gymnasia    during    the    first    and    second    years    devote    two 
hours  per  week  to  the  study  of  Natural  History,  and  in  the 
fifth    and    sixth    years    all    students    preparing    for    natural, 
nathematical,    and    medical    sciences    courses    devote    two 
urs  per  week  to  the  science.     In  the  superior  middle-class 
M  hools  one  hour  a   week   is  devoted  to  the  science   in   the 
first   and   second   classes,    and   two   hours   per   week   in    the 
remaining  three  years.     If,  therefore,  time  can  be  found  in 
the  middle  and  upper  class  schools  for  the  study  of  Natural 
History  in  a  country  like  Holland,  where  the  general  educa- 
tion is  so  excellent,  surely  time  can  be  found  for  it  here. 

It  is  also  a  matter  for  general  regret  that  some  course  of 
Elementary  Biology  is  no  longer  compulsory  for  those  who 
are  proceeding  to  degrees  in  science  in  our  universities,  and 
I  cannot  help  feeling  that  a  very  retrograde  step  was  taken 


NO.    1767,  VOL.  d'^l 


a  few  years  ago  by  the  authorities  of  the  University  of 
London,  when  Biology  was  made  an  optional  suLject  in  the 
Intermediate  Examination  for  the  degree  of  Bachelor  of 
Science.  We  cannot  expect  to  receive  that  sympathy  in  our 
pursuits  and  appreciation  of  our  discoveries  which  we  expect 
from  our  fellow-men  of  science  if  we  tacitly  admit  that  an 
elementary  knowledge  of  the  laws  of  living  bodies  is  not 
a  necessary  part  of  the  equipment  of  a  man  of  scientific 
culture. 

I  think  we  must  all  admit  that  the  time  is  ripe  for  a  full 
discussion  by  biologists  of  the  particular  form  of  teaching 
and  study  which  is  most  suitable  for  schools  and  elementary 
university  examinations.  It  is  a  matter  in  which  we  are 
all  interested  ;  it  is  a  matter  affecting  most  intimately  the 
interests  of  those  who  will  be  our  pupils  in  the  future,  and 
we  should  be  careful  to  see  that  no  ill-considered  or  fantastic 
schemes  of  study  are  thrust  upon  the  authorities  by  un- 
authorised persons  at  this  very  critical  period  in  the 
educational  history  of  our  country. 

There  are  other  matters,  however,  which  also  demand  our 
careful  attention.  The  growth  of  our  great  cities  and  the 
improvement  in  our  ideas  of  sanitation  have  brought  for- 
ward as  important  problems  for  consideration  the  purity  of 
the  water-supply  and  the  disposal  of  sewage.  The 
municipal  authorities  at  last  realise  that  these  problems  can 
only  be  satisfactorily  met  by  elaborate  scientific  investi- 
gation, and  they  have  found  that  it  is  not  only  desirable 
for  sanitary  reasons,  but  also — and  this  has  probably  the 
greater  weight — profitable  to  call  in  men  of  science  for  con- 
sultation and  advice.  At  present,  however,  these  problems 
are  approached  from  only  two  points  of  view — the  chemical 
and  the  bacteriological — the  effect  or  effects  of  other 
organisms  than  bacteria  upon  the  character  of  the  sewage 
effluent  and  the  purity  of  water  for  drinking  purposes  being, 
so  far  as  I  have  observed,  neglected.  I  was  very  much 
impressed  with  the  fact  that  at  the  meeting  of  the  Sanitary 
Institute  last  year  in  Manchester  the  speakers  used  the 
expression  "  bacteriological  examination  "  and  "  biological 
examination  "  as  if  they  were  synonymous,  and  no  mention 
was  made  either  of  the  animals  or  plants  which  are  in- 
variably present,  and  materially  assist  if  they  are  not 
actually  necessary  for  the  maintenance  of  the  most  suitable 
balance  of  life  in  these  waters.  The  time  has  come  when 
an  inquiry  should  be  made  of  the  organisms  other  than 
bacteria  that  are  normally  present  both  in  the  waters  at 
the  sewage  works  and  in  the  large  reservoirs  which  supply 
cities  with  drinking-water. 

I  may  be  allowed  here  to  quote  two  cases  that  have 
recently  come  under  my  notice  which  will  show  the  kind  of 
work  that  might  be  done  and  the  nature  of  the  results  which 
may  be  e.xpected  to  follow  such  an  inquiry. 

Some  years  ago  complaints  were  made  that  the  water 
supplied  by  the  borough  of  Burnley  had  an  offensive  smell. 
This  smell  was  of  such  a  nature  that  it  was  impossible  to 
use  the  water  for  the  manufacture  of  soda-water. 

The  smell  was  traced  to  the  Hecknest  reservoir,  where 
the  common  water  snail,  Limnaea  peregra,  was  present  in 
enormous  numbers.  The  problem  to  be  solved  was  how  to 
destroy  or  reduce  the  numbers  of  the  Limna-a  without  inter- 
fering in  other  respects  with  the  purity  of  the  water.  The 
authorities  of  the  corporation  asked  the  advice  of  a  trained 
zoologist,  who  made  certain  recommendations  which  were 
adopted,  and  at  a  minimum  cost  the  nuisance  was  abated, 
and  during  the  six  years  that  have  elapsed  has  not  recurred. 
I  will  not  detain  you  with  a  full  description  of  the  cause 
and  the  cure  of  this  particular  pest,  but  I  may  say  that  the 
recommendations  that  were  made  were  based  on  the  know- 
ledge of  the  life  habits  and  reproduction  of  the  Limnaea,  and 
were  therefore  of  a  purely  zoological  character. 

Two  years  ago  the  Chairman  of  the  Water  Committee  of 
the  Corporation  of  Manchester  reported  that  the  mains  had 
become  partially  choked  by  the  growth  of  an  organism 
which  he  called  a  "  moss."  No  less  than  700  tons  of  this 
"  moss  "  were  removed  from  the  mains  by  a  laborious  and 
expensive  process.  It  is  not  necessary  for  me  to  inform 
this  Section  that  the  organism  was  not  a  moss.  It  was 
probably  not  even  a  vegetable,  but  an  animal  belonging 
to  one  of  the  genera  of  fresh-water  Polyzoa.  In  this  case, 
however,  so  far  as  I  am  aware,  not  only  were  no  steps 
taken  to  identify  the  organism,  but  no  investigations  were 
made  to  discover  its  origin  or  to  prevent  the  return  of  the 


454 


NATURE 


[September  io,  190; 


trouble  in  the  future.  I  could  give  you  several  other  ex- 
amples which  show  that  our  ignorance  of  the  general 
balance  of  animal  and  vegetable  life  in  the  large  reservoirs 
is  profound,  and  that  a  systematic  inquiry  conducted  by 
competent  persons  would  most  certainly  lead  to  knowledge 
which  would  be  of  great  scientific  importance,  and  in  the 
long  run  remunerative  to  the  community. 

I  do  not  think  that  we  can  expect  that  any  one  of  the 
municipal  authorities  will  feel  justified  in  bearing  the  cost 
of  such  an  investigation.  The  problems  that  one  corpor- 
ation has  to  face  are  very  much  the  same  as  those  that 
others  have  met ;  and  each  corporation  hopes  to  profit  by 
the  successful  and  neglect  the  unsuccessful  experiments  of 
its  neighbours.  An  investigation  such  as  this,  which  is 
really  for  the  benefit  of  the  whole  community,  should  be 
conducted  by  a  central  authority  at  the  public  expense. 

The  scientific  investigation  of  the  problems  that  are  con- 
nected with  the  maintenance  and  extension  of  our  sea 
fisheries  is  another  matter  that  requires  the  very  careful 
attention  of  the  zoologists  of  the  present  day.  The  valuable 
work  that  has  already  been  done  by  the  officers  of  the 
British  Marine  Biological  Association,  the  Lancashire  Sea 
Fisheries  Committee,  the  Scottish  Fishery  Board,  and  other 
bodies  is  of  a  nature  sufficiently  encouraging  to  justify  us 
in  asking  for  the  necessary  means  and  appliances  for  still 
further  developments  of  the  inquiry.  There  is,  however, 
a  great  need  for  a  free  discussion  Ijy  those  who  are  com- 
petent to  speak  on  the  subject  to  determine  and,  if  possible, 
to  come  to  some  conclusion  upon  the  question  of  the  best 
and  most  profitable  lines  that  the  inquiry  should  take  in  the 
immediate  future,  and  the  establishment  of  such  co-operation 
as  is  necessary  by  the  different  authorities  to  prevent  dupli- 
cation where  it  is  unnecessary,  and  simultaneous  observ- 
ations of  similar  phenomena  on  different  parts  of  the  coast 
when  it  is  considered  desirable.  The  report  of  the  Com- 
mittee on  Ichthyological  Research,  1902,  has  shown  that 
there  is  already  in  this  country  a  good  deal  of  activity  in 
various  branches  of  investigation  of  the  fisheries  problems, 
but  the  authorities  are  not  on  all  points  in  agreement  as 
to  the  best  plan  or  course  to  pursue  in  future.  I  cannot 
but  hope  that  if  some  conference  were  held,  at  which  those 
zoologists  who  have  made  a  special  study  of  these  matters 
were  present,  the  principal  differences  of  opinion  might  be 
cleared  up  and  a  unanimous  report  presented  to  the 
authorities. 

I  have  felt  very  strongly  for  some  time  past,  and  I  know 
there  are  many  of  my  colleagues  who  agree  with  me,  that 
the  zoologists  of  this  country  are  under  some  disadvantage 
in  not  being  provided  with  the  necessary  machinery  for  full 
discussion  of  matters  which  affect  the  welfare  of  the  science 
as  a  whole.  There  are  several  societies  which  receive, 
discuss,  and  publish  papers  on  various  branches  of  zoological 
research,  but  they  do  not,  and  from  the  nature  of  their 
constitution  cannot,  give  effective  utterance  to  the  general 
or  unanimous  opinion  of  professional  zoologists  on  matters 
of  their  common  interests.  There  is  no  society  which  all 
serious  students  and  teachers  of  zoology  feel  is  the  one 
society  which  it  is  their  duty  and  in  their  own  interests  to 
jom.  Some  join  the  Zoological  Societv  of  London,  others 
the  Linnean  Society,  others,  again,  the  Royal  Microscopical, 
Entomological,  or  Malacological  Societies,  or  some  com- 
bination of  two  or  more  of  them.  There  is  no  common 
ground  on  which  we  meet  for  the  discussion  of  such  subjects 
as  those  I  have  just  mentioned  in  this  Address.  In  the 
early  days  of  the  British  Association  this  Section  supplied 
the  needs  which  we  feel  now.  It  was  the  Society,  if  I  may 
call  It  such,  which  all  the  zoologists  of  the  time  made  a 
special  effort  to  attend.  Important  matters  were  fully  dis- 
cussed by  the  most  competent  authorities,  and  people  felt 
that  the  prevalent  opinion  on  anv  subject  e.xpressed  by 
Section  D  was  the  prevalent  opinion  of  men  of  science 
throughout  the  country. 

In  concluding  this  portion  of  my  Address,  I  may  express 
the  hope  that  when  the  Association  meets  next  vear  at 
Cambridge  some  steps  may  be  taken  to  render  the  organisa- 
tion which  we  already  possess  in  connection  with  this 
Section  more  generally  useful  and  more  efficacious  than  it 
IS  at  present. 

In  the  opening  sentences  of  my  Address  I  used  an  ex- 
pression which  some  of  my  hearers  may  have  considered 
open  to  criticism.  Let  me  take  this  opportunity  of  saying, 
NO.    1767,    VOL.   681 


then,  that  by  using  the  expression  "  useful  human  know- 
ledge "  I  did  not  intend  to  express  an  opinion  that  there 
is  any  knowledge  of  the  character  that  is  expounded  and 
discussed  in  these  sections  of  the  Association  which  can  be 
called  useless  knowledge. 

A  distinction,  however,  is  frequently  drawn  between 
knowledge  that  can  be  directly  applied  to  the  arts  and  crafts 
and  knowledge  which,  on  the  face  of  it,  appears  to  us  at 
present  to  be  only  of  general  scientific  interest.  For  ex- 
ample, in  the  award  ot  the  Exhibition  (1851)  Scholarships 
and  Bursaries,  the  candidates  must  still  give  e«dence  of 
capacity  for  advancing  science  or  its  application  by  original 
research  in  some  branch  of  science,  the  extension  of  which 
is  especially  important  to  our  national  industries.  We  can 
rejoice  most  cordially  in  the  successful  developments  of  the 
technical  institutions  in  the  country,  we  can  heartily  join 
hands  with  our  colleagues  in  other  sciences  in  urging  upon 
the  authorities  the  encouragement  of  these  branches  of 
science  which  have  a  direct  bearing  upon  our  industries,  but 
we  have  a  no  less  important  duty  to  perform  in  claiming  for 
those  branches  of  science  that  have  apparently  no  such  direct 
application  the  needful  sympathy  and  encouragement.  I 
venture  to  say  that  at  the  time  the  Association  last  met  in 
Southport  no  one  would  have  ventured  to  predict  that  the 
study  of  the  anatomy  and  life-history  of  the  Diptera,  or  the 
general  biology  of  the  minute  sporozoa,  would  have  any 
direct  bearing  upon  the  development  of  our  industries. 
But  to-day,  by  our  knowledge  of  the  mosquito  Anopheles, 
and  the  sporozoan  parasite  it  carries,  we  are  in  a  position 
to  destroy  or  ameliorate  the  malaria  pest  which  has  hindered 
the  commercial  development  of  so  many  of  our  colonies  in 
tropical  countries,  and  by  encouraging  the  development  of 
such  countries  we  are  assisting  to  a  very  material  extent 
our  home  industries  and  the  general  trade  of  the  country. 
In  this,  as  in  so  many  other  cases,  thp  benefit  to  industry 
and  commerce  has  come  from  an  unexpected  quarter  of  the 
field  of  zoological  research.  Those  who  were  working 
within  the  narrow  limits  of  what  is  called  applied  science 
could  never  have  discovered  the  facts  which  we  now  regard 
as  of  extreme  importance,  however  well  equipped  they  were 
with  laboratories  and  appliances  and  endowments  for 
research. 

It  will  be  of  very  little  profit  to  this  country  to  endow 
munificently  the  technical  institutions  and  those  branches 
of  science  to  which  the  adjective  "applied"  is  given,  to 
build  British  "  Charlottenburgs,"  and  to  attract  by  hand- 
some salaries  the  most  distinguished  professors  to  the  study 
of  the  application  of  science,  if  at  the  same  time  we  starve 
and  allow  to  sink  into  insignificance  the  fundamental 
sciences  upon  which  the  whole  superstructure  rests.  It 
does  not  need  a  prophet  to  foretell  that  a  great  disaster 
will  occur  if  we  add  story  to  story  of  our  house  of  education 
without  widening  and  broadening  the  basis  upon  which  it 
rests. 

Many  of  us,  I  am  afraid,  are  too  much  inclined  to  believe 
that  the 'intellectual  portion  of  the  community  has  at  last 
awakened  to  the  importance  of  the  work  in  the  fields  of 
pure  science,  that  the  old  prejudice  against  us  who  indulge 
what  is  called  our  harmless  curiosity  is  dying  out,  and  that 
our  science  is  bound  to  receive  a  fair  share  of  encourage- 
ment and  attention  in  the  progress  of  the  modern  develop- 
ments of  science  and  learning. 

The  distinction  that  is  drawn  between  pure  and  applied 
science  is,  however,  in  danger  of  being  broadened  and 
deepened  rather  than  diminished  by  the  recent  activity  in 
the  foundation  of  schools  and  colleges  for  technical  instruc- 
tion. There  are,  it  is  true,  several  eminent  and  distinguished 
persons  who  recognise  the  danger  and  do  their  best  to  avoid 
It  but  this  fact  IS  not  in  itself  sufficient  to  justify  us  in  any 
relaxation  of  our  efforts  on  behalf  of  the  maintenance  and 
development  of  those  branches  of  the  sciences  which  are 
usually  supposed  to  have  no  direct  or  technical  application 

In  the  wide  field  of  zoological  research  there  are  manv 
subjects  now  being  investigated  and  discussed  which  at 
present,  seem  to  us  to  have  but  a  remote  bearing  upon 'anv 
practical  problem  of  industry  or  medicine.  Of  all  these 
subjects  there  are  two  which  have  excited  during  the  past 
ten  years  extraordinary  interest,  and  are  from  many  points 
of  view  subjects  of  greatest  possible  importance.  I  refer 
to  the  subject  of  the  natural  variations  of  animals  and 
plants  and  the  problem  of  the  hereditary  transmission  of 
characters  from  generation  to  generation.  " 


I 


September  io,  1903] 


NATURE 


455 


At  present  there  appears  to  be  some  doubt  whether  the 
workers  in  these  subjects  are  really  agreed  as  to  the  general 
propositions  of  the  problems,  the  definitions  of  the  terms 
employed,  and  the  standard  of  proof  that  is  requisite  in 
each  step  of  progress.  It  is  true  that  in  most,  if  not  in  all, 
biological  problems  we  are  at  the  disadvantage  of  being 
unable  to  define  or  measure  anything  with  the  same  mathe- 
matical accuracy  that  our  friends,  the  chemists  and 
physicists,  are  accustomed  to.  We  cannot  say  for  example 
that  the  chela  of  a  particular  species  of  crab  is  so  many 
millimetres  in  length,  in  the  manner  the  chemist  determines 
the  atomic  weight  of  a  new  metal,  as  the  length  of  the  chela 
is  found  to  vary  within  a  certain  range  in  all  species  that 
have  been  investigated ;  nor  can  we  define  such  common 
expressions  as  a  species,  a  variation,  or  even  a  cell  with 
the  same  conciseness  as  a  physicist  defines  the  ohm,  the 
volt,  specific  gravity,  or  the  mechanical  equivalent  of  heat. 
As  a  consequence  it  is  not  surprising  that  when  our  problems 
have  been  studied  and  a  solution  reached  the  resultant 
"  laws  "  e.xhibit  so  many  exceptions  that  they  are  really 
not  worthy  to  be  called  "  laws  "  at  all.  We  may  see  the 
truth,  but  we  see  it  as  through  a  glass,  darkly. 

There  is  perhaps  no  word  in  the  whole  of  our  vocabulary 
which  is  used  in  so  many  different  senses  as  the  word 
"  variation,"  and  yet  when  it  is  used  an  attempt  is  only 
rarely  made  to  define  the  sense  in  which  it  is  employed. 

When  we  study  the  adult  progeny  of  a  single  pair  of 
parents  we  notice  that  they  differ  from  one  another  as 
regards  any  one  particular  character  within  a  certain  range. 
Thus  the  eight  children  of  a  single  pair  of  human  parents 
may  vary  in  weight  from,  say,  130  lbs.  to  200  lbs.,  and  we 
may  find  that  the  average  weight  of  the  eight  children  is 
approximately  the  same  as  the  average  weight  of  the  two 
parents.  If  parents  and  children  were  all  of  exactly  the 
same  weight — an  impossible  supposition — it  would  be  said 
that  they  exhibited  no  variation  in  this  respect,  but,  as  they 
always  do  vary  in  weight,  it  is  said  that  they  exhibit 
"  variations  "  in  weight.  Now,  such  variations  may  be 
due  partly  to  differences  in  the  muscular  training,  the 
nourishment,  the  general  health,  and  other  post-natal 
causes ;  but  it  is  assumed,  and  there  are  doubtless  good 
reasons  for  the  assumption,  that  if  all  these  post-natal 
influences  had  been  equal  throughout  life  there  would  still 
remain  variations  in  weight  of  lesser  amplitude  than  is 
usual,  but  nevertheless  substantial. 

The  variation  of  the  adult  in  weight,  therefore,  is  a  com- 
pound quantity,  partly  due  to  the  influence  of  external  con- 
ditions upon  the  growing  body,  and  partly  due  to  a  quality 
or  character  present  at  birth  and  usually  supposed  to  be 
inherited  with  the  germ-plasm  from  one  or  both  parents. 
The  former  may  be  called  the  artificial  part  of  the  variation, 
or  for  brevity  the  artificial  variation,  and  the  latter  the 
natural  or  inherited  variation.  In  the  character  of  weight 
in  human  beings  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  artificial 
variation  is  predominant,  the  character  being  a  very 
fluctuating  one  and  liable  to  profound  modification  in  the 
varying  vicissitudes  of  civilised  human  life. 

In  the  character  of  stature  the  artificial  variation  is  prob- 
ably much  less  predominant.  The  children  of  tall  parents 
grow  into  tall  men  and  women,  however  handicapped  in 
early  life  by  ill-health  or  insuflicient  nourishment,  and  the 
children  of  short  parents  remain  short  in  adult  life,  how- 
ever healthy  and  well  fed  in  their  youth.  Nevertheless,  he 
would  be  a  bold  man  who  would  assert  that  the  character 
of  stature  is  uninfluenced  by  the  environment,  and  that  the 
short  people  would  not  have  been  taller  had  the  conditions 
of  their  life  in  childhood  been  more  favourable,  or  the  tall 
people  shorter  if  the  conditions  in  their  early  life  had  been 
less  favourable. 

Finally,  we  have,  in  the  colour  of  the  iris,  the  shape  of 
the  ear,  and  the  size  of  the  teeth,  characters  which  are 
usually  considered  to  be  unmodified  by  post-natal  conditions, 
or  at  least  so  slightly  modified  by  them  that  the  differences 
observed  in  them  may  be  regarded  as  almost  pure  natural 
variations.  Now,  if  we  turn  our  attention  to  characters 
such  as  weight,  which  we  feel  certain  are  influenced  very 
profoundly  by  the  environment,  we  might  be  tempted  to 
exaggerate  the  importance  of  the  environment  in  moulding 
or  forming  the  characteristic  features  of  the  adult  organism, 
as.  in  (he  opinion  of  many  authorities,  Lamarck  did,  and 
many  of  his  followers  are  still  doing.     If,  on  the  other  hand, 

NO.    1767,  VOL.   681 


we  confine  our  attention  to  such  characters  as  the  colour 
of  the  iris  or  the  shape  of  the  ear,  we  might  be  tempted  to 
under-estimate  the  influence  of  the  environment. 

This  brings  us  to  the  important  question  whether  the 
characters  of  the  adult  that  are  due  to  the  influence  of  the 
environment,  and  that  part  or  degree  of  any  character 
which  is  more  or  less  modified  by  the  conditions  of  the 
earlier  stages  of  life  are  or  are  not  transmitted  by  parents 
to  their  ofTspring.  Time  will  not  permit  me  to  discuss  this 
difficult  problem  here.  Rightly  or  wrongly,  I  agree  with 
those  who  maintain  that  acquired  characters  are  not  in- 
herited, and  I  intend  to  assume  for  the  purpose  of  the 
argument  that  follows  that  they  are  not  inherited.  I  will 
also  assume,  and  I  must  say  that  the  facts  seem  to  be  con- 
clusive in  favour  of  this  assumption,  that  the  characters 
which  are  usually  supposed  not  to  be  influenced,  or  to  be 
only  slightly  influenced,  by  the  environment  are  capable  of 
transmission  by  heredity. 

We  have,  then,  in  most  variations  a  part  that  can  be 
transmitted  and  a  part  that  cannot  be  transmitted  by  heredity 
from  parents  to  ofTspring,  and  we  find  in  every  plant  and 
animal  an  enormous  difference  in  the  proportions  of  these 
two  parts  in  different  organs.  It  is  not  difficult  to  see  the 
general  reasons  for  these  differences.  It  is  clearly  important 
that  some  organs  should  be  plastic — i.e.  capable  of  changing 
in  form  and  size  to  meet  the  varying  changes  in  the 
environment,  and  that  others  should  remain  relatively 
constant  in  spite  of  changes  in  the  environment. 
Thus  the  shape  and  size  of  the  branches  of  an  oak 
in  a  plantation  will  vary  enormously,  according  to  the 
light  and  space  they  have  for  their  development,  whereas 
the  anthers,  the  pistils  and  fruit  will  be  relatively  constant 
in  form  and  colour.  It  is  clearly  important  for  a  chama-leon 
that  the  colour  of  its  skin  should  vary  according  to  the 
colour  of  its  environment ;  but  it  is  none  the  less  important 
that  the  shape  and  muscular  organisation  of  its  tongue 
should  remain  relatively  constant  throughout  life. 

An  essential  point,  however,  for  us  to  consider  is  whether 
there  are  any  characters  in  animals  or  plants  upon  which 
the  environment  exercises  no  influence  at  all  or  exercises 
such  a  slight  influence  that  it  may  be  safely  neglected. 
The  method  to  adopt  in  order  to  settle  this  point  would  be 
to  compare  at  a  definite  period  of  their  lives  the  statistics 
of  variation  in  a  family  or  population  which  has  been  brought 
up  under  identical  circumstances  with  those  of  a  similar 
family  or  population  at  the  same  period  of  life  which  has 
been  brought  up  under  differing  circumstances.  If  this 
were  done  we  could  determine  with  considerable  accuracy 
the  proportion  of  the  variation  of  any  character  of  the 
individuals  that  is  due  to  the  environment  and  that  which 
is  natural  and  inherited. 

Unfortunately  it  is  impossible  to  bring  up  a  population 
under  identical  circumstances.  If  we  take,  for  example, 
th'!  individuals  of  a  single  hive  of  bees,  which  have  the 
same  parents,  pass  through  the  early  stages  of  their  develop- 
ment in  cells  which  are  almost  identical  in  size  and  are 
regularly  fed  by  the  workers  during  the  whole  of  their 
larval  life,  there  is  still  a  considerable  probability  that  the 
individuals  do  not  have  a  treatment  which  can.  with  any 
pretence  to  accuracy,  be  called  identical.  The  food  that  is 
collected  by  the  worker-bees  frequently  comes  from  varied 
sources  or  from  flowers  in  different  stages  of  their  growth, 
and  it  is  impossible  to  believe  therefore  that  it  has  always 
identical  nutritive  properties  ;  the  larvre  are  not  of  the  same 
»age,  and  seasonal  changes  may  affect  the  larvae  differently, 
some  being  checked  in  the  early  stages  of  their  development 
more  than  others. 

But  even  if  we  could,  with  justice,  assume  that  the  con- 
ditions of  life  for  the  individual  bees  in  a  hive  are  identical 
from  the  time  of  hatching  up  to  the  time  when  the  adult 
characters  are  assumed,  there  still  remain  two  sets  of 
variable  conditions  which  must  affect  the  development  in- 
dependently of  the  influences  brought  by  the  two  parents 
in  the  germ-plasms. 

In  the  c^^^  of  the  bee  there  is  a  considerable  quantity  of 
yolk,  and  this  yolk  is  the  food  material  upon  which  the 
embryo  is  nourished  throughout  the  earlier  stages  of  its 
development.  There  is  no  evidence  that  the  yolk  in  the 
eggs  of  this  or  of  any  other  animal  is  constant  either  in 
quality  or  quantity.  On  the  other  hand,  the  extraordinary 
variations   or.  abnormalities,    as   they    are   usually   termed, 


456 


NATURE 


[September  io,  1903 


which  the  embryologist  meets  with  in  the  segmentation  of 
the  egg  suggest  that  there  are  considerable  differences  in 
these  respects  between  the  eggs  laid  by  a  single  parent  in 
a  single  act  of  oviposition.  Moreover,  the  manner  in  which 
the  young  eggs  of  the  insects  are  nourished  in  the  tubular 
oviduct  before  they  are  ready  for  fertilisation  gives  very 
little  support  to  the  view  that  the  amount  of  yolk  deposited 
in  each  c^^  is  identical. 

The  second  consideration  under  this  heading  is  possibly 
of  even  greater  importance.  Vernon  '  has  shown  that  the 
size  and  other  characters  of  echinoderm  larvae  vary  very 
considerably  according  to  the  freshness  or  staleness  of  the 
conjugating  ova  and  spermatozoa.  For  example,  he  found 
that  when  the  fresh  spermatozoa  of  Strongylocentrotus 
fertilised  the  eggs  which  had  been  kept  eighteen  hours  of 
the  same  animal,  the  larvae  differed  from  the  normal  larvae, 
— 17-6  in  body  length  and  —15  per  cent,  in  arm  length, 
and  when  the  fresh  eggs  were  fertilised  by  spermatozoa  which 
had  been  kept  eighteen  hours  the  resulting  larvae  differed 
from  the  normal  by  +11  per  cent,  in  body  length  and  by 
—  32-8  per  cent,   in  arm  length. 

This  consideration  is  practically  eliminated  in  the  case 
of  the  worker-bees  by  parthenogenesis,  but  it  cannot  be  set 
aside  in  the  case  of  the  drones  nor  in  the  cases  of  the  broods 
of  other  animals  which  do  not  exhibit  the  phenomenon  of 
parthenogenesis.  A  comparison  of  the  curve  of  variation 
of  some  character,  common  to  both,  in  drones  and  worker- 
bees  from  one  hive  would  perhaps  throw  some  light  on  the 
general  importance  of  this  character. 

Before  leaving  this  part  of  the  subject,  I  must  call  atten- 
tion to  two  results  bearing  upon  it,  obtained  by  De  Vries 
in  his  botanical  investigations,  and  related  by  him  in  his 
very  important  work  entitled  "  Die  Mutationstheorie." 
This  observer  found  that  the  younger  the  seedling  is  the 
greater  is  the  influence  of  external  circumstances  upon  its 
adult  characters,  and  in  the  second  place  that  an  even 
greater  influence  is  exerted  upon  the  characters  of  a  plant 
by  the  external  circumstances  affecting  the  mother-plant. 
If  these  results  hold  good  for  animals  as  they  do  for  plants, 
we  should  expect  to  find,  then,  that  the  external  circum- 
stances affecting  the  mother  at  the  time  she  is  maturing  the 
eggs  in  her  ovaries  and  the  external  circumstances  affecting 
the  embryo  before  and  during  the  larval  period  are  of  far 
greater  importance  in  affecting  the  curve  of  variation  of 
the  adults  than  are  the  external  circumstances  affecting  the 
young  in  their  period  of  adolescence.  We  must  come  to  the 
conclusion,  from  these  considerations,  that  the  general 
variability  of  a  brood  or  progeny  of  a  single  pair  of  parents 
must  be  very  largely  the  effect  of  the  varying  conditions 
affecting  the  gametes  from  the  earliest  stages  of  their 
genesis  in  the  gonophore,  the  fertilised  ovum,  and  the  early 
stages  of  development.  We  find,  however,  as  I  have  already 
pointed  out,  that  some  characters  are  much  more  influenced 
by  external  circumstances  than  others.  Weight  and  stature 
in  human  beings,  for  example,  are  probably  much  more  in- 
fluenced than  the  colour  of  the  iris  or  the  shape  of  the 
fingers.  We  may,  indeed,  recognise  two  kinds  of  characters, 
connected,  of  course,  by  a  complete  series  of  intermediate 
links,  which  may  be  called,  for  convenience  sake,  plastic 
characters  and  rigid  characters. 

Now,  in  some  animals,  the  characters  that  are  rigid  are 
much  more  numerous  than  they  are  in  others.  For  example, 
adult  salmon  or  perch  are  much  more  variable  in  size  and 
weight  than  adult  herrings  or  mackerel  ;  some  species  of 
butterflies  are  much  more  variable  in  the  colour  and  pattern 
of  their  wings  than  other  species  ;  some  species  of  birds  are 
much  more  variable  in  their  plumage  than  others  are. 
Several  other  examples  could  be  chosen  to  illustrate  this 
point  from  the  higher  groups  of  animals ;  but  I  wish 
particularly  to  call  your  attention  to  several  instances  found 
in  the  Coelenterata,  because  it  was  the  special  study  of  this 
group  of  animals  that  led  to  the  train  of  thought  I  have 
ventured  to  put  before  you. 

In  all  the  sedentary  forms  of  Coelenterates  the  mouth 
is  surrounded  by  a  circlet  of  tentacles.  These  organs  are 
used  for  catching  and  paralysing  the  prey  and  passing  it 
to  the  mouth  to  be  swallowed.  They  are  also  very  delicate, 
and  indeed  the  only  specialised  organs  of  sense  performing 
a  function  similar  to  that  of  the  feelers  or  antennae  of  Arthro- 

1  H.  M.  Vernon  :  "  The  Relations  between  the  Hybrid  and  Parent-forms 
of  Echinoid  Larvx."    Phil.  Trans.  1898,  B.  p.  465. 


NO.   1767,  VOL.  68] 


poda.  There  can  be  no  exaggeration  in  saying,  therefore, 
that  they  are  of  the  utmost  importance  to  the  animal.  In 
some  groups  of  Coelenterata,  however,  we  find  that  they 
are  fixed  in  number,  but  in  others  that  they  are  variable. 

In  the  Alcyonaria,  for  example,  the  number  of  tentacles 
of  the  adult  polyp  is  eight.  I  have  examined  many 
thousands  of  polyps  belonging  to  the  suborders  Stolonifera, 
Alcyonacea,  Gorgonacea,  and  Pennatulacea,  and  I  have  not 
found  a  single  example  of  an  adult  polyp  with  either  more 
or  less  than  eight  tentacles.  This  is  a  character,  then, 
which  is  remarkably  well  fixed  in  the  Alcyonaria.  It  does 
not  fluctuate  at  all.  The  tentacles  of  the  Hydrozoa,  and  of 
many  of  the  Zoantharia,  on  the  other  hand,  fluctuate  con- 
siderably in  number.  In  some  forms,  such  as  Tubularia 
among  the  Hydroids,  and  Actinia  among  the  Zoantharia, 
the  number  of  tentacles  is  considerable,  and  it  is  not, 
perhaps,  surprising  to  find  variations  in  their  number.  But 
in  many  cases,  when  the  number  of  tentacles  is  small,  there 
is  also  frequent  variation.  In  Hydra  viridis,  for  example, 
the  number  of  the  tentacles  is  6,  7,  or  8,  and  more  rarely 
5  or  9. 

Again,  in  the  Alcyonaria,  the  number  of  mesenteries  of 
the  adult  polyp  is  always  eight ;  never  more  and  never  less. 

In  the  Zoantharia,  on  the  other  hand,  the  number  varies 
not  only  in  different  suborders  and  families,  but  even  in 
different  individuals  of  the  same  species  from  a  single 
locality.  Parker  found,  for  example,  that  the  number  of 
non-directive  mesenteries  in  the  sea-anemone  Metridium 
marginatum,  collected  at  Newport,  R.I.,  varied  from  four 
to  ten  pairs  in  those  forms  with  the  normal  number  (2)  of 
directive  mesenteries,  and  that  there  were  further  variations 
in  the  number  of  non-directive  mesenteries  in  those  forms 
with  an  abnormal  number  of  directive  mesenteries.  In 
fact,  of  the  131  adult  specimens  collected,  only  40  or  about 
33  per  cent,  exhibited  the  arrangement  of  mesenteries  which 
is  regarded  as  normal  for  the  species.  On  the  other  hand, 
Clubb  found  that  of  the  specimens  of  another  common  sea- 
anemone.  Actinia  equina,  only  424  per  cent,  showed  vari- 
ations from  the  normal  mesenterial  arrangement  for  the 
species.  We  have  then,  in  these  examples,  a  set  of  organs 
which  are  very  variable  in  one  genus  (Metridium),  much 
less  variable  in  another  (Actinia),  and  perfectly  fixed  or 
rigid  in  another  series  of  genera  (the  Alcyonaria). 

Passing  on,  now,  to  the  character  "  shape."  Not  many 
years  ago  the  systematic  zoologists,  who  directed  their 
attention  to  the  sedentary  Coelenterates,  based  their  specific 
diagnoses  very  largely  on  the  shape  of  the  colonies.  Thus 
we  have  introduced  such  names  as  Millepora  alcicornis, 
M .  ramosa,  M.  plicata,  Madrepora  cervicornis,  M.  prolifera, 
M.  palmata,  Alcyonium  digitatum,  A.  palmatum,  &c. 
Zoologists  are  now  agreed,  however,  that  the  shape  of  these 
colonies  is  so  variable  that  in  most  genera  it  is  of  very 
little  value  for  the  separation  of  species.  In  fact,  I  have 
elsewhere  given  reasons  for  holding  the  view  that  the  widely 
distributed  and  very  variable  genus  Millepora  is  represented 
by  only  one  true  species.  But  what  is  true  for  most 
sedentary  Coelenterates  is  not  true  for  all  colonial 
Coelenterates.  In  most  of  the  genera  and  species  of 
Pennatulida,  for  instance,  the  shape  of  any  one  individual 
of  a  species  is  almost  identical  with  that  of  any  other.  A 
Funiculina  quadrangularis,  from  the  west  coast  of  Scotland, 
is  similar  in  shape  to  one  of  the  same  species  from  the  coast 
of  Norway.  A  Pennatula  murrayi,  from  the  reefs  of 
Funafuti,  is  similar  in  shape  to  one  from  Ceram.  In  other 
words,  the  character  "  shape  "  is  extremely  plastic  in 
Millepora  and  Madrepora,  but  very  slightly  plastic  or  almost 
rigid  in  Pennatula  and  Funiculina. 

This  difference  in  the  plasticity  of  the  character  "shape  " 
in  Millepora  and  the  Pennatulids  must  be  associated  with 
the  fact  that  the  young  Millepora  colony  is  unable  to  move 
from  the  spot  where  the  larva  settles,  whereas  the  Penna- 
tulid  is  capable  of  moving  from  place  to  place  throughout 
life.  The  Millepora  colony  must  either  accommodate  itself 
to  the  environment  in  which  it  begins  life  or  perish,  but 
the  young  Pennatulid  can,  within  certain  limits,  travel  to 
the  environment  that  suits  itself. 

The  shape  of  a  growing  coral  or  sedentary  Alcyonarian 
on  a  reef  must  accommodate  itself  to  the  depth  of  water, 
the  position  of  neighbouring  zoophytes  to  itself,  the  direc- 
tion of  the  tides,  and  other  influences  ;  and  such  a  power  of 
accommodation  is  essential  for  the  species  in  the  struggle 


September  io,  1903] 


NATURE 


457 


for  existence  on  the  coral  reef.  But  in  the  case  of  the 
Pennatulid,  the  natural  or  normal  shape  is  adapted  to  a 
less  variable  series  of  environmental  conditions,  and  it  has 
sufticient  power  of  movement  to  shift  itself  into  localities 
where  the  environment  is  suitable  for  it.  In  other  words, 
the  power  of  movement  is  associated  with  a  loss  of  plasticity 
of  the  character  "  shape." 

But  the  growth  of  corals  may  be  affected  in  other  ways. 
A  great  many  of  these  forms  of  life  harbour  a  small  fauna 
of  epizoic  Crustacea,  mollusra,  and  worms,  and  the  ramifi- 
cation or  surface  is  often  affected  by  these  in  a  remarkable 
way.  I  have  elsewhere  pointed  out  that  the  character  of 
certain  specimens  of  Millepora,  which  is  known  as  verrucose, 
is  due  to  a  modification  of  the  growth  round  epizoic 
barnacles.  Semper  has  shown  that  the  curious  cage-like 
growths  seen  on  the  branches  of  Seriatopora  and  Pocillopora 
are  galls  produced  by  the  action  of  certain  species  of  crabs. 
In  a  recent  paper  I  have  also  given  reasons  for  believing 
that  the  tubular  character  of  the  stem  and  some  of  the 
branches  of  the  genus  Solenocaulon  is  due  to  the  action  of 
certain  Crustacea  belonging  to  the  family  Alpheidae,  and 
that  when  these  Alpheids  are  not  present  the  form  with  a 
solid  stem  hitherto  known  as  the  genus  Leucoella  is  pro- 
duced. 

But  whilst  some  genera  of  corals  and  Alcyonaria  are 
plastic  in  this  way,  others  are  not.  These  coral  galls  may 
be  found  on  the  Milleporas  and  Madreporas  of  a  certain 
portion  of  a  reef  and  be  absent  from  all  the  other  genera 
of  neighbouring  corals.  The  crab-galls  that  are  found  so 
commonly  and  in  such  abundance  upon  Pocilloporas  and 
Seriatoporas  in  certain  parts  of  the  Pacific  and  elsewhere 
are  found  only  in  cases  of  extreme  rarity  in  other  corals. 

Many  other  cases  could  be  given  to  show  that  in  some 
genera  the  coenenchym  is  remarkably  plastic  or  accom- 
modating to  these  epizoites,  whereas  in  others  it  is  resistent 
and  rigid. 

The  size  and  shape  of  the  spicules  have  been  taken  as 
rharacters  for  the  determination  of  the  species  of  Alcyonaria. 
It  is  true  that  in  some  species  the  spicules  are  remarkably 
onstant  in  size  and  shape,  but  in  others  they  are  extremely 
variable.  The  remarkable  torch-like  spicules  of  the 
oenenchym  of  Eunicclla  papulosa,  the  club-shaped  spicules 
of  Acrophytum,  and  the  needle-shaped  spicules  of  many 
species  of  Pennatulids  are  remarkably  constant  in  size  and 
shape,  but  in  Sarcophytum,  the  new  genus  Sclerophytum, 
Siphonogorgia,  Spongodes,  and  a  great  many  others,  the 
size  and  shape  of  the  spicules  are  extraordinarily  variable. 
In  the  matter  of  colour,  too,  we  find  the  same  thing.  The 
genera  Tubipora  and  Heliopora  are  widely  distributed  in 
the  shallow  waters  of  the  tropical  seas  and  are  very  variable 
in  many  of  their  characters,  and  yet  there  is  not  a  single 
specimen  of  Tubipora  known  that  is  not  red,  nor  a  single 
sjjecimen  of  Heliopora  that  is  not  blue.  The  same  may  be 
saM  for  several  other  species.  On  the  other  hand,  many 
species  of  Alcyonaria  are  extremely  variable  in  colour. 
I  hus,  Muricea  chamaeleon  is,  according  to  Von  Koch, 
onetimes  yellow,  sometimes  red,  and  in  some  cases  speci- 
iicns  show  both  red  and  yellow  branches.  The  specimens 
f  Melitodes  dichotoma  in  Cape  waters  are  sometimes  red 
ind  sometimes  yellow.  In  a  small  species  of  Melitodes 
from  the  Maldive  Archipelago  there  is  a  very  remarkable 
degree  of  variation  in  colour  both  in  the  nodes  and  inter- 
nodes,  the  details  of  which  I  have  briefly  described  in  vol. 
ii.  of  Mr.  Gardiner's  Results.  In  the  genus  Chironephthya, 
also  from  the  same  Archipelago,  the  variations  in  colour  are 
very  remarkable,  the  spicules  of  the  general  coenenchym 
showing  various  shades  of  red,  pink,  yellow,  and  orange, 
and  the  crown  and  points  purple,  yellow,  and  orange  colours 
which  sometimes  agree,  but  usually  do  not  agree,  with  the 
general  colour  of  the  coenenchym.  The  variability  of  the 
genus  is  particularly  interesting,  as  in  Siphonogorgia,  the 
genus  which  comes  nearest  to  it,  and  is,  in  fact,  difficult 
to  separate  from  it,  the  colour  of  the  coenenchym  is  almost 
invariably  red. 

To  summarise  this  knowledge  of  variability  in  the 
Ccelenterata  we  may  say  that  we  find  either  extreme 
plasticity  or  remarkable  rigidity  in  many  of  their  most 
important  characters.  Such  important  and  essential  organs 
as  the  tentacles,  stomod,-Eum,  mesenteries,  &c.,  are  in  some 
groups  very  variable  indeed,  and  in  others  as  stationary  or 
fixed  ;   we  find  the  same  with  organs  such  as  the  spicules 


of  Alcyonaria,  which  are,  so  far  as  we  can  judge,  of  less 
essential  importance,  and  in  characters,  such  as  colour, 
which  must  be,  in  the  sedentary  forms  at  least,  of  minor 
importance. 

If  we  compare  this  with  what  we  find  in  the  higher 
groups  of  animals  we  observe  a  great  contrast.  In  fishes, 
to  take  an  example  at  random,  we  may  find  that  in  such 
characters  as  the  size  and  weight  of  the  adults,  there  may 
be  great  or  considerable  variability,  but  in  the  essential 
organs,  such  as  the  heart,  brain,  and  stomach,  there  is 
almost  complete  rigidity.  I  do  not  mean  by  using  the 
expression  "  rigidity  "  to  imply  that  minor  variations  in 
sizo  and  shape  do  not  occur,  but  that  major  variations, 
such  as  a  doubling  of  the  stomach,  a  bifurcation  of  the 
cerebral  hemispheres  or  other  variations,  which  it  would 
be  considered  grotesque  to  suggest  even,  do  not  and  cannot 
occur.  But  even  in  minor  characters,  such  as  colour,  the 
possible  range  of  variation  in  a  fish  is  far  less  than  in 
Coelenterates.  We  may  find  in  the  mackerel,  for  example, 
that  individuals  differ  in  the  shade  and  range  of  the  green 
pigment,  but  we  do  not  find  in  any  species  of  fish  that 
some  individuals  are  red,  some  yellow,  some  purple,  &c. 

The  contrast  in  this  respect  between  the  Ccelenterate  and 
the  fish  must  be  associated  with  their  different  degree  of 
complexity  of  structure.  In  a  complicated  organisation 
such  as  that  of  a  fish,  the  brain,  heart,  and  stomach  must 
mutually  work  together  ;  they  must  be  co-ordinated  in  form 
and  action.  Any  profound  variation  or  abnormality  of  one 
would  interfere  with  the  action  of  the  others  and  would 
therefore  be  incompatible  with  continued  existence.  In  the 
Ccelenterate,  however,  the  doubling  of  the  siphonoglyph,  the 
duplication  or  quadruplication  of  the  mesenteries  does  not, 
in  some  cases,  interfere  materially  with  the  action  of  the 
other  organs  of  the  body.  If  we  were  to  alter  the  size  or 
shape  of  some  part  of  a  simple  machine  it  might  be  able 
still  to  do  its  work  the  better  or  the  worse  for  the  change, 
but  if  we  were  to  alter  the  corresponding  part  of  a  com- 
plicated machine  it  would  probably  throw  it  out  of  gear 
and  prevent  any  work  being  done  at  all. 

From  this  consideration  we  gather  that  in  the  process 
of  the  evolution  of  the  higher  forms  of  life  there  has  been 
a  gradual  diminution  in  the  range  of  variation  of  the 
different  characters  of  the  body,  a  gradual  diminution  of 
the  response  of  these  characters  to  changes  of  the  environ- 
ment. Characters  which,  in  the  early  stages  of  evolution, 
were  probably  plastic  become  rigid. 

The  gradual  evolution  of  the  power  of  co-ordinated  move- 
nient  has  been  undoubtedly  accompanied  by  a  loss  in  the 
variability  of  the  shape  of  the  body,  the  gradual  evolution 
of  a  blood  vascular  system  and  nervous  system  has  led  to 
a  loss  of  variability  in  the  alimentary  canal  with  which  they 
are  associated.  In  the  majority  of  cases,  however,  we  are 
much  too  ignorant  of  the  facts  of  the  co-ordination  of  the 
parts  of  the  body  or  of  the  co-ordination  of  any  one  part  to 
the  environment  to  be  able  to  frame  an  hypothesis  as  to 
why  any  one  character  has  become  rigid,  it  is  difficult  to 
see  the  reason  why  the  number  of  the  tentacles  and  mesen- 
teries in  Alcyonian  polyps  has  become  fixed  at  eight,  while 
in  other  Coelenterates  these  characters  are  so  variable,  or 
why  the  colour  of  Tubipora  is  always  red,  and  of  Melitodes 
variable. 

The  study  of  species,  however,  teaches  us  that,  in  all 
cases,  except  perhaps  in  some  examples  of  degeneration, 
the  plastic  condition  of  the  characters  was  antecedent  to 
the  rigid,  that  in  the  earlier  stages  of  evolution  the  con- 
dition of  extreme  plasticity  and  ready  response  to  changing 
external  conditions  were  necessary  for  the  survival  of  the 
species  ;  and  that  in  the  later  stages,  when  special  adapta- 
tions to  special  circumstances  were  developed,  a  certain 
rigidity  or  indifference  to  changing  external  conditions  was 
equally  necessary  for  its  survival. 

Now,  the  study  of  the  various  orders  of  Coelenterates 
conveys  a  very  strong  impression  that  the  part  played  by 
the  environment  in  the  production  of  the  variations  of  the 
adult  is  much  greater  in  proportion  than  it  is  in  the  higher 
groups  of  animals.  It  is  true  that  direct  proof  of  this  is 
wanting.  Such  a  direct  proof  can  only  be  obtained  by 
experiments  in  rearing  and  breeding  under  varying  con- 
ditions, and  there  are  at  present  many  serious  difficulties 
to  overcome  before  experiments  of  this  nature  can  be  satis- 
factorily made. 


NO.   1767,  VOL.  68] 


458 


NATURE 


[September  io,  1903 


Nevertheless,  the  circumstantial  evidence  in  favour  of  the 
truth  of  this  impression  is,  to  my  mind,  so  strong  that  we 
are  justified  in  considering  its  bearing  upon  the  general 
question.  It  is  quite  impossible  for  me  on  this  occasion 
to  set  before  you  at  all  adequately  the  general  nature  of 
this  circumstantial  evidence.  To  do  so  would  involve  state- 
ments concerning  the  actual  variations  of  a  large  number 
of  species  already  observed  in  one  locality  and  in  several 
widely  distributed  localities,  with  a  discussion  of  the  possible 
direct  influence  of  the  conditions  of  such  localities,  so  far 
as  they  are  known,  upon  each  of  the  principal  variations. 
Such  statements  would  necessarily  be  of  such  a  special  and 
technical  kind  that,  even  if  time  permitted  me  to  make 
them,  they  would  not  be  suitable  for  an  Address  of  this 
character.  I  may  be  permitted  to  say,  however,  that  I  am 
collecting  and  preparing  the  evidence  for  publication  on 
this  point  at  a  later  date.  There  can  be  no  doubt,  however, 
from  the  evidence  I  have  already  submitted  to  you  in  part, 
that  some  species  are  far  more  influenced  by  changes  in  the 
environment,  or,  to  simplify  the  expression,  are  far  more 
plastic  than  others  ;  and  we  may  conclude  that  in  the  evolu- 
tion of  other  groups  of  animals  the  earlier  forms  were  far 
more  plastic  than  their  modern  descendants.  In  the  earlier 
stages  of  evolution  there  must  have  been  in  the  first  instance 
a  lessening  of  the  power  of  change  in  structure  according 
to  change  of  environment.  The  fixity  or  rigidity  of  certain 
characters  thus  produced  enabled  a  more  elaborate  co- 
ordination both  in  form  and  action  to  occur  between  one 
set  of  organs  and  another.  It  permitted  a  further  localisa- 
tion and  specialisation  of  functions,  or,  in  other  words, 
further  differentiation  of  the  animal  tissues. 

Accompanying  this  differentiation  there  was  a  loss  in  the 
power  of  regeneration.  As  Trembley  showed  many  years 
ago,  a  Hydra  can  be  cut  into  many  pieces,  and  each  by 
the  regeneration  of  the  parts  that  are  missing  will  give 
rise  to  a  complete  individual.  The  Earthworm  can,  when 
cut  in  half,  regenerate  a  new  tail  but  not  a  new  head 
region.  An  Arthropod  dies  when  cut  in  half,  but  has  the 
power  of  regenerating  new  appendages  in  place  of  those 
that  are  lost.  But  in  Vertebrates  there  is  very  little  power 
of  regenerating  new  appendages,  and  the  general  powers 
of  regenerating  new  parts  are  reduced  to  a  minimum. 

Now,  whether  the  loss  in  the  plasticity  of  characters  was 
the  cause  of  the  loss  in  the  power  of  regeneration  of  lost 
parts,  or  the  loss  in  the  powers  of  regeneration  was  the 
cause  of  the  loss  of  plasticity,  is  a  problem  upon  which  I 
do  not  feel  we  are  competent  to  express  a  definite  opinion  ; 
but  that  the  two  series  of  phenomena  are  intimately  associ- 
ated is,  I  believe,  a  generalisation  that  is  worth  a  good 
deal  of  further  thought  and  study. 

In  Vertebrates,  however,  although  the  power  of  regener- 
ation of  lost  parts  is  at  a  minimum,  it  is  not  by  any  means 
entirely  wanting.  The  muscles,  nerves,  epithelia,  and  other 
tissues,  are  able  to  repair  injuries  caused  by  accident  and 
disease.  And  similarly,  although  the  power  of  response  of 
various  organs  to  the  changes  of  external  conditions  in 
Vertebrates  is  very  much  diminished  as  compared  with  that 
in  the  lower  groups  of  the  animal  kingdom,  it  still  remains 
in  an  appreciable  degree.  Whether  the  curves  of  variation 
of  the  so-called  fluctuating  characters  of  Vertebrates  re- 
present simply  or  solely  the  influence  of  the  environment 
on  the  organism  cannot  at  present  be  determined  with  any 
degree  of  certainty  ;  but  it  appears  to  me  that  zoological 
evidence,  confirmed  as  it  is  in  such  a  remarkable  wav  by 
the  recent  researches  of  the  botanists,  points  very  strongly  to 
the  conclusion  that  the  major  part  of  each  such  curve  is,  after 
all,  but  an  expression  of  the  influence  of  the  environment. 
In  venturing  to  put  before  you  these  considerations,  I  am 
quite  conscious  of  the  vastness  and  complexity  of  the 
problems  involved  and  of  the  many  omissions  and  imperfec- 
tions which  a  short  Address  of  this  kind  must  contain.  Not 
the  least  of  these  omissions  is  that  of  any  reference  to  the 
distinction  that  might  be  drawn  between  continuous  and 
discontinuous  variations  in  the  simpler  forms  of  life.  This 
is  a  matter,  however,  which  involves  so  many  interesting 
and  important  questions  that  I  have  felt  it  to  be  beyond  the 
scope  of  my  Address  to-day. 

We  are  still  in  need  of  further  systematic  knowledge  of 
the  widely  distributed  species  of  Coelenterates  ;  we  want  to 
be  able  to  form  a  more  definite  opinion  than  we  can  at 
present  upon  the  value  of  specific  distinctions,  and  we  need 


NO.    1767,  VOL.  68] 


still  further  observations  and  descriptions  of  the  phenomena 
of  irregular  facies,  abnormal  growths,  and  meristic  vari- 
ations. But  more  important  still  is  the  need  of  further 
researches  in  the  field  of  experimental  morphology. 

When  we  have  accumulated  further  knowledge  on  these 
jines  in  a  group  of  animals  such  as  the  Coelenterata,  of 
relatively  simple  organisation,  we  shall  be  in  a  better  posi- 
tion than  we  are  now  to  deal  with  the  problems  of  heredity 
and  variation  in  the  far  more  complicated  groups  of 
Arthropoda  and  Vertebrates. 


NOTES. 

The  following  committee  has  been  appointed  by  the  Lord 
President  of  the  Council  to  make  a  preliminary  inquiry  into 
allegations  that  have  been  made  concerning  the  physical 
deterioration  of  certain  classes  of  the  population  : — Mr. 
Almeric  W.  FitzRoy,  C.V.O.  (chairman).  Colonel  G.  M. 
Fox,  C.B.,  Mr.  J.  G.  Legge,  Mr.  H.  M.  Lindsell,  Colonel 
George  T.  Onslow,  C.B.,  Mr.  John  Struthers,  C.B.,  Dr. 
J.  F.  W.  Tatham. 

Writing  to  the  Times,  the  honorary  treasurer  of  the 
Cancer  Research  Fund  states  that  Mr.  William  Waldorf 
Astor  has  just  sent  a  cheque  for  2o,oooZ.  to  the  fund,  and 
that,  as  a  result  of  the  speech  delivered  on  July  30  by  Mr. 
Balfour,  several  other  donations  have  also  been  received  ;  he 
points  out,  however,  that  the  fund  is  still  more  than  25,000?. 
short  of  the  amount  required,  and  appeals.for  further  help. 
The  address  of  the  fund  is  the  Examination  Hall,  Victoria 
Embankment,  W.C. 

The  Paris  correspondent  of  the  Morning  Post  states  that 
particulars  of  a  new  anti-tuberculosis  serum  will  shortly 
be  communicated  to  the  Academy  of  Medicine  by  the  dis- 
coverer. Dr.  Marmorck,  of  the  Pasteur  Institute.  The 
new  serum  is  said  to  have  been  tried  in  the  Paris  hospitals, 
and  to  have  cured  several  comparatively  advanced  cases  of 
tuberculosis. 

Commander  Pearv  has  been  granted  three  years'  leave  of 
absence  by  the  U.S.  Navy  Department  to  enable  him  to  make 
another  attempt  to  reach  the  North  Pole.  According  to 
Reuter  he  will  start  by  about  July  i  next  year,  in  a  new 
steamer,  for  the  Whale  Sound  region,  where  he  will  embark 
a  number  of  Eskimos  and  establish  a  permanent  base  at 
Cape  Sabine ;  thence  he  will  force  his  way  to  Grant  Land, 
where  he  hopes  to  establish  his  winter  quarters  on  the 
northern  shore.  In  the  following  February,  with  the  earliest 
light,  a  start  will  be  made  due  north  over  the  pack  ice  with 
a  small,  lightly  equipped  party,  which  will  be  followed  by  a 
larger  party.  Commander  Peary  hopes  to  reach  the  Pole 
and  return  to  his  winter  quarters  within  little  more  than  100 
days.  The  distinctive  features  of  the  plan  are  the  use  of 
sledges  with  comparatively  light  loads  drawn  by  dogs,  the 
adoption  of  Eskimo  methods  and  customs,  and  the  fullest 
possible  utilisation  of  the  Eskimos  themselves. 

Reuter's  Agency  learns  that  Major  Powell-Cotton,  who 
has  been  exploring  in  Africa  for  the  past  year,  arrived  safely 
at  Wadelai,  on  the  Upper  Nile,  in  the  middle  of  July,  from 
Mount  Elgon,  where  he  had  been  studying  the  cave-dwellers. 
Major  Powell-Cotton  had  had  satisfactory  interviews  with 
the  Congo  ofTicials,  and  was  then  preparing  to  start  on  an 
expedition  in  search  of  okapi. 

A  telegram  from  Mombasa  on  Saturday  last  states  that 
Lieut. -Col.  Bruce,  who,  with  Dr.  Nabarro,  was  despatched 
from  London  in  February  last,  on  behalf  of  the  Government 
and  the  Royal  Society,  to  study  the  sleeping  sickness  in 
Uganda,  has  left  for  England  on  the  conclusion  of  his 
mission.  Lieut. -Col.  Bruce  is  reported  to  have  stated  that 
the  ravages  of  the  disease  are  unabated. 


September  lo,  1903] 


NATURE 


459 


I 


According  to  a  telegram  from  New  York,  through 
Laffan's  Agency,  Mr.  W.  G.  Tight,  the  president  of  the 
University  of  New  Mexico,  has  made  the  ascent  of  Mount 
Grata,  in  Bolivia.  This  is  the  first  time  the  peak  has  been 
staled. 

The  members  of  the  Liverpool  School  of  Tropical 
Medicine  trypanosoma  expedition  to  the  Congo  Free 
State  (Drs.  button,  Todd,  and  Christy)  started  on  Friday 
last  from  Southampton. 

The  next  meeting  of  the  International  Congress  of 
Hygiene  will  be  held  in  Berlin  in  1907.  The  congress  has 
been  invited  to  meet  in  Washington  in  1909. 

The  fourth  general  meeting  of  the  American  Electro- 
chemical Society  begins  on  Thursday  next  at  Niagara  Falls, 
New  York,  and  will  last  for  three  days.  The  following  is 
a  list  of  the  papers  which  are  to  be  read  and  discussed  : — 
"  A  New  Type  of  Electrolytic  Cell,"  P.  G.  Salom  ;  "  Manu- 
facture of  Ferro-alloys  in  the  Electric  Furnace,"  Dr.  George 
P.  Scholl  ;  "Electrolytic  Copper  Refining,"  Dr.  W.  D. 
Bancroft;  "Electro-metallurgy  of  Gold,"  Dr.  W.  H. 
Walker;  "Some  Theoretical  Considerations  of  Resistance 
Furnaces,"  F".  A.  J.  FitzGerald ;  "On  the  Supposed 
Electrolysis  of  Water  Vapour,"  F.  Austin  Lidbury ; 
"  Efficiency  of  the  Nickel  Plating  Tank,"  Prof.  O.  W. 
Brown  ;  "  Electrolysis  of  Sodium  Hydroxide  by  Alternating 
Current,"  Carl  Hambuethen  ;  "A  Practical  Utilisation  of 
the  Passive  State  of  Iron,"  Prof.  C.  F.  Burgess;  "The 
Present  Status  of  the  Theory  of  Electrolytic  Dissociation," 
Dr.  E.  F.  Roeber ;  "  Berthelot's  Law  of  Electrochemical 
Action,"  C.  J.  Reed.  There  will  also  be  a  discussion  on 
the  theory  of  electrolytic  dissociation. 

The  thirteenth  annual  convention  of  the  American  Electro- 
Therapeutic  Association  will  take  place  at  Atlantic  City, 
New  Jersey,  from  September  22  to  24.  A  lengthy  pro- 
gramme of  interesting  papers  which  are  to  be  read  at  the 
gathering  has  been  published. 

An  educational  exhibition  of  edible  fungi  is  to  be  held 
under  the  auspices  of  the  Royal  Horticultural  Society  in 
the  Drill  Hall,  Buckingham  Gate,  on  September  15.  A 
lecture  on  the  subject  of  the  exhibition  will  be  given  in 
the  afternoon  by  Dr.  M.  C.  Cooke.  All  interested  in  ex- 
tending or  acquiring  the  knowledge  of  the  edible  species 
are  invited  to  send  specimens,  but  notice  of  an  intention  to 
exhibit  should,  if  possible,  be  sent  a  few  days  before  to  the 
secretary  of  the  Royal  Horticultural  Society. 

At  the  International  Congress  of  Hygiene  which  has  just 
been  held  in  Brussels  the  following  resolution  was  passed 
on  the  motion  of  Sir  Patrick  Manson  : — "  That  this  con- 
gress, recognising  the  practical  importance  of  the  mosquito 
malaria  theory,  would  urge  on  all  Governments  in  malarial 
countries  (i)  that  officials,  both  civil  and  military,  be  re- 
quired before  taking  service  in  such  countries  to  show 
♦evidence  of  practical  knowledge  of  the  theory  and  its 
application ;  (2)  that  educational  establishments,  whether 
governmental,  missionary,  or  other,  in  such  countries  be 
requested  to  include  in  their  curriculum  instruction  of  native 
students  in  the  mosquito  malaria  theory  and  its  practical 
application ;  (3)  that  officials  ignorant  of  the  theory  or 
systematically  ignoring  its  practical  application  be  con- 
sidered as  unsuitable  for  service  in  malarial  countries."  In 
addition  to  the  foregoing  resolution  the  first  and  second 
sections  of  the  congress  sitting  together  passed  the  follow- 
ing resolution  : — "  That  human  tuberculosis  is  perfectly 
transmissible  from  one  person  to  another.  Nevertheless,  in 
thj  present  state  of  our  knowledge,  it  is  necessary  to  re- 
ton.inend  hygienic  measures  for  the  prevention  of  the  pro- 
pagation of  animal  tuberculosis  in  the  human  species." 

NO.    1767,   VOL.   68] 


The  Scottish  Sanitary  Congress  was  opened  at  Stranraer 
on  Thursday  last,  when  the  president,  Prof.  Glaister,  of 
Glasgow  University,  delivered  an  address,  and  various 
papers  dealing  with  sanitary  matters  were  read  and  dis- 
cussed. Prof.  Glaister,  in  the  course  of  his  remarks,  urged 
that  men  of  science  and  local  authorities  should  realise  the 
detrimental  effect  of  atmospheric  pollution,  and  together 
grapple  with  the  subject.  The  prejudicial  effects  of  town 
living  could  not  be  better  demonstrated  than  in  the  depreci- 
ated physique  of  the  third  and  fourth  generations  of  many 
of  those  who  had  proceeded  from  the  country  to  the  towns. 
One  of  the  significant  features  of  present-day  statistics,  and 
one  calling  for  the  serious  consideration  of  sanitarians,  was 
the  high  prevailing  rate  of  infantile  mortality  in  populous 
centres.  If  the  state  of  the  principal  English  towns  for 
1901  be  considered,  it  will  be  found  that  the  infantile 
death  rate  varied  from  126  per  thousand  up  to  226  per 
thousand.  These  figures  exhibited  a  great  wastage  of  in- 
fantile life.  He  affirmed  that  it  was  a  preventable  wastage, 
and,  therefore,  worthy  the  reflections  of  sanitarians.  Such 
high  rates  of  infantile  mortality  were  bound  in  the  future 
to  become  a  serious  national  concern  in  view  of  the  diminu- 
tion of  the  birth  rate  which  had  been  progressively  taking 
place  for  the  last  few  decades. 

The  fourteenth  annual  meeting  of  the  Institution  of 
Mining  Engineers  was  held  last  week  in  Nottingham  under 
the  presidency  of  Mr.  J.  C.  Cadman.  The  Institution 
appears  from  the  report  to  be  in  a  satisfactory  condition, 
the  membership  being  at  present  more  numerous  than  at 
any  former  period.  The  present  total  is  2601  as  compared 
with  2554  of  the  previous  year. 

The  Municipal  Exhibition  at  Dresden  has  been  a  great 
success.  In  all,  128  German  communities,  including  prac- 
tically the  whole  of  the  large  cities,  contributed  officially  to 
it.  The  exhibition  was  of  a  practical  nature,  and  provided 
a  more  or  less  complete  survey  of  municipal  achievement, 
effort,  and  ideals.  It  was  divided  into  eight  sections,  which 
again  were  subdivided.  The  regulation  of  traffic,  lighting, 
the  police  and  police-courts,  ordinary  and  model  dwelling 
houses,  public  art  galleries,  public  health,  school  accom- 
modation and  buildings,  public  education,  the  care  of  the 
poor  and  the  sick,  benevolent  institutions  and  charity  schools, 
the  financial  administration  of  municipalities,  infectious  and 
common  diseases  and  their  prevention  and  cure,  safeguards 
against  fire,  parks  and  open  spaces,  and  the  growth  of 
towns  were  among  the  numerous  features  of  municipal  life 
illustrated. 

Shortly  before  his  death,  the  late  Prof.  Nocard, 
of  Paris,  strongly  urged  the  authorities  of  the  Liver- 
pool School  of  Tropical  Medicine  to  make  the  institu- 
tion available  for  the  instruction  of  veterinary  surgeons.  A 
committee  has  now  been  formed  for  the  purpose  of  giving 
effect  to  this  suggestion,  and  the  veterinary  branch  is  open 
for  the  reception  and  instruction  of  students.  It  is  under 
the  direction  of  Profs.  Boyce  and  Sherrington,  with  adequate 
assistance,  and  a  farm  has  been  provided  at  Runcorn  for  it? 
requirements. 

The  Tramways  and  Light  Railways  Association  offers  an 
annual  prize,  consisting  of  a  bronze  medal  and  books,  for 
the  best  essay  on  improved  means  of  communication.  No 
essay  must  exceed  4000  words  in  length,  and  the  right  is 
reserved  by  the  council  to  publish  the  papers  in  the  Associ- 
ation's official  journal. 

A  GRANT  of  70,000  r.  (7000/.)  has  been  made  to  the  Moscow 
University  by  the  Russian  Government  for  the  purpose  of 
technical  education  ;  of  this  sum  30,000  r.  is  allocated  to  a 


460 


NATURE 


September  10    '903 


physical  institute,  15,000  r.  to  a  chemical  laboratory,  and 
the  balance  to  physico-geographical,  zoological,  and 
botanical  teaching. 

A  NEW  gem,  lilac  coloured  and  transparent,  has  recently 
been  discovered  in  California  by  Dr.  George  F;  Kunz,  of 
New  York.  On  the  suggestion  of  Dr.  C.  Baskerville,  of  the 
University  of  North  Carolina,  who  made  an  analysis  of  the 
mineral  at  the  New  York  Museum  of  Natural  History,  the 
name  of  Kunzite  has,  it  is  stated,  been  given  to  the  stone 
in  honour  of  its  discoverer.  In  the  course  of  the  tests  made 
by  Dr.  Baskerville,  the  Kunzite  crystals  were  subjected  to 
the  action  of  ultra-violet  light  without  showing  any  evidence 
of  fluorescence  or  phosphorescence,  and  it  was  not  until 
Rontgen  rays  of  very  high  penetration  were  brought  to 
bear  upon  them  that  they  became  at  all  fluorescent.  On 
their  removalto  a  dark  chamber  they  exhibited  a  persistent 
white  luminosity  never  before  observed  in  this  class  of 
minerals.  A  description  of  the  gem,  by  Dr.  Kuriz,  appears 
in  Science  of  August  28. 

The  Pioneer  Mail,  Allahabad,  states  that  the  Ceylon 
Government  has  given  notice  that,  under  the  Insect  Pest 
Ordinance,  the  importation  of  pepper  plants  into  Ceylon  from 
any  part  of  India  is  prohibited.  The  dried  seed  of  the  pepper 
plant  imported  for  commercial  use  is,  however,  exempt  from 
the  prohibition. 

The  daily  weather  report  issued  by  the  Meteorological 
Office  on  Friday  last,  September  4,  showed  that  a  barometric 
depression  had  passed  the  Azores  and  was  advancing  on  an 
easterly  course;  the  mercury  was  lowest  on  the  west  coast 
of  Ireland,  with  south-easterly  winds,  and  the  air  be- 
coming close  and  thundery.  As  occasionally  happens,  a 
secondary  depression  was  developed  to  the  southward  of 
the  primary  system,  and  this  subsidiary  disturbance  caused 
during  the  afternoon  severe  thunderstorms  over  the  southern 
portion  of  England,  which  subsequently  extended  to  the 
metropolis  and  eastern  coast,  accompanied  by  torrential 
rain,  laying  many  districts  under  water.  At  Ventnor  a 
fall  of  1-65  inches  was  recorded  the  next  morning,  at  West- 
bourne  2-4  inches,  and  at  Brixton  1-2  inches.  At  some 
places  the  fall  was  probably  greater,  as  at  Dover  the  ship- 
ment of  mails  was  delayed,  and  many  houses  in  the  low- 
lying  districts  of  that  town  were  flooded  to  the  depth  of 
several  feet. 

Prof.  Langley  has  addressed  a  statement  to  the  American 
Press  with  reference  to  his  mechanical  flight  experiments 
from  which  we  abstract  the  following  : — "  These,  trials,  with 
some  already  conducted  with  steam-driven  flying  machines, 
are  believed  to  be  the  first  in  the  history  of  invention  where 
bodies  far  heavier  than  the  air  itself  have  been  sustained  in 
the  air  for  more  than  a  few  seconds  by  purely  mechanical 
means.  In  my  previous  trials  success  has  only  been  reached 
after  initial  failures,  which  alone  have  taught  the  way  to  it, 
and  I  know  no  reason  why  prospective  trials  should  be  an 
exception.  .  .  .  The  fullest  publicity  consistent  with  the 
national  interest  (since  these  recent  experiments  have  for 
their  object  the  development  of  a  machine  for  war  purposes) 
will  be  given  to  this  work  when  it  reaches  a  stage  which 
warrants  publication." 

Mr.  Edison  is  reported  to  have  deyeloped  his  alkaline 
storage  battery  into  a  form  fit  for  commercial  use,  and 
already  has  works  equipped  capable  of  turning  out  per  day 
one  complete  set  of  cells  suitable  for  motor-car  work ;  soon 
he  will  be  able  to  turn  out  five  sets  a  day.  The  results  of 
tests  of  the  practical  working  of  the  battery  are  said  to  be 
entirely  satisfactory ;  four  sizes  are  made,  capable  of 
running  a  car  25,  50,  75,  and  100  miles  respectively  on  one 


to 

I 


NO.    1767,  VOL    68] 


charge,  at  an  even  rate  of  25  miles  an  hour.  The  possibility 
of  working  at  more  than  normal  discharge  rates  without 
injury  to  the  cells  gives  cars  equipped  with  this  battery 
good  hill-climbing  powers.  The  results  of  general  outside 
experience  of  the  battery  will  be  eagerly  awaited. 

Mr.  Marconi,  who  recently  went  out  to  America  on  board 
the    Lucania,    had   special   apparatus   fitted   on   the   ship  to 
enable  him   to   carry   out   experiments   during   the   voyagi 
The  main  object  of  the  experiments  was  to  determine 
power  necessary  to  transmit  messages  to  and  from  a  movi 
station,  such  as  a  ship,  with  varying  distances. 

It  is  announced  that  the  Metropolitan  District  Railway 
will  be  equipped  with  trains  run  on  the  multiple  unit  train 
control,  which  is  in  use  on  the  Central  London  and  several 
American  railways.  Each  train  will  have  three  motor-cars 
all  controlled  by  a  single  driver ;  if  by  any  accident  the 
driver  is  incapacitated,  the  train  is  automatically  brought 
to  a  standstill  as  soon  as  he  releases  his  hold  on  the  driving 
lever.  The  motor  equipment  is  separated  from  the  public 
part  of  the  car  by  a  fireproof  steel  partition.  The  contract 
for  the  equipment  (known  as  the  .Sprague-Thomson  Houston 
system)  has  just  been  placed  with  the  British  Thomson 
Houston  Company,  of  Rugby  and  London. 

The  supervision  of  the  Imperial  Department  of  Agri- 
culture for  the  West  Indies  extends  to  several  islands,  where 
the  progress  that  is  being  made  is  not  placed  on  record 
except  in  the  yearly  reports.  Of  these,  the  report  which 
originates  from  St.  Vincent  refers  to  the  eruptions  of  Mont 
Soufri^re  during  the  period  included  in  the  official  year 
1902-3.  The  botanic  gardens  escaped,  but  the  Georgetown 
experimental  plot  was  almost  entirely  destroyed  ;  even  this 
catastrophe  was  turned  to  account,  as  experiments  were 
started  in  order  to  test  the  possibility  of  growing  certain 
plants,  such  as  sugar-canes,  cotton,  ground-nuts,  &'c.,  in 
the  volcanic  ash.  The  experiment  station  of  the  British 
Virginia  Islands  is  situated  at  Tortola,  and  the  yearly  re- 
port is  presented  by  Mr.  Fishlock,  who  took  up  the  position 
of  agricultural  instructor  at  the  beginning  of  the  year. 
The  station  lies  low,  and  is  not  suited  to  the  cultivation  of 
cacao  or  coffee,  but  pines  produce  excellent  crops,  and  there 
is  every  reason  to  expect  that  good  results  will  attend  the 
introduction  of  cotton  cultivation. 

A  PAPER  entitled  "  The  Forward  Movement  in  Plant- 
breeding  "  was  read  by  Prof.  L.  H.  Bailey  before  the 
American  Philosophical  Society,  and  is  published  in  its 
Proceedings.  The  advice  which  is  offered  to  the  scientific 
breeder  is  to  get  thoroughly  acquainted  with  the  character- 
istics and .  qualities  of  the  plant  which  it  is  desired 
to  cultivate,  to  decide  in  what  direction  he  can  make 
practical  improvements,  and  after  choosing  what  appears 
to  be  a  suitable  strain,  to  get  all  the  information  possible 
from  his  results  by  means  of  a  careful  system  of  measure- 
ment and  tabulation. 

In  the  September  issue  of  the  Irish  Naturalist  Messrs. 
Carpenter  and  Beresford  publish  the  result  of  certain  ex- 
periments as  to  the  relations  existing  between  the  wasps 
respectively  known  as  Vespa  austriaca  and  F.  rufa.  The 
former,  which  is  not  uncommon  in  Ireland,  is  believed  to 
produce  no  workers,  but  to  breed  as  an  "  inquiline  "  in  the 
nests  of  other  species.  In  a  nest  with  an  austriaca  queen 
kept  under  observation  by  the  authors,  all  the  workers 
hatched  were  of  the  rufa  type,  while  of  the  drones  some 
were  austriaca,  some  rufa,  and  others  intermediate  between 
the  two.  As  the  two  forms  are  sufficiently  distinct  to  be 
regarded  as  species,  it  seems  as  if  we  had  here  an  instance 
of  the  origin  of  species  by  discontinuous  variation.     "We 


September  lo,  1903] 


NA  TURE 


461 


think  that  we  see  here  a  new  species  arise  by  the  produc- 
tion, through  many  generations,  of  an  increasing  number  of 
individuals  (ruja  forms)  among  the  offspring,  that  are 
markedly  unlike  the  parents  {austriaca  forms).  We  believe 
that  austriaca  forms  give  rise  to  rufa  forms,  but  we  have 
JO  evidence  of  the  reverse  process." 

At  the  conclusion  of  the  second  part  of  his  memoir  on 
the  development  of  the  molluscan  lingual  ribbon,  or  radula, 
Mr.  H.  Schnabel,  in  the  Zeitschrift  fiir  wissenschaftliche 
Zoologie,  vol.  Ixxiv.  part  iv.,  points  out  an  important  dis- 
tinction in  this  between  cephalopods  and  gastropods.  In 
contrast  to  the  cephalopods,  the  development  of  the  radula 
in  the  gastropods  commences,  not  with  the  appearance  of 
the  single  unpaired  median  row  of  teeth,  but  with  a  number 
of  paired  lateral  rows.  The  other  contents  of  the  issue  in- 
clude an  article  on  gastrulation  in  Cucullanus,  by  E. 
Martini  ;  an  essay  on  the  morphology  of  the  male  genital 
appendages  of  the  Lepidoptera,  by  E.  Zander ;  and  an 
account  of  the  structure  of  the  bristles  in  certain  chaetopods 
and  brachiopods,  by  A.  SchepotiefT. 

The  alleged  occurrence  of  "  aptosochromatism,"  that  is, 
colour-change  in  feathers  without  moulting,  in  birds,  has 
by  no  means  met  with  universal  acceptation,  one  at  least 
of  the  late  Mr.  F.  J.  Birt well's  three  papers  on  this  subject 
having  been  adversely  criticised.  Shortly  before  his  death 
Mr.  Birtwell  entered  on  a  fresh  series  of  observations  in 
the  hope  of  establishing  his  theory  on  a  basis  which  would 
be  beyond  question.  These  observations,  which  were  made 
on  two  species  of  buzzard,  are  now  published  in  the  Bulletin 
of  the  Hadley  Laboratory  of  the  University  of  New  Mexico 
(vol.  iii.     No.  7). 

An  Irish  specimen  of  Dopplerite  has  been  described  by 
Mr.  Richard  J.  Moss  (Set.  Proc.  Royal  Dublin  Soc,  vol.  x. 
No.  6).  It  was  found  in  peat  in  Sluggan  bog,  at  Drumsue, 
near  Cookstown  Junction,  in  County  Antrim.  In  its 
original  moist  condition  it  appeared  like  a  stiff  jelly  of  a 
velvety-black  colour,  but  when  dry  it  became  very  like  jet, 
breaking  with  a  conchoidal  fracture,  and  exhibiting  a 
vitreous  lustre.  Dopplerite  was  originally  found  in  peat 
in  Styria,  and  has  not  previously  been  recorded  from  Britain. 
It  appears  to  have  been  formed  from  peat  by  a  process  of 
oxidation. 

A  HANDBOOK  to  Southport,  which  should  prove  of  much 
service  to  those  attending  the  meeting  who  are  not  well 
acquainted  with  the  town,  has  been  written  for  the 
members  of  the  British  Association.  Southport  is  con- 
sidered from  a  historical  and  descriptive  point  of  view,  and 
as  a  health  resort.  Other  chapters  are  devoted  to  meteor- 
<^'f g'y.  Reology,  botany,  zoology,  Martin  Mere,  archaeology, 
and  the  life  and  works  of  the  Rev.  Jeremiah  Horrocks  (spelt 
in  the  volume  Horrox).  The  volume  is  published  by  Messrs. 
Fortune  and  Chant,  of  Southport,  and  appears  to  have  been 
carefully  prepared. 

The  current  issue  of  the  Illustrated  Scientific  News  is  a 
double  one,  and  brings  to  a  close  our  contemporary's  first 
volume.  The  number  contains  many  interesting  articles, 
among  which  there  are  no  fewer  than  three  respecting  the 
British  Association  ;  one  is  illustrated  by  portraits  of  the 
president  and  five  of  the  presidents  of  sections  for  this  year. 
Other  contributions  deal  with  "  Charlottenburg, "  the 
"  Solar  Physics  Observatory  at  Meudon,"  "  Progress  with 
Airships,"  &c. 

The  additions  to  the  Zoological  Society's  Gardens  during 
the  past  week  include  two  Black  Rats  (Mus  rattus),  British, 
NO.    1767,  VOL.   68] 


presented  by  Mr.  J.  E.  Millais ;  a  Ducorps's  Cockatoo 
(Cacatua  ducorpsi)  from  the  Solomon  Islands,  presented  by 
Mrs.  J.  Aarons  ;  a  Neumann's  Baboon  (Papio  neumanni),  a 
Doguera  Baboon  (Papio  doguera)  from  Abyssinia,  a  Bell's 
Cinixys  (Cinixys  helliana)  from  Tropical  Africa,  an  Adan- 
son's  Sternothere  (Sternothoerus  adansoni)  from  North-east 
Africa,  deposited  ;  three  Fat-tailed  Desert  Mice  (Pachuromys 
dupresi),  born  in  the  Gardens. 


OUR  ASTRONOMICAL  COLUMN. 

Search-ephemeris  for  Faye's  Comet. — In  No.  3896  of 
the  Astronomische  Nachrichten,  Herr  E.  Stromgren  gives 
a  continuation  of  the  search-ephemeris  for  Faye's  comet 
which  appeared  in  No.  3876  of  the  same  periodical,  and 
was  reproduced  in  these  columns.  The  following  is  an 
extract  from  the  later  portion  : — 


1903 


Ephemeris  I2h.  {M.T.Berlin). 

a.  S  log  : 


lORA 


Sept.  12  ...  8     5  14  ...  +12  I3*4  ...  o'2842  ...  0.3864 

,,  16   ...  8  13  26  ...  +11  34-8  ...       —  ...       — 

„  20  ...  8  21  24  ...  +10  55*5  ...  0-2930  ...  0-3821 

„  24  ...  8  29    6  ...  +10  15-5  ...      —  ...       — 

„  28  ...  8  36  31   ..  +9  35-1  ...  0-3020  ...  0-3771 

Oct.  6  ...  8  50  32  ...  +  8  134  ...  0-3110  ...  03712 

„  14  ...  9    3  28  ...  +  6  51-6  ...  o*32or  ...  0*3645 

„  23  ...  9  15  15  ...  +   5  30-7  ...  03293  ...  03569 

„  30  ...  9  25  48  ...  +4  II -8  ...  0-3384  ...  0-3484 

The  Canals  on  Mars. — In  the  fifth  report  of  "  The 
Section  for  the  Observation  of  Mars  "  (British  Astronomical 
Association  Memoirs,  vol.  xi.),  several  charts  of  the  planet's 
surface  are  reproduced,  in  one  of  which,  Plate  viii.,  the 
director  of  the  section,  M.  E.  M.  Antoniadi,  has  omitted 
the  reticulated  canal  systems  so  familiar  to  aerographers 
on  the  charts  published  during  the  last  twenty-five  years. 
These  have  been  omitted  because  recent  research  has  thrown 
grave  doubts  on  their  objective  reality. 

In  the  recent  experiments  carried  out  by  Messrs.  Maundei 
and  Lane  it  was  demonstrated  that  the  regular  "  canali- 
form  "  markings  may  be  consistently  seen  by  numerous 
unbiased  individuals  on  a  surface  which  is  free  from  any 
such  markings,  but  which  has  drawn  on  it  features  similar 
to  the  other  markings  on  Mars.  It  was  also  pointed  out 
that,  in  general,  the  so-called  canals  on  aerographical  maps 
are  drawn  either  from  one  projecting  feature  to  another  or 
where  half-tone  boundaries  are  seen  on  the  planet,  just 
where  one  would  expect  them  to  be  drawn  if  they  were  really 
due  to  physiological  suggestion. 

Many  so-called  "  canals  "  are  retained  on  M.  Antoniadi 's 
chart,  but  these  are  not  of  the  rigidly  geometrical  shape 
shown  on  the  charts  published  during  recent  years,  and  are, 
probably,  objective  features  of  the  Martian  landscape  (the 
Observatory,  No.  335). 

Radiation  Pressure  and  Cometary  Theory. — In  No.  5, 
vol.  xvii.,  of  the  Astrophysical  Journal,  Messrs.  E.  F. 
Nicholls  and  G.  F.  Hull  describe  and  illustrate  some 
laboratory  experiments  they  have  made  at  Dartmouth 
College,  Hanover,  U.S.A.,  in  order  to  demonstrate  the  effect 
of  the  solar  radiation  pressure  in  the  formation  of  comets' 
tails. 

A  glass  tube  shaped  like  an  hour-glass  was  partially  filled 
with  sand  and  dried  lycopodium  powder,  and  then  highly 
evacuated.  On  causing  the  sand  and  powder  to  fall  from 
the  upper  to  the  lower  part  of  the  .tube,  and  directing  an 
intense  beam  of  light  against  the  stream,  it  was  seen  that, 
whilst  the  sand  fell  vertically,  the  powder  was  diverted  in 
the  direction  of  the  beam  against  the  side  of  the  tube 
opposite,  to  the  light  source.  Unfortunately  the  light 
pressure,  on  particles  of  the  size  and  density  used,  had  been 
previously  overestimated,  and  a  subsequent  calculation 
showed  that  the  observed  deviation  may  not  have  been 
wholly  due  to  the  light-pressure,  although  some  of  it  was. 

Another  suggestion  as  to  the  cause  of  repulsion  in 
cometary  phenomena  is  that  the  particles  heated  from  one 
side  evolve  gases,  and  are,  therefore,  driven  in  the  opposite 


462 


NA  TURE 


September  10,  1903 


direction  in  a  similar  manner  to  the  ordinary  rocket,  and 
in  the  experiments  performed  by  Messrs.  NichoUs  and  Hull 
this  "  reaction  "  pressure  would  be  about  ten  times  as  great 
as  the  "  radiation  "  pressure.  This  research  has  ex- 
perimentally illustrated  the  repulsion,  and  has  shown  that 
a  part  of  it  at  least  is  probably  due  to  the  "  radiation  " 
pressure ;  it  now  remains  to  determine  more  definitely  the 
relative  effect  of  each  of  the  possible  causes. 

A  Catalogue  of  1520  Bright  Stars. — As  the  "  Revised 
Harvard  Photometry,"  which  will  contain  details  of  about 
nine  thousand  stars  of  magnitude  6-5  and  brighter,  is  not 
yet  ready,  the  Harvard  College  Observatory  has  published 
a  smaller  catalogue,  which  only  contains  1520  stars,  and 
does  not  give  the  detailed  information  which  will  be  con- 
tained in  the  larger  volume. 

The  catalogue  gives,  in  tabular  form,  the  H.P.  number, 
the  constellation  name,  the  R.A.  and  declination,  the 
magnitude  and  the  type  of  spectrum  for  each  star,  and  a 
comprehensive  set  of  "  remarks  "  describes  the  peculiarities 
appertaining  to  various  stars  included  in  the  list. 

A  large  edition  of  the  catalogue  has  been  prepared,  and 
anyone  interested  may  obtain  a  copy  on  applying  to  the 
director. 


IRON  AND  STEEL  INSTITUTE. 

T^HE  autumn  meeting  of  the  Iron  and  Steel  Institute  was 
held  in  the  Town  Hall,  Barrow-in-Furness,  on 
September  i,  2,  and  3,  with  Mr.  Andrew  Carnegie,'  the 
president,  in  the  chair,  and  was  very  largely  attended. 
After  an  eloquent  address  of  welcome  from  the  Mayor,  Mr. 
Carnegie  delivered  a  short  presidential  address,  in  which 
he  traced  the  progress  made  in  the  metallurgy  of  iron  and 
steel  since  the  Institute's  last  visit  to  Barrow  twenty-nine 
years  ago.  After  various  business  announcements  had  been 
made  by  the  secretary,  Mr.  Bennett  H.  Brough,  the  reading 
and  discussion  of  the  thirteen  papers  on  the  programme 
began.  The  first  read  was  that  by  Mr.  R.  A.  Hadfield  on 
the  alloys  of  iron  and  tungsten.  This  formed  a  monograph 
of  sixty-eight  closely  printed  pages.  It  contains  historical 
details  regarding  the  ores  of  tungsten,  the  metal  and  its 
alloys,  and  a  large  amount  of  physical  data.  It  concludes 
with  a  carefully  compiled  bibliography  of  the  subject,  show- 
ing that  a  large  amount  of  attention  has  been  devoted  to 
studies  of  this  interesting  metal  and  its  employment  in  the 
manufacture  of  steel.  Osmond,  by  his  cooling  curves,  has 
brought  out  several  peculiar  points  in  the  thermal  behaviour 
of  this  steel,  and  Barrett  has  discovered  that  tungsten 
affects  the  conductivity  of  iron  less  than  any  other  added 
element.  Though  tungsten-iron  alloys  will  have  an  im- 
portant future,  there  is  no  doubt  that  their  use  is  not  likely 
to  be  on  the  same  large  scale  as  some  Of  the  other  special 
steels  now  produced.  In  the  discussion  some  interesting 
details  were  added  by  Mr.  F.  W.  Harbord  and  by  Mr.  J.  E. 
Stead. 

This  paper  was  followed  by  a  series  of  memoirs  dealing 
with  the  heat  treatment  of  steel.  These  were  discussed 
together. 

The  paper  read  by  Mr.  J.  E.  Stead  and  Mr.  Arthur  W. 
Richards  on  the  restoration  of  dangerously  crystalline  steel 
by  heat  treatment  established  facts  of  far-reaching  import- 
ance. The  microscope  shows  that  heating  at  high  tempera- 
tures causes  a  great  development  in  the  size  of  the  crystal- 
line grains,  and  reheating  to  about  870°  restores  the  original 
or  a  better  structure.  If  all  structural  steels  in  their  normal 
rolled  or  forged  condition  are  good,  they  can  be  readily 
deteriorated  in  quality  by  heating  to  a  temperature  a  little 
above  that  to  which  steel  is  most  commonly  heated  previous 
to  rolling  or  forging.  Steel  made  brittle  by  such  heating, 
and  dangerously  brittle  by  heating  at  considerably  higher 
temperatures,  can  be  completely  restored  to  the  best  possible 
condition  without  forging  down  to  a  smaller  size  or  by  re- 
melting.  Not  only  are  the  original  good  qualities  of 
normally  rolled  steel,  after  making  brittle,  restored  by  the 
exceedingly  simple  treatment  of  heating  to  about  900°  C. 
for  a  very  short  time,  but  such  steel  is  made  considerably 
better  than  it  was.  That  brittle  "  soft  steel  "  can  be  re- 
stored by  reheating  is  well  known,  but  that  carbon  steels 
c^n  be  actually  made  much  superior  to  the  original  properly 


NO.    1767,   VOL.   68] 


forged  metal  by  reheating  to  870°  and  cooling  in  air  is  a 
discovery.  It  is  urged  that  in  every  large  forge  and  smith's 
shop  Le  Chatelier  pyrometers  should  be  introduced,  together 
with  suitable  furnaces  for  reheating  the  forgings. 

Mr.  J.  E.  Stead  and  Mr.  Arthur  VV.  Richards  next  read 
a  remarkable  paper  on  sorbitic  steel  rails.  The  term 
sorbitic  is  used  for  a  transition  condition  of  the  carbide 
intermediate  between  the  states  in  which  it  exists  in 
hardened  and  annealed  steels.  The  chief  point  of  interest 
in  the  authors'  work  is  the  simple  method  employed  for 
ptoducing  sorbite  in  steel.  The  usual  custom  has  been  to 
reheat  and  oil-harden,  or  to  quench  completely  in  water  and 
reheat  to  dull  redness.  They  avoid  reheating,  and  quench 
the  heads  of  the  rails,  and  allow  the  residual  heat  in  the 
rails  to  do  the  tempering.  The  results  of  the  later  experi- 
ments show  clearly  enough  that  by  partially  quenching  the 
heads  and  allowing  the  rails  to  temper  themselves,  although 
the  elongation  is  decreased,  the  contraction  of  area  remains 
practically  the  same.  A  normal  rail  of  37  tons  tenacity 
when  made  sorbitic  is  increased  in  strength  to  45  tons  with- 
out diminution  of  the  contraction  of  area.  A  normal  rail 
with  362  tons  tenacity  is  increased  to  49  tons  with  a  slight 
increase  in  the  contraction  of  area.  In  other  cases  the 
tenacity  is  increased  from  43  to  50  tons  with  a  slight  diminu- 
tion in  the  contraction  of  the  area.  Pieces  of  the  rail  cut 
from  the  area  of  maximum  sorbite  on  being  tested  by  re- 
peated reversals  of  strain  showed  greater  toughness  and 
endurance  than  the  normal  material.  The  wear  is  very 
greatly  in  favour  of  the  sorbitic  material,  as  would  naturally 
be  expected,  and  it  is  believed  that,  by  treating  the  rails 
in  the  simple  manner  described,  their  life  will  be  increased 
from  25  to  50  per  cent.  The  results  obtained  should  lead 
metallurgists  to  aim  at  replacing  pearlite  by  sorbite  in  all 
structural  steels  that  have  to  be  subjected  to  friction,  per- 
cussion, or  vibration  when  in  use. 

A  paper  on  the  heat  treatment  of  steel  rails  high  in 
manganese  was  contributed  by  Mr.  J.  S.  Lloyd  (South 
Russia).  Steels  containing  more  than  i  per  cent,  of 
manganese  have  not  hitherto  been  fully  studied,  and  a  re- 
search carried  out  in  Russia  by  the  author  shows  that,  at 
the  ordinary  normal  heat  suitable  for  rolling  ingots,  steel 
containing  0-46  per  cent,  of  carbon  and  1-33  per  cent,  of 
manganese  is  made  exceedingly  brittle  if  it  is  not  further 
treated,  but  is  allowed  to  cool  on  the  mill  floor.  Slowly 
cooling  in  the  furnace  after  heating  for  eighteen  hours  at 
950°  makes  the  material  about  twice  as  ductile  as  it  was 
in  the  original  rail,  but  the  tenacity  is  considerably  reduced. 
The  heating  to  the  rolling  temperature  causes  an  enormous 
development  in  the  size  of  the  crystals,  but  these  are  broken 
up  and  become  about  one-eighth  of  the  dimensions  by  heat- 
ing to  950°  C.  and  slowly  cooling  afterwards,  and  the 
structure  so  obtained  is  twice  as  fine  as  it  was  in  the  normal 
rail. 

Some  further  experiments  on  the  diffusion  of  sulphides 
through  steel  were  described  by  Prof.  E.  D.  Campbell,  of 
the  University  of  Michigan.  They  appear  to  sustain  the  con- 
clusions drawn  from  his  work — that  iron  is  permeable  by 
sulphides  when  heated  above  1200°  C,  and  that  the  sulphur 
content  of  the  iron  is  not  necessarily  increased  by  the  passage 
of  the  sulphide  through  it.  In  fact,  in  a  slightly  oxidising 
atmosphere  the  sulphur  content  of  the  steel  may  be  even 
less  after  the  diffusion  than  it  was  before.  The  author  is 
not  prepared  at  present,  from  the  experimental  data  at 
hand,  to  give  a  positive  explanation  of  the  manner  in  which 
sulphides  permeate  or  diffuse  through  iron.  The  most 
plausible  hypothesis  would  seem  to  be  that  the  sulphides 
originally  present  in  the  iron  fill  more  or  less  completely 
the  interstitial  spaces  between  the  crystals  of  iron ;  that 
above  1200°  these  sulphides  are  very  fluid,  and  may  be 
drawn  out  of  the  steel  by  capillary  action  of  some  absorbent 
such  as  asbestos,  and  their  place  taken  by  some  other 
sulphides,  provided  these  latter  are  sufficiently  mobile  to 
find  their  way  into  the  extremely  minute  spaces  between 
the  steel  crystals.  If  the  sulphide  replacing  the  original 
sulphide  contain  less  sulphur  than  the  latter,  or  if  absorp- 
tion by  the  asbestos  continued  after  the  sulphides  had 
ceased  to  enter  the  iron  from  within,  the  diminished  per- 
centage of  sulphur  in  the  steel  at  the  hot  end  would  be 
readily  accounted  for. 

The  paper  by  Prof.  A.  Stansfield  on  the  overheating  and 
burning  of  steel    was  a  report  on  work  carried  out  by  him 


September  io,  1903] 


NATURE 


463 


as  Carnegie  research  scholar,  its  publication  having  been 
delayed  by  his  appointment  to  the  chair  of  metallurgy  at 
Montreal.  The  memoir  covers  thirty-six  pages.  The 
burnt  structure  of  very  much  overheated  steel  is  shown  to 
be  largely  due  to  the  partial  melting  which  results  from 
heating  the  steel  above  a  given  temperature.  This  melt- 
ing causes  brittleness  directly,  and  indirectly  by  the 
admission  of  oxygen  to  the  steel.  According  to  American 
metallurgists  the  latter  stage  would  alone  be  called  burn- 
ing, but  as  the  effect  of  partly  melting  the  steel  is  quite 
distinct  from  that  of  overheating  below  the  zone  of  partial 
fusion,  the  author  would  prefer  to  apply  one  word  to  the 
whole  of  the  changes  that  take  place  in  this  zone.  If  the 
word  burning  is  still  employed,  it  should  be  remembered 
that  it  is  essentially  a  partial  melting  of  the  steel,  though 
often  accompanied  by  oxidation.  The  following  stages 
have  been  recognised  : — (i)  overheating  (below  the  point  of 
incipient  fusion) ;  (2)  partial  melting,  called  burning ;  (a) 
merely  producing  segregation  of  carbon  in  the  joints ;  (h) 
accompanied  with  liquation  and  producing  flaws  ;  (c)  further 
liquation  and  oxidation  in  the  flaws,  (i)  Steel  that  has 
merely  been  overheated  can  be  completely  restored  by  heat- 
ing just  above  its  highest  recalescence  point  and  allowing 
to  cool.  (2)  Steel  in  the  stage  (a)  can  be  restored  by  suit- 
able annealing;  in  the  stage  \h)  forging  would  also  be 
needed  ;  and  in  stage  (c)  it  would  be  restored  with  great 
difficulty,  if  at  all. 

The  paper  on  the  heat  treatment  of  steel  submitted  by 
Dr.  William  Campbell  (New  York)  is  a  report  on  research 
carried  out  by  the  author  as  Carnegie  research  scholar.  It 
forms  a  pamphlet  of  ninety-three  pages.  The  steel  used 
contained  050  per  cent,  of  carbon,  098  manganese,  0094 
silicon,  0098  phosphorus,  and  008  sulphur.  The  structure 
of  the  steel  used  was  found  to  depend  upon  the  two  con- 
stituents present,  namely,  the  ferrite  and  the  pearlite.  The 
pearlite  will  certainly  show  the  finest  structure  when  the 
steel  has  been  heated  to  just  above  Ac,,  or  when  it  has  been 
transformed  into  martensite.  Heating  to  temperatures 
above  this  point  will  cause  a  coarsening  of  the  structure. 
The  higher  the  temperature  the  coarser  the  structure. 
Above  Ac,  the  ferrite  begins  to  diminish  in  size,  due  to  its 
being  dissolved  in  the  martensite.  This  will  continue  until 
the  whole  of  it  is  dissolved,  when  the  change  Ac2_3  is  com- 
plete. Then  the  finest  structure  of  the  whole  will  be  found 
where  these  two  changes  balance.  This  point  is  apparently 
just  below  the  point  where  Ac2_3  is  complete.  The  best 
finishing  temperature  is  such  that  the  bars  leave  the  rolls 
as  near  Ar2_3as  possible.  The  bars  would  necessarily  have 
to  be  drawn  from  the  furnace  at  a  higher  temperature, 
which  is  about  740°  C.  in  this  case,  allowing  for  a  cooling 
of,  say,  40°  C.  or  more  during  rolling.  In  comparing  the 
results  obtained  with  those  of  pure  carbon  steel,  the  effect 
of  the  manganese  present  must  be  taken  into  consideration. 

.'\n  animated  discussion  followed  the  reading  of  these 
papers  on  heat  treatment,  in  which  Messrs.  Westgarth, 
Ridsdale,  Lange,  Price-Williams,  L.  N.  Ledingham,  and 
Hadfield  took  part. 

The  probability  of  iron  ore  lying  below  the  sands  of  the 
Duddon  Estuary  formed  the  subject  of  a  paper  by  Mr.  J.  L. 
Shaw  (Whitehaven).  He  adduces  evidence  to  show  that 
there  is  a  limestone  area  probably  carrying  large  bodies  of 
ore,  and  advocates  the  putting  down  of  exploratory  bore- 
holes. In  the  discussion  Mr.  G.  J.  Snelus  gave  further 
particulars  of  geological  interest. 

The  paper  by  Mr.  W.  F.  Pettigrew  on  coal  as  fuel  at 
Barrow-in-Furness  contained  much  of  interest.  In  that 
district  at  the  present  time  coal  is  obtained  from  Cumber- 
land, Lancashire,  and  Yorkshire.  As  the  prices  at  the  pit, 
the  cost  of  carriage,  and  the  quality  of  the  coal  from  these 
districts  vary  considerably,  the  author  has  carried  out 
several  experiments  to  find  the  relative  value  of  coal 
obtained  from  the  districts  before  mentioned,  also  from 
various  parts  of  Scotland  and  South  Wales.  Experiments 
carried  out  with  a  locomotive  showed  that  the  sample  of 
Yorkshire  No.  i  gave  the  best  results.  This  coal  has  excel- 
lent steaming  qualities,  is  very  clean,  with  an  open  clinker. 
and  low  percentage  of  ash.  the  Welsh  coal  was  also  good 
when  tried,  and  equal  in  all  respects  to  the  Yorkshire  coal, 
and  would  no  doubt  give  even  better  results  if  properly  fired, 
which  was  not  the  case  during  the  trials,  the  men  having 


had  practically  no  experience  with  this  kind  of  coal.  The 
Cumberland  coal  was  good,  particularly  one  sample,  but 
this  was  not  found  suitable  for  locomotive  purposes.  The 
other  sample  of  Cumberland  coal  gave  fairly  good  results, 
but  it  is  a  dirty  coal,  and  necessitates  the  frequent  cleaning 
of  fires.  The  Lancashire  samples  were  in  some  cases  very 
good  steaming  coal,  with  a  moderately  low  consumption, 
but  several  samples  gave  very  bad  results,  and  were  quite 
unfit  for  locomotive  purposes.  The  Scotch  coals  tested  were 
fairly  good,  but  in  most  cases  a  very  heavy  consumption  was 
recorded.  They  are  quick  burning  coal  and  dirty,  but  with 
an  open  clinker,  which  did  not  interfere  in  any  way  with 
the  steaming.  The  consumption  was  from  20  to  40  per 
cent,  higher  than  the  Yorkshire  coal. 

Mr.  C.  H.  Ridsdale  (Middlesbrough)  read  a  lengthy  paper 
on  the  diseases  of  steel.  In  it  he  collated  various  types  of 
defects,  and  traced  them  to  their  origin. 

Mr.  H.  Ehrhardt,  of  Diisseldorf,  contributed  a  paper  de- 
scribing a  process  for  making  weldless  steel  pipes  and 
shells  by  which  rings  up  to  8  feet  in  diameter  and  10  feet 
in  length  are  manufactured. 

The  regulation  of  the  combustion  and  distribution  of  the 
temperature  in  coke  oven  practice  was  dealt  with  in  a  paper 
by  Mr.  D.  A.  Louis.  Illustrations  were  given  to  show  the 
design  and  character  of  the  Brunck  and  v.  Bauer  coke 
ovens,  two  ovens  of  new  design. 

The  influence  of  silicon  on  iron  was  dealt  with  in  a  paper 
by  Mr.  Thomas  Baker.  He  prepared  a  series  of  alloys  of 
silicon  and  iron  with  traces  only  of  other  elements,  and 
studied  the  micro-structure  and  physical  properties  of  each. 
Although  the  addition  of  silicon  to  iron  increases  the  elastic 
limit  and  tenacity  of  iron,  such  increase  is  only  obtained 
by  loss  of  ductility,  which  loss,  provided  the  material  has 
been  well  annealed,  is  very  small  until  the  silicon  reaches- 
3  per  cent.,  after  which  it  becomes  very  great,  the  ductility 
almost  becoming  zero  with  4  per  cent,  silicon.  The  alloys 
gradually  increase  in  hardness  with  the  addition  of  silicon, 
and  after  exceeding  5  per  cent,  silicon  require  great  skill 
and  care  in  machining  in  order  to  avoid  fracture  of  the  bar. 
As  the  percentage  of  silicon  increases  the  permeability  fOr 
low  magnetic  fields  increases,  and  the  coercive  force  and 
hysteresis  loss  decrease.  Prof.  T.  Turner  (Birmingham) 
was  the  chief  speaker  in  the  discussion. 

The  proceedings  concluded  with  the  customary  votes  of 
thanks  to  the  reception  committee,  and  an  invitation, 
tendered  by  Mr.  Kirchhoff,  of  New  York,  on  behalf  of  the 
American  societies,  that  the  Institute  should  meet  in  the 
United  States  next  autumn  was  accepted. 

In  connection  with  the  meeting  an  elaborate  programme 
of  visits  and  excursions  was  arranged,  including  the  works 
of  the  Barrow  Haematite  Steel  Co.,  the  Askham  blast 
furnaces,  the  Hodbarrow  mines  and  sea-wall,  the  naval 
construction  works  of  Vickers,  Sons  and  Maxim,  the  Fur- 
ness  Railway  locomotive  works,  the  North  Lonsdale  iron 
works,  and  to  Lake  Windermere,  Grasmere,  and  Blackpool. 
The  social  functions  included  a  conversazione  given  by  the 
Mayor,  a  ball  by  the  reception  committee,  a  garden  party 
by  Mr.  Victor  Cavendish  at  Holker  Hall,  and  an  illuminated 
jHe  at  Furness  Abbey. 


UNIVERSITY    AND    EDUCATIONAL 
INTELLIGENCE. 

Saturday,  October  31,  has  been  fixed  for  the  holding  of 
a  convocation  of  the  University  of  Oxford  for  the  purpose 
of  electing  a  Chancellor  of  the  University  in  the  place  of  the 
late  Marquis  of  Salisbury. 

Arrangements  for  next  term  have  been  published  in  con- 
nection with  the  Oxford  University  School  of  Geography. 
Nine  lectures  a  week  by  different  members  of  the  staff  will 
be  given  in  various  branches  of  geographical  science,  and 
practical  instruction  to  supplement  several  of  the  courses 
of  lectures  has  been  arranged.  A  geographical  scholarship 
of  the  value  of  sixty  pounds  is  to  be  competed  for  on 
October  14,  and  candidates  must  have  taken  honours  in  one 
of  the  final  schools  of  the  university.  Courses  of  instruc- 
tion are  now  given  also  in  preparation  for  the  university 
certificate  in  surveying,  and  to  meet  the  requirements  of 
students  reading  for  the  university  diploma  in  education. 


NO.    1767.  VOL.   681 


464 


NATURE 


[September  10,  1903 


The  report  of  the  Board  of  Education  for  1902-3  shows 
that  during  the  session  1901-2  the  total  number  of  students 
receiving  science  and  art  instruction  under  the  Board  was 
291,758.  The  total  number  of  schools  in  which  the  teach- 
ing was  given  was  2061.  The  grants  paid  during  the  year 
amounted  to  314,212^.,  of  which  143,671^  was  paid  upon 
attendances.  From  the  same  report  we  learn  that  great 
progress  has  been  made  with  the  new  buildings  for  the 
Royal  College  of  Science.  It  is  hoped  the  work  will  be 
complete  in  two  years'  time. 

The  University  College  at  Reading  continues  its  useful 
work  in  the  adjoining  counties  in  connection  with  field 
trials  and  lectures  at  rural  centres,  and  the  work  of  the 
agricultural  department  is  of  a  kind  to  secure  the  con- 
fidence of  practical  men.  Instruction  in  dairy  farming  and 
dairying  is  given  in  cooperation  with  the  British  Dairy 
Institute  ;  the  College  Poultry  Farm  at  Theale  is  available 
for  students  who  desire  to  obtain  a  practical  acquaintance 
with  poultry-keeping ;  and  there  is  a  college  garden  for 
horticultural  practice  and  instruction. 

At  the  forthcoming  opening  of  the  medical  schools,  the 
following  will  deliver  addresses  : — At  the  St.  George's 
Hospital  medical  school  on  October  i,  Dr.  W.  R.  Dakin  ; 
at  King's  College,  London,  on  October  i.  Sir  John 
Alexander  Cockburn,  K.C.M.G.,  on  "  Imperial  Federation 
and  its  Physiological  Parallels  "  ;  at  Guy's  Hospital  Physical 
Society,  on  October  10,  Dr.  J.  F.  Goodhart ;  at  the  Middle- 
,sex  Hospital  on  October  i,  Mr.  William  Hern ;  at  the 
Medical  Faculty  of  University  College,  London,  on  October 
5,  Prof.  E.  H.  Starling,  F.R.S.  ;  at  the  University  of 
Liverpool  on  October  i,  Sir  Dyce  Duckworth  ;  and  at  the 
University  College,  Sheffield,  on  October  15,  Sir  Michael 
Foster,  K.C.B.,  F.R.S. 

The  report  on  the  work  of  the  Sir  John  Cass  Technical 
Institute  for  the  session  ending  last  July,  and  the  recently 
published  syllabus  of  the  classes  to  be  held  during  next 
•winter  together  show  that  this  young  polytechnic  is  doing  ex- 
cellent work.  Many  of  the  students  are  engaged  in  technical 
pursuits  during  the  day.  For  example,  quite  half  of  the 
students  of  chemistry  are  employed  in  some  form  of  chemical 
technology,  and  an  examination  of  the  entries  of  last  winter 
in  the  metallurgical  department  shows  that  one  was  the 
head  of  a  firm  of  bullion  refiners,  three  were  managers  in 
metal  refining  works,  five  were  chemists  engaged  in  metal- 
lurgical industries,  three  were  foremen  in  metallurgical 
works,  and  others  clerks  or  samplers  in  works  or  trades 
associated  with  metals.  Among  others  of  a  thoroughly 
practical  nature  arranged  for  next  session  may  be  noticed 
a  course  of  practical  instruction  in  glass  blowing  suited  to 
the  requirements  of  chemists,  physicists,  teachers,  and  those 
•engaged  in  the  making  of  glass  apparatus  and  instruments. 

In  his  report  for  the  year  1903  on  secondary  education 
in  Scotland,  Sir  Henry  Craik,  K.C.B.,  says  there  has  again 
been  a  gratifying  increase  in  the  number  of  schools  pre- 
■senting  candidates  in  science  at  the  leaving  certificate  ex- 
amination, and  also  in  the  total  number  of  candidates  pre- 
sented. The  examiners  report  that  there  is  need  to  repeat 
■once  more  the  warning  to  teachers  against  taking  up 
practical  work  of  which  the  theory  is  beyond  the  compre- 
hension of  their  pupils,  or  has  not  been  made  clear  to  them. 
The  methods  of  examination  differ  in  some  important  points 
from  those  regulating  the  system  in  regard  to  other  sub- 
jects. The  examination  is  chiefly  oral  and  practical,  and  it 
is  shaped  in  the  case  of  each  school  by  the  curriculum  of 
that  school.  It  is  interesting  to  find  that  the  most  satis- 
factory work  appears  to  be  done  in  the  schools  the  pro- 
fession of  which  is  comparatively  modest.  In  practical 
science,  as  in  all  educational  subjects,  the  special  discipline 
given  is  better  got  from  a  thorough  study  of  one  branch 
than  through  a  too  ambitious  attempt  to  cover  a  very  wide 
field.  The  chief  examiner  is  inclined  to  recommend  that, 
xinless  the  time  available  during  the  third  year's  course  is 
more  than  four  hours  a  week,  the  whole  of  it  should  be 
devoted  to  one  subject  instead  of  being  divided  between 
two.  Another  point  to  which  he  directs  attention  is  the 
-very  limited  extent  to  which  "  home-made  "  apparatus  is 
•employed  in  the  laboratories. 


SOCIETIES  AND  ACADEMIES. 

Paris. 

Academy  of  Sciences,  August  31.— M.  Bouquet  de  la  Grye 
in  the  chair. — A  fixing  liquid  isotonic  with  sea  water,  for 
objects  in  which  it  is  desired  to  preserve  lime  formations,  by 
M.  M.  C.  Dekhuyzen.  In  a  previous  note  a  formula  has 
been  given  for  a  liquid,  isotonic  with  sea  water,  for  fixing 
delicate  marine  organisms.  This  contains  acid,  and  in 
fixing  the  larvae  of  sea  urchins,  which  contain  extremely 
delicate  chalk  formations,  it  is  necessary  to  employ  a  liquid 
free  from  acidity.  The  formula  of  a  liquid  possessing  the 
required  properties  is  given  in  the  present  paper,  and  in 
the  hands  of  M.  Delage  has  given  perfect  results  in  fixing 
very  delicate  larvae. 

GOTTINGEN. 

Royal  Society  of  Sciences. — The  Nachrichten  (physico- 
mathematical  section),  part  iii.  for  1903,  contains  the  follow- 
ing memoirs  communicated  to  the  society  :— 

February  21. — W.  Voigrt :  Questions  of  crystalline  physics, 
i.  On  the  rotatory  constants  of  heat-conduction  in  apatite 
and  dolomite. 

March  7. — W.  Kaufmann  :  On  the  "  electromagnetic 
mass  "  of  the  electrons.  V.  Cuomo  :  Measurements  of  the 
electric  dispersion  in  the  open  air  at  Capri  (October,  1902- 
February,   1903). 

May  16. — W.  Voigrt :  On  the  theory  of  total  reflexion. 
K.  Schwarzschild  :  Contributions  to  electrodynamics— 
(i)  two  forms  of  the  principle  of  least  action  in  the  theory 
of  electrons  ;   (2)  the  elementary  electrodynamic  force. 

June  13. — F.  Merkel  :  Remarks  on  the  fasciae  and  veins 
of  the  human  pelvis. 

The  "  Business  Communications,"  part  i.  for  1903,  con- 
tain a  report  on  the  Samoa  Observatory,  and  a  highly 
appreciative  obituary  notice  of  the  late  Sir  G.  G.  Stokes, 
by  Prof.  W.  Voigt. 


CONTENTS.  PAGE 

Recent  Mineralogy 433 

School  Mathematics 434 

The  Neurone  Theory 435 

Our  Book  Shelf:— 

Barber  :  "  The  Cioud  World,  its  Features  and  Signi- 
ficance"   436 

Baker:     "Graphical    Statics    Problems,    with    Dia- 
grams " 436 

Letter  to  the  Editor  :— 

A  Mite  whose   Eggs  survive  the  Boiling  Point.— J. 

Adams 437 

The  Berlin  Conference  on  Wireless  Telegraphy.  By 

Maurice  Solomon .    437 

The  Southport  Meeting  of  the  British  Association    438 

Inaugural     Address    by    Sir    Norman     Lockyer, 

K.C.B,,     LL.D.,      F.R  S.,     Correspondant     de 

rinstitut  de  France,  President  of  the  Association  .    439 

Section    A.— Mathematics     and    Physics.— Opening 

Address   by   Charles    Vernon    Boys,     F.R.S,, 

President  of  the  Section • 447 

Section  D.— Zoology.— Opening   Address   by    Prof. 
Sydney  J.    Hickson,    M.A.,    D.Sc,    F.R.S., 

President  of  the  Section 45^ 

Notes 458 

Our  Astronomical  Column  :— 

Search-ephemeris  for  Faye's  Comet 461 

The  Canals  on  Mars 461 

Radiation  Pressure  and  Cometary  Theory 461 

A  Catalogue  of  1520  Bright  Stars 462 

Iron  and  Steel  Institute 462 

University  and  Educational  Intelligence 463 

Societies  and  Academies 464 


NO.    1767,  VOL.  68] 


NATURE 


465 


THURSDAY,     SEPTEMBER     17,    1903. 


THE     WORTH     OF    EXPERIMENTAL 
PSYCHOLOGY. 
Experimental  Psychology  and  its  Bearing  on  Culture. 
By  George   Malcolm   Stratton,    M.A.,    Ph.D.       Pp. 
vi   +  331.     (New  York:  The  Macmillan  Company; 
London  :    Macmillan    and   Co.,    Ltd.,    1903.)     Price 
8s.  6d.  net. 
'T^HE  aim  of  this  well  written  and  interesting  book, 
1       we  are  informed,  is  "  to  present ...  the  character 
and  value  of  the  laboratory  psychology,  especially  as 
bearing  on  our  moral  and  philosophical  interests.  .  ,  . 
Considerable  attention  has  thus  been  given  to  the  in- 
terpretation of  the  experimental  results— to  their  more 
immediate  scientific  meaning,  as  well  as  to  what  they 
suggest  for  life  and  for  speculation."    The  work,  how- 
ever, contains  little  that  is  really  relevant  to  "  the  bear- 
ing of  psychology  on  culture."       Such   topics  as  the 
value    and    significance   of    memory,    suggestion    and 
illusions,  and  the  relation  of  psychology  to  the  body 
and  to  the  soul,  ably  as  they  are  treated,  are  hardly 
synonymous  with  culture;  indeed,  from  start  to  finish 
the  object  of  the  book  is  by  no  means  evident. 

It  is  to  be  regretted  that  Prof.  Stratton  did  not  con- 
fine himself  to  "the  immediate  scientific  meaning," 
the  range  and  the  worth  of  psychological  laboratory 
work.  Once  or  twice  this  task  has  been  already 
attempted  in  our  language,  but  it  has  not  yet  been 
satisfactorily  performed.  The  need  for  such  a  work 
has  never  been  greater  than  now,  when  the  number 
of  psychological  laboratories  and  their  workers  is 
multiplying  rapidly,  while  physicists  and  physiologists 
are  for  the  most  part  ignorant  of,  and  hence  are  prone 
to  ignore  and  to  condemn,  the  aims  and  methods  of  ex- 
perimental psychology.  To  this  class  of  readers  the 
present  work  is  not  well  suited,  and  will  hardly  carry 
conviction.  It  appeals  more  to  an  educated  public, 
which  prefers  to  nibble  at  the  significance  of  experi- 
mental psychology,  and  to  swallow  certain  inevitable 
crudities  of  statement,  rather  than  to  digest  th^  subject 
with  proper  care.  The  ground  covered  by  the  book 
is  too  vast,  and  departures  from  purely  experimental 
topics  are  too  often  and  too  far  made  to  allow  of  a 
really  accurate  and  critical  exposition.  For  this 
reason,  no  doubt,  the  author  has  made  little  attempt 
to  exhibit  the  various  themes  of  experimental  study  in 
their  proper  perspective.  He  has  been  forced  to  neglect 
some  of  the  most  important  advances  in  purely  psycho- 
logical method,  e.g.  the  work  of  G.  E.  Miiller  and  his 
Gottingen  school,  and  the  genetic  and  comparative 
sides  of  experimental  psychology;  while  undue  space 
is  given  to  some  trivial  experiments  in  eesthetics  that 
have  scant  meaning  or  interest,  and  a  few  others  are 
made  to  bear  interpretations  which  are  far  Irom  being 
justified  in  fact. 

"Some  recent  experiments  by  Dunlap,"  savs  the 
author  (pp.  88,  89),  "show  that  lines,  so  draw^  as  to 
produce  an  illusion  of  distance  [i.e.,  the  angle-formine 
lines  in  the  well-known  illusion  of  Muller-Lverl  mav 
influence  our  estimate  of  space  even  when  these  lines 
are  quite  imperceptible." 

Reference,  however,  to  the  statistical  results  of  the 
NO.    1768.  VOL.  68] 


original  paper  and  to  its  writer's  own  convictions 
shows  that  this  conclusion  is  by  no  means  so  certain. 
The  author  uses  these  and  other  considerations  in  his 
chapters  on  the  evidence  for  unconscious  ideas.  He 
ends  with  the  statement  (p.  92)  that 
"  the  results  are  not  in  favour  of  unconscious  ideas, 
but  rather  of  certain  unconscious  materials  out  of 
which  conscious  ideas  arise." 

One  is  tempted  to  ask  how  he  can  be  sure,  if  the 
"  materials  "  are  unconscious,  that  they  are 
"materials"  and  not  "ideas."  His  psychological 
treatment  of  poetical  rhythm  is  not  convincing,  the 
subject  being  too  complex  to  tolerate  an  acrobatic 
arithmetic  which  connects  all  measures  with  "  the 
pulse-time  of  attention."  Probably  the  latter  bears 
about  the  same  relation  to  our  appreciation  of  rhythm 
as  our  range  of  hearing  to  the  enjoyment  of  a 
Beethoven  symphony.  Nor  is  it  the  whole  truth,  albeit 
the  fashion  to  say  (p.  269)  that  "  what  goes  on  in  our 
minds  never  is  really  there  until  it  is  expressed,"  and 
that  "  in  all  manner  of  mental  action  there  is  some 
physical  expression." 

The  chapters  on  the  general  character  of  psycho- 
logical experiments,  on  imitation  and  suggestion,  on 
illusions,  and  on  the  spatial  perceptions  of  the  blind,  are 
quite  ably  and  entertainingly  written.  The  author's 
classification  of  illusions  leads  to  curious  results.  He 
groups  the  illusion,  in  which  a  large  box  is  judged 
lighter  than  a  smaller  box  of  equal  weight,  in  the  same 
class  with  the  two  fundamentally  different  illusions,  in 
which  truly  isochronous  intervals  are  subjectively  re- 
solved into  rhythmic  series,  and  in  which  a  space  of 
time  filled  with  sounds  is  adjudged  of  different  length 
from  an  equal  but  "  empty  "  space  of  time.  This  class 
of  illusions  is  said  to  arise  "  from  stress  of  attention  "  I 
We  are  told  also  (p.  106)  that  within  this  class  "  the 
symbols  themselves  do  not  seem  to  be  misinterpreted, 
they  have  been  distorted  ...  by  our  mental  states." 
Elsewhere  the  author  admits  that  all  illusions  "  involve 
a  misinterpretation." 

But  sufficient  has  been  said  to  give  a  general  notion 
of  the  faults  and  virtues  of  this  book.  In  broad  prin- 
ciples there  is  little  to  which  the  psychologist  can  take 
exception.  Its  style  and  language  appear  to  be  ex- 
cellently suited  to  its  readers,  and  the  author  has  an 
adequately  wide  grasp  of  his  subject.  If  he  has  failed 
in  his  task,  the  reason  is  because  he  has  attempted  too 
much.  For  to  treat  of  the  problem,  which  he  has  set 
himself,  in  three  hundred  or  more  pages  is  as  im- 
possible as  it  is  to  do  justice  to  his  bold  endeavour 
within  the  compass  of  this  review.  C.  S.  Myers. 


HYDRAULICS. 

Treatise  on  Hydraulics.     By  Mansfield  Merriman,  Pro- 
fessor of  Civil  Engineering  in   Lehigh   University. 
Eighth  Edition,  Rewritten  and  Enlarged.     Pp.  viii  + 
585.     (New  York  :  John  Wiley  and  Sons ;  London  : 
Chapman  and  Hall,  Ltd.,  1903.)     Price  215.  net. 
T^HIS  book  bears  the  same  title,  has  practically  the 
J-      same  number  of  pages,  and  is  published  by  the 
same    firms,  as    a    book    by   Prof.   Bcvey,  of  McGill 
University,  Montreal,  which  appeared  in  1901,  and  was 
reviewed    in    these     columns  in   February  last  year. 


466 


NATURE 


[September  17,  1903 


Though,  however,  the  present  book,  like  its  prede- 
cessor, is  intended  primarily  for  students  in  colleges 
and  technical  schools,  and  secondly  for  engineers,  and 
one  or  more  problems,  intended  to  be  solved  by  the 
reader,  are  appended  at  the  end  of  each  article,  relating 
to  the  special  subject  treated  of  in  the  article,  it  deals 
■with  the  various  hydraulic  principles  and  problems 
successively  investigated  in  a  more  simple  manner 
than  the  former  book,  which  is  calculated  to  commend 
it  to  the  favourable  notice  of  practical  engineers,  too 
engrossed  in  their  work  to  be  able  to  spare  the  time 
for  fully  grasping  abstruse  mathematical  considera- 
tions. 

The  book  is  divided  into  sixteen  chapters,  and  is 
further  subdivided  into  one  hundred  and  ninety-two 
articles,  each  numbered,  and  dealing  with  a  subject 
under  a  special  heading  connected  with  the  general 
purpose  of  the  chapter  which  contains  it ;  whilst  an 
appendix  at  the  end,  occupying  forty-three  pages,  after 
pointing  out  certain  analogies  between  the  flow  of 
water  in  pipes  and  the  passage  of  the  electric  current 
along  wires,  and  adding  some  miscellaneous  problems 
for  solution,  furnishes  fifty-five  useful  hydraulic  and 
mathematical  tables,  the  former  being  given  both  in 
English  and  in  metric  measures. 

The  first  four  chapters  treat  successively  of  "  Funda- 
mental Data,"  "  Hydrostatics,"  "  Theoretical  Hydrau- 
lics," and  "Instruments  and  Observations";  whilst 
the  following  six  chapters  are  devoted  to  the  considera- 
tion of  the  various  kinds  of  flow,  namely,  through 
•orifices,  over  weirs,  through  tubes,  through  pipes,  in 
conduits,  and  the  flow  of  rivers.  The  remaining  six 
chapters  deal  with  the  important  practical  subjects  of 
"Water-Supply  and  Water-Power, "  "Dynamic 
Pressure  of  Water,"  "  Water- Wheels,"  "Turbines," 
"Naval  Hydromechanics,"  and  "Pumps  and  Pump- 
ing." Nearly  two  hundred  figures  in  the  text,  mostly 
in  the  form  of  small,  simple  diagrams,  serve  still 
further  to  elucidate  the  hydraulic  principles  so  clearly 
and  concisely  enunciated ;  and  these  diagrams,  instead 
-of  being  numbered  consecutively  in  the  usual  manner, 
are  given  the  same  number  as  the  articles  which 
they  illustrate,  adding  a,  ft,  c,  &c.,  where  more  than 
one  occur  in  a  single  article;  whilst  the  same  system 
of  numbering  is  adopted  for  distinguishing  the 
formulas  given  in  the  several  articles,  and  the  prob- 
lems appended  at  the  end  of  them.  The  advantage  of 
this  peculiar  method  of  numbering  is  not  very  clear, 
though  possibly  it  furnishes  an  excuse  for  omitting 
headings  from  the  diagrams,  and  for  dispensing  with 
a  list  of  them.  By  the  above  arrangement,  however, 
each  article,  with  its  special  number  and  descriptive 
heading,  constitutes  a  distinct  unit,  in  which  the 
diagrams  and  formulas  are  merged;  and  whereas  the 
chapters  in  the  text  are  only  headed  by  their  special 
-subject,  the  headings  in  the  table  of  contents  under  the 
main  headings  consist  merely  of  an  enumeration  of 
the  headings  of  the  articles  in  each  chapter,  preceded 
by  their  distinguishing  numbers. 

The  way  in  which  several  independent  articles  are 
grouped  together  in  the  chapters  to  which  their  sub- 
jects appertain,  is  well  illustrated  by  the  list  of  articles 
-contained  in  the  chapter  on  naval  hydromechanics, 
NO.    1768,  VOL.  68] 


comprising  "General  Principles,"  "  Frictional  Re- 
sistance," "Work  for  Propulsion,"  "The  Jet  Pro- 
peller," "Paddle-wheels,"  "The  Screw  Propeller," 
"  Stability  of  a  Ship,"  "  Action  of  the  Rudder,"  and 
"Tides  and  Waves."  The  concise  and  somewhat 
Qursory  manner  in  which  the  practical  subjects  con- 
sidered in  the  last  six  chapters  are  touched  upon,  is 
sufficiently  indicated  by  their  taking  up  less  than  one- 
third  of  the  whole  contents  of  the  book,  and  by  such 
important  and  complex  questions  as  water-supply  and 
water-power  being  together  dealt  with  in  a  single 
chapter  of  twenty-eight  pages.  This  circumstance, 
however,  must  not  be  regarded  as  at  all  detracting 
from  the  merits  of  the  book ;  for  evidently  the  author 
is  mainly  concerned  in  laying  down  the  principles  of 
hydraulics,  indicating  the  means  and  methods  of  tak- 
ing observations,  and  establishing  the  laws  of  the  flow 
of  water  under  various  conditions,  to  which  subjects 
considerably  the  larger  portion  of  the  book  is  devoted. 
Then,  after  the  principles  and  laws  of  hydraulics  have 
been  thoroughly  elucidated,  the  methods  of  their  appli- 
cation to  various  practical  purposes,  such,  for  instance, 
as  water-power,  water  motors,  propulsion,  and  pump- 
ing, are  successively  indicated,  without  the  slightest 
intention  on  the  part  of  the  author  that  the  brief  treat- 
ment of  these  subjects  should  furnish  substitutes  for 
the  standard  treatises  on  them. 

In  the  latter  part  of  the  book,  indeed,  the  general 
features  of  the  subjects  introduced,  and  the  action  of 
the  hydraulic  machines  are  concisely  sketched  in  sug- 
gestive descriptions,  leaving  a  full  investigation  of  the 
various  matters  touched  upon  to  be  sought  elsewhere, 
according  to  the  special  branch  on  which  more  detailed 
information  is  required.  Nevertheless,  in  spite  of  the 
brevity  of  the  treatment,  interesting  particulars  are  here 
and  there  referred  to,  as,  for  example,  the  present  utilis- 
ation of  the  Falls  of  Niagara  in  the  development  of 
105,000  electrical  horse-power,  by  means  of  turbines 
which  are  described,  and  the  prospect  in  the  near  future 
of  a  largely  increased  use  of  this  natural  source  of 
power ;  whilst  it  is  suggested  that  the  tides  and  waves 
afford  a  source  of  power  which  at  present  is  wasted, 
but  which,  on  the  exhaustion  of  the  supplies  of  coal, 
wood,  and  oil,  may  be  utilised  for  generating  power, 
heat,  and  light  in  unlimited  quantities. 


OVR    BOOK   SHELF. 
Synthesen  in  der  Purin-  und  Zuckergruppe.     By  Emil 

Fischer.  Pp.  29.  (Braunschweig  :   Friedrich  Vieweg 

und  Sohn,  1903.) 
This  lecture,  delivered  before  the  Swedish  Academy  at 
Stockholm  on  December  12  of  last  year,  contains  an 
account  of  Prof.  Emil  Fischer's  work  in  organic 
synthesis,  and  of  the  motives  that  have  guided  him 
in  attacking  successively  the  problems  of  the  uric  acid, 
sugar,  and  more  recently  the  albuminoid,  groups  of 
organic  compounds.  The  synthetical  methods  by 
which  the  constitution  of  so  many  naturally  occurring 
substances  have  been  determined  are  described  in  out- 
line only,  and  in  a  way  that  will  appeal  especially  to 
the  non-chemical  reader.  To  the  chemist  the  chief 
charm  of  the  lecture  lies  in  the  frankness  with  which 
the  lecturer  describes  the  purpose  and  the  ultimate 
goal  of  the  work  to  which  he  has  devoted  himself. 


September  17,  1903] 


NATURE 


467 


Incidentally  the  commercial  aspects  of  the  purin  syn- 
theses are  referred  to.  The  sale  of  caffein  and  theo- 
bromine for  medicinal  purposes  amounts  to  a  million 
marks  annually;  at  present  this  is  all  extracted  from 
tea  and  cacao,  but  theophyllin  prepared  from  uric  acid 
is  already  on  the  market,  and  before  long  it  may  be 
possible  to  manufacture  theobromine  and  caffein  at  a 
price  that  will  render  it  possible  to  compete  with  the 
natural  products.  T    M.  L. 

Report  on  Field  Experiments  in   Victoria,   1887-1900. 

By  A.  N.  Pearson.     Pp.  124;  with  illustrations  and 

tables.  (Melbourne,  190 1.) 
A  RECORD  of  experiments  on  the  manuring  of  the  staple 
farm  crops  (chiefly  wheat)  and  of  fruit  conducted  with 
the  cooperation  of  farmers  at  many  different  localities 
in  Victoria  during  the  ten  years  previous  to  publi- 
cation. The  discussion  is  popular  in  nature,  and  in- 
tended for  the  farmers  of  the  colony.  One  point  is 
very  noticeable,  the  comparative  inutility  of  nitro- 
genous manures  on  the  soils  tested  and  the  great 
returns  given  by  phosphatic  dressings.  A  large 
number  of  results  are  reported,  and  care  has 
been  taken  to  analyse  them  and  reject  those  vitiated 
by  some  of  the  many  irregular  factors  to  which  field 
experiments  are  liable.  The  report  sadly  needs  a 
digest  and  an  index  to  make  it  useful  to  students  of 
agricultural  science. 

THE  BRITISH  ASSOCIATION. 
nPHE  attendance  at  the  Southport  meeting  of  the 
■'■  British  Association,  while  passing  the  numbers 
at  Belfast  last  year,  has  fallen  short  of  the  Southport 
meeting  of  1883  by  about  1000.  The  weather,  no 
doubt,  is  accountable  for  a  certain  diminution  of 
numbers,  for  given  fine  weather  in  the  middle  part 
of  last  week,  it  is  certain  the  figures  would  have 
Reached  2000.  As  it  is,  they  number  175 1.  Com- 
paring this  figure  with  those  of  recent  meetings, 
however,  it  will  be  seen  that  a  good  average 
has  been  maintained,  the  numbers  at  Southport  this 
year  exceeding  those  at  the  meetings  at  Belfast, 
Dover,  Toronto,  Ipswich,  Nottingham,  and  Cardiff, 
and  falling  only  a  little  way  behind  the  Leeds  meet- 
ing of  1890.  It  is  only  when  the  meeting  is  com- 
pared with  the  former  one  at  Southport  that  the 
falling   off   of    numbers    is    noticeable. 

On  all  hands  the  local  arrangements  have  met  with 
praise,  the  suite  of  rooms  in  the  municipal  buildings 
having  proved  admirably  fitting  for  the  purposes  for 
which  they  were  allotted. 

Unfortunately,  the  climatic  conditions  during  the 
earlier  part  of  the  meeting  prevented  the  local  ar- 
rangements being  carried  out  to  their  full  extent, 
the  Mayor's  reception  on  Thursday  night  taking  place 
under  most  depressing  conditions  of  rain  and  storm, 
rendering  the  outdoor  portion  of  the  programme  an 
impossibility.  The  weather,  fortunately,  cleared  for 
1I1C  excursions  on  Saturday,  but  the  downpour  of  the 
previous  days  prevented  many  people  from  taking 
tickets,  and  many  of  the  parties  had  not  their  full 
number. 

The  experiments  in  kite-flying  had  to  be  abandoned 
owing  to  various  causes,  and  Mr.  Dines  has  had  to 
be  content  to  exhibit  his  apparatus  without  taking  it 
out  to  sea. 

Prof.  Pernter's  experiments  in  the  firing  of  vortex 
rings  took  place  on  Monday  afternoon  before  a 
large  number  of  spectators,  the  firing  taking  place 
from  the  roof  of  the  boathouse  over  the  North  Marine 
Park. 

The  International  Meteorological  Committee  has 
been  sitting  in  the  Town  Hall  during  the  meeting  of 

NO.   1768,  VOL.  68] 


the  British  Association,  and  the  members  were  form- 
ally received  by  the  Mayor  of  Southport  in  the  Mayor's 
Parlour  prior  to  the  beginning  of  their  deliberations. 
Opportunities  have  been  afforded  the  many  distin- 
guished foreign  men  of  science  present  in  Southport 
for  visiting  some  of  the  laboratories,  schools,  factories, 
and  dockyards  of  Manchester  and  Liverpool. 

The  lecture  to  working  men  on  Saturday  proved 
very  popular,  the  Cambridge  Hall  being  crowded. 
A  dinner  was  given  by  the  Mayor  at  his  residence 
at  Greaves  Hall  to  meet  Sir  Norman  Lockyer  and 
Prof.  Mascart  (President  of  the  International  Meteor- 
ological Committee).  The  guests  numbered  nearly 
100,  and  included  Prof.  J.  Dewar,  A.  Hopkin- 
son  (Vice-Chancellor  of  Victoria  University),  Sir 
George  Pilkington,  E.  Marshall  Hall,  K.C.,  M.P., 
Charles  Scarisbrick  (Vice-Presidents),  Prof.  Carey 
Foster,  Major  MacMahon,  Dr.  Adam  Paulsen,  M. 
Teisserenc  de  Bort,  Dr.  H.  Hildebrandsson,  Prof. 
Pernter,  General  Rykatcheff,  Dr.  Hellemann,  Dr. 
Hergesell,  Dr.  H.  Mohn,  Prof.  Willis  Moore,  A.  L. 
Rotch,  Dr.  W.  N.  Shaw,  Dr.  Ludwig  Boltzmann, 
Dr.  T.  P.  Lotzy,  Prof.  O.  Lignier,  Dr.  M.  Snellen, 
Dr.  G.  G.  MacCurdy,  Dr.  H.  C.  White,  T.  H.  Yoxall, 
M.P.,  Hon.  T.  E.  Fuller,  Monsignor  Molloy,  Mon- 
signor  Nugent,  Canon  Denton  Thompson,  Dr.  J. 
G.  Garson,  most  of  the  presidents,  vice-presidents, 
and  recorders  of  Sections,  and  the  local  secretaries 
and  treasurer. 

At  the  meeting  of  the  general  committee  held  on 
Friday  last,  the  names  of  Profs.  Mascart,  Simon 
Newcomb,  and  Boltzmann  were  added  to  the  list  of 
vice-presidents   of    Section    A. 

The  Hon.  T.  E.  Fuller,  Agent-General  for  the  Cape 
Colony,  Sir  Walter  Peace,  Agent-General  for  Natal, 
and  Mr.  Fiddes,  of  the  Colonial  Office  (representing 
the  Transvaal),  attended  on  behalf  of  their  respective 
Governments  for  the  purpose  of  formally  inviting  the 
Association   to    South   Africa   in    1905. 

On  the  proposition  of  Prof.  Dewar,  seconded  by 
Prof.  H.  Marshall  Ward,  it  was  decided  to  hold  the 
1905  meeting  in   South  Africa. 

On  the  motion  of  Sir  Henry  Roscoe,  seconded  by 
Prof.  Forsyth,  the  Right  Hon.  A.  J.  Balfour  was  elected 
President  of  the  meeting  to  be  held  next  year  in  Cam- 
bridge, the  meeting  to  begin  on  August  17. 

The  Lord  Lieutenant  of  Cambridijeshire,  the  Vice- 
Chancellor  of  the  University,  and  the  Mayor  of  Cam- 
bridge were  elected  vice-presidents  of  the  Association. 

The  following  elections  for  the  Cambridge  meeting 
were  made  : — Local  secretaries,  Messrs.  Ginn,  A.  C. 
Seward,  G.  Skinner,  and  Mr.  A.  E.  L.  Whitehead; 
local  treasurers,  Mr.  A.  E.  Shipley  and  Mr.  Parker. 

Prof.  Carey  Foster  was  re-elected  treasurer;  Major 
MacMahon  and  Prof.  Herdman  general  secretaries; 
and   Dr.    Garson   assistant  general  secretary. 

At  the  meeting  of  the  committee  of  recommend- 
ations on  Tuesday,  the  following  resolutions  were 
adopted  : — 

(i).  That  as  urged  by  the  President  in  his  address 
it  is  desirable  that  scientific  workers  and  persons 
interested  in  science  be  so  organised  that  they  may 
exert  a  permanent  influence  on  public  opinion  in 
order  more  effectively  to  carry  out  the  third  object 
of  this  Association  originally  laid  down  by  the 
founders,  viz.  : — "  to  obtain  a  more  general  attention 
to  the  objects  of  science  and  a  removal  of  any  dis- 
advantages of  a  public  kind  which  impede  its  pro- 
gress," and  that  the  council  be  recommended  to  take 
steps  to  promote  such  organisation. 

(2)  That  the  council  be  requested  to  consider 
the  desirability  of  urging  upon  the  Government  by  a 
deputation  to  the  First  Lord  of  the  Treasury  or  other- 


468 


NATURE 


[September  17,  1903 


wise   the   importance   of   increased   national   provision 
being  made  for  University  education. 

A  recommendation  was  received  from  Section  A 
referring  to  a  suggestion  from  the  International 
Meteorological  Committee.  At  a  meeting  of  that 
committee  on  September  ii  it  was  decided  to  direct 
the  attention  of  Section  A  to  the  inconveniences 
which  arise  from  lack  of  uniformity  in  the  units- 
adopted  in  meteorological  observations,  and  to  ask 
it  to  consider  if  the  time  has  not  come  for  bringing 
about  this  uniformity.  Acting  upon  this  suggestion, 
the  committee  of  Section  A  expressed  the  opinion  "  that 
the  introduction  of  international  uniformity  in  the 
units  adopted  for  the  records  of  meteorological  observ- 
ations would  be  of  great  practical  advantage  to 
science."  The  committee  of  recommendations  was 
asked  to  take  such  steps  as  it  may  think  fit  toward 
giving  effect  to  the  above  resolutions.  It  was  decided 
that  the  matter  should  be  sent  to  the  council  through 
the  general  committee. 

It  was  resolved  to  ask  the  council  to  consider  whether 
the  form  of  the  daily  journal  of  the  Association  should 
not  be  changed  so  that  a  provisional  list  of  arrange- 
ments for  the  reading  of  papers  could  be  published 
in  the  journal  at  as  early  a  date  as  possible. 

The  committee  also  decided  to  forward  the  follow- 
ing recommendation   to   the  council  : — 

"It  is  desirable  that  further  steps  should  be  taken 
to  make  the  reports  (as  distinguished  from  papers) 
communicated  to  the  Association  more  accessible  to 
the  general  public  by  the  provision  of  indices  to  the 
published  volumes  and  otherwise." 

The  following  is  a  synopsis  of  the  grants  made 
at  the  meeting  just  concluded  :— 

Mathematics  and  Physics. 

Rayleigh,  Lord — Electrical  Standards... Unexpended  balance 

Judd,   Prof.  J.   W. — Seismological   Observations         ...  ;^40 

Shaw,   Dr.   W,   N. — Upper  Atmosphere  Investigations       50 

and  unexpended  balance 

Preece,  Sir  W.  H. — Magnetic  Observations     60 

Chemistry. 
Roscoe,  Sir  H. — Wave-length  Tables  of  Spectra         ...       10 
Divers,  Prof.  E. — Study  of  Hydroaromatics     ...         ...       25 

Geology. 

Marr,  Mr.  J.  E.— Erratic  Blocks 10 

and  balance  in  hand 
Scharff,   Dr.   R.    F.— To   Explore   Irish   Caves  Balance 

in  hand 
Watts,  Prof.  W. — Movements  of  Underground  Waters 

Balance  in  hand 
Marr,  Mr.  J.  E. — Life  Zones  in  Carboniferous  Rocks...  35 
Herdman,  Prof. — Fauna  and  Flora  of  the  Trias  ...  10 
Lamplugh,   Mr.   G.   W. — To  Investigate  Fossiliferous 

Drifts  50 

Zoology. 
Hickson,  Prof.  S.  J. — Zoological  Table  at  Naples     ...     100 

Woodward,  Dr.  H. — Index  Animalium 60 

Weldon,   Prof. — Investigations  in  Development  in  the 

Frog  15 

Hickson,  Prof.  S.  J. — Researches  on  the  Higher  Crus- 
tacea           15 

Economic   Science    and   Statistics. 
Cannan,    Dr.    E. — British    and    Foreign    Statistics   of 

International  Trade  25 

Mechanical  Science. 
Thornycroft,   Sir  J.   J. — Resistance  oif   Road  Vehicles 

to  Traction 90 

Anthropology. 
Evans,  Sir  John — Archaeological  and  Ethnological  Re- 
searches in  Crete 100 

Munro,     Dr.     R. — Researches    in     Glastonbury    Lake 

Village  •••       25 

Macalister,     Prof.     A. — Anthropometric     Investigation 

on    Egyptian   Troops        10 

NO.    1768,   VOL.  68] 


Evans,    Dr.    A.    J. — Excavations   on    Roman    Sites    in 

Britain  ...         ...         ...         ...         ...         ...         ...       25 

Physiology. 
Halliburton,   Prof. — The  State  of  Solution  of  Proteids       20 
Gotch,  Prof. — Metabolism  of  Individual  Tissues         ...       40 

Botany. 
Vines,    Prof.    S.    H. — Completion    of    Monograph    on 

Potamogeton            ...         ...         ...         ...         ...         ...  10 

Miall,  Prof.  L.  C. — Botanical  Photographs       5 

Ward,  Prof.  M. — Respiration  of  Plants 15 

Ward,  Prof.  M. — Experimental  Studies  in  Heredity  ...  35 


Corresponding  Societies. 


Whitaker.    Mr.   W. 


;^90O 


SECTION  A. 


SUB-SECTION    OF    ASTRONOMY    AND    METEOROLOGY. 

Opening  Address  by  W.  N.  Shaw,  Sc.D.,  F.R.S., 
Chairman  of  the  Sub-Section. 

Methods  of  Meteorological  Investigation. 

In  opening  the  proceedings  of  the  Sub-section  devoted  to 
Cosmical  Physics,  which  we  may  take  to  be  the  application 
of  the  methods  and  results  of  Mathematics  and  Physics  to 
problems  suggested  by  observations  of  the  earth,  the  air,  or 
the  sky,  I  desire  permission  to  call  your  attention  to  some 
points  of  general  interest  in  connection  with  that  depart- 
ment which  deals  with  the  air.  My  justification  for  doing 
so  is  that  this  is  the  first  occasion  upon  which  a  position 
in  any  way  similar  to  that  which  I  am  now  called  upon  to 
fill  has  been  occupied  by  one  whose  primary  obligations 
are  meteorological.  That  honour  I  may  with  confidence 
attribute  to  the  desire  of  the  Council  of  the  Association  to 
recognise  the  subject  so  admirably  represented  by  the  dis- 
tinguished men  of  science  who  have  come  across  the  seas 
to  deliberate  upon  those  meteorological  questions  which  are 
the  common  concern  of  all  nations,  and  whom  we  are 
specially  glad  to  welcome  as  members  of  this  Sub-section. 
Their  presence  and  their  scientific  work  are  proof,  if  proof 
is  required,  that  meteorologists  cannot  regard  meteorological 
problems  as  dissociable  from  Section  A  ;  that  the  prosecu- 
tion of  meteorological  research  is  by  the  study  of  the  kine- 
matics, the  mechanics,  the  physics,  or  the  mathematics  of 
the  data  compiled  by  laborious  observation  of  the  earth's 
atmosphere. 

But  this  is  not  the  first  occasion  upon  which  the  Address 
from  the  Chair  of  the  Sub-section  has  been  devoted  to 
Meteorology.  Many  of  you  will  recollect  the  trenchant 
manner  in  which  a  university  professor,  himself  a  meteor- 
ologist, an  astronomer,  a  physicist,  and  a  mathematician, 
dealt  candidly  with  the  present  position  of  Meteorology. 
After  that  Address  I  am  conscious  that  I  have  no  claim  to 
be  called  a  meteorologist  according  to  the  scientific  standard 
of  Section  A.  Prof.  Schuster  has  explained — and  I  cannot 
deny  it — that  the  responsible  duty  of  an  office  from  which 
I  cannot  dissociate  myself  is  signing  weather  reports  ;  and 
I  could  wish  that  the  duty  of  making  the  next  Address  had 
been  intrusted  to  one  of  my  colleagues  from  across  the  sea. 
But  as  Prof.  Schuster  has  set  forth  the  aspect  of  official 
meteorology  as  seen  from  the  academic  standpoint  with  a 
frankness  and  candour  which  I  think  worthy  of  imitation, 
I  shall  endeavour  to  put  before  you  the  aspect  which  the 
relation  between  Meteorology  and  academic  science  wears 
from  the  point  of  view  of  an  official  meteorologist  whose 
experience  is  not  long  enough  to  have  hardened  into  that 
most  comfortable  of  all  states  of  mind,  a  pessimistic  con- 
tentment. 

Meteorology  occupies  a  peculiar  position  in  this  country. 
From  the  point  of  view  of  Mathematics  and  Physics,  the 
problems  which  the  subject  presents  are  not  devoid  of 
interest,  nor  are  they  free  from  that  difficulty  which  should 
stimulate  scientific  effort  in  academic  minds.  They  afford 
a  most  ample  field  for  the  display  of  trained  intellect,  and 
even  of  genius,  in  devising  and  applying  theoretical  and 
experimental  methods.  And  can  we  say  that  the  work  is 
unimportant?  Look  where  you  will  over  the  countries 
which  the  British  Association  may  be  supposed  to  repre- 
sent,   either   directly   or   indirectly,    and   say   where  a   more 


September  17,  1903] 


NATURE 


469 


satisfactory  knowledge  of  the  laws  governing  the  weather 
would  be  unimportant  from  any  point  of  view.  Will  you 
take  the  British  Isles  on  the  eastern  shores  of  the  Atlantic, 
th'!  great  meteorological  laboratory  of  the  world,  with  the 
far-reaching  interests  of  their  carrying  trade ;  or  India, 
where  the  phenomena  of  the  monsoon  show  most  con- 
spicuously the  effects  of  the  irregular  distribution  of  land, 
th-^  second  great  meteorological  cause,  and  where  recurring 
famines  still  overstrain  the  resources  of  administration. 
Take  the  Australasian  colonies  and  the  Cape,  which,  with 
th-?  Argentine  Republic,  where  Mr.  Davis  is  developing  so 
admirably  the  methods  of  the  Weather  Bureau,  constitute 
the  only  land  projections  into  the  great  southern  ocean,  the 
region  of  "  planetary  meteorology  "  •  Australia,  with  its 
periods  of  paralysing  drought ;  the  Cape,  where  the  adjust- 
ment of  crops  to  climate  is  a  question  of  the  hour ;  or  take 
Canada,  which  owns  at  the  same  time  a  granary  of  enor- 
mous dimensions  and  a  large  portion  of  the  Arctic  Circle  ; 
or  take  the  scattered  islets  of  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific  or 
the  shipping  that  goes  wherever  ships  can  go.  The  merest 
glance  will  show  that  we  stand  to  gain  more  by  scientific 
knowledge,  and  lose  more  by  unscientific  ignorance  of  the 
weather,  than  any  other  country.  The  annual  loss  on 
account  of  the  weather  would  work  out  at  no  inconsiderable 
sum  per  head  of  the  population,  and  the  merest  fraction  of 
success  in  the  prevention  of  what  science  must  regard  as 
preventable  loss  would  compensate  for  half  a  century  of 
expenditure  on  meteorological  offices.  Or  take  a  less  selfish 
view  and  consider  for  a  moment  our  responsibilities  to  the 
general  community  of  nations,  the  advantages  we  possess 
as  occupying  the  most  important  posts  of  observation.  If 
the  meteorology  of  the  world  were  placed,  as  perhaps  it 
ought  to  be,  in. the  hands  of  an  International  Commission, 
it  can  be  no  exaggeration  to  say  that  a  considerable  majority 
of  the  selected  sites  for  stations  of  observation  would  be  on 
British  soil  or  British  ships.  We  cannot  help  being  the 
most  important  agency  for  promoting  or  for  obstructing 
the  extension  of  meteorological  science.  I  say  this  bluntly 
and  perhaps  crudely  because  I  feel  sure  that  ideas  not 
dissimilar  from  these  must  occasionally  suggest  themselves 
to  every  meteorologist,  British  or  foreign  ;  and  if  they  are 
to  be  expressed — and  I  think  you  will  agree  with  me  that 
they  ought  to  be — a  British  meteorologist  ought  to  take  the 
responsibility  of  expressing  them. 

And  how  does  our  academic  organisation  help  us  in  this 
matter  of  more  than  parochial  or  even  national  importance? 
There  was  a  time  when  Meteorology  was  a  recognised 
member  of  the  large  physical  family  and  shared  the  paternal 
affection  of  all  professors  of  Physics ;  but  when  the  poor 
nestling  began  to  grow  up  and  develop  some  individuality 
electricity  developed  simultaneously  with  the  speed  of  a 
young  cuckoo.  The  professors  of  Phvsics  soon  recognised 
that  the  nest  was  not  large  enough  for  both,  and  with  a 
unanimity  which  is  the  more  remarkable  because  in  some 
of  these  academic  circles  utilitarianism  is  not  a  condition 
of  existence,  and  pure  science,  not  market  value,  might  be 
the  dominant  consideration — with  singular  unanimity  the 
science  which  bears  in  its  left  hand,  if  not  in  its  right, 
sources  of  wealth  beyond  the  dreams  of  avarice  was  recog- 
nised as  a  veritable  Isaac,  and  the  science  wherein  the 
fruits  of  discovery  must  be  free  for  all  the  world,  and  in 
which  there  is  not  even  the  most  distant  prospect  of  making 
a  fortune — that  science  was  ejected  as  an  Ishmael.  Elec- 
trical engineering  has  an  abundance  of  academic  repre- 
sentatives ;  brewing  has  its  professorship  and  its  corps  of 
students,  but  the  specialised  physics  of  the  atmosphere  has 
ceased  to  share  the  academic  hospitality.  So  far  as  I  know 
the  British  universities  are  unanimous  in  dissembling  their 
love  for  Meteorology  as  a  science,  and  if  they  do  not  actually 
kick  it  downstairs  they  are  at  least  content  that  it  has  no 
encouragement  to  go  up.  In  none  is  there  a  professorship, 
a  lectureship,  or  even  a  scholarship,  to  help  to  form  the 
nucleus  of  that  corps  of  students  which  may  be  regarded 
as  the  primary  condition  of  scientific  development. 

Having  cut  the  knot  of  their  difficulties  in  this  very 
human  but  not  very  humane  method,  the  universities  are, 
I  think,  disposed  to  adopt  a  method  of  justification  which 
is  not  unusual  in  such  cases ;  indications  are  not  wanting 
which  disclose  an  opinion  that  Meteorology  is,  after  all, 
not  a  science.  There  are,  I  am  aware,  some  notable  ex- 
ceptions ;  but  do  I  exaggerate  if  I  say  that  when  university 


NO.    1768,  VOL.  68] 


professors  are  kind  enough  to  take  an  interest  in  the  labours 
of  meteorologists,  who  are  doing  their  best  amid  many 
discouragements,  it  is  generally  to  point  out  that  their 
work  is  on  the  wrong  lines  ;  that  they  had  better  give  it 
up  and  do  something  else?  And  the  interest  which  the 
universities  display  in  a  general  way  is  a  good-humoured 
jest  about  the  futility  of  weather  prophecy,  and  the  kindly 
suggestion  that  the  improvement  in  the  prediction  of  the 
next  twenty-four  hours'  weather  is  a  natural  limit  to  the 
orbit  of  an  Ishmaelite's  ambition. 

In  these  circumstances  such  an  Address  as  Prof. 
Schuster's  is  very  welcome  :  it  recognises  at  least  a  scien- 
tific brotherhood  and  points  to  the  responsibility  for  a 
scientific  standard  ;  it  even  displays  some  of  the  character- 
istics of  the  Good  Samaritan,  for  it  offers  his  own  beast 
on  which  to  ride,  though  it  recommends  the  unfortunate 
traveller  to  dispose  of  what  little  clothing  the  stripping  has 
left  to  provide  the  two  pence  for  the  host. 

It  is  quite  possible  that  the  unformulated  opinion  of  the 
vast  majority  of  people  in  this  country  who  are  only  too 
familiar  with  the  meteorological  vagaries  of  the  British 
Isles  is  that  the  weather  does  just  as  it  pleases ;  that  any 
day  of  the  year  may  give  you  an  August  storm  or  a 
January  summer's  day  ;  that  there  are  no  laws  to  be  dis- 
covered, and  that  the  further  prosecution  of  so  unsatis- 
factory a  study  is  not  worth  the  time  and  money  already 
spent  upon  it.  They  forget  that  there  are  countries  where, 
to  judge  by  their  languages,  the  weather  has  so  nearly  the 
regularity  of  "  old  time  "  that  One  word  is  sufficient  to  do 
duty  for  both  ideas.  They  forget  that  our  interests  extend 
to  many  climates,  and  that  the  characteristics  of  the  eastern 
shores  of  the  North  Atlantic  are  not  appropriate  to,  say, 
western  Tropical  Africa.  That  may  be  a  sufficient  explan- 
ation of  the  attitude  of  the  man  in  the  street,  but  as  regards 
the  British  universities  dare  I  offer  the  difficulty  of  the 
subject  as  a  reason  for  any  want  of  encouragement?  Or 
shall  I  say  that  the  general  ignorance  on  the  part  of  the 
public  of  the  scientific  aspirations  and  aims  of  meteorologists 
and  of  the  results  already  obtained  is  a  reason  for  the 
universities  to  keep  silence  on  the  subject?  With  all  re- 
spect I  may  say  that  the  aspect  which  the  matter  presents 
to  official  meteorologists  is  that  the  universities  are  some- 
what oblivious  of  their  responsibilities  and  their  oppor- 
tunities. 

I  have  no  doubt  that  it  will  at  once  be  said  that  Meteor- 
ology is  supported  by  Government  funds,  and  that  alma 
mater  must  keep  her  maternal  affection  and  her  exiguous 
income  for  subjects  that  do  not  enjoy  State  support.  I  do 
not  wish  just  now  to  discuss  the  complexities  of  alma 
mater's  housekeeping.  I  know  she  does  not  adopt  the  same 
attitude  with  regard  to  astronomy,  physics,  geology,  miner- 
alogy, zoology,  or  botany,  but  let  that  pass.  From  the 
point  of  view  of  the  advancement  of  science  I  should  like 
to  protest  against  the  idea  that  the  care  of  certain  branche* 
of  science  by  the  State  and  by  the  universities  can  be  re- 
garded as  alternative.  The  advancement  of  science  de- 
mands the  co-operation  of  both  in  their  appropriate  ways. 
As  regards  Meteorology,  in  my  experience,  which  I  acknow- 
ledge is  limited,  the  general  attitude  towards  the  depart- 
ment seems  to  be  dictated  by  the  consideration  that  it  must 
be  left  severely  alone  in  order  to  avoid  the  vicious  precedent 
of  doing  what  is,  or  perhaps  what  is  thought  to  be.  Govern- 
ment work  without  getting  Government  pay,  and  the  result 
is  an  almost  monastic  isolation. 

There  is  too  much  isolation  of  scientific  agencies  in  this 
country.  You  have  recently  established  a  National  Physical 
Laboratory  the  breath  of  whose  life  is  its  association  with 
the  working  world  of  physics  and  engineering,  and  you 
have  put  it — where?  At  Cambridge,  or  anywhere  else 
where  young  physicists  and  engineers  are  being  trained? 
No  ;  but  in  the  peaceful  seclusion  of  a  palace  in  the  country, 
almost  equidistant  from  Cambridge,  Oxford,  London,  and 
everywhere  else.  You  have  established  a  Meteorological 
Office,  and  you  have  put  it  in  the  academic  seclusion  of 
Victoria  Street.  What  monastic  isolation  is  good  for  I  do 
not  know.  I  am  perfectly  certain  it  is  not  good  for  the 
scientific  progress  of  Meteorology.  How  can  one  hope  for 
effective  scientific  development  without  some  intimate 
association  with  the  institutions  of  the  country,  which  stand 
for  intellectual  development  and  the  progress  of  science? 

I  could  imagine  an  organisation  which  by  association  of 


470 


NA  TURE 


[September  17,  1903 


the  universities  with  a  central  office  would  enable  this 
country,  with  its  colonies  and  dependencies,  to  build  up  a 
system  of  meteorological  investigation  worthy  of  its  un- 
exampled opportunities.  But  the  co-operation,  must  be  real 
and  not  one-sided.  Meteorology,  which  depends  upon  the 
combination  of  observations  of  various  kinds  from  all  parts 
of  the  world,  must  be  international,  and  a  Government 
department  in  some  form  or  other  is  indispensable.  No 
university  could  do  the  work.  But  whatever  form  Govern- 
ment service  takes  it  will  always  have  some  of  those 
characteristics  which,  from  the  point  of  view  of  research, 
may  be  called  bondage.  On  the  other  hand,  research,  to 
be  productive,  must  be  free  with  an  academic  freedom,  free 
to  succeed  or  fail,  free  to  be  remunerative  or  unremunerative, 
without  regard  to  Government  audits  or  House  of  Commons 
control.  Research  looks  to  the  judgment  of  posterity  with 
a  faith  which  is  not  unworthy  of  the  Churches,  and  which 
is  not  among  those  excellent  moral  qualities  embodied  in 
the  Controller  and  Auditor  General.  Dtc  academische 
Freiheit  is  not  the  characteristic  of  a  Government  depart- 
ment. The  opportunity  which  gave  to  the  world  the 
"  Philosophiae  Naturalis  Principia  "  was  not  due  to  the 
State  subvention  of  the  Deputy  Mastership  of  the  Mint, 
but  to  the  modest  provision  of  a  professorship  by  one  Henry 
Lucas,  of  whose  pious  benefaction  Cambridge  has  made 
such  wonderful  use  in  her  Lucasian  professors. 

The  future  of  Meteorology  lies,  I  believe,  in  the  associ- 
ation of  the  universities  with  a  central  department.  I 
could  imagine  that  Liverpool  or  Glasgow  might  take  a 
special  interest  in  the  meteorology  of  the  sea ;  they  might 
even  find  the  means  of  maintaining  a  floating  observatory  ; 
and  when  I  say  that  we  know  practically  nothing  of  the 
distribution  of  rainfall  over  the  sA,  and  we  want  to  know 
everything  about  the  air  above  the  sea,  you  will  agree 
with  me  that  there  is  room  for  such  an  enterprise.  Edin- 
burgh might,  from  its  association  with  Ben  Nevis,  be 
desirous  of  developing  the  investigation  of  the  upper  air 
over  our  land  ;  in  Cambridge  might  be  found  the  author 
of  a  book,  on  the  principles  of  atmospheric  physics,  worthy 
of  its  Latin  predecessor ;  and  for  London  I  can  assign  no 
limited  possibilities. 

If  such  an  association  were  established  I  should  not  need 
to  reply  to  Prof.  Schuster's  suggestion  for  the  suppression 
of  observations.  The  real  requirement  of  the  time  is  not 
fewer  observations,  but  more  men  and  women  to  interpret 
them.  I  have  no  doubt  that  the  first  expression  of  such 
an  organisation  would  be  one  of  recognition  and  acknow- 
ledgment of  the  patience,  the  care,  the  skill,  and  the  public 
spirit — all  of  them  sound  scientific  characteristics — which 
furnish  at  their  own  expense  those  multitudes  of  observ- 
ations. The  accumulated  readings  appal  by  their  volume, 
it  is  true,  but  they  are,  and  must  be,  the  foundation  upon 
which  the  scientific  structure  will  be  built. 

So  far  as  this  country  is  concerned  when  one  puts  what 
is  in  comparison  with  what  might  be  it  must  be  acknow- 
ledged that  the  tendency  to  pessimistic  complaisance  is  very 
strong.  Yet  I  ought  not  to  allow  the  reflections  to  which 
my  predecessor's  Address  naturally  gave  rise  to  be  too  de- 
pressing. I  should  remember  that,  as  Dr.  Hellmann  said 
some  years  ago.  Meteorology  has  no  frontiers,  and  each 
step  in  its  progress  is  the  result  of  efforts  of  various  kinds 
in  many  countries,  our  own  not  excluded.  In  the  presence 
of  our  guests  to-day,  some  of  whom  know  by  practical  ex- 
perience the  advantages  of  the  association  of  academic 
liberty  with  official  routine,  remembering  the  recent  con- 
spicuous successes  in  the  investigation  of  the  upper  air 
in  France,  Germany,  Austria,  and  the  United  States,  and 
the  prospect  of  fruitful  co-operation  of  meteorology  with 
other  branches  of  cosmical  physics,  I  may  well  recall  the 
words  of  Clough  : — 

Say  not,  the  struggle  nought  availeth  .  _.  . 
And  as  things  have  been,  things  remain. 

If  hopes  were_  dupes,  fears  may  be  liars  ; 

It  mny  be,  in  yon  smoke  concealed 
Your  comrades  chase  e'en  now  the  fliers, 

And,  but  for  you,  possess  the  field. 

For  while  the  tired  waves,  vainly  breaking. 

Seem  here  no  painful  inch  to  gain. 
Far  back,  through  creeks  and  inlets  making, 

Comes  silent,  flooding  in,  the  main. 


NO.   1768,  VOL.  68] 


And  not  by  eastern  windows  only, 

When  daylight  comes,  comes  in  the  light  ; 

In  front,  the  sun  climbs  stow,  how  slowly, 
But  westward,  look,  the  land  is  bright. 

Oflicial  meteorologists  are  not  wanting  in  scientific 
ambitions  and  achievements.  It  is  true  that  Prof.  Hann, 
whose  presence  here  would  have  been  so  cordially  welcomed, 
left  the  public  service  of  Austria  to  continue  his  services 
to  the  world  of  science  by  the  compilation  of  his  great 
handbook,  and  Snellen  is  leaving  the  direction  of  the 
weather  service  of  the  Netherlands  for  the  more  exclusively 
scientific  work  of  directing  an  observatory  of  terrestrial 
physics ;  but  I  am  reminded  by  the  presence  of  Prof.  Mascart 
of  those  services  to  meteorological  optics  and  terrestrial 
magnetism  that  make  his  place  as  President  of  the  Inter- 
national Committee  so  natural  and  fitting ;  and  of  the  solid 
work  of  Angot  on  the  diurnal  variation  of  the  barometer 
and  the  reduction  of  barometric  observations  for  height  that 
form  conspicuous  features  among  the  many  valuable 
memoirs  of  the  Central  Bureau  of  Paris. 

Of  the  monumental  work  of  Hildebrandsson  in  association 
with  Teisserenc  de  Bort  on  clouds,  which  culminated  quite 
recently  in  a  most  important  addition  to  the  pure  kine- 
matics of  the  atmosphere,  I  hope  the  authors  will  them- 
selves speak.  Prof.  Willis  Moore's  presence  recalls  the 
advances  which  Bigelow  has  made  in  the  kinematics  and 
mechanics  of  the  atmosphere  under  the  auspices  of  Prof. 
Moore's  office,  and  reminds  us  of  the  debt  of  gratitude 
which  the  English-speaking  world  owes  to  Prof.  Cleveland 
Abb6,  of  the  same  office,  for  his  treatment  of  the  literature 
of  atmospheric  mechanics. 

If  General  Rykatcheff  had  only  the  magnificent  climato- 
logical  Atlas  of  the  Russian  Empire  to  his  credit  he  might 
well  rest  satisfied.  Prof.  Mohn's  contributions  to  the 
mechanics  of  the  atmosphere  are  examples  of  Norwegian 
enterprise  in  the  difficult  problems  of  Meteorology,  while 
Dr.  Paulsen  maintains  for  us  the  right  of  meteorologists 
to  share  in  the  results  of  the  newest  discoveries  in  physics. 
Davis's  enterprise  in  the  far  south  does  much  to  bring  the 
southern  hemisphere  within  our  reach,  while  Chaves  places 
the  meteorology  of  the  mid-Atlantic  at  the  service  of  the 
scientific  world.  Need  I  say  anything  of  Billwiller's  work 
upon  the  special  effect  of  mountains  upon  meteorological 
conditions,  or  of  the  immense  services  of  the  joint  editors 
of  the  Meteorologische  Zeitschrift,  Prof.  Pernter,  of 
Vienna,  and  Dr.  Hellmann,  of  Berlin;  of  Palazzo 's  con- 
tributions to  terrestrial  magnetism?  The  mention  of 
Eliot's  Indian  work,  or  of  Russell's  organisation  of 
Australian  meteorology,  will  be  sufficient  to  show  that  the 
dependencies  and  colonies  are  prepared  to  take  a  share  in 
scientific  enterprise.  And  if  I  wished  to  reassure  myself 
that  even  the  official  meteorology  of  this  country  is  hot 
without  its  scientific  ambitions  and  achievements,  I  would 
refer  not  only  to  Scott's  many  services  to  science  but  also 
to  Strachey's  papers  on  Indian  and  British  Meteorology  and 
to  the  official  contributions  to  Marine  Meteorology. 

There  is  another  name,  well  known  in  the  annals  of  the 
British  Association,  that  will  for  ever  retain  an  honoured 
place  among  the  pioneers  of  meteorological  enterprise — • 
that  of  James  Glaisher,  the  intrepid  explorer  of  the  upper 
air,  the  Nestor  of  meteorologists,  who  has  passed  away 
since  the  last  meeting  of  the  Association. 

I  should  like  especially  to  mention  Prof.  Hergesell's 
achievements  in  the  organisation  of  the  international  in-, 
vestigation  of  the  upper  air  by  balloons  and  kites,  because 
it  is  one  of  the  departments  which  offers  a  most  promising 
field  for  the  future,  and  in  which  we  in  this  country  have 
a  good  many  arrears  to  make  up.  I  hope  Prof.  Hergesell 
will  later  on  give  us  some  account  of  the  present  position 
of  that  investigation,  and  I  am  glad  that  Mr.  Rotch,  to 
whose  enterprise  the  development  of  what  I  may  call  the 
scientific  kite  industry  is  largely  due,  is  present  to  take 
part  in  the  discussion. 

Yet  with  all  these  achievements  it  must  be  confessed  that 
the  progress  made  with  the  problems  of  general  or 
dynamical  Meteorology  in  the  last  thirty  years  has  been- 
disappointing.  When  we  compare  the  position  of  the  sub- 
ject with  that  of  other  branches  of  Physics  it  must  be 
allowed  that  it  still  lacks  what  astronomy  found  in  Newton, 
sound  in  Newton  and  Chladni,  light  in  Young  or  Fresnel, 
heat  in  Joule,  Kelvin,  Clausius,  and  Helmholtz,  and  elec- 
tricity  in   Faraday   and   Maxwell.     Above   all,    it  lacks   its 


September  17,  1903] 


NATURE 


471 


Kepler.  Let  me  make  this  clear.  Kepler's  contribution  to 
physical  astronomy  was  to  formulate  laws  which  no 
heavenly  body  actually  obeys,  but  which  enabled  Newton 
to  deduce  the  law  of  gravitation.  The  first  great  step  in 
the  development  of  any  physical  science  is  to  substitute  for 
the  indescribably  complex  reality  of  nature  an  ideal  system 
that  is  an  effective  equivalent  for  the  purposes  of  theoretical 
computation.  I  cannot  refrain  from  quoting  again  from 
Plato's  "  Republic  "  a  passage  which  I  have  quoted  else- 
where before.  It  expresses  paradoxically  but  still  clearly 
th"  relation  of  natural  philosophy  to  natural  science.  In 
the  discussion  of  the  proper  means  of  studying  sciences 
Socrates  is  made  to  say  "  We  shall  pursue  astronomy  with 
the  help  of  problems  just  as  we  pursue  geometry  :  but  we 
shall  let  the  heavenly  bodies  alone  if  it  is  our  design  to 
become  really  acquainted  with  astronomy."  What  I  take 
to  be  the  same  idea  is  expressed  in  other  words  by  Rayleigh 
in  the  introduction  to  his  "  Sound."  He  there  points  out 
as  an  example  that  the  natural  problem  of  a  sounding 
tuning-fork  really  comprises  the  motion  of  the  fork,  the 
air,  and  the  vibrating  parts  of  the  ear  ;  and  the  first  step 
in  sound  is  to  simplify  the  complex  system  of  nature  by 
assuming  that  the  vibrations  of  the  fork,  the  air, 
and  the  ear  can  be  treated  independently.  Frequently 
this  step  is  a  most  difficult  one  to  take.  What  student  of 
nature,  contemplating  the  infinity  of  heavenly  bodies  and 
unfamiliar  with  this  method  of  idealism,  would  imagine 
that  the  most  remarkable  and  universal  generalisation  in 
physical  science  was  arrived  at  by  reducing  the  dynamics 
of  the  universe  to  the  problem  of  three  bodies?  When  we 
look  round  the  sciences  each  has  its  own  peculiar  ideals 
and  its  own  physical  quantities  :  astronomy  has  its  orbits 
and  its  momentum,  sound  its  longitudinal  vibration,  light 
its  transverse  vibration,  heat  its  energy  and  entropy,  elec- 
tricity its  "  quantity  "  and  its  wave,  but  meteorology  has 
not  yet  found  a  satisfactory  ideal  problem  to  substitute  for 
the  complexity  of  nature.  I  wish  to  consider  the  aspect 
of  the  science  from  this  point  of  view  and  to  recall  some 
of  the  attempts  made  to  arrive  at  a  satisfactory  modification 
of  reality.  I  do  not  wish  to  refer  to  such  special  appli- 
cations of  physical  reasoning  as  may  be  involved  in  the 
formation  of  cloud,  the  thermodynamics  of  a  mixture  of  air 
and  water  vapour,  the  explanation  of  optical  or  electrical 
phenomena,  nor  even  Helmholtz's  application  of  the  theory 
of  gravitational  waves  to  superposed  layers  of  air  of  different 
density.  These  require  only  conventions  which  belong 
already  to  physics,  and  though  they  may  furnish  suggestions 
they  do  not  themselves  constitute  a  general  meteorological 
theory. 

The  most  direct  efforts  to  create  a  general  theory  of 
atmospheric  circulation  are  those  which  attempt  to  apply 
Newtonian  dynamics,  with  its  more  recent  developments 
on  the  lines  of  hydrodynamics  and  thermodynamics. 
Attempts  have  been  made,  mathematical  or  otherwise,  to 
determine  the  general  circulation  of  the  atmosphere  by  the 
application  of  some  form  of  calculation,  assuming  only  the 
sun  and  a  rotating  earth,  with  an  atmosphere,  as  the  data 
of  the  problem.  I  confess  that  these  attempts,  interesting 
and  ingenious  as  they  are,  seem  to  me  to  be  somewhat 
premature.  The  "  problem  "  is  not  sufficiently  formulated. 
When  Newton  set  to  work  to  connect  the  motions  of  the 
heavenly  bodies  with  their  causes,  he  knew  what  the 
motions  of  the  heavenly  bodies  were.  Mathematics  is  an 
excellent  engine  for  explaining  and  confirming  what  you 
know.  It  is  very  rarely  a  substitute  for  observation,  and 
before  we  rely  upon  it  for  telling  us  what  the  nature  of  the 
general  circulation  of  the  atmosphere  really  is,  it  would 
be  desirable  to  find  out  by  observation  or  experiment  what 
dynamical  and  elastic  properties  must  be  attributed  to  an 
extremely  thin  sheet  of  compressible  fluid  rotating  about 
an  axis  with  a  velocity  reaching  looo  miles  an  hour,  and 
subject  to  periodic  heating  and  cooling  of  a  very  com- 
plicated character.  It  would  be  more  in  consonance  with 
the  practice  of  other  sciences  to  find  out  by  observation 
what  the  general  circulation  is  before  using  mathematics 
to  explam  it.  What  strikes  one  most  about  the  mathe- 
matical treatises  on  the  general  circulation  of  the  atmo- 
sphere is  that  what  is  true  about  the  conclusions  is  what 
was  previously  known  from  observation.  It  is,  I  think, 
clear  that  that  method  has  not  given  us  the  working  ideal 
upon  which  to  base  our  theory. 


NO.    1768,  VOL    6^'\ 


Consider  next  the  attempts  to  regard  atmospheric  pheno- 
mena as  periodic.  Let  me  include  with  this  the  correlation 
of  groups  of  atmospheric  phenomena  with  each  other  or 
with  those  of  the  sun,  when  the  periodicity,  is  not  necessarily 
regular,  and  the  scientific  process  consists  in  identifying 
corresponding  changes.  This  method  has  given  some  re- 
markable results  by  the  comparison  of  the  sequence  of 
changes  in  the  meteorological  elements  in  the  hands  of 
Pettersen  and  Meinardus,  and  by  the  comparison  of  the 
variation  of  pressure  in  different  parts  of  the  globe  by  Sir 
Norman  Lockyer  and  Dr.  W.  J.  S.  Lockyer ;  as  regards 
the  earth  and  the  sun  the  subject  has  reached  the  stage 
of  productive  discussion.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  by  con- 
tinuing this  Address  I  am  preventing  Sir  Norman  Lockyer 
from  telling  you  all  about  it. 

For  the  purpose  of  dealing  with  periodicity  in  any  form 
we  substitute  for  feature  an  ideal  system  obtained  by  using 
mean  values  instead  of  individual  values,  and  leaving  out 
what,  from  this  point  of  view,  are  called  accidental 
elements.  The  simplification  is  perfectly  legitimate.  Pass- 
ing on  to  the  consideration  of  periodicity  in  the  stricter 
sense  the  process  which  has  been  so  effective  in  dealing 
with  tides,  the  motions  of  the  liquid  layer,  is  very  attractive 
as  a  means  of  attacking  the  problems  of  the  atmosphere, 
because,  in  accordance  with  a  principle  in  dynamics,  to  every 
periodic  cause  there  must  correspond  an  effect  of  the  same 
period,  although  the  relation  of  the  magnitude  of  the  effect 
to  the  cause  is  governed  by  the  approximation  of  the  natural 
period  of  the  body  to  that  of  the  cause. 

There  are  two  forms  of  the  strict  periodic  method.  One 
is  to  examine  the  generalised  observations  for  periodicities 
of  known  length,  whether  it  be  that  of  the  lunar  rotations 
or  of  sunspot  frequency,  or  of  some  longer  or  shorter  period. 
In  this  connection  let  me  acknowledge  a  further  obligation 
to  Prof.  Schuster  for  tacking  on  to  his  Address  of  last  year 
a  development  of  his  work  on  the  detection  of  hidden  perio- 
dicities by  giving  us  a  means  of  estimating  numerically 
what  I  may  call  the  reality  of  the  periodicity.  The  other 
method  is  by  harmonic  analysis  of  a  series  of  observations 
with  the  view  of  finding  causes  for  the  several  harmonic 
components.  I  may'  say  that  the  Meteorological  Office, 
supported  by  the  strong  opinion  of  Lord  Kelvin,  has 
favoured  that  plan,  and  on  that  account  has  for  many  years 
issued  the  hourly  res.ults  for  its  observatories  in  the  form 
of  five-day  means  as  representing  the  smallest  interval  for 
which  the  harmonic  analysis  could  be  satisfactorily  em- 
ployed. Sir  Richard  Strachey  has  given  some  examples  of 
its  application,  and  the  capabilities  of  the  method  are  by 
no  means  exhausted,  but  as  regards  the  general  problem 
of  dynamic  meteorology  harmonic  analysis  has  not  as  yet 
led  to  the  disclosure  of  the  required  generalisation. 

I  ought  to  mention  here  that  Prof.  Karl  Pearson,  with 
the  assistance  of  Miss  Cave,  has  been  making  a  most 
vigorous  attempt  to  estimate  the  numerical  value  of  the 
relationship,  direct  or  inverse,  between  the  barometric  read- 
ings at  different  places  on  the  earth's  surface.  The  attempt 
is  a  most  interesting  one  as  an  entirely  new  departure  in 
the  direction  of  reducing  the  complexity  of  atmospheric 
phenomena.  If  it  were  possible  to  find  coordinates  which 
showed  a  satisfactory  correlation  it  might  be  possible  to 
reduce  the  number  of  independent  variables  and  refer  the 
atmospheric  changes  to  the  variations  of  definite  centres 
of  action  in  a  way  that  has  already  been  approached  by 
Hildebrandsson  from  the  meteorological  side. 

Years  ago,  when  Buys  Ballot  laid  down  as  a  first  law  of 
atmospheric  motion  that  the  direction  of  the  wind  was 
transverse  to  the  barometric  gradient  and  the  force  largely 
dependent  upon  the  gradient,  and  when  the  examination  of 
synchronous  charts  showed  that  the  motion  of  air  could  be 
classified  into  cyclonic  and  anticyclonic  rotation,  it  appeared 
that  the  meteorological  Kepler  was  at  hand,  and  the  first 
step  towards  the  identification  of  a  working  meteorological 
unit  had  been  taken — the  phenomena  of  weather  might  be 
accounted  for  by  the  motion  and  action  of  the  cyclonic  de- 
pression, the  position  of  the  ascending  current,  the  baro- 
metric minimum.  The  individual  readings  over  the  area  of 
the  depression  could  be  represented  by  a  single  symbol. 
By  attributing  certain  weather  conditions  to  certain  parts 
of  the  cyclonic  area  and  supposing  that  the  depression 
travelled  with  more  or  less  unchanged  characteristics  the 
vagaries  of   weather   changes   can   be   accounted   for.     For 


472 


NATURE 


[September  17,  1903 


thirty  years  or  more  the  depression  has  been  closely  watched, 
and  thousands  of  successful  forecasts  have  been  based  upon 
a  knowledge  of  its  habits.  But  unfortunately  the  travelling 
depression  cannot  be  said  to  preserve  its  identity  in  any 
sense  to  which  quantitative  reasoning  can  be  applied.  As 
long  as  we  confine  ourselves  to  a  comparatively  small  region 
of  the  earth's  surface  the  travelling  depression  is  a  real 
entity,  but  when  we  widen  our  area  it  is  subject  to  such 
variations  of  path,  of  speed,  of  intensity,  and  of  area  that 
its  use  as  a  meteorological  unit  is  seriously  impaired,  and 
when  we  attempt  to  trace  it  to  its  source  or  follow  it  to 
its  end  it  eludes  us.  Its  origin,  its  behaviour,  and  its  end 
are  almost  as  capricious  as  the  weather  itself. 

Nor  if  we  examine  other  cases  in  which  a  veritable  entity 
is  transmitted  can  we  expect  that  the  simple  barometric 
distribution  should  be  free  from  inexplicable  variations. 
We  are  familiar  with  ordinary  motion,  or,  as  I  will  call 
it,  astronomical  motion,  wave  motion,  and  vortex  motion. 
Astronomical  motion  is  the  motion  of  matter,  wave  motion 
the  motion  of  energy,  vortex  motion  the  motion  of  matter 
with  energy,  but  the  motion  of  a  depression  is  merely  the 
transmission  of  the  locus  of  transformation  of  energy ; 
neither  the  matter  nor  the  energy  need  accompany  the  de- 
pression in  its  motion.  If  other  kinds  of  motion  are  sub- 
ject to  the  laws  of  conservation  of  matter  and  conservation 
of  energy,  the  motion  of  the  depression  must  have  regard 
also  to  the  law  of  dissipation  of  energy.  An  atmospheric 
disturbance,  with  the  production  of  rainfall  and  other 
thermal  phenomena,  must  comply  in  some  way  with  the 
condition  of  maximum  entropy,  and  we  cannot  expect  to 
account  for  its  behaviour  until  we  can  have  proper  regard 
to  the  variations  of  entropy.  But  the  conditions  are  not 
yet  in  a  form  suitable  for  mathematical  calculation,  and 
we  have  no  simple  rules  to  guide  us.  So  far  as  Meteorology 
is  concerned,  Willard  Gibbs  unfortunately  left  his  work 
unfinished. 

When  the  cyclonic  depression  was  reluctantly  recognised 
as  too  unstable  a  creature  to  carry  the  structure  of  a  general 
theory  Mr.  Galton's  anticyclones,  the  areas  of  high  pressure 
and  descending  currents,  claimed  consideration  as  being 
more  permanent.  Prof.  Koppen  and  Dr.  van  Bebber  have 
watched  their  behaviour  with  the  utmost  assiduity  and 
sought  to  find  therein  a  unit  by  which  the  atmospheric 
changes  can  be  classified  ;  but  I  am  afraid  that  even  Dr. 
van  Bebber  must  allow  that  his  success  is  statistical  and 
not  dynamical.  "  High  pressures  "  follow  laws  on  the 
average,  and  the  quantity  we  seek  is  not  an  average  but 
an  individual. 

The  question  arises,  whether  the  knowledge  of  the 
sequence  of  weather  changes  must  elude  us  altogether,  or 
will  yield  to  further  search.  Is  the  man  in  the  street  right 
after  all?  But  consider  how  limited  our  real  knowledge  of 
the  facts  of  atmospheric  phenomena  really  is.  It  may  very 
well  be  that  observations  on  the  surface  will  never  tell  us 
enough  to  establish  a  meteorological  entity  that  will  be 
subject  to  mathematical  treatment ;  it  may  be  that  we  can 
only  acquire  a  knowledge  of  the  general  circulation  of  the 
atmosphere  by  the  study  of  the  upper  air,  and  must  wait 
until  Prof.  Hergesell  has  carried  his  international  organisa- 
tion so  far  that  we  can  form  some  working  idea  therefrom 
of  general  meteorological  processes.  But  let  us  consider 
whether  we  have  even  attempted  for  surface  meteorology 
what  the  patience  of  astronomers  from  Copernicus  to  Kepler 
did  for  astronomy. 

Do  we  yet  fully  comprehend  the  kinematics  of  the 
travelling  depression  ;  and  if  not,  are  we  in  a  satisfactory 
position  for  dealing  with  its  dynamics?  I  have  lately  ex- 
amined minutely  the  kinematics  of  a  travelling  storm,  and 
the  results  have  certainly  surprised  me  and  have  made  it 
clear  that  the  travelling  depressions  are  not  all  of  one 
kinematical  type.  We  are  at  present  hampered  by  the 
want  of  really  satisfactory  self-recording  instruments.  I 
have  sometimes  thought  of  appealing  to  my  friends  the 
professors  of  physics  who  have  laboratories  where  the  read- 
ing of  the  barometer  to  the  thousandth  of  an  inch  belongs 
to  the  work  of  the  "  elementary  class,"  and  of  asking  them 
to  arrange  for  an  occasional  orgy  of  simultaneous  readings 
of  the  barometer  all  over  the  country  with  corresponding 
weather  observations  for  twenty-four  consecutive  hours,  so 
that  we  might  really  know  the  relation  between  pressure, 
rainfall,  and  temperature  of  the  travelling  depressions  ;  but 


NO.    1768,  VOL.   68] 


I  fear  the  area  covered  would  even  then  hardly  be  large 
enough,  and  we  must  improve  our  self-recording  instru- 
ments. 

Then,  again,  have  we  arrived  at  the  extremity  of  our 
knowledge  of  the  surface  circulation  of  the  atmosphere? 
We  know  a  great  deal  about  the  average  monthly  distribu- 
tion, but  we  know  little  about  the  instantaneous  distribu- 
tion. It  may  be  that  by  taking  averages  we  are  hiding 
the  very  points  which  we  want  to  disclose. 

Let  me  remind  you  again  that  the  thickness  of  the  atmo- 
sphere in  proportion  to  the  earth's  surface  is  not  unsatis- 
factorily represented  by  a  sheet  of  paper.  Now  it  is  obvious 
that  currents  of  air  in  such  a  thin  layer  must  react  upon 
each  other  horizontally,  and  therefore  we  cannot  a  priori 
regard  one  part  of  the  area  of  the  earth's  surface  as 
meteorologically  independent  of  any  other  part.  We  have 
daily  synoptic  charts  for  various  small  parts  of  the  globe, 
and  the  Weather  Bureau  extended  these  over  the  northern 
hemisphere  for  the  years  1875  to  1879;  but  who  can  say 
that  the  meteorology  of  the  northern  hemisphere  is  in- 
dependent of  that  of  the  southern?  To  settle  that  primary 
question  we  want  a  synchronous  chart  for  the  globe.  As 
long  as  we  are  unable  to  watch  the  changes  in  the  globe 
we  are  to  a  certain  extent  groping  in  the  dark.  A  great 
part  of  the  world  is  already  mapped  every  day,  and  the 
time  has  now  arrived  when  it  is  worth  while  to  consider 
what  contributions  we  can  make  towards  identifying  the 
distribution  of  pressure  over  the  globe.  We  may  idealise  a 
little  by  disregarding  the  local  peculiarities  without  sacri- 
ficing the  general  application.  1  have  put  in  the  exhibition 
a  series  of  maps  showing  what  approximation  can  be  made 
to  an  isochronous  chart  of  the  globe  without  special  effort. 
We  are  gradually  extending  the  possibility  of  acquiring  a 
knowledge  of  the  facts  in  that  as  in  other  directions.  With 
a  little  additional  enterprise  a  serviceable  map  could  be 
compiled  ;  and  when  that  has  been  reached,  and  when  we 
have  added  to  that  what  the  clouds  can  tell  us,  and  when 
the  work  of  the  Aeronautical  Committee  has  so  far  pro- 
gressed that  we  can  connect  the  motion  of  the  upper  atmo- 
sphere with  the  conditions  at  the  surface,  when  we  know 
the  real  kinematics  of  the  vertical  and  horizontal  motion 
of  the  various  parts  of  a  travelling  storm,  we  shall,  if  the 
universities  will  help  us,  be  able  to  give  some  rational, 
explanation  of  these  periodic  relations  which  our  solar 
physics  friends  are  identifying  for  us,  and  to  classify  our 
phenomena  in  a  way  that  the  inheritors  of  Kepler's  achieve- 
ments associated  with  us  in  this  Section  may  be  not  un- 
willing to  recognise  as  scientific. 


SECTION    B. 

CHEMISTRY. 

Opening  Address  by  Prof.  W.  N.  Hartley,  D.Sc,  F.R.S., 
F.R.S.E.,    President   of   the    Section. 

The  ofttimes  laborious  method  of  investigating  the  re- 
lationship of  substances  by  ascertaining  how  one  form  of 
matter  can  operate  upon  another,  in  other  words  by  chemical 
reactions,  has  of  late  been  supplemented  by  the  examin- 
ation of  their  physical  properties,  and  has  been  extended 
to  compounds,  both  organic  and  inorganic.  In  several 
directions  this  has  led  to  results  of  very  uncommon  interest. 
Accordingly  I  propose  to  offer  a  brief  account  of  twenty-five 
years'  experimental  work  in  that  branch  of  chemical  physics 
which  deals  with  the  emission  and  absorption  of  rays  of 
measurable  wave-length,  and  to  review  its  present  position 
chiefly  in  relation  to  the  theory  of  chemistry,  indicating 
where  it  may  be  usefully  and  profitably  extended. 

According  to  Davy  ("  Chemical  Philosophy,"  vol.  i., 
1812,  p.  211),  Ritter  observed  chemical  action  on  moist 
chloride  of  silver  to  be  different  in  different  parts  of  the 
spectrum,  slight  in  the  red,  greater  towards  the  violet,  and 
entending  into  a  space  beyond  the  violet  where  there  is  no 
sensible  light  or  heat.  .W'ollaston  discovered  that  chemical 
action  was  exerted  by  refracted  rays  in  a  region  where  they 
were  of  a  higher  refrangibility  than  any  rays  that  were 
visible.  Young  showed  that  the  invisible  rays  are  liable 
to  the  same  affections  as  visible  rays.  Hence  we  have  the 
beginnings  of  spectrum  analysis  in  its  chemical  relations 
to  terrestrial  matter,  in  the  infra-red,  the  visible,  and  the 
ultra-violet  regions. 


September  17,  1903] 


NATURE 


473 


\ 


Everyone  is  more  or  less  familiar  with  the  subject  of 
spectrum  analysis.  This  was  defined  by  Tait  as  an  optical 
method  of  making  a  diagnosis  of  the  chemical  composition 
of  either  (a)  a  self-luminous  body,  or  (6)  an  absorbing 
medium,  whether  self-luminous  or  not.  It  has  now  become 
necessary  to  enlarge  this  definition,  and  I  would  suggest 
that  it  is  the  study  of  the  composition  and  the  constitution 
of  matter  by  means  of  radiant  energy,  and  recording  in 
the  order  of  their  refrangibilities  the  rays  emitted  and 
absorbed  by  matter.  By  this  modified  statement  the  infra- 
red or  so-called  "  invisible  heat  rays,"  the  visible  or 
"colour  rays,"  and  the  ultra-violet  or  "chemical  rays" 
are  included. 

Spectra  are  of  two  kinds,  emission  and  absorption  spectra. 
It  will  be  convenient  if  the  latter  are  considered  first. 

Absorption   Spectr-a. 
The  Infra-red  Region. 

Abney  (1880)  by  the  preparation  of  a  particularly  sensitive 
form  of  collodion  emulsion  containing  silver  bromide  was 
successful  in  obtaining  very  extraordinary  results.  Such 
films  as  he  prepared  were  so  sensitive  to  invisible  radiations 
of  long  wave-length  as  to  be  capable  of  forming  a  repre- 
sentation of  even  a  kettle  of  boiling  water,  standing  in  an 
absolutely  dark  room.  This  picture  could  not  of  course 
be  properly  referred  to  as  a  photograph,  though  the  process 
by  which  it  was  obtained  was  such  as  we  are  accustomed 
to  term  a  photographic  process.  It  may  with  greater 
propriety  be  termed  an  actinograph,  the  result  not  of  light, 
but  of  dark  rays.  The  least  refrangible  of  the  visible  rays 
lies^about  wave-length  7800  ten-millionths  of  a  millimetre, 
or  Angstrom  units ;  but  these  rays  extend  as  far  as  wave- 
length 12,000,  while  Becquerel  has  measured  lines  in  the 
spectra  of  metals  of  as  low  a  refrangibility  as  wave-length 
18,000. 

Abney  and  Festing  (1881)  investigated  the  influence  of 
atomic  groupings  in  the  molecules  of  organic  substances 
by  measuring  their  absorption  in  the  infra-red  region  of  the 
spectrum. 

They  studied  such  simply  constituted  substances  as  water, 
hydrochloric  acid,  chloroform,  carbon  tetrachloride,  and 
cyanogen,  besides  many  hydrocarbons  with  their  hydroxyl, 
haloid,  and  carboxyl  derivatives.  Characteristic  groups  of 
lines  or  very  narrow  bands  were  observed  in  carbon  com- 
pounds, but  they  are  absent  from  carbon  compounds  con- 
taining no  hydrogen,  and  do  not  all  appear  in  some  of  the 
hydrogen  compounds.  The  facts  observed  led  to  the  con- 
clusion that  they  belonged  to  hydrogen,  but  are  subject  to 
some  occasional  modifications.  Oxygen  in  hydroxyl,  for 
instance,  modifies  two  of  the  lines,  since  it  obliterates  by 
absorption  the  rays  which  lie  between  them.  Oxygen  in 
aldehyde,  or  when  it  forms  part  of  the  carbon  nucleus  of 
some  such  compound,  presents  bands  which  are  bounded 
by  well-defined  lines,  or  are  inclined  to  be  linear.  These 
appear  to  be  characteristic  bands  indicating  the  carbon 
nucleus  of  a  series  of  substances.  Alkyl  radicals,  such  as 
ethyl,  exhibit  absorption  bands,  and  so  does  the  benzene 
nucleus.  It  is  a  remarkable  fact  that  bands  appear  in  the 
solar  spectrum  which  correspond  with  those  of  benzene 
(1881). 

Julius  (1803)  has  investigated  the  absorption  in  the  infra- 
red caused  by  many  carbon  compounds  by  means  of  the 
bolometer,  combined  with  a  prism,  and  also  with  a  diffrac- 
tion grating.  He  showed  that  the  molecules  of  compound 
substances  absorbed  the  rays  which  were  emitted  at  the 
time  of  their  formation.  Thus,  to  take  the  simplest  case, 
tha  emission  spectrum  of  hydrogen  burning  in  air  corre- 
sponds with  the  absorption  bands  of  water  vapour,  that  is 
to  say,  the  absorption  spectra  of  the  compounds  are  the 
counterpart  of  the  emission  spectra  of  the  flames  which 
yield  these  compounds  during  combustion.  The  emission 
spectrum  of  carbon  dioxide  is  found  in  the  spectrum  of 
burning  carbon  monoxide,  cyanogen,  methane,  and  carbon 
disulphide ;  and  that  of  water-vapour  in  various  hydro- 
carbons. As  early  as  1888  Julius,  in  an  Inaugural  Disser- 
tation, quoting  Tyndall,  recognised  that  the  absorption  and 
emission  of  rays  measured  with  the  thermopile  were  mani- 
festations of  the  molecular  vibrations. 

The  various  absorption  spectra  examined  included  those 
of    the    alcohols,    such    as    isopentylic,    isobutylic,    normal 


butylic,  propyljc,  ethylic,  and  methylic,  as  well  as  hydro- 
carbons, chloroform,  and  benzene.  The  study  of  the 
maxima  of  radiation  and  the  maxima  of  absorption  offers 
us  a  means  of  arriving  at  a  knowledge  of  a  series  of  new 
and  valuable  physical  constants,  namely,  the  vibration 
periods  characteristic  of  the  molecules.  (Tyndall  discussed 
this  subject  in  his  usually  luminous  style  on  pp.  391  to  402 
of  his  work  "  Heat  as  a  Mode  of  Motion.") 

Puccianti  (1900)  has  examined  the  infra-red  absorption 
spectra  of  liquids,  including  aromatic  compounds  and  alkyl 
derivatives,  while  Donath  has  examined  in  the  same  region 
various  essential  oils.  Carbon  conibined  with  hydrogen 
shows  a  maximum  of  absorption  with  a  wave-length  about 
(1-71  n  mm.)  17,100  -  ngstrom  units. 

Benzene  and  pyridine  have  two  other  maxima  of  absorp- 
tion in  common.  The  alcohols  have  very  similar  maxima 
of  absorption  at  wave-length  21,000. 

The  three  isomeric  xylenes  show  absorption  spectra  which 
are  almost  identical.  At  or  about  wave-length  23,200 
another  maximum  of  absorption  is  shown. 

Julius  refers  to  Langley's  observation  that  at  a  wave- 
length of  27,000  there  is  an  abrupt  termination  to  the  solar 
spectrum,  probably  caused  by  the  water  vapour  in  the  atmo- 
sphere ;  but  a  band  extends  to  273,000,  and  at  no  very 
great  elevation  above  the  earth's  surface  there  are  rays  with 
a  wave-length  of  45,700  Angstrom  units.  All  radiations  of 
longer  wave-length — and  Julius  has  measured  down  to 
149,000  Angstrom  units — are  likely  to  be  absorbed  by  the 
carbon  dioxide  in  the  atmosphere. 

The  Visible  Rays  or  Colour  Region. 

J.  L.  Schonn  (1879)  examined  the  absorption  spectra  of 
substances  usually  considered  to  be  colourless  in  layers 
from  1-6  to  37  metres  in  thickness  and  observed  narrow 
bands  in  the  spectra  of  methyl,  ethyl,  and  amyl  alcohol, 
lying  in  the  red,  orange,  and  yellow  ;  methyl  alcohol  showed 
two  bands,  ethyl  and  amyl  alcohol  each  three.  Gerard 
Kriiss  (i888)  calculated  the  wave-lengths  of  these  bands, 
and  it  appears  that  the  higher  members  of  the  homologous 
scries  have  the  bands  displaced  towards  the  red  end  of  the 
spectrum.  Russell  and  Lapraik  (1879)  made  similar  observ- 
ations on  columns  of  liquid  from  two  to  eight  feet  in  length. 
All  the  substances  gave  well-defined  absorption  bands  lying 
between  wave-lengths  6000  and  7000. 

The  bands  of  the  different  substances  differed  altogether 
from  the  bands  of  water.  Alcohols  give  a  band  which  is 
similar  in  different  alcohols,  but  the  higher  the  alcohol 
stands  in  the  homologous  series,  that  is  to  say,  the  larger 
the  number  of  carbon  atoms  it  contains,  the  nearer  is  the 
band  to  the  red  end  of  the  spectrum  (1881). 

It  was  definitely  established  that  for  each  CH,  introduced 
into  a  molecule  of  ammonia  or  benzene  there  is  a  shifting 
of  the  absorption  bands  towards  the  red  end  of  the 
spectrum. 

It  will,  of  course,  be  understood  that  the  liquids  examined 
were  perfectly  colourless  in  the  ordinary  acceptation  of  the 
term  ;  and  that  they  appear  so  is  owing  to  the  bands  of 
absorption  being  very  narrow,  so  that  the  percentage  of 
luminous  rays  withdrawn  by  absorption  is  but  a  very  small 
fraction  of  the  whole  spectrum  emitted  by  a  source  of  light 
when  viewed  under  ordinary  conditions. 

Numerous  observations  were  made  by  Melde.  Burger, 
Magnus,  H.  W.  Vogel,  and  Landauer  (1876-78),  which 
showed  that  changes  in  the  absorption  spectra  of  solutions 
a-e  partly  physical  and  partly  chemical,  that  is  to  say,  they 
a-e  caused  by  changes  in  the  constitution  of  the  solution. 
Vogel  mentions  cases  where  no  chemical  change  was 
believed  to  take  place,  as,  for  instance,  where  naphthalene 
red  shows  different  spectra  according  to  whether  it  is  dis- 
solved in  alcohol,  water,  resin,  or  is  solid  or  used  to  colour 
paper  (1878). 

This  points  to  some  difference  in  the  constitution  of  the 
solution.  A  well-known  instance  is  that  of  iodine  in 
alcohol,  chloroform,  or  carbon  disulphide. 

It  must  be  observed  that  Vogel 's  work  referred  merely 
to  phenomena  observable  in  the  visible  spectrum,  to  small 
thicknesses  of  the  absorbing  medium,  and  was  not  applied 
quantitatively.  Two  solutions  may  give  spectra  which  are 
apparently  identical  at  one  concentration,  but  spectra  quite 
different  when  submitted  to  varying  degrees  of  dilution. 

In  order  to  ascertain  in  what  way  absorption  spectra  are 


NO.     1768,  VOL.  68] 


474 


NATURE 


[September  17,  1903 


related  to  the  chemical  constitution  of  organic  substances, 
it  is  necessary  to  examine  a  wider  range  of  spectrum  than 
that  included  in  the  merely  visible  region,  and  this  may 
be  done  by  extending  the  observations  into  the  ultra-violet. 

The  Ultra-violet  Region. 
Stokes  in  preparing  his  experiments  for  a  Friday  evening 
discourse  at  the  Royal  Institution  observed  that  the  spec- 
trum of  electric  light  when  a  prism  and  lenses  of  quartz 
were  used  extended  no  less  than  six  or  eight  times  the 
length  of  the  visible  spectrum.  In  1862  he  studied  the 
ultra-violet  spectra  of  metals  and  executed  drawings  of  the 
lines  exhibited  by  aluminium,  zinc,  and  cadmium.  He 
discovered  the  fact  that  certain  solutions  show  light  and 
dark  bands  in  the  spectrum  of  rays  transmitted  by  them, 
the  solutions  being  colourless ;  the  bands  are  invisible  unless 
they  fall  on  a  fluorescent  screen.  It  was  under  such  con- 
ditions that  they  exhibited  light  and  darkness.  The  screen 
used  was  of  plaster  of  Paris  saturated  with  a  fluorescent 
substance,  such  as  uranium  phosphate. 

William  Allen  Miller  in  1863,  simultaneously  with  Stokes, 
described  his  method  of  examining  the  photographic  trans- 
parency of  various  saline  solutions  and  organic  substances 
and  of  depicting  metallic  spectra.  A  sensitised  photographic 
plate  was  used  for  the  reception  of  the  rays  of  the  spectrum, 
so  that  they  were  made  to  register  their  own  position  and 
intensity.  L.  Soret  invented  the  fluorescent  eye-piece  for 
the  purpose  of  investigating  the  ultra-violet  rays  and  ascer- 
tained the  best  media  for  the  transmission  of  rays  of  high 
refrangibility.  Colourless  fluor-spar,  a  rare  mineral,  was 
found  to  answer  best,  and  quartz  lenses  were  achromatised 
with  this.  Iceland  spar  was  found  to  absorb  some  of  the 
more  refrangible  rays,  and  a  pure  spectrum  was  difficult  to 
obtain  with  quartz  prisms  owing  to  double  refraction,  which 
caused  the  lines  in  metallic  spectra'  to  be  duplicated. 
Struck  by  the  fact  that  Miller  had  examined  many  organic 
substances  without  obtaining  evidence  of  a  connection 
between  their  constitution  and  their  absorption  spectra — 
the  actual  words  used  by  Miller  were,  "  I  have  not  been 
able  to  trace  any  special  connection  between  the  chemical 
complexity  of  a  substance  and  its  diactinic  power  "  (Journ. 
Chem.  Sac,  vol.  xi.  p.  68) — it  appeared  to  me  desirable 
that  this  point  should  be  systematically  reinvestigated. 
L.  Soret  had  already  proceeded  with  work  in  this  direction, 
by  examining  and  drawing  a  great  variety  of  organic  sub- 
stances and  diagrams  of  absorption  curves.  But  it  was 
deemed  necessary  to  make  a  large  number  of  examinations 
of  substances  of  a  comparatively  simple  constitution,  and 
according  to  theory  closely  related,  and  afterwards  gradually 
to  proceed  to  the  study  of  substances  of  greater  complexity. 
For  such  purposes  a  photographic  method  alone  appeared 
a  practicable  one,  particularly  when  comparisons  had  to  be 
made  between  substances  observed  at  diff'erent  times,  for 
the  reason  that  none  but  photographic  records  could  be 
absolutely  relied  upon  and  stored  away  for  future  reference.^ 

^  Clerk  Maxwell  had  calculated  for  Miller  the  best  focal  length  of  lenses 
of  quartz  which  would  give  an  approximately  flat  field.  His  computation 
made  this  something  over  a  leng'h  of  three  feet.  All  Miller's  photographs 
were  taken  with  the  plate  placed  normal  f.  the  axis  of  the  lens,  but  Stokes 
bad.  shown  that  the  locus  of  the  foci  of  the  difl^erent  rays  formed  an  arc  of 
a  curve  or  nearly  a  straight  line,  lying  very  obliquely  to  the  axes  of  the 
pencils  coming  through  the  lens. 

It  was  obvious  from  Miller's  pho'ographs  that  only  one  or  two  rays  on 
each  plate  were  even  approximately  in  focus.  To  obtain  spectra  in  focus 
from  end  to  end  it  was  evidenth  necessary  to  incline  the  plate  so  that  the 
end  ijpon  which  the  red  rays  would  fall,  which  are  of  longest  wave-leng'h, 
should  be  farther  off  than  that  upon  which  the  ultra-violet  fall,  which  are  of 
shortest  wave-length.  It  w.asalsn  found  experimentally  that  lenses  of  much 
shorter  focal  length  (ten  or  twelve  inches)  could  be  used,  giving  perfect 
definition,  and,  what  is  still  more  important,  it  was  found  a  po.sitive 
advantage  not  to  have  them  corrected  by  fluor-spar  or  calcite.  The  plate 
carrier  was  adjusted  at  an  inclination  of  approximately  22°  to  the  normal  ; 
in  such  a  position  the  rays  from  the  vellow  sodium  I'ne  to  the  ext>eme  ultra- 
violet of  the  spark  spectrum  of  cadmium  were  simultaneously  in  focus  on  a 
plane  surface. 

The  prism  was  of  quartz  cut  on  Cornu's  plan,  the  method  of  construction 
designed  to  get  rid  of  all  double  refraction  being  communicated  to  me  by 
M.  Lornu  in  a  very  kindly  written  letter.  The  first  instrument  was  con- 
structed in  1878  and  the  description  of  it  published  in  i88i.  It  has  been  the 
model  for  several  others.  One  with  two  prisms  and  lenses  of  12  inches 
focus  was  exhibited  by  me  in  the  Inventions  Exhibition  in  1882.  At  the 
Jubilee  meeting  of  the  British  Association  at  York  the  .spark  spectra  of 
iron,  cobalt,  and  nickel,  enlarged  1 1  twenty-five  diameters  and  printed  by  the 
Autotype  Company,  were  exhibited.  They  are  more  than  8  leet  in  length, 
and  have  proved  very  useful  for  reference.  1  he  photographic  proc»ss  is  a 
point  of  great  importance  ;  the  then  newly  invented  gelatine  bromide  films 
made  by  Kennet  were  alone  quite  suitable. 


NO.  1768,  VOL.  68] 


The  plan  of  the  proposed  investigation  was  to  photograph 
the  rays  transmitted  by  molecular  proportions  of  hydro- 
carbons, alcohols,  acids,  and  esters,  either  alone  as  vapour 
or  liquid,  or  dissolved  in  some  neutral  and,  in  comparison 
with  the  substances  to  be  examined,  an  optically  non- 
absorbent  solvent. 

It  was  considered  that  the  metameric  esters  would  afford 
much  information  if  a  sufficient  number  of  them  were 
examined  and  their  spectra  compared,  and  if  the  acids 
themselves  were  not  responsive  the  sodium  and  potassium 
salts  in  solution  would  serve  the  purpose,  since  the  alkalies 
did  not  affect  the  spectrum.  The  general  deductions  (1879) 
are  now  well  known,  but  two  points  not  generally  taken 
into  account  were  well  established.  First,  the  extraordinary 
delicacy  of  the  ultra-violet  spectrum  in  detecting  traces  of 
im.purities.  For  instance,  pyridine,  an  invariable  impurity 
in  commercial  ammonia,  is  present  in  the  proportion  of 
about  I /30000th.  It  was  proved  that  the  absorption  spectra 
of  the  normal  paraffins  prepared  with  the  greatest  care  by 
Schorlemmer  contained  traces  of  impurities  which  could  not 
be  separated.  Secondly,  some  of  the  normal  alcohols  could 
not  be  rendered  pure  by  the  ordinary  methods  employed,  and 
great  care  was  necessary  in  their  preparation.  It  may  well 
be  asked  that,  if  such  were  the  case,  upon  what  grounds 
was  it  concluded  that  impurities  were  present?  How  was 
it  possible  to  distinguish  between  a  normal  and  an  abnormal 
absorption  spectrum  when  no  standards  of  comparison 
existed?  It  may  be  of  interest  if  this  question  be  now 
answered,  as  no  adequate  account  of  it  has  been  made 
public.  All  the  substances  in  any  one  homologous  series 
were  shown  to  vary  in  the  extent  to  which  the  rays  at  the 
more  refrangible  end  of  the  spectrum  were  absorbed,  and 
the  different  terms  of  the  series  differ  solely  by  the  number 
of  CH,  groups  in  the  molecule  ;  and  the  greater  the  number 
of  these  the  greater  the  absorption.  The  extent  of  the 
absorption  should  be  proportional  to  the  molecular  weight 
of  the  substance.  Accordingly  if  repeatedly  purifying  and 
fractionally  distilling  a  considerable  quantity  of  materia! 
failed  to  give  spectra  which  were  constant  and  identical, 
but  gave  instead  spectra  which  were  variable,  even  in  a 
slight  degree,  it  was  evident  that  the  absorption  due  to  the 
molecule  of  the  substance  was  interfered  with  by  some 
impurity. 

When,  however,  it  became  evident  that  successive  quanti- 
ties of  methylic  alcohol,  for  example,  prepared  in  a  certain 
manner  yielded  spectra  which  were  practically  identical  under 
different  conditions,  such  as  thickness  of  liquid,  and  that 
they  differed  but  slightly  from  that  of  pure  water  after  the 
type  of  which  the  alcohol  is  constituted,  the  conclusion  was 
inevitable  that  we  were  dealing  with  a  pure  preparation. 
In  short,  the  longest  spectrum  obtained  in  all  circum- 
stances and  under  every  reasonable  condition  could  not 
possibly  be  the  result  of  accident,  more  particularly  if  it 
could  be  repeatedly  obtained  from  different  speciinens  of 
the  same  substance.  The  same  reasoning  applies  to  the 
acids  and  their  salts  in  the  investigation  of  which  similar 
difficulties  arose. 

Soret  and  Rilliet  pointed  out  that  in  the  rectification  and 
prolonged  desiccation  of  the  alcohols  there  is  often  slight 
oxidation  which  leads  to  the  production  of  impurities  which 
affect  the  spectra  transmitted  by  them. 

They  found  that  ethyl  alcohol  is  not  appreciably  less 
diactinic  than  methyl  alcohol,  and  both  transmitted  a  spec- 
trum nearly  as  long  as  that  of  water.  This  was  shown  by 
Huntington  and  me  when  the  usual  25  mm.  of  thickness  of 
the  layer  of  liquid  were  tested.  By  taking  columns  of 
liquid  100  mm.  in  length  the  differences  are  greater,  and 
they  increase  with  columns  of  increased  length. 

The  influence  of  each  additional  CH^  in  the  molecule 
causes  a  shortening  of  the  spectrum.  This  was  shown  to 
be  due  to  the  carbon  atoms  and  not  to  the  hydrogen.  The 
acids,  containing  the  same  number  of  carbon  atoms  as  the 
alcohols,  have  a  much  greater  absorptive  power,  which  is 
due  to  the  carboxyl  group  (C  :  O  ■  OH).  By  the  examin- 
ation of  a  number  of  various  substances,  such  as  poly- 
hydric  alcohols,  as  glycol,  glycerol,  mannitol,  and  various 
sugars,  it  was  found  that,  no  matter  what  its  complexity, 
m)  open-chain  compound  causes  selective  absorption,  i.e. 
absorption  bands. 

Shortly  it  may  be  stated  that  in  the  examination  of 
organic  substances  we  have  three  variations  in  absorption 


September  17,  1903] 


NATURE 


475 


spectra  :  First,  those  of  substances  the  rays  of  which  are 
freely  transmitted,  the  absorption  being  at  the  more  re- 
frangible end  of  the  spectrum,  and  the  spectrum  of  which 
is  readily  increased  in  length  by  dilution  ;  secondly,  those 
in  which  the  spectra  are  of  the  same  kind,  but  the  absorptive 
power  is  greater,  so  that  they  withstand  dilution  to  a  much 
greater  extent ;  thirdly,  those  spectra  which  exhibit  selective 
absorption,  and  which  at  the  same  time  exert  great  absorp- 
tive power,  or,  in  other  words,  can  undergo  great  dilution 
before  the  absorption  bands  are  rendered  visible,  and  still 
further  dilution  before  they  are  extinguished  or  obliterated. 

Spectra  of  the  First  Variety  belong  to  substances  which 
are  constructed  on  an  open  chain  of  carbon  atoms,  thus  : 
CCCCC   or   C=C.CC.C    and    C  =  CC.C.C. 

The  introduction  in  place  of  one  or  more  atoms  of 
hvdrogen — of  hvdroxyl,  OH,  carboxyl,  COOH,  methoxyl, 
dCHj,  CO,  COH,  or  NH,,  or  of  side  chains  such  as  CH,, 
CjHj,  &c. — does  not  affect  the  character  of  the  spectra,  but 
merely  the  absorptive  power,  which  is  increased  when 
oxygen  or  an  oxygenated  radical  is  introduced. 

Spectra  of  the  Second  Variety  are  spectra  of  substances 
so  constituted  that  the  carbon  atoms  form  a  closed  chain. 
It  is  immaterial  whether  the  closed  chains  are  homocyclic 
or  heterocyclic  ;  thus  : — 


c — c 

c- 

— c 

c-c         c 
"             c 

N 

C      C 

1        1 
C      C 

0 

s 

\/ 

C 

Furfurane 

Thiophene 

Pyrrol     Diketohexamethy 

•   Piperidine 

ene  Hydro-aromatic 

compounds 

H 

N 

c 

C 

C 

/\ 

/l\ 

/-x 

/\ 

C      C 

1        1 

C  1  c 

1  c  1 

HC      CHa 

1        1 

C     c 

1  0  1 

N      N 

\l/ 

HC     CH2 

c  1  c 

\/ 

\/ 

\l/ 

C 

c 

C 
H 

c 

Cyanuric  Acid 

Camphor 

Bihydrobenzene 

Cineol 

They  possess  greater  absorptive  power  than  open-chain 
compounds,  but  do  not  exhibit  absorption  bands.  It  is 
manifestly  the  chain  or  ring  structure  of  the  compounds 
that  gives  them  greater  absorptive  power,  and  not  the 
number  of  carbon  atoms  in  the  molecules. 

Spectra  of  the  Third  Variety. — These  show  absorption 
bands,  and  the  substances  yielding  them  are  generally  con- 
stituted on  the  type  of  benzene,  naphthalene,  anthracene, 
phenanthrene,  &c.  ;  but  the  rings  may  be  either  homocyclic 
or  heterocyclic  without  the  character  of  the  spectra  being 
altered  ;  thus  : — 

C  C 

/\        /|\ 
C      C     C\.    j/C 

II      i     I  ^  '^  I 

II  •        I        I    _^   \^   I 

C      C     C^  ^C 
C  C 

Beniene      Benzene        Naphthalene    Pyridin*      Quinoline       Pyrazine 

If  we  say  that  the  compounds  which  are  homocyclic  are 
constituted  of  at  least  three  pairs  of  carbon  atoms  doubly 
linked,  which  are  themselves  singly  linked  together,  we 
may  make  use  of  the  formula  of  Kekuld  for  benzene  as  the 
simplest  e.xpression  of  their  constitution  ;  if  we  assume  that 
each  of  the  six  atoms  is  linked  to  at  least  other  two  atoms 
we  adopt  what  is  practically  the  prism  formula  of  Laden- 
burg,  or  the  same  idea  expressed  in  space  of  two 
dimensions.  It  is  difficult  to  express  the  physical  condition 
by  the  Armstrong-Baeyer  formula  or  centric  arrangement 
because  this  does  not  clearly  suggest  to  one's  mind  what 
is  manifestly  the  fact,  namely,  that  the  carbon  atoms  in 
the  nucleus  of  benzene  are  much  more  closely  condensed 
or  combined  together  than  those  of  the  hydroaromatic 
series.  This  condensed  condition  of  the  carbon  atoms  is 
evident    from    the    higher    molecular    refractive    energy    of 


aromatic  compounds  and  of  the  specific  refractive  energy 
of  the  carbon  in  such  combinations. 

Side  chains  such  as  do  not  exert  selective  absorption  hav* 
no  influence  on  the  character  of  the  spectra,  but  they  slightly 
increase  the  general  absorption. 

Heterocyclic  compounds  possess  greater  absorptive  power, 
both  as  regards  the  general  and  selective  absorption,  than 
those  which  are  homocyclic. 

The  point  which  I  particularly  desire  to  direct  attention 
to  here  is,  that  for  the  first  time  Kekul6's  remarkable 
benzene  theory  was  supported  by  definite  physical  measure- 
ments, and  the  closed-ring  formula  represented  a  veritable 
actuality. 

Of  Molecular  and  Intra-molecular  Vibrations. 

Johnstone  Stoney  was  the  first  to  show  that  the  cause 
of  the  interrupted  spectra  of  gases  is  to  be  referred  to  the 
motions  within  the  individual  molecules,  and  not  to  the 
irregular  journeys  or  encounters  of  the  molecules  with  each 
other;  and  this  applies  to  the  absorption  as  well  as  to 
emission  spectra.  He  further  advised  the  use  of  oscillation 
frequencies  instead  of  wave-lengths  in  describing  the 
measurements  of  spectra.  Johnstone  Stoney  and  Emerson 
Reynolds  subsequently  examined  the  extraordinary  absorp- 
tion exhibited  by  chlorochromic  anhydride,  the  bands  in 
which  are  evidently  harmonically  related. 

It  has  already  been  shown  that  the  hydrocarbons  of  the 
aromatic  series  exert  two  kinds  of  absorption,  a  general  and 
a  selective  absorption.  All  the  evidence  we  possess  warrants 
the  belief  that  the  general  absorption  is  caused  by  the 
motion  of  the  molecules,  while  the  selective  absorption  is- 
due  to  the  motion  within  the  molecules. 

When  the  molecule  of  a  substance  is  capable  of  vibr.ating 
synchronously  with  a  radiation,  the  ray  received  on  this 
siabstance  is  absorbed.  The  absorption  is  complete  if  the 
direction  of  the  vibration  of  the  molecule  and  of  the  ray  is 
the  same  but  the  phase  opposite,  and  if  the  number  of 
molecules  in  the  path  of  the  rays  is  sufficient  to  damp  all 
the  vibrations. 

When  the  quantity  of  substance  in  the  path  of  the  rays 
is  reduced,  the  number  of  molecules  present  is  not  sufficient 
to  damp  all  the  vibrations  and  some  of  the  rays  are  trans- 
mitted. If,  however,  certain  carbon  atoms  within  the 
molecule  are  vibrating  synchronously  with  certain  rays,  we 
shall  have  selective  absorption  of  these  rays  after  the  general 
absorption  has  been  so  weakened  by  dilution  or  otherwise 
as  to  allow  them  to  pass. 

It  is  evident,  then,  that  general  absorption  exerted  by 
carbon  compounds  is  due  to  the  vibration  of  the  molecules 
because  the  absorption  increases  with  the  number  of 
carbon  atoms  in  the  molecule;  or,  in  other  words,  in  any 
homologous  series  the  greater  the  molecular  mass  the  lower 
the  rate  of  vibration  of  the  molecule. 

It  has  not  been  found  possible  to. .associate  any  of  the 
absorption  bands  of  the  substances  examined  with  any 
particular  carbon  atoms ;  but  the  bands  in'  benzene  are  six 
in  number,  or  the  same  in  number  as  the  carbon  atoms. 
It  has,  however,  been  showrt  that  the  rapidity  of  the  intra- 
molecular vibrations  was  dependent  upon  the  rate  of  vibra- 
tion of  the  molecules.  From  numbers  representing  approxi- 
mately the  mean  wave-lengths  of  the  four  chief  bands  of 
rays  absorbed  by  benzene,  naphthalene,  and  anthracene, 
and  from  the  velocity  of  light,  the  mean  rate  of  the  vibra- 
tions within  the  rnolecules  was  calculated  (iS8i),  the 
numbers  being  as  follows  : — 

•  Molecular 
Vibr.itions 
1248" 


Benzene 

Naphthalene 

Anthracene 


"77 
.910' 


The  mean  rate  of  vibration  of  the  rays  absorbed  by 
naphthalene  is  less  than  that  absorbed  by  benzene,  and 
those  of  anthracene  less  than  those  of  naphthalene.  It 
follows  from  this  that  the  vibrations  within  the  molecules 
are  not  independent,  but  are  a  consequertce,  of  the  fuxjda- 
mental  molecular  vibrations,  like  the  harmonics  'of  a 
stretched  string  or  of, a  bell. 

The  term  absorptive  power  has  generally  been  used  with 
respect  to  the  extent  of  rays  of  the  spectrum  absorbed;  hut 
there  is  intensity  of  absorption  to  be  considered.  In  the 
case  of  a  vibrating  string  or  tuning-fork  greater  amplitude 


NO.   1768,  VOL.  68] 


476 


NATURE 


[September  17,  1903 


of  vibration  means  a  louder  note ;  in  the  case  of  molecules 
greater  intensity  of  absorption  may  be  caused  by  a  greater 
amplitude  of  vibration  in  the  molecules  of  the  absorbing 
medium,  the  number  of  molecules  being  constant.  But  by 
greater  amplitude  it  is  not  .to  be  understood  that  the  rate 
of  vibration  is  increased. 

If  this  be  so  then,  as  the  absorption  intensity  of  anthracene 
and  naphthalene  is,  molecule  for  molecule,  greater  than 
that  of  benzene,  the  amplitude  of  vibration  of  the  molecules 
of  these  substances  is  greater,  but  the  rate  of  vibration  is 
slower. 

From  the  foregoing  it  will  be  observed  that  where  \  is 
the  wave-length  i/A.  is  the  inverse  wave-length,  omitting 
the  correction  for  the  refraction  of  air  which  is  a  very 
small  value,  it  is  the  oscillation  frequency  of  the  ether  in 
a  small  unit  of  time,  and  the  most  convenient  measurement 
for  use  in  describing  spectra.  Seven  years  after  the  publica- 
tion of  these  views  Gerard  Kriiss  (1888)  dealt  with  the 
subject  of  coloured  substances  in  a  similar  manner.  From 
the  undulatory  theory  of  light,  deductions  may  be  drawn 
regarding  the  inner  molecular  movements  or  inter-atomic 
movements  within  the  molecules,  inasmuch  as,  the  vibra- 
tions of  the  ether,  which  fills  the  intra-molecular  space, 
are  a  resultant  within  that  space  of  the  velocity  and  ampli- 
tude of  the  molecular  vibrations. 

Thus,  if  \  be  the  wave-length  of  a  ray  emitted  by  a 
substance,  and  v  the  velocity  of  light,  the  number  of  vibra- 
tions, n,  which  a  molecule  sends  forth  by  movements  of  it 
as  a  whole  and  of  its  parts  can  be  determined  by  the  equation 
n  —  vjX. 

G.  Kriiss  made  a  series  of  calculations  for  coloured  sub- 
stances similar  to  those  which  I  had  made  for  colourless 
substances  and  for  ozone. 

Curves  of  Molecular  Vibrations. 

Observations  on  absorption  spectra  should,  whenever  it 
is  possible,  be  made  with  reference  to  the  quantity  of  sub- 
■stance  which  produces  a  given  measurable  effect.  A 
molecular  weight  in  milligrams  or  a  milligram-molecule  is 
a  convenient  quantity  which  may  be  dissolved  in  20  c.c, 
40  c.c,  or  lOQ  c.c.  of  any  non-absorbent  liquid,  and  observed 
through  thicknesses  of  the  solution  varying  from  25  mm. 
to  I  mm.  in  thickness.  When  a  series  of  photographs  has 
been  measured  a  curve  is  plotted,  which  shows  the  general 
and  the  selective  absorption  of  the  substance.  The  oscilla- 
tion frequencies  of  the  absorbed  rays  are  taken  as  abscissze, 
and  the  proportional  thickness  in  millimetres  of  the  weakest 
of  a  series  of  solutions  as  ordinates.  The  curves  are  as 
often  as  possible  made  continuous,  and  they  are  called 
curves  of  molecular  vibrations. 

The  curves  of  the  molecular  vibrations  present  very 
striking  features :  they  are  valuable  physical  constants 
which  enable  one  to  classify  and  identify  substances. 

Position  Isomerism. 

Isomerides  of  the  ortho-,  meta-,  and  /lara-positions  in 
aromatic  substances  yield  spectra  with  the  absorption  bands, 
differing  in  position,  in  width,  and  in  intensity.  There 
js  no  distinguishing  character  to  be  observed  in  the  different 
isomerides.  Isomerism  in  the  pyridine,  quinoline,  and 
naphthalene  derivatives  has  not  yet  been  completely  studied. 
In  such  cases  as  have  already  passed  under  review  there 
is  nothing  that  indicates  the  positions  of  the  substituted 
hydrogens. 

Stereo-isomerism. 

Where  isomerism  is  not  due  to  di'fferences  in  structure, 
but  simply  to  the  distribution  of  the  atoms  in  space,  we  have 
no  means  of  distinguishing  isomeric  substances  from  an 
examination  of  their  spectra ;  for  instance,  benz-syn- 
aldoxime  and  benz-an<i-aldoxime  yield  curves  of  molecular 
vibrations  which  are  identical. 

Tautomerism. 

The  possibility,  of  an  atom  of  hydrogen  occupying  alter- 
native positions  in  a  compound 

(NH-C:0:|:N  :C-OH) 

so  that  it  may  be  united  to  an  atom  of  nitrogen  or  of 
carbon  in  one  instance,  or  to  an  atom  of  oxygen  in  another, 


NO.    1768,  VOL.  68] 


easily  gives  rise  to  substances  with  different  characters, 
the  one  that  of  a  phenol,  the  other  that  of  a  ketone.  One 
interpretation  of  the  facts  observed  which  has  been  very 
commonly  received  may  be  stated  thus.  Certain  compounds 
have  in  their  constitution  an  atom  of  hydrogen  of  a  "  roving 
disposition  "  which  at  one  time  will  attach  itself  to  an 
atom  of  oxygen,  or  to  an  atom  of  nitrogen,  and  anon  it 
will  forsake  one  of  these  and  unite  itself  to  an  atom  of 
carbon.  The  consequence  of  this  "  instability  of  character  " 
is  that  when  a  derivative  of  the  compound  is  being  pre- 
pared or  sought  for  by  a  chemical  process,  which  according 
to  all  previous  knowledge  ought  to  yield  it,  the  substance 
brought  forth  is  of  a  different  class,  but  withal  of  the  same 
composition;  it  is,  in  fact,  an  isomeride. 

According  to  another  theory,  the  two  isomeric  derivatives 
of  the  parent  substance  are  present  in  equal  proportions  in 
a  solution  in  a  state  of  equilibrium,  and  upon  crystallisation 
one  or  other  of  these  assumes  the  solid  form.  Taking  those 
cases  where  a  substance  has  a  constitution  which  it  is 
believed  has  been  correctly  ascertained  by  chemical  re- 
actions, and  which  yields  two  isomeric  alkyl  derivatives,  it 
becomes  a  question  as  to  which  of  these  the  parent  sub- 
stance has  directly  given  birth  to.  The  evidence  from 
chemical  reactions  has  in  many  cases  failed  to  give  a  satis- 
factory answer,  but  the  curves  of  molecular  vibrations  of 
such  substances  afford  the  desired  information  concerning 
the  relationship  of  their  constitution  to  that  of  their  re- 
spective derivatives. 

Most  convincing  evidence  has  been  afforded  by  observ- 
ations on  their  spectra,  that  several  of  the  parent  substances 
are  really  not  what  they  seem  to  be. 

Thus,  isatin  and  methyl  pseudo-isatin  yield  curves  which 
are  almost  identical,  the  sole  difference  between  them  being 
due  to  the  substitution  of  the  alkyl  radical  for  hydrogen, 
the  nature  of  which  difference  might  have  been  predicted. 

Clearly  the  parent  substance  and  the  pseudo-derivative 
are  of  the  same  nature  and  constitution. 

Carbostyril  and  methyl-pseudo-carbostyril,  o-oxycarbanil 
and  its  ethyl  ether,  obtained  by  boiling  with  potash  and 
ethyl  iodide,  are  also  similarly  related,  and  they  possess  the 
ketonic  or  lactam  structure. 

On  the  other  hand  methylisatin,  carbostyril,  and  the  other 
ether  of  o-oxycarbanil  yield  curves  which  are  essentially 
different  from  the  foregoing,  and  are  enolic  or  of  the  lactim 
type.  Generally  speaking,  the  ketonic  are  more  stable  than 
the  enolic  forms.  Dibenzoyl-methane  is  ketonic,  and  the 
tautomeric  substance  oxybenzal-acetophenone  is  enolic,  and 
in  this  instance  the  enolic  form  is  that  with  the  greatest 
stability.  The  two  substances  yield  different  curves,  and 
the  gradual  change  of  the  less  stable  into  the  more  stable 
form  can  be  traced  by  photographing  the  spectra  of  the 
solutions  at  intervals. 

I'he  ethyl  esters  of  dibenzoyl  succinic  acid  are  of  interest 
in  this  connection.  There  are  three  isomers  known  out  of 
the  thirteen  which  are  possible,  and  the  spectra  of  these 
have  been  studied.  Knorr  has  given  three  formulae  for 
what  he  designates  the  a,  /3,  and  7  esters.  Of  these  there 
are  two,  the  j3  and  7  forms,  which  give  identical  absorption 
curves :  they  are  of  the  ketonic  type,  and  structurally 
identical,  but  configuratively  different,  being  stereo- 
isomerides. 

The  curve  of  molecular  vibrations  of  the  a  ester  is  quite 
different  from  that  common  to  the  ;8  and  7  compounds. 
The  o  compound  is  of  the  enolic  type,  and  it  changes  spon- 
taneously at  ordinary  temperatures  into  the  ketonic,  thus 
showing  that  in  this  case  also  the  latter  is  the  more  stable^ 
The  transition  from  the  one  form  into  the  other  was  seen 
to  be  in  progress,  and  after  an  interval  of  only  three  hours 
the  absorption  band  of  the  enolic  ester  had  almost  entirely 
disappeared.  In  three  weeks  the  transformation  had  be- 
come complete,  as  was  shown  by  the  molecular  vibration 
curve  of  the  a  ester  being  almost  exactly  coincident  with 
that  of  the  j3  and  7  forms. 

Another  interesting  example  is  afforded  by  the  study  of 
phloroglucinol,  it  being  a  substance  with  a  constitution  of 
a  somewhat  doubtful  character,  for  owing  to  the  ambiguity 
of  its  behaviour  towards  chemical  reagents  it  is  impossible 
to  arrive  at  a  decision  from  chemical  evidence  whether  the 
oxygen  atoms  are  present  in  enolic  or  ketonic  groups. 
Towards  some  substances  it  behaves  as  a  phenol,  towards 
others  as  a  ketone.     The  doubt  also  presented  itself  as  to 


September  17,  1903] 


NATURE 


477 


•whether  phloroglucinol  from  various  sources  had  the  same 
constitution,  and,  further,  whether  there  might  not  be  two 
isomeric  forms  of  the  compound  present  in  equal  proportions 
in  a  solution  of  the  substance.  Specimens  of  phloroglucinol 
prepared  in  five  different  ways  from  different  materials  gave 
curves  of  molecular  vibrations  which  were  identical  :  this 
decided  the  question  absolutely ;  they  are  one  and  the  same 
substance.  If  the  constitution  of  the  substance  is  that  of 
a  trihydro.Kybenzene  or  phenol,  then  the  trimethyl  ether 
should  exhibit  an  absorption  curve  differing  but  slightly 
in  detail  from  that  of  the  parent  substance ;  and,  further- 
more, the  latter  should  exhibit  a  general  resemblance  to 
the  curves  of  pyrogallol  and  phenol.  This  was  found 
actually  to  be  the  case  in  both  particulars. 

Finally,  with  regard  to  tautomerism,  it  may  be  considered 
as  decided  that  no  evidence  has  been  obtained  based  upon 
either  physical  measurements  or  chemical  reactions  of,  first, 
the  presence  of  a  "  wandering  "  atom  of  hydrogen  as  a 
characteristic  of  compounds  which  exhibit  tautomerism ; 
secondly,  that  solutions  of  tautomeric  compounds  do  not 
contain  equal  quantities  of  the  two  substances,  or  enolic 
and  ketonic  forms  in  equilibrium,  and  that  if  both  are  pre- 
sent one  so  greatly  preponderates  over  the  other  that  no 
trace  of  any  but  the  one  compound  can  be  detected  ;  thirdly, 
it  has  been  observed  that  some  substances  do  change  spon- 
taneously from  one  form  to  another,  and  that  this  change 
sets  in  very  quickly  after  the  substance  has  been  dissolved  ; 
fourthly,  that  substances  change  from  one  form  to  another 
under  the  influence  of  different  reagents,  as,  for  instance, 
cotarnine,  as  Dobbie  and  Lauder  (1903)  have  shown,  in 
presence  of  methyl  alcohol  or  of  caustic  soda,  and  again  in 
presence  of  potassium  cyanide.  In  fact  it  appears  that 
under  the  influence  of  different  reagents  one  €«•  other  of  the 
two  compounds  is  the  more  stable,  and  the  more  stable 
substance  is  then  formed. 

A  reaction  is  recorded  in  the  researches  of  Emil  Fischer 
where  it  appears  that  two  tautomeric  forms  are  produced 
simultaneously  from  oxycaf6ine.  When  the  silver  salt  of 
this  substance  is  heated  with  methyl  iodide  it  yields  a 
mixture  of  tetramethyl  uric  acid  and  methoxycaf^ine,  the 
characteristic  groupings  in  which  are  —  NH  — CO—  and 
—  N  =  COH  — ,  the  hydrogens  being  methylated.  This  is  a 
singular  reaction  which  has  not  yet  been  studied  spectro- 
graphically. 


O 
C 

'CH,— n/^C— N 


OCl 


>co 


.C— N< 


N 
I 
CH, 

Tetramethyluric  Acid. 


XH, 


O 

c 

CH3— N'^'^C-N< 

OC.      .C— N^ 
N 
I 
CH, 


Methoxycaf^ine. 


.CH3 

^C— OCH3 


Ihe  Absorption  Spectra  of  Alkaloids. 

The  interest  attached  to  an  examination  of  the  absorption 
spectra  of  the  alkaloids  is  not  alone  the  fact  that  a  means 
of  recognising,  detecting,  and  estimating  such  substances 
was  devised,  but  still  more  that  we  may  learn  something 
of  their  chemical  constitution.  Many  of  the  poisonous 
alkaloids  give  no  distinctive  chemical  reactions,  and  in 
certain  cases  the  means  of  recognising  them  are  restricted 
to  observations  on  their  crystalline  form  and  their  physio- 
logical action.  The  physiological  action  of  certain  alkaloids 
of  an  extremely  deadly  character  is  remarkable  enough  to 
prove  a  means  of  their  identification  when  the  effect  on 
the  human  subject  is  under  observation.  The  first  experi- 
mental work  on  the  absorption  spectra  of  the  alkaloids 
arose  out  of  a  celebrated  trial  for  murder,  which  engaged 
much  attention  in  the  year  1882.  It  was  proved  that  the 
lethal  drug  administered  was  aconitine. 

To  identify  this  substance,  of  which  there  are  several 
varieties,  it  was  necessary  at  that  time  to  resort  to  physio- 
logical tests  made  upon  small  animals. 

Such  a  course  always  affords  an  opportunity  for  forensic 
arguments  based  upon  the  evidence  adduced.  To  substitute 
absolute  physical  measurements  for  physiological  tests 
seemed  to  present  facilities  for  securing  justice  by  removing 

NO.    1768,  VOL.  6H] 


any  doubt  of  the  identity  of  an  unknown  substance  with  the 
nature  of  one  which  is  known.  Alkaloids  yield  spectra  of 
two  kinds,  those  which  do  not  and  those  which  do  exhibit 
absorption  bands,  the  difference  between  the  two  classes  of 
substances  being  one  dependent  on  the  constitution  of  the 
nucleus  or  ultimate  radical  of  the  compound.  It  is  possible 
not  only  to  identify  substances,  but  also  to  determine  the 
quantity  present  in  a  mixture  or  solution,  and  this  has 
actually  been  done. 

Alkaloids  which  are  derived  from  benzenoid  hydrocarbons, 
pyridine,  quinoline,  or  phenanthrene  give  evidence  of  their 
origin  by  their  spectra.  It  is  therefore  advantageous  to 
make  a  careful  study  of  the  absorption  spectra  of  the  sub- 
stances themselves  and  of  the  various  products  derived  from 
them  when  studying  their  constitution.  It  was  remarked 
while  the  work  was  in  progress  that  the  quinine  spectrunri 
curve  was  probably  due  to  the  conjugation  of  four  pyridine 
or  two  quinoline  nuclei.  It  is  known  now  to  be  a 
substance  of  a  complicated  structure  containing  one 
quinoline  nucleus.  It  differs  from  cinchonine  only 
by  one  methoxyl  group  in  the  /)ara-position.  Observations 
made  on  simple  bases  differ  from  those  made  on  substitution 
products,  such  as  alkyl  derivatives,  in  this  respect,  that 
the  bases  are  the  more  diactinic,  while  addition  products, 
such  as  hydrogenised  compounds,  and  also  salts  of  the 
alkaloids  such  as  hydrochlorides,  are  more  diactinic  than 
the  simple  bases.  It  was  shown  by  the  researches  of  Alder 
Wright  that  different  preparations  of  aconitine  can  yield 
substances  slightly  differing  in  constitution.  On  examin- 
ing them  it  was  shown  that  these  preparations  yielded 
different  absorption  curves  the  variations  in  which  were 
due  to  differences  in  the  constitution  of  the  different  pre- 
parations. To  state  a  particular  case  of  a  well-defined 
character,  the  aconitine  from  aconitum  napellus  and  jap- 
aconitine  from  a  Japanese  aconite  prepared  by  Alder  Wright 
had  practically  the  same  absorption  spectrum  and  yielded 
similar  curves ;  but  that  of  japaconitine  was  just  what 
might  be  expected  from  a  substance  with  a  nucleus  of  a 
similar  constitution,  but  about  twice  the  molecular  weight 
of  aconitine ;  in  other  words,  a  condensation  of  two  mole- 
cules of  aconitine  into  one — namely,  what  was  observed  in 
the  spectra  of  morphine  and  apomorphine,.  a  much  greater 
absorptive  intensity  with  a  similar  absorption  curve. 

It  was  shown  that  japaconitine  has  a  constitution  modified 
in  such  a  manner;  it  being,  in  fact,  what  was  termed  by 
Alder  Wright  a  sesquiapoaconitine  ;  and  the  formulae  given 
for  these  substances  are  respectively  :  Aconitine, 
Cj^H^jNO,! ;  japaconitine,  CgeHgjNjOji,  which  is  in  agree- 
ment with  the  spectrum  observations.  It  has,  however, 
been  supposed  by  Freund  and  Beck  that  the  two  substances 
are  identical. 

Strychnine  and  brucine  are  two  alkaloids  evidently  closely 
related,  but  little  is  known  about  their  constitution  ;  both 
seem  to  contain  a  pyridine  nucleus  united  to  what  is  prob- 
ably a  pyrrolic  nucleus,  the  two  constituting  a  conjugated 
nucleus  resembling  that  of  quinoline.  The  difference 
between  brucine  and  strychnine  is  said  to  be  simply  that 
the  former  contains  two  methoxyls.  The  absorption  curves 
show  a  wider  difference  than  this,  and  it  was  predicted 
that  strychnine  appears  to  be  a  derivative  of  pyridine,  but 
brucine  is  more  probably  a  derivative  of  tetrahydroquinoline, 
or  an  addition  product  of  quinoline  of  the  same  character, 
since  there  is  a  remarkable  similarity  between  the  curves 
of  the  two  substances.  I  would  suggest  that  for  the  future 
evidence  from  their  spectra  be  taken  into  account  in  study- 
ing their  constitution. 

Stereo-isotnerism  in  the  Alkaloids. 
Many  alkaloids  having  the  same  formula  are  stereo- 
isomerides,  and  those  related  in  this  manner  exhibit  mole- 
cular absoi-ption  curves  which  are  identical.  The  following 
examples  are  quoted  by  Dobbie  and  Lauder  (1903)  as  the 
result  of  their  investigations  :  dextro-corydaline  and  inactive 
corydaline ;  narcotine  and  gnoscopine ;  tetrahydroberberine 
and  canadine.  Where  two  compounds  are  known  to  have 
the  same  formula,  and  one  of  these  is  optically  active,  the 
other  inactive,  it  may  be  inferred,  as  Dobbie  and  Lauder 
have  pointed  out,  that  they  are  not  optical  isomerides  if 
their  absorption  curves  are  different,;  thus  canadine  and 
papaverine  have  the  same  formula,  but  their  absorption 
curves  show  that  they  are  structurally  different. 


478 


NA  TURE 


[September  17,  1903 


It  is  a  general  rule  that  substances  which  agree  closely 
in  structure  exhibit  similar  series  of  absorption  spectra, 
while  those  which  differ  essentially  jn  structure  show 
absorption  curves  which  are  different ;  and  to  this  rule 
neither  aromatic  compounds,  alkaloids,  nor  dyes  and 
coloured  substances  form  any  exceptions.  That  this  is  so 
is  easily  understood  from  the  theory  of  absorption  spectra. 
It  must,  however,  be  distinctly  understood  that  the  essential 
feature  of  importance  in  all  such  investigations  is  the 
quantitative  relation  of  the  substance  to  its  spectra,  whether 
these  relations  are  based  upon  equal  weights  of  material 
or  equimolecular  proportions  in  solutions  of  given  volume 
and  thickness. 

The  relationship  of  morphine,  C,jH,,NO(OH)j,  and 
codeine,  or  methylmorphine,  C,,H„NO.(OH)(OCH3),  was 
shown  by  their  spectra,  the  latter  being  a  homologue  of  the 
former.  A  similar  instance  has  been  investigated  recently 
by  Dobbie  and  Lauder.  The  resemblance  between  the 
spectra  of  laudanine,  CjoH^^O^N,  and  laudanosine, 
CjjHjjOjN,  confirms  the  view  that  they  are  homologous 
bases.  The  close  agreement  of  their  absorption  curves 
with  those  of  corydaline  and  tetrahydropapaverine  clearly 
indicates  a  similarity  in  structure  to  that  of  these  alkaloids, 
but  the  relationship  of  laudanosine  to  corydaline  is  probably 
closer  than  to  tetrahydropapaverine,  and  may  be  best  ex- 
plained by  the  formulae 


C,,H„0,N-CH,+  H, 

Corydaline 


C„H„0,N 

Laudanosine 


The  removal  of  a  methyl  group  from  such  a  compound 
would  scarcely  cause  any  appreciable  change  in  the  curve 
of  molecular  vibrations,  and  very  many  cases  are  known 
where,  when  two  atoms  of  hydrogen  are  introduced  into  a 
compound  without  altering  the  close  linking  of  the  carbon 
atoms  of  the  ring  formation  in  the  compound,  the  alteration 
in  the  spectrum  is  insignificant. 

A  particularly  interesting  example  of  tautomerism  already 
mentioned  has  been  observed  by  Dobbie  and  Lauder  in 
studying  the  constitution  of  cotarnine,  a  substance  prepared 
from  narcotine.  Three  formulee  have  been  proposed  for  it  : 
one  represents  it  as  an  aromatic  aldehyde  in  which  one 
hydrogen  is  replaced  by  an  open  change  containing 
nitrogen  ;  a  second  gives  it  the  character  of  a  carbinol  base ; 
while  a  third"  that  of  an  ammonium  base.  It  has  been 
supposed  that  in  solution  it  is  a  mixture  of  two  or  all  three 
such  substances  in  a  state  of  equilibrium,  but  as  to  what 
is  the  formula  to  be  assigned  to  solid  cotarnine  the  data  are 
insufficient  to  determine.  There  are,  however,  two  different 
solutions  of  the  substance  obtainable ;  that  in  ether  or 
chloroform  is  quite  colourless,  like  the  solid  ;  but  a  solution 
in  water  or  alcohol  is  yellow.  From  the  molecular  absorp- 
tion spectra  of  these  solutions  and  of  certain  derivatives 
with  which  they  are  compared  there  is  very  distinct 
evidence  that  a  solution  in  alcohol  or  water  contains  the 
ammonium^  base,  while  under  the  influence  of  sodium 
hydroxide  it  assumes  the  condition  of  the  carbinol  form. 
Moreover,  the  rate  of  transformation  and  the  conditions 
which  influence  this  isomeric  change  have  been  studied. 
It  suffices  here  to  state  that  a  solution  containing  entirely 
the  one  form  may  be  converted  wholly  into  the  other. 

The  two  formulse  referred  to  are  given  below  : — 


/CH(0H).N.CH3 

^CH^ CH2 

Carbinol  Form 


GsHeOa^^^  \^^^     "   :JC3He03 


yCH  =  N(CH3).0H 

^CHj.CHs 
Ammonium  Base 


Emission  Spectra. 

Spark  Spectra  and  their  Constitution. 

As  it  became  necessary  to  make  accurate  measui-ements 
of  absorption  spectra  in  the  ultra-violet,  the  work  of  obtain- 
ing the  wave-lengths  of  lines  in  twenty  metallic  spectra 
was  undertaken.  They  were  for  the  most  part  in  a  region 
which,  except  in  the  case  of  two  or  three  elements,  had 
not  been  previously  explored.  A  small  Rutherford  grating 
was  employed,  combined  with  quartz  lenses  with  a  focal 
length  of  three  feet.  Experience  has  shown  that  it  was 
advisable  in  describing  these  spectra  to  give  measurements 
in  hundredths  of  an  inch  of  the  positions  of  the  lines  on  the 

NO.    1768,  VOL.  68] 


published  photographs  of  the  prismatic  spectra  in  the 
Journal  of  the  Chemical  Society  (March,  1882),  and  to 
follow  Lecocq  de  Boisbaudran  by  giving  a  description  of 
the  character  of  each  of  the  lines.  In  this  way  they  are 
easily  identified,  and  the  value  of  the  measurements  for 
practical  purposes  is  greatly  enhanced.  Prior  to  the 
publication  of  the  work  (1882),  in  the  prosecution  of  which 
Dr.  Adeney  was  associated  with  me,  Liveing  and  Dewar, 
who  had  been  engaged  on  a  similar  investigation,  but 
operating  in  a  different  manner,  published  an  account  of 
the  spectra  of  the  metals  of  the  alkalies  and  alkaline  earths, 
and  subsequently  the  lines  of  iron,  nickel,  and  cobalt.'  .They 
showed  a  rhythmic  grouping  of  the  lines  to  be  characteristic 
of  the  spectra  of  the  alkali  metals. 

In  connection  with  the  prismatic  spectra  which  were 
photographed  some  remarkable  facts  were  noticed ;  for 
instance,  the  character  of  the  lines  belonging  to  different 
groups  of  elements  was  a  noticeable  feature,  as  well  also 
their  disposition  or  arrangement,  more  particularly  in  the 
ultra-violet.  Similarities  in  the  visible  spectra  of  zinc  and 
cadmium,  of  calcium,  strontium,  and  barium,  and  in  those 
of  the  alkali  metals  had  been  observed  by  Mitscherlich,  by 
Lecocq  de  Boisbaudran,  and  also  by  Ciamician.  As  to  the 
grouping  of  the  lines  as  observed  on  the  photographs,  it 
appeared  that  the  spectra  of  well-defined  groups  of  elements 
had  characteristics  in  common  which  were  different  from 
those  of  other  groups.  For  instance,  the  alkali  metals 
differed  from  the  alkali  earth  metals  which  appeared  to 
form  a  group  by  themselves.  Then  in  marked  contrast  to 
these  simple  spectra  were  those  of  iron,  nickel,  and  cobalt, 
which  though  very  complicated  were  seen  to  be  much  alike. 
Nearest  to  these  but  differing  from  them  in  certain  respects 
were  the  palfadium,  gold,  and  platinum  spectra. 

It  was  observed  how  these  elements  with  certain  chemical 
and  physical  properties  in  common  could  be  recognised  as 
being  relations  owing  to  their  family  likeness  when  their 
spectra  were  photographed.  Then  it  was  remarked  that 
the  spectra  of  magnesium,  zinc,  and  cadmium,  had  dis- 
tinctive characters  in  common  ;  for  instance,  the  individual 
lines  in  these  spectra  were  marked  by  similar  character- 
istics, such  as  a  great  extension  of  the  strong  lines  above 
and  below  the  points  of  the  electrodes.  This  extension  was 
increased  with  the  atomic  mass  of  the  metal,  and  with  the 
greater  atomic  mass  in  this  group  the  volatility  of  the 
metal  is  also  greater.  An  arrangement  of  _  the  lines  in 
pairs  and  triplets  was  noticed,  the  triplets  being  repeated, 
but  less  distinctly  than  in  the  first  instance,  and  again 
repeated  sharply  but  less  strongly,  so  that  there  were  three 
different  sets  of  triplets  in  each  spectrum.  The  point  of 
greatest  interest  and  importance  was  the  connection  ,traced 
between  the  atomic  mass  and  the  numerical  differences 
observed  in  the  intervals  between  the  lines  of  different 
gioups  when  measured  by  their  oscillation  frequencies. 

These  differences  were  not  in  the  spectrum  of  one  element, 
but  were  in  the  lines  of  each  metal  of  the  group,  and  were 
clearly  associated  with  the  atomic  mass  and  chemical 
pioperties  in  each  case. 

The  arrangement  of  the  lines,  which  was  common  to  all 
the  metals  in  the  magnesium,  zinc,  cadmium  group,  may 
shortly  be  described  as  follows  :— Three  isolated  lines  and 
one  pair  of  lines  in  magnesium,  with  four  sets  of  triplets,; 
one  isolated  line  and  one  pair  of  lines  in  zinc,  with  three 
sets  of  triplets ;  one  isolated  line  and  one  pair  of  lines  in 
cadmium,  with  three  sets  of  triplets. 

Besides  the  arrangement  of  these  lines  there  were  in  the 
spectrum  of  each  element  two  groups  of  the  most  refrangible 
lines,  consisting  one  of  a  quadruple  group  and  the  other 
of  a  quintuple  group,  the  groups  and  the  lines  composing 
them  being  similarly  disposed  in  each  spectrum.  It  was, 
however,  not  distinctly  proved  that  these  particular  groups 
were  strictly  homologous,  the  most  refrangible  lines  in  the 
zinc  spectrum  being  very  difficult  to  photograph  even  on 
specially  prepared  plates,  though  the  lines  are  strong.  It 
was  furthermore  observed  that  with  an  increase  in  the 
atomic  mass  the  distances  between  the  lines  both  in  pairs 
and  triplets  were  greater.  The  same  was  the  case  with  the 
quadruple  and  quintuple  groups.  In  the  magnesium  spec- 
trum, if  we  compare  the  first  with  the  second  group  of 
triplets,  we  find  the  intervals  extending  from  the  first  line 
in  the  first  group  to  the  first  line  in  the  second  group,  and 
from  the  second  line  in  the  first  group  to  the  second  line 


September  17,  1903] 


NATURE 


479 


I 


in  the  second  jjroup,  and  from  the  third  line  in  the 
first  group  to  the  tliird  line  in  the  second  group,  when 
measured  in  terms  of  oscillation  frequencies  to  be  677- 1, 
6770,  and  6774.  Similarly  taking  the  second  and  third 
groups  it  is  391-2,  391- 1,  and  391  i.  Between  the  third  and 
fourth  groups  in  like  manner  it  is  2309,  233,  and  233;  so 
that  the  intervals  diminish  with  increase  of  refrangibility 
of  the  lines. 

In  the  zinc  spectrum  the  intervals  between  the  lines  in 
the  first  and  second  groups  are  910,  910,  and  910;  in  the 
second  and  third  groups  582,  581,  and  583. 

In  the  cadmium  spectrum  the  corresponding  intervals  are 
801-5,  800.  and  800 ;  in  the  second  and  third  groups  588, 
589,  and  587.  The  more  accurately  the  lines  are  measured 
the  more  exactly  do  these  differences  correspond.  It  is 
scarcely  necessary  to  point  out  that  the  differences  in  the 
atomic  masses  of  the  elements  are  in  round  numbers  where 
H  =  I,  Mg  24,  Zn  65,  and  Cd  112. 

The  Law  of  Constant  Differences  rendered  il  evident  that 
the  spectra  of  the  elements  were  subject  to  a  law  of  homo- 
logy, which  was  closely  connected  with  the  atomic  mass 
and  with  their  chemical  and  physical  properties. 

It  was,  in  fact,  found,  in  accordance  with  the  periodic 
law,  that  the  spectra  of  definite  groups  were  spectra 
similarly  constituted,  from  which  it  was  deduced  that  they 
are  produced  by  similarly  constituted  molecules.  It  is 
evident  that  there  is  periodicity  in  their  spectra.  The 
rnetals  studied  being  all  monatomic  in  their  molecular  con- 
dition, the  conclusion  was  inevitable  that  the  atoms  were 
of  complex  constitution,  and  that  not  only  was  the  complex 
nature  of  these  atoms  disclosed,  but  it  was  also  shown  that 
groups  of  elements  with  similar  chemical  and  physical 
properties,  the  atomic  weights  of  which  differed  by  fixed 
definite  values,  were  composed  of  the  same  kind  of  matter, 
but  the  matter  of  the  different  elements  was  in  different 
states  of  condensation,  as  we  know  it  to  be  in  different 
members  of  the  same  homologous  series  of  organic  com- 
pounds. If  this  were  not  the  case,  the  mass  or  quantity 
of  matter  in  the  atom  would  not  affect  in  the  same  manner 
its  rate  of  vibration — which  the  facts  observed  lead  us  to 
conclude  that  it  does — and  the  chemical  properties  of  the 
substances  would  differ  more  widely  from  one  another,  and 
the  differences  between  them  would  not  be  gradational, 
which  in  fact  they  are.  It  was  thus  impossible  to  believe 
that  the  atoms  were  the  ultimate  particles  of  matter,  though 
so  far  as  chemical  investigations  had  proceeded  they  were 
parts  which  had  not  been  divided.  Here  the  conviction  was 
forced  upon  one  that  matter  might  exist  in  a  state  which 
had  hitherto  been  unrecognised  by  those  who  accepted  the 
atomic  theory  without  searching  beneath  it.  All  that  the 
atomic  theory  enabled  the  chemist  to  take  account  of  were 
the  laws  of  combination  and  decomposition  of  the  forms  of 
matter  that  are  ponderable  and  of  sufficient  mass  to  be 
weighable  on  the  finest  balances,  which  after  all  are  but 
crude  and  imperfect  instruments  for  the  study  of  matter, 
since  they  are  capable  only  of  determining  differences 
between  masses  of  tangible  size.  It  became  conceivable 
that  matter  in  the  state  of  gas  or  vapour  might  become 
so  attenuated  that  repulsion  of  the  molecules  would  be 
greater  than  the  attraction  ;  that  they  would  then  no  longer 
form  aggregates,  and  in  consequence  would  cease  to  be 
weighable.  In  such  a  condition  they  may  be  imagined  to 
constitute  the  ether  and  in  view  of  this'  conception  there 
may  be  recognised  four  physical  conditions  of  material  sub- 
stances,  namely,   solid,   liquid,  gas,   and  ether. 

It  is  more  than  twenty  years  ago  since  the  study  of 
homology  in  spectra  led  me  to  the  conviction  that  the 
chemical  atoms  are  not  the  ultimate  particles  of  matter, 
and  that  they  have  a  complex  constitution. 

That  the  atoms  of  definite  groups  of  chemically  related 
elements  are  composed  of  the  same  kind  of  matter  in 
different  states  of  condensation  is  not  a  dream  or  a  view 
of  a  visionary  character,  for  it  is  based  upon  definite  observ- 
ations controlled  by  exact  physical  measurements,  and  is 
therefore  in  the  nature  of  a  theory  rather  than  an  hypothesis. 
Batchinski  (1903)  regards  the  atoms  as  being  in  a  state 
of  vibration,  and  the  periods  of  vibration  of  related  elements 
appear  to  stand  in  a  simple  relation  to  their  properties.  The 
mass  of  an  atom  is  proportional  to  the  square  of  its  period 
of  vibration,  and  conversely  the  vibration  period  of  the  atom 
may  be  calculated  from  the'  square  root  of  the  atomic  weight. 

NO.    1768,  VOL.  681 


These  values  have  been  calculated  and  arranged  according  to 
Mendeleeff's  classification,  whereby  it  is  shown  that  there 
is  a  decided  tendency  to  form  harmonic  series  in  the  vertical 
columns.  The  deviations  are  probably  capable  of  explan- 
ation, as  the  author  believes,  on  the  ground  that  the  atom 
is  not  to  be  regarded  as  a  material  point,  but  as  a  material 
system.  It  is  well  to  remember  that  the  precursor  of  the 
Periodic  Law  was  Newland's  Law  of  Octaves. 

I  have  always  experienced  great  difficulty  in  accepting 
the  view  that  because  the  spectrum  of  an  element  contained 
a  line  or  lines  in  it  which  were  coincident  with  a  line  or 
lines  in  another  element  it  was  evidence  of  the  dissociation 
of  the  elements  into  simpler  forms  of  matter.  In  my 
opinion,  evidence  of  the  compound  nature  of  the  elements 
has  never  been  obtained  from  the  coincidence  of  a  line  or 
lines  exclusively  belonging  to  the  spectrum  of  one  element 
with  a  line  or  lines  in  the  spectrum  exclusively  belonging 
to  another  element.  This  view  is  based  upon  the  following 
grounds  : — First,  because  the  coincidences  have  generally 
been  shown  to  be  only  apparent,  and  have  never  been  proved 
to  be  real ;  secondly,  because  the  great  difficulty  of  obtain- 
ing one  kind  of  matter  entirely  free  from  every  other  kind 
of  matter  is  so  great  that  where  coincident  lines  occur  in 
the  spectra  of  what  have  been  believed  to  be  elementary 
substances  they  have  been  shown  from  time  to  time  to  be 
caused  by  traces  of  foreign  matter,  such  as  by  chemists  are 
commonly  termed  impurities  ;  thirdly,  no  instance  has  ever 
been  recorded  of  any  homologous  group  of  lines  belonging 
to  one  element  occurring  in  the  spectrum  of  another,  except 
and  alone  where  the  one  has  been  shown  to  constitute 
an  impurity  in  the  other ;  as,  for  instance,  where  the  triplet 
of  zinc  is  found  in  cadmium  and  the  triplet  of  cadmium 
in  zinc ;  the  three  strongest  lines  in  the  quintuple  group 
of  magnesium  in  graphite,  and  so  on.  The  latest  elucida- 
tion of  the  cause  of  coincidences  of  this  kind  arises  out  of 
a  tabulated  record  from  the  wave-length  measurements  of 
about  three  thousand  lines  in  the  spectra  of  sixteen  elements 
made  by  Adeney  and  myself.  The  instances  where  lines 
appeared  to  coincide  were  extremely  rare ;  but  there  was 
one  remarkable  case  of  a  group  of  lines  in  the  spectrum 
of  copper  which  appeared  to  be  common  to  tellurium  ;  also 
lines  in  indium,  tin,  antimony,  and  bismuth  which  seemed 
to  have  an  origin  in  common  with  those  of  tellurium. 

It  is  difficult  to  separate  tellurium  from  copper,  and  copper 
fiom  tellurium,  by  ordinary  chemical  processes.  Dr. 
Kothner,  of  Charlottenburg,  has  succeeded  in  obtaining 
very  pure  tellurium  from  the  spectrum  of  which  these  lines 
and  also  several  others  have  been  almost  entirely  eliminated, 
which  shows  that  they  are  foreign  to  the  element,  and  that 
his  specimen  of  tellurium  is  probably  purer  than  any 
previously  obtained.  For  determining  the  atomic  weight 
of  tellurium  it  is  of  course  necessary  to  obtain  it  in  the 
greatest  possible  state  of  purity  ;  and  it  may  be  mentioned 
that  the  material  which  Staudenmaier  employed  for  this 
purpose  was  found,  from  Kothner's  photograph  of  its 
spectrum,  to  be  a  very  pure  specimen. 

The  prosecution  of  researches  in  connection  with  the 
constitution  of  spectra  was  initiated  by  Johnstone  Stoney, 
by  Balmer  with  respect  to  hydrogen,  and  continued  by 
Rydberg,  Deslandres,  Ames,  and,  above  all,  by  Kayser  and 
Runge,  who  by  an  elaborate  and  exhaustive  investigation 
of  the  arc  spectra  of  the  elements  have  given  us  formulae 
by  which  the  wave-lengths  of  lines  in  the  spectra  of  different 
elements  in  certain  definite  groups  may  be  calculated.  They 
also  showed  the  spectra  to  be  constituted  of  three  series  of 
lines,  the  principal  series  and  two  subordinate  series,  one 
sharp  and  the  other  diffuse. 

Ramage,  however,  has  given  us  a  simpler  formula,  de- 
pending on  the  atomic  weight,  which  applies  to  several 
groups,  and  he  has  co-ordinated  the  spectra  of  several  of 
the  elements  with  the  squares  of  their  atomic  masses,  and 
also  their  atomic  masses  with  other  of  their  physical 
properties. 

It  may  here  be  remarked  that  the  homology  of  the  spark 
spectra  in  the  magnesium,  zinc,  and  cadmium  series  was 
ai  first  called  in  question  by  Ames,  though  he  proved  the 
arc  spectra  of  zinc  and  cadmium  to  be  strictly  homologous. 

Preston  decided  the  question  by  demonstrating  by  means 
of  beautiful  photographs  that  corresponding  lines  such  as 
the  pairs,  triplets,  and  the  quadruple  groups  in  the  spark 
spectra  of  the  three  metals  when  under  the  influence  of  a 


480 


NA  TUR£ 


[September  17,  1903 


very  powerful  magnetic  field  underwent  the  same  kind  of 
change ;  for  instance,  each  quadruple  group  changed  to 
sextuple,  the  second  and  fourth  lines  in  each  group  be- 
coming double.  Lines  in  spectra  which  have  not  the  same 
constitution  behave  differently.  Recently  Runge  and 
Paschen  have  arrived  at  the  same  conclusion  ;  and,  further- 
more, have  established  homology  in  the  spectra  of  sodium, 
copper,  and  silver ;  also  between  aluminium  and  thallium. 
Indium  is  almost  certainly  homologous  with  aluminium  and 
thallium,  but  it  was  probably  not  investigated  on  account 
of  its  rarity.  Marshall  Watts  has  pointed  out  that  a  re- 
lationship exists  between  the  lines  in  the  spectra  of  some 
elements  and  the  squares  of  their  atomic  weights,  from 
which  it  is  possible  to  calculate  the  atomic  weight  of  an 
.element  if  that  of  another  in  the  same  homologous  series 
is  known,  and  the  oscillation  frequencies  of  corresponding 
lines  are  known. 

The  knowledge  of  spectra  we  now  possess  enables  the 
determination  of  atomic  weights  to  be  controlled  with  quite 
as  much  efficiency  and  certainty  in  many  instances  as  by 
specific   heat   or   vapour-density   determinations. 

The  first  application  of  the  observed  homology  in  spectra 
was  directed  towards  the  question  of  the  atomic  mass  of 
beryllium,  for  which  purpose  the  lines  in  the  ultra-violet 
spark  spectrum  of  this  element  were  first  photographed 
and  measured.  The  nature  of  the  evidence  on  the  subject 
adduced  at  the  time  was  in  outline  as  follows  : — 

"  If,  as  Nilson  and  Petterson  suggest,  the  position  of 
beryllium  is  at  the  head  of  a  series  of  triad  rare  earth 
metals,  the  element  scandium  (at.  wt.  44)  and  yttrium 
(at.  wt.  89)  must  be  members  of  the  same  group.  If  this 
be  the  case  the  spectra  of  the  three  elements  must  have 
certain  characters  in  common,  for  the  series  of  which 
aluminium  and  indium  are  the  first  and  third  terms  yield 
strictly  homologous  spectra.  As  a  matter  of  fact  no  two 
spectra  could  be  more  dissimilar  than  those  of  beryllium 
and  scandium." 

Having  compared  the  photographs  and  wave-length 
measurements  of  a  large  number  of  spectra  of  the  elements, 
I  felt  justified  in  making  the  following  remarks  : — • 

"  The  spectrum  of  beryllium  exhibits  no  marked  analogy 
with  the  calcium,  the  magnesium,  or  the  aluminium  spectra, 
all  of  which  are  members  of  well-defined  homologous  series. 
There  is  nothing  similar  in  it  to  the  boron,  silicon,  or 
carbon  spectra,  nor  to  those  of  the  scandium,  yttrium,  or 
cerium.  The  spectrum  of  lithium  is  most  closely  analogous 
to  that  of  beryllium  in  the  number,  relative  positions,  and 
intensities  of  the  lines.  This  leads  to  the  conclusion  that 
beryllium  is  the  first  member  of  a  dyad  series  of  metals, 
to  which  in  all  probability  calcium,  strontium,  and  barium, 
as  a  sub-group,  are  homologous,  its  atomic  mass  being 
92,  its  place  is  above  magnesium."  Subsequently  Nilson, 
and  also  Humpidge,  by  chemical  evidence  and  from  vapour- 
density  determinations  of  certain  compounds,  substantiated 
the  conclusion  previously  arrived  at  by  Emerson  Reynolds, 
that  the  atomic  mass  of  beryllium  was  not  13-8  but  9  2. 

The  next  practical  application  of  the  spark  spectra  was 
to  the  analysis  of  rhabdophane,  a  mineral  found  many  years 
ago  in  Cornwall  and  described  by  Heuland  in  1837  as  a  zinc 
blende  of  a  peculiar  character. 

This  mineral  I  found  to  contain  neither  zinc  nor  sulphur, 
and  therefore  it  is  not  a  blende.  It  is,  in  fact,  a  phosphate 
of  the  formula  R,0,.P205.2H,0,  in  which  the  oxides  of 
cerium,  didymium,  lanthanum,  and  yttrium  may  wholly  or 
in  part  replace  each  other.  The  didymium  absorption  spec- 
trum is  well  seen  both  by  reflection  from  the  surface  and 
transmission  through  thin  sections  of  the  mineral.  -  The 
spark  spectrum  of  the  yttrium  chloride  obtained  from 
rhabdophane  was  compared  with  that  observed  by  Thal6n 
and  ascribed  to  yttrium.  Of  the  fifty-one  lines  in  the  spec- 
trum of  yttrium  thirty-eight  were  absent  from  the  yttrium 
obtained  from  rhabdophane,  and  it  was  concluded  that  the 
purest  yttrium  was  that  which  yielded  the  simplest  spec- 
trum. This  was  the  first  occasion  of  the  finding  of  yttrium 
in  any  British  mineral.  Quite  recently  a  confirmation  of 
this  view  has  been  obtained  by  comparing  this  spectrum 
with  lists  of  the  arc  lines  of  yttrium  and  ytterbium  which 
have  just  been  published  by  Kayser  (1903). 

Penfield  analysed  a  mineral  found  in  the  United  States 
which  he  named  scovellite  :  it  proved  to  be  identical  in 
species  with  rhabdophane. 


NO.    1768,  VOL.   68] 


Flame  Spectra  at  High  Temperatures. 
What  are  commonly  known  in  the  chemical  laboratory 
as  flame  spectra  are  chiefly  those  of  the  metals  of  the 
alkalies  and  alkaline  earths  ;  also  of  gallium,  indium,  and 
thallium.  The  researches  of  Mitscherlich  and  Lecocq  de 
Boisbaudran  first  showed  that  copper,  manganese,  and  gold 
gave  flame  spectra.  Lockyer,  Gouy,  and  Marshall  Watts 
also  investigated  flame  spectra. 

In  1887  I  used  iridium  wires  one  millimetre  thick,  twisted 
into  loops  upon  which  fragments  of  minerals  were  heated 
in  the  oxygen  blowpipe  flame.  Natural  silicates  yielded 
spectra  not  only  of  alkalies  but  of  the  alkaline  earths,  and 
also  distinct  manganese  spectra.  Baryta,  strontia,  and 
lime  gave  spectra  when  insoluble  compounds  such  as  the 
sulphates  were  thus  examined  at  high  temperatures.  Iron, 
cobalt,  and  nickel  gave  spectra  even  when  compounds  such 
as  the  oxides  were  heated  strongly.  But  iridium,  though 
infusible,  is  somewhat  volatile,  and  contributes  a  line  spec- 
trum to  the  flame.  In  1890  thin  slips  of  the  mineral  kyanite 
and  even  pieces  of  tobacco  pipe  were  used  instead.  Ex- 
perience with  this  method  of  working  went  to  show  how 
the  flame  spectra  of  oxides  of  calcium,  strontium,  and 
barium  could  be  separated  from  those  of  lithium,  sodium, 
potassium,  rubidium,  and  caesium,  as  observed  in  the 
Bunsen  flame.  Furthermore,  that  even  the  most  volatile 
of  these  substances  could  be  made  to  yield  a  continuous 
coloration  from  a  single  bead  of  salt  for  a  period  exceeding 
fifteen  minutes,  and  extending  to  one  or  two  hours,  so  that 
measurements  of  the  lines  might  be  made  with  some  degree 
of  certainty. 

In  order  to  study  the  flames  emitted  from  furnaces  during 
metallurgical  operations,  and  particularly  from  the  mouth 
of  Bessemer  vessels,  it  became  necessary  to  ascertain  what 
really  were  the  lines  of  the  elements  observed  under  different 
conditions  at  a  high  temperature,  and  accordingly  system- 
atic methods  of  study  were  developed  from  the  previous 
somewhat  tentative  experiments. 

In  all  the  flame  spectra  obtained  by  the  oxyhydrogen 
blowpipe  the  ultra-violet  line  spectrum  emitted  by  water 
vapour  which  had  been  discovered  by  Huggins  and  by 
Liveing  and  Dewar  was  visible  on  the  photographs  by 
reason  of  the  combustion  of  the  hydrogen  in  the  hydro- 
carbon, or  the  hydrogen  gas  itself,  when  burnt  along  with  ,  | 
oxygen.  The  flame  spectra  are  always  shorter  than  those 
obtained  from  the  arc  or  from  condensed  sparks.  After  an 
extended  examination  of  spectra  produced  by  the  oxy- 
hydrogen blowpipe  from  solid  substances,  the  knowledge 
obtained  was  applied  to  the  examination  of  the  flames 
coming  from  the  Bessemer  vessel  during  the  "  blow  "  during 
all  periods  from  the  commencement  to  the  termination. 
These  observations  were  made  at  the  London  and  North- 
western Railway  Steel  Works  at  Crewe  ;  and  at  Dowlais, 
in  South  Wales.  In  collaboration  with  Mr.  Ramage,  a 
large  number  of  these  complicated  spectra  were  photo- 
graphed at  the  North-Eastern  Steel  Works,  where  the 
Thomas-Gilchrist  process  is  carried  out.  The  spectra  were 
fully  described  and  measured,  with  the  result  that  every  one 
of  the  lines  and  bands  was  accounted  for.  A  new  line 
belonging  to  potassium  was  discovered  to  have  peculiar 
properties.  Gallium  was  proved  to  be  present  in  the  Cleve- 
land ore  from  Yorkshire,  in  the  finished  metal,  in  clays 
and  in  all  aluminous  minerals,  even  in  corundum.  Also, 
by  very  accurate  determinations  of  the  wave-lengths  of  its 
principal  lines,  gallium  was  proved  to  be  a  constituent  of 
the  sun.  Moreover  it  was  found  in  several  meteorites. 
Pure  gallium  oxide  was  separated,  by  analytical  methods, 
from  iron  ores  and  other  materials  ;  and  the  proportion  of 
the  metal  in  the  steel  rails  made  by  the  North-Eastern  Steel 
Company,  of  Middlesbrough,  was  determined  and  found  to 
be  one  part  in  thirty  thousand.  This  Yorkshire  steel  is 
richer  in  gallium  than  any  other  substance  from  which  it 
has  been  extracted  ;  for  instance,  the  Bensburg  blende,  sup- 
posed hitherto  to  be  the  richest  ore,  contains  only  one  part 
in  fifty  thousand. 

By  observations  on  the  spectra,  the  thermo-chemistry  of 
the  Bessemer  process  of  steel  manufacture  was  studied,  and 
the  temperatures  attained  under  varying  conditions  were 
estimated.  The  demonstration  of  the  great  volatility  of 
most  metals,  and  of  many  metallic  oxides  in  an  undecom- 
posed  condition,  at  the  temperature  of  the  oxyhydrogen 
blowpipe  and  of  the  Bessemer  flame  was  of  special  interest. 


September  17,  1903J 


NATURE 


481 


The  metals  chiefly  referred  to  are  copper,  silver,  lead,  tin, 
manganese,  chromium,  iron,  cobalt,  nickel,  palladium,  gold, 
and  iridium.  'Several  of  these,  such  as  silver  and  gold, 
have  lately  been  distilled  in  vacuo  by  Krafft. 

Banded  Flame  Spectra. 

Well-defined  groups  of  elements  yield  banded  flame 
spectra  which  have  a  similar  constitution  ;  thus  magnesium, 
zinc,  and  cadmium  yield  bands  composed  of  fine  lines,  de- 
graded towards  the  violet,  while  fluted  band  spectra  of 
beryllium,  aluminium,  and  indium  were  found  to  be  de- 
graded towards  the  red.  Thallium  also  yields  a  fluted 
spectrum  ;  gallium  gives  a  line  spectrum  ;  lanthanum  gives 
bands  degraded  towards  the  red ;  palladium  gives  bands 
in  the  nature  of  flutings  composed  of  fine  lines  ;  germanium 
gave  very  faint  indications  of  bands  ;  rhodium  and  iridium 
both  lines  and  bands.  It  became  manifest  that  elements 
belonging  to  the  same  group  in  the  periodic  system  of 
classification  exhibited  banded  spectra  which  are  similarly 
constituted,  and  hence  similarly  constituted  molecules  of  the 
elements  have  similar  modes  of  vibration,  whether  at  the 
lower  temperature  of  the  flame  or  at  the  higher  temperature 
of  the  arc  or  spark.  Banded  spectra  are  thus  shown  to  be 
connected  with  the  periodic  haw. 

A  great  advantage  is  to  be  derived  from  an  investigation 
of  banded  spectra  from  a  theoretical  point  of  view,  as  well 
as  from  the  application  of  this  method  to  the  analysis  of 
terrestrial  matter.  While  the  spectra  are  easily  obtained, 
they  can  be  applied  in  a  very  simple  manner  to  the  chemical 
analysis  of  minute  quantities  of  material,  and  may  readily 
be  made  quantitative. 

M.  Armand  de  Gramont  has  described  a  method  of  obtain- 
ing spectra  of  metals  and  metalloids  by  means  of  a  spark, 
and  has  given  the  analysis  of  eighty-six  mineral  species. 
The  novelty  and  importance  of  his  work  lies  in  the  method 
of  obtaining  spectra  of  such  constituent  substances  as 
chlorine,  bromine  and  iodine,  sulphur,  selenium  and 
tellurium  ;  also  phosphorus  and  carbon  when  in  a  state  of 
combination,   as  sulphates,   phosphates,   carbonates,  &c. 

There  is  a  possibility  of  utilising  this  method  for  the 
quantitative  determination  of  carbon,  sulphur,  and  phos- 
phorus in  iron  and  steel  during  the  process  of  manufacture. 

Definition  of  an  Element. 
In  a  discussion  on  the  question  of  the  elementary  character 
of  argon  in  1895  it  was  pointed  out  by  me  that  argon  gave 
a  distinct  spark  spectrum  by  the  action  of  condensed  sparks, 
and  therefore,  on  this  evidence  alone,  it  must  be  regarded 
as  an  element.  The  fact  that  it  gave  two  spectra  under 
different  conditions  was  not  opposed  to,  nor  did  it  invalidate, 
this  evidence,  because  such  an  element  as  nitrogen  not  only 
emits  two  spark  spectra,  but  the  two  spectra  can  be  readily 
photographed  simultaneously  from  the  same  spark  dis- 
charge. 

It  was  proposed  by  M.  de  Gramont  at  the  International 
Congress  in  Paris  in  1900,  and  agreed,  that  no  new  sub- 
stance should  be  described  as  an  element  until  its  spark 
spectrum  had  been  measured  and  shown  to  be  different  from 
that  of  every  other  known  form  of  matter. 

This  appears  to  me  to  have  been  one  of  the  most  im- 
portant transactions  of  the  Congress.  The  first  application 
of  this  rule  has  resulted  in  fhe  recognition  of  radium  as  a 
new  element  :  it  is  characterised  by  a  special  spark  spectrum 
of  fifteen  lines  which  have  been  fullv  studied  and  measured 
by  Demar^ay.     It  shows  no  lines  of' any  other  element. 

Another  application  of  this  rule  has  recently  been  made 
by  Exner  and  Haschek  with  preparations  of  the  oxide  of 
an  element  obtai.ned  by  Demar^ay,  and  named  europium. 
It  exhibits  1193  spark  lines  and  257  arc  lines. 

I  have  already  mentioned  that  one  feature  strikingly 
shown  in  the  spectra  of  chemically  related  elements  was  the 
wider  separation  of  the  lines  in  pairs,  triplets,  or  other 
groups ;  was  in  some  way  related  to  the  atomic  mass,  since 
the  separation  was  greater  in  those  elements  the  atomic 
weights  of  which  were  greater.  Kayser  and  Runge,  and 
also  Rydberg,  have  shown  that  in  the  series  of  alkali  metals 
the  differences  between  the  oscillation  frequencies  of  the 
lines  are  very  nearly  proportional  to  the  squares  of  the 
atomic  weights.  Runge  and  Precht  have  recently  shown 
that  in  every  group  of  elements  that  are  chemically  related 
the   atomic   weight   is   proportional   to   some   power   of   the 


NO.    1768.  VOL.  68] 


distance  separating  the  two  lines  of  the  pairs  of  which  the 
spectrum  is  constituted.  In  other  words,  if  the  logarithms 
of  the  atomic  weight  and  distance  between  the  lines  be 
taken  as  coordinates  the  corresponding  points  of  a  group 
of  elements  which  are  chemically  related  will  lie  on  a 
straight  line.  Applying  this  law  to  the  determination  of 
the  atomic  weight  of  radium  they  find  that  the  strongest 
lines  of  the  new  element  are  exactly  analogous  to  the 
strongest  barium  lines,  and  to  those  of  the  closely  related 
elements  magnesium,  calcium,  and  strontium.  The 
intervals  between  the  two  lines  of  each  pair  in  the  principal 
series,  and  in  the  first  and  second  subordinate  series,  if 
measured  on  the  scale  of  oscillation  frequencies,  are  equal 
for  each  element,  and  the  same  law  holds  good  for  the 
spectrum  of  radium.  From  this  the  value  257  8  was  found 
for  the  atomic  mass  of  the  element.  This  does  not  quite 
accord  with  the  number  obtained  by  Madame  Curie,  who 
found  it  to  be  225.  It  will  be  interesting  to  see  which 
number  will  eventually  be  proved  to  be  the  more  correct. 

It  is  now  many  years  since  I  first  pointed  out  that  the 
absolute  wave-lengths  of  the  lines  of  emission  spectra  of. 
the  elements  are  physical  constants  of  quite  as  great  im- 
portance in  theoretical  chemistry  as  the  atomic  weights;, 
in  the  light  of  recent  discoveries  this  statement  may  be  saii; 
to  be  now  fully  justified. 

Radio-active  Elements. 
From  the  study  of  rays  of  measurable  wave-lengths  we  ■ 
have  lately  sailed  under  the  guidance  of  M.  Henri  Becquerel 
into  another  region  where  it  is  doubtful  whether  all  the  rays  ■ 
conform  to  the  undulatory  theory.  In  fact  some  of  the  rays 
are  believed  to  be  charged  particles  of  matter,  charged,  that 
is  to  say,  with  electricity.  Beyond  doubt  they  are  possessed 
of  very  extraordinary  properties,  inasmuch  as  they  are  able 
to  penetrate  the  clothing,  celluloid,  gutta  percha,  glass,  and 
various  metals.  They  are,  moreover,  endowed  with  a  no 
less  remarkable  physiological  action,  producing  blisters  and 
ulcerations  in  the  flesh  which  are  difficult  to  heal.  It  is 
an  established  fact  that  such  effects  have  been  caused  by 
only  a  few  centigrams  of  a  radium  compound  contained  im 
a  glass  tube  enclosed  in  a  thin  metallic  box  carried  in  the- 
pocket. 

From  this  we  can  quite  understand  that  there  is  no- 
exaggeration  in  the  statement  attributed  to  the  discoverer. 
Prof.  Curie,  by  Mr.  W.  J.  Hanmer,  of  the  American  Insti- 
tute of  Electrical  Engineers,  that  he  would  not  care  to- 
trust  himself  in  a  room  with  a  kilogram  of  pure  radium, 
because  it  would  doubtless  destroy  his  eyesight,  burn  all 
the  skin  off  his  body,  and  probably  kill  him. 

It  remains  for  me  to  express  regret  that  without  an  undue 
extension  of  the  time  devoted  to  this  Address  it  would  have 
been  scarcely  possible  to  afford  adequate  treatment  to  the 
absorption  spectra  of  inorganic  compounds,  particularly 
those  of  the  rare  earths,  and  such  also  as  afford  evidence 
of  the  chemical  constitution  of  saline  solutions ;  or  of 
organic  compounds  closely  related  to  coloured  substances 
and  dyes,  the  investigation  of  which  leads  to  the  elucida- 
tion of  the  origin  of  colour,  and  serves  to  indicate  the  nature 
of  the  chemical  reactions  by  which  coloured  substances  may 
be  evolved  from  those  which  are  colourless. 

Chemistry  is  popularly  known  as  a  science  of  far-reaching 
importance  to  specific  arts,  industries,  and  manufactures;: 
but  it  occupies  a  peculiar  position  in  this  respect,  that  it 
is  at  one  and  the  same  time  an  abstract  science,  and  one- 
with  an  ever-increasing  number  of  practical  applications. 
To  draw  a  line  between  the  two  and  say  where  the  one  ends 
and  the  other  begins  is  impossible,  because  the  theoretical 
problem  of  to-day  may  reappear  upon  the  morrow  as  the 
foundation  of  a  valuable  invention. 


SECTION    C. 

GEOLOGY. 

Opening  Address  by  Prof.  W.  W.  Watts,  M.A.,  M.Sc, 
President  of  the  Section. 
There  are  two  circumstances  which  invest  the  fact  of  my 
presidency  of  the  Section  this  year  with  peculiar  pleasure 
to  myself.  The  first  public  lecture  I  ever  gave  was  in  the 
Town  Hall  at  Birkdale  in  1882,  and  the  first  of  the  fifteen 
meetings  of  the  British  Association  which  I  have  attended 
was  that  held  in  Southport  in  1883. 


482 


NATURE 


[September  17,  1903 


There  is  still  a  third  reason,  that  this  meeting  is  in  many 
respects  a  geological  meeting.  A  palaeobotanist  is  presiding 
over  Section  K,  and  the  Council  has  invited,  for  the  first 
time  for  many  years,  one  geologist  to  deliver  an  evening 
discourse  and  another  to  give  the  address  to  artisans.  I 
nfeed  hardly  say  that  we  are  all  looking  forward  to  the 
lectures  of  Dr.  Rowe  and  Dr.  Flett  with  keen  anticipation. 
To  the  one  for  his  successful  use  of  new  methods  of 
developing  fossils  and  his  scientific  employment  of  the 
material  thus  prepared  in  stratigraphic  research ;  to  the 
other  for  his  prompt,  daring,  and  businesslike  expedition 
to  the  scene  of  recent  volcanic  activity  in  the  West  Indies, 
during  which  he  and  his  colleague,  Dr.  Tempest  Anderson, 
collected  so  many  important  facts  and  brought  away  so 
much  new  knowledge  of  the  mechanism  of  that  disastrous 
and  exceptional  volcanic  outbreak. 

The  Functions  of  Geology  in  Education  and  in  Practical 
Life. 

At  the  meeting  in  1890,  at  Leeds,  my  old  friend  Prof. 
A.  H.  Green  delivered  an  address  to  the  Section  which  has 
generally  been  regarded  as  expressing  an  opinion  adverse 
to  the  use  of  the  Science  of  Geology  as  an  educational 
agent.  Some  of  the  expressions  used  by  him,  if  taken 
alone,  certainly  seem  to  bear  out  this  interpretation.  For 
instance,  he  says  :  "  Geologists  are  in  danger  of  becoming 
loose  reasoners  "  ;  further  he  says  :  "  I  cannot  shut  my  eyes 
to  the  fact  that  when  Geology  is  to  be  used  as  a  means 
of  education  there  are  certain  attendant  risks  that  need  to 
be  carefully  and  watchfully  guarded  against."  Then  he 
adds  :  "  Inferences  based  on  such  incomplete  and  shaky 
foundations  must  necessarily  be  largely  hypothetical." 

Such  expressions,  falling  from  an  accomplished  mathe- 
matician and  one  who  was  such  an  eminent  field  geologist 
as  Prof.  Green,  the  author  of  some  of  the  most  trustworthy 
and  most  useful  of  the  Geological  Survey  Memoirs,  and 
above  all  one  of  the  clearest  of  our  teachers  and  the  writer 
of  the  best  and  most  eminently  practical  text-book  on 
Physical  Geology  in  this  or  any  other  language,  naturally 
exercised  great  influence  on  contemporary  thought.  And 
I  should  be  as  unwise  as  I  am  certainly  rash  in  endeavour- 
ing to  controvert  them  but  for  the  fact  that  I  think  he  only 
half  believed  his  own  words.  He  remarks  that  "  to  be 
forewarned  is  a  proverbial  safeguard,  and  those  who  are 
alive  to  a  danger  will  cast  about  for  a  means  of  guarding 
against  it.  And  there  are  many  ways  of  neutralising  what- 
ever there  may  be  potentially  harmful  in  the  use  of  Geology 
for  educational  ends." 

After  thus  himself  answering  what  is  in  reality  his  main 
indictment.  Prof.  Green  proceeds  with  the  rest  of  an  address 
crammed  full  of  ^uch  valuable  hints  as  could  only  fall 
from  an  experienced  and  practical  teacher,  showing  how 
much  could  be  done  if  the  science  were  only  properly  taught. 

And  then  he  concludes  by  asking  for  "  that  kindly  and 
genial  criticism  with  which  the  brotherhood  of  the  hammer 
are  wont  to  welcome  attempts  to  strengthen  the  corner- 
stones and  widen  the  domain  of  the  science  we  love  so 
well." 

I  think  the  time  has  now  come  to  speak  with  greater 
confidence,  and,  although  the  distance  signal  stands  at 
danger,  to  forge  ahead  slowly  but  surely,  keeping  our  eyes 
open  for  all  the  risks  of  the  road,  with  one  hand  on  the 
brakes  and  the  other  on  the  driving  gear,  secure  at  least 
in  the  confidence  that  Nature,  unlike  man,  never  switches 
a  down  train  on  to  the  up  track. 

Those  of  us  who  have  been  teaching  our  science  for  any 
considerable  time  have  come  to  realise  that  there  are  many 
reasons  why  Geology  should  be  more  widely  taught  than 
at  present ;  that  there  are  many  types  of  mind  to  whom 
this  science  appeals  as  no  other'  one  does  ;  and  that  there 
are  abundant  places  and  frequent  circumstances  which  allow 
of  the  teaching  of  it  when  other  sciences  are  unsuitable. 

To  begin  with,  there  is  no  science  in  which  the  materials 
for  elementary  teaching  are  so  common,  so  cheap,  and 
everywhere  so  accessible.  Nor  is  there  any  science  which 
touches  so  quickly  the  earliest  and  most  elementary  interests. 
It  was  for  this  reason  that  Huxley  built  his  new  science 
of  Physiography  on  a  geological  basis.  Hills,  plains, 
valleys,  crags,  quarries,  cuttings,  are  attractive  to  every 
boy    and    girl,    and    always    rouse    intelligent    curiosity    and 


NO.    1768,   VOL.    68] 


frequent  inquiry ;  and  although  the  questions  asked  are 
difficult  to  answer  in  full,  a  keen  teacher  can  soon  set  his 
children  to  hunt  for  fossils  or  structures  which  will  give 
them  part  of  the  information  they  seek.  Of  course  the 
teaching  cannot  go  very  far  without  simple  laboratory  and 
museum  accommodation,  and  without  a  small  expenditure 
on  maps  and  sections ;  but  the  former  of  these  requirements 
can  soon  be  supplied  from  the  chemical  laboratory  and  by 
the  collection  of  the  students  themselves,  while  the  latter 
are  every  day  becoming  cheaper  and  more  accessible  and 
useful.  The  bicycle  and  the  camera,  too,  are  providing 
new  teaching  material  and  methods,  while  at  the  same 
time  they  are  giving  new  interests.  The  bicycle  has  already 
begun  to  create  a  generation  to  whom  relief  maps  are  not 
an  altogether  sealed  book,  and  for  whom  the  laws  which 
govern  the  relief  of  a  country  are  rapidly  finding  practical 
utility  ;  and  the  camera,  at  the  same  time  that  it  quickens 
the  appreciation  of  natural  beauty,  must  give  new  interest 
to  each  scrap  of  knowledge  as  to  the  causes,  whether 
botanical  or  geological,  to  which  that  beauty  is  due.  And 
it  is  this  new  knowledge  which  in  turn  develops  tlie  aesthetic 
sense.  Mente,  manu,  et  malleo  sums  up  most  of  what  is 
required  in  the  early  stages  of  learning  ;  but  to  round  off 
the  motto  we  still  require  words  to  express  the  camera  and 
bicycle. 

Another  reason  is  the  open-airness  of  the  practice  of  the 
science.  The  delight  of  the  open  country  comes  with  in- 
tense relief  after  the  classroom,  the  laboratory,  or  the  work- 
shop. In  education  generally,  and  especially  in  geological 
education,  we  have  reached  the  end  of  the  period  when 

"  all  roads  lead  to  Rome 
Or  books — the  refuge  of  the  destitute." 

Of  course  I  realise  fully  the  vital  necessity  of  laboratory 
and  museum  work  in  the  stages  of  both  learning  and  in- 
vestigation, and  quite  freely  admit  that  there  is  an  immense 
amount  of  useful  work  being  done  and  to  be  done  in  these 
institutions  alone.  But  what  I  think  I  do  right  to  insist 
upon  is  that  all  work  in  the  laboratory  and  museum  must 
be  mainly  preparatory  to  the  field-work  which  is  to  follow  ; 
every  type  of  geological  student  must  be  sent  into  the  field 
sooner  or  later,  and  in  most  cases  the  sooner  the  better. 
I  have  generally  found  that  students  in  the  early  stages 
have  a  great  repugnance  to  the  grind  of  working  through 
countless  varieties  of  minerals,  rocks,  and  fossils ;  but  once 
they  have  gone  into  the  field,  collected  with  their  own 
hands,  and  seen  the  importance  of  these  things,  and  the 
inferences  to  be  drawn  from  them,  for  themselves — once 
indeed  they  have  got  keen — they  come  back  willingly, 
even  eagerly,  to  any  amount  of  hard  indoor  work. 

But  it  is  when  they  leave  ordinary  excursion  work  and 
start  upon  regular  field  training  that  one  really  feels  them 
spurt  forward.  As  soon  as  they  begin  to  realise  that  sur- 
face-features are  only  the  reflex  of  rock-structure  and  can 
be  utilised  for  mapping,  that  to  check  their  lines  and 
initiate  new  ones  they  must  search  for  and  find  new  ex- 
posures, and  that  each  observation  while  settling  perhaps 
one  disputed  point  may  originate  a  host  of  new  ones,  when 
above  all  they  can  be  trusted  with  a  certain  amount  of 
individual  responsibility  and  given  a  definite  point  to  settle 
for  themselves,  it  is  then  that  "their  progress  is  most  rapid, 
and  is  bounded  only  by  their  powers  of  endurance. 

I  have  often  watched  my  students  through  the  various 
stages  of  their  field  training  with  the  deepest  interest  as 
a  study  of  the  development  of  character.  At  first  they  look 
upon  it  merely  as  a  relief  from  the  tedium  of  the  classroom 
and  laboratory,  and  as  a  pleasant  country  excursion.  But 
gradually  the  fascination  of  research  comes  over  them,  and 
as  they  feel  their  capacity  increasing  and  their  grip  and 
insight  into  the  structure  of  the  country  deepening,  one 
can  see  them  growing  up  under  one's  eyes.  They  come 
into  the  field  a  rabble  of  larky  boys ;  they  begin  to  develop 
into  men  before  they  leave  it. 

And  what  is  true  of  students  is  more  than  ever  true  of 
the  working  geologist.  I  hold  that  every  geologist,  what- 
ever his  special  branch  may  be,  should  spend  a  portion  of 
every  year  in  the  field.  Though  a  petrologist  may  have 
specimens  sent  to  him  from  every  variety,  even  the  common 
ones,  in  a  rock  mass,  and  have  their  relations  and  pro- 
portions properly  explained  to  him,  it  is  quite  impossible  for 


September  17,  1903] 


NATURE 


483 


him  to  feel  and  appreciate  these  proportions  and  relation- 
ships so  well  as  if  he  had  studied  and  collected  in  the  field 
and  gained  a  personal  interest  in  them.  Besides  this  the 
conclusions  drawn  in  the  field  are  the  crystalline  and  washed 
residuum,  so  to  speak,  left  on  the  mind  after  the  handling 
of  dozens  of  specimens,  weathered  and  unweathered,  and 
the  seeing  them  in  a  host  of  different  lights  and  aspects. 
The  rock  is  hammered  and  puzzled  over  and  its  relations 
studied  until  some  conclusion  is  arrived  at  which  bears  the 
test  of  application  to  all  the  facts  observed  in  the  field. 

Again,  once  a  palaeontologist  is  divorced  from  the  field 
he  loses  the  significance  of  minute  time  variations,  the 
proportion  of  aberrant  to  normal  forms,  and  the  value  of 
naked-eye  characteristics  which  can  be  "  spotted  "  in  the 
field.  Huxley  once  asked  for  a  palaeontologist  who  was  no 
geologist ;  I  venture  to  think  we  have  now  had  enough 
of  them.  What  we  want  above  all  at  the  present  time  is 
the  recognition  of  such  characters  as  have  enabled  our  field 
palaeontologists  to  zone  by  means  of  the  graptolites,  the 
ammonites,  and  the  echinids,  so  that  every  rock  system  we 
possess  may  be  subdivided  with  the  same  minuteness  and 
trustworthiness  as  the  Ordovician,  Silurian,  and  Jurassic 
systems,  and  the  Chalk. 

If  this  is  once  done  the  biological  results  will  take  care 
of  themselves,  and  we  may  feel  perfect  confidence  that  new 
laws  of  biological  succession  and  evolution  will  result  from 
such  work,  as  indeed  they  are  now  doing — laws  which  could 
never  be  reached  from  first  principles,  but  could  only  come 
out  in  the  hands  of  those  to  whom  time  and  place  were 
the  factors  by  which  they  were  most  impressed.  It  is  only 
by  field  work  that  we  shall  ever  get  rid  of  the  confusion 
which  has  been  inevitable  from  the  supposed  existence  of 
such  so-called  species  as  Orthis  caligramma,  Atrypa 
reticularis,  and  Prodiictus  giganteus. 

As  for  the  geological  results,  it  is  only  necessary  to  read 
the  excellent  and  workmanlike  Address  delivered  to  this 
Section  at  Liverpool  in  1896  by  Mr.  Marr  to  realise  how 
many  problems  of  succession  and  structure,  of  distribution 
and  causation,  of  ancient  geography  and  modern  landscape, 
are  still  awaiting  solution  by  the  application  of  minute  and 
exact  zonal  researches. 

On  the  other  hand  it  goes  without  saying  that  the  more 
a  field  geologist  knows  of  his  rocks  and  fossils  the  better 
will  his  stratigraphical  work  become  ;  but  this  is  too  obvious 
to  require  more  than  stating. 

Geology,  again,  is  of  value  as  a  recreative  science,  one 
which  can  be  enjoyed  when  cycling,  walking,  or  climbing, 
even  when  sailing  or  travelling  by  rail.  Indeed  it  is  diffi- 
cult to  find  a  place  in  which  to  treat  the  confirmed  geologist 
if  you  wish  to  make  him  a  "  total  abstainer."  There  are 
others  than  thoso  who  must  make  use  of  their  science  in 
their  professions,  those  in  need  of  a  hobby,  those  interested 
in  natural  scenery,  veterans  who  have  seen  much  and  now 
have  leisure  and  means  to  see  more,  and  those  fortunate 
ones  who  have  not  to  earn  their  bread  by  the  sweat  of  their 
brain  or  brow.  Many  of  these  have  done  and  are  doing 
good  work  for  us,  and  many  more  would  find  real  pleasure 
in  doing  so  if  only  they  had  been  inoculated  in  those  early 
days  when  impressions  sink  deep.  Mr.  A.  S.  Reid,  who 
has  had  much  and  fruitful  experience  in  teaching,  tells  me 
that  he  has  often  seen  seed  planted  in  barren  ground  at 
school  spring  up  and  grow  and  blossom  as  a  country- 
holiday  recreation  after  schooldays,  or  bear  the  good  fruit 
of  solid  research  after  lying  dormant  for  many  years. 

We  may  next  look  upon  Geology  as  an  educational 
medium  from  quite  a  different  point  of  view.  If  more  than 
half  the  work  of  the  man  of  science  is  the  collection  of 
fact,  and  of  actual  fact  as  opposed  to  the  result  of  the 
personal  equation,  Geology  is  perhaps  the  very  best  train- 
ing-ground. There  are  such  hosts  of  facts  to  be  still  re- 
corded, so  many  erroneous  observations  to  be  corrected, 
and  so  much  hope  of  extending  observations  on  already 
recorded  facts,  that  there  is  plenty  of  work  even  for  the 
man  who  can  snatch  but  limited  leisure  from  other  pursuits 
and  the  one  who  is  a  collector  of  fact  and  nothing  else, 
as  well  as  those 

"  under  whose  command 
Is  earth  and  earth's,  and  in  their  hand 
Is  Nature  like  an  op«n  book." 


NO.    1768,  VOL.  68] 


But  in  the  collection  of  facts  a  wise  and  careful  selection 
is  constantly  necessary  in  order  to  pick  out  from  the  multi- 
tude those  which  are  of  exceptional  value  and  importance 
in  the  construction  of  hypotheses.  Nature,  it  is  true,  can- 
not lie ;  she  is  a  perfectly  honest  but  expert  witness,  and 
it  takes  an  astonishing  amount  of  acute  cross-examination 
to  elicit  the  truth,  the  whole  truth,  and  nothing  but  the 
truth. 

There  is  no  science  which  needs  such  a  variety  of  observ- 
ations as  Field  Geology.  When  we  remember  that  Sedg- 
wick and  Darwin  visited  Cwm  Glas  and  carried  away  no 
recollection  of  the  features  which  now  shout  "  glaciation  " 
to  everyone  who  enters  the  Cwm,  it  is  easy  to  see  how 
alert  must  be  the  eyes  and  how  agile  the  mind  of  the  man 
who  has  to  carry  a  dozen  problems  in  his  mind  at  once, 
and  must  be  on  the  look-out  for  evidence  with  regard  to  all 
of  them  if  he  would  work  out  the  structure  of  a  difficult 
country  ;  and  who  is  not  only  looking  out  for  facts  to  test 
his  own  hypothesis,  but  wishes  to  observe  so  accurately 
that  if  his  hypothesis  gives  way  even  at  the  eleventh  hour 
his  facts  are  ready  to  suggest  and  test  its  successor.  There 
is  no  class  of  men  so  well  up  in  what  may  be  called  observ- 
ational natural  history  generally  as  the  practised  field 
geologist,  because  he  never  knows  at  what  moment  some 
chance  observation — a  mound,  a  spring,  a  flower,  a  feature, 
even  a  rabbit-hole  or  a  shadow — may  be  of  service  to  him. 
Not  only  should  he  know  his  country  in  its  every  feature 
and  every  aspect,  but  he  must  have,  and  in  most  cases  soon 
acquires,  that  remarkable  instinct,  which  can  only  be 
denoted  as  an  "  eye  for  a  country,"  with  which  generally 
goes  a  naturalist's  knowledge  of  its  plants  and  of  its  birds, 
beasts,  and  fishes. 

At  the  present  time  many  educationists  are  in  favour  of 
teaching  only  the.  experimental  sciences  to  the  exclusion 
of  those  which  collect  their  facts  by  observation.  This 
attitude  may  do  some  good  to  Geology  in  compelling  us  to 
pay  more  attention  to  that  side  of  our  science  which  has 
been  better  cultivated  hitherto  in  France  than  in  our  own 
country.  But  whether  we  think  of  education  as  the 
equipping  of  a  scientific  man  for  his  future  career  or  as  the 
training  of  the  mind  to  encounter  the  problems  of  life,  we 
must  admit  that  it  would  be  as  wrong  to  ignore  one  of  the 
two  ways  only  of  collecting  fact  as  it  would  be  to  teach 
deductive  reasoning  to  the  exclusion  of  that  by  induction. 
Indeed  this  is  understating  the  case,  for  in  the  vast 
majority  of  the  problems  which  confront  us  in  everyday  life 
the  solution  can  only  be  reached  if  an  accurate  grasp  of 
the  facts  can  be  obtained  from  observation.  The  training 
of  the  mind  solely  by  means  of  experiments  carefully  de- 
signed to  eliminate  all  confusing  and  collateral  elements 
savours  too  much  of  "  milk  for  babes  "  and  too  little  of 
"  strong  meat  for  men." 

Mr.  Teall  in  his  masterly  Address  to  the  Geological 
Society  in  1901  pointed  out  "  that  the  state  of  advancement 
of  a  science  must  be  measured,  not  by  the  number  of  facts 
collected,  but  by  the  number  of  facts  coordinated."  Theory, 
consistent,  comprehensive,  tested,  verified,  is  the  life-blood 
of  our  science  as  of  any  other.  It  is  what  history  is  to 
politics,  what  morals  are  to  manners,  and  what  faith  is  to 
religion. 

It  is  almost  impossible  to  collect  facts  at  all  without 
carrying  a  working  hypothesis  to  string  them  on.  It  is 
easy  to  follow  Darwin's  advice  and  speculate  freely;  the 
speculation  may  be  right,  and  if  wrong  it  will  be  weeded 
out  by  new  facts  and  criticism,  while  the  speculative  in- 
stinct will  suggest  others.  In  hypothesis  there  will  always 
be  an  ultimate  survival  of  the  fittest. 

And  it  is  not  only  easy  but  absolutely  necessary,  because 
in  Geology,  more  perhaps  than  in  any  other  science,  hypo- 
theses are  like  steps  in  a  staircase :  each  one  must  be 
mounted  before  the  next  one  can  be  reached  ;  and  if  you 
have  no  intention  of  coming  back  again  that  way,  it  does 
not  matter  if  you  destroy  each  step  when  you  have  made 
use  of  it.  Every  new  hypothesis  has  something  fresh  to 
teach,  and  nearly  all  have  some  element  of  untruth  to  be 
ultimately  eliminated.  But  each  one  is  a  stage,  and  a 
necessary  stage,  in  progress. 

In  physics  and  in  chemistry  the  chief  difficulties  are  those 
which  surround  the  making  of  experiments.     When   these 


484 


NATURE 


[September  17,  1903 


have  been  successfully  overcome  the  right  theory  follows 
naturally,  and  verification  is  not  usually  a  very  lengthy 
process.  In  Geology,  on  the  other  hand,  theory  is  more 
quickly  arrived  at  from  the  numerous  facts  ;  but  the  price 
is  paid  in  the  patience  required  for  testing  and  the  ruthless 
refusal  to  strain  fact  to  fit  theory.  Every  hypothesis  leads 
back  to  facts  again  and  again  for  verification,  extension, 
and  improvement. 

Many  of  the  leading  conclusions  of  our  science  have  not 
yet  become  part  of  the  common  stock  of  the  knowledge  of 
the  world  ;  indeed  they  are  not  even  fully  realised  by  many 
men  eminent  in  their  own  sciences.  The  momentum  given 
by  Werner  and  Playfair,  Phillips  and  Jukes,  Sedgwick  and 
Lyell,  and  other  pioneers  of  the  fighting  science,  has  died 
down,  and  in  the  interval  of  hard  work,  detailed  observ- 
ation, minute  subdivision,  involved  classification,  and 
pedantic  nomenclature  which  has  followed,  and  which  I 
believe  to  be  only  the  prelude  to  an  epoch  of  more  important 
generalisation  in  the  immediate  future,  it  has  been  difficult 
for  an  outsider  to  see  the  wood  for  the  trees.  He  has 
hardly  yet  realised  that  facts  as  vital  to  the  social  and 
economic  well-being  of  the  people  at  large,  and  conclusions 
of  as  great  importance  in  the  progress  of  the  science 
and  of  as  far-reaching  consequence  in  the  allied  sciences, 
are  being  wrung  from  Nature  now  as  in  the  past. 

"The  unimaginable  touch  of  Time,"  the  antiquity  of 
;the  globe  as  the  abode  of  life,  the  absolute  proof  of  the 
-evolution  of  life  given  by  fossils,  the  proofs  of  change  and 
-evolution  in  geography  and  climate,  the  antiquity  of  man, 
•the  nature  of  the  earth's  interior,  the  tremendous  cumulative 
effect  of  small  causes,  the  definite  position  of  deposits  of 
economic  value,  the  rdle  played  by  denudation  and  earth- 
movement  in  the  development  of  landscape,  the  view 
of  the  earth  as  a  living  organism  with  the  heyday  of  its 
-youth,  its  maturity,  and  its  future  old  age  and  death,  to 
mention  but  a  few  of  our  great  principles,  furnish  us  with 
conceptions  which  cannot  fail  to  quicken  the  attention  and 
inspire  the  thought  of  students  of  history,  geography,  and 
other  sciences. 

Now  that  these  things  are  capable  of  definite  proof,  that 
-they  are  of  real  significance  in  the  cognate  sciences,  and 
of  actual  economic  value,  above  all  now  that  the  nineteenth 
century,  the  geological  century,  has  closed,  that  the  heroic 
age  is  over,  that  we  have  passed  the  stages  of  scepticism 
and  religious  intolerance  and  reached  the  stage  "  when 
-everybody  knew  it  before,"  it  might  be  expected  that  a 
fairly  accurate  knowledge  and  appreciation  of  these  prin- 
■ciples  should  form  part  of  the  common  stock  of  knowledge, 
and  be  a  starting-point  in  the  teaching  of  allied  sciences. 

Another  feature  which  adds  to  the  attractiveness  of  geo- 
logical observations  is  their  immediate  usefulness  from 
many  points  of  view.  The  relief  and  outline  of  any  area 
are  as  closely  related  to  its  rocky  framework  as  the  form 
of  a  human  being  is  related  to  his  skeleton  and  muscles. 
The  geological  surveyor  recognises  how  every  rise  and  fall 
is  the  direct  reflex  of  some  corresponding  difference  in  the 
underlying  rocks ;  he  seeks  to  observe  and  explain  the 
ordinary  as  well  as  anomalous  ground-features,  every  one 
of  which  conveys  some  meaning  to  him. 

A  geological  basis  for  the  classification  and  grouping  of 
surface-features  is  the  only  one  which  is  likely  to  be  satis- 
factory in  the  end,  because  it  is  the  only  one  founded  on  a 
definite  natural  principle,  the  relation  of  cause  to  effect. 
It  is  not  without  good  reason  that  the  topographic  and 
geological  surveys  of  the  United  States  are  combined  under 
one  management,  and  nowhere  else  are  the  topographic 
results  more  accurate  and  satisfactory.  Landscape  is  traced 
back  to  its  ultimate  source,  and  consequently  sketched  in 
with  more  feeling  for  the  country  and  greater  accuracy  of 
knowledge  than  would  otherwise  be  possible.  Geologists 
were  among  the  first  to  cry  out  for  increasing  accuracy 
and  detail  in  our  Government  maps,  and  they  have  con- 
sistently made  the  utmost  use  of  the  best  of  these  maps  as 
fast  as  they  appeared.  With  the  publication  of  each  type 
of  map,  hachured,  contoured,  six-inch,  twenty-five  inch,  the 
value  and  accuracy  of  geological  mapping  have  advanced 
step  by  step.  Wherever  the  topography  is  better  delineated 
than  usual,  the  facilities  are  greater  for  accurate  geological 
work,  and  the  best  geological  maps,  and  those  in  greatest 


NO.    1768,  VOL.  68] 


demand,  are  always  those  based  on  the  most  minute  and 
detailed  topographic  work.  On  the  other  hand  geologists 
are  training  up  a  class  of  men  who  can  read  and  interpret 
the  inner  meaning  of  these  maps,  and  make  the  fullest  use 
of  the  splendid  facilities  given  by  the  minute  accuracy  of 
the  ordnance  work. 

Lord  Roberts  has  recently  complained  that  the  cadets  at 
Woolwich  are  unable  to  read  and  interpret  maps,  and  he 
"  strongly  advised  them  to  set  about  improving  themselves 
in  this  respect,  or  they  would  find  themselves  heavily  handi- 
capped in  the  future."  I  believe  that  the  only  training  in 
this  subject  before  entering  the  Royal  Military  Academy 
and  the  Royal  Military  College  has  been  that  given  to  those 
candidates  who  have  taken  up  Geology  for  their  entrance 
examination.  By  encouraging  these  students  to  study  and 
draw  maps  and  sections  of  their  own  districts,  and  to  e.x- 
plain  and  draw  sections  across  geological  maps  generally, 
thus  accounting  for  surface-features,  the  examiners  have 
compelled  this  small  group  of  candidates  to  see  deeper  into 
a  map  than  ordinary  people.  If  only  this  training  had  been 
encouraged  and  advanced  and  made  use  of  later,  the  Com- 
mander-in-Chief would  have  had  no  cause  of  complaint  with 
regard  to  these  particular  men.  Looking  at  a  map  is  one 
thing  ;  working  at  it,  seeing  into  it,  and  getting  out  of  it 
what  is  wanted  from  the  vast  mass  of  information  crammed 
into  it,  is  quite  another ;  and  Geology  is  the  very  best  and 
perhaps  the  only  means  of  compelling  such  a  close  study 
of  maps  as  to  enable  students  to  seize  upon  the  salient 
features  of  a  country  from  a  map  as  quickly  and  accurately 
as  if  the  country  itself  were  spread  out  before  them.  The 
geologist  is  compelled  to  work  out  and  classify  for  himself 
th°  features  he  observes  on  his  maps,  such  as  scarps  and 
terraces,  crags  and  waterfalls,  streams  and  gorges,  passes 
and  ridges,  the  run  of  the  roads,  canals,  and  railways,  the 
nature  and  accessibility  of  the  coast,  and  all  those  features 
which  make  the  difference  between  easy-going  and  a  difficult 
country.  When  he  has  worked  his  way  over  a  map  in  this 
fashion  that  map  becomes  to  him  a  real  and  telling  picture 
of  the  country  itself. 

Experience,  bitter  experience,  in  South  Africa  has  shown 
the  necessity  not  only  for  good  maps  and  map-reading,  but 
for  that  which  is  the  most  priceless  possession  alike  of  the 
best  field  geologists  and  of  the  best  strategists,  a  good  "  eye 
for  a  country."  It  has  been  said  that  the  Boer  war  was 
a  geographical  war ;  but  it  was  even  more,  and,  especially 
in  its  later  stages,  a  topographic  war.  Again  and  again 
the  Boers  aroused  our  astonishment  and  admiration  by  the 
way  in  which  their  topographic  knowledge  and  instinct 
enabled  them  to  fight,  to  defend  themselves,  and  to  secure 
their  retreat  by  the  most  consummate  ability  in  utilising 
the  natural  features  of  their  country.  This  was  due  to  two 
things.  In  the  first  place  they  took  care  to  have  with 
them  in  each  part  of  the  country  the  men  who  knew  that 
particular  district  best  in  every  detail  and  in  every  aspect. 
But  in  the  second  place  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  they 
made  the  utmost  use  of  that  hunter-craft  by  which  the 
majority  of  them  could  take  in  at  a  glance  the  character 
of  a  country,  even  a  new  one,  as  a  whole,  guided  by  certain 
unconscious  principles  which  each  man  absorbed  as  part 
of  his  country  life  and  hunter's  training.  They  possessed, 
and  had  of  necessity  cultivated  to  a  very  high  degree,  an 
"  eye  for  a  country." 

Now  the  study  of  the  geology  of  any  district,  and 
especially  the  geological  mapping  of  it,  goes  a  long  way 
towards  giving  and  educating  the  very  kind  of  eye  for  a 
country  which  is  required,  partly  by  reason  of  the  practice 
in  observation  and  interpretation  which  it  is  continuously 
giving,  and  partly  because  it  deliberately  supplies  the  very 
kinds  of  classification  and  the  principles  of  form  which  a 
hunter-people  have  unconsciously  built  up  from  their  outdoor 
experience. 

Any  geologist  who  thinks  of  the  Weald,  the  wolds  and 
downs  of  Eastern  England,  the  scarps  and  terraces  of  the 
Pennine,  the  buried  mountain  structure  of  the  Midlands,  even 
the  complicated  mountain  types  of  Lakeland  and  Wales,  will 
remember  how  often  his  general  knowledge  of  the  rock- 
structure  of  the  region  has  helped  him  as  a  guide  to  the 
topography  ;  and  as  his  geological  knowledge  of  the  area 
has  increased  he  will  recall  how  easy  it  has  become  to 
carry  the  most  complicated  topography  in  his  mind,  or  to 
revive   his   recollection   of   it   from    a    glance    at    the    map, 


September  17,  1903] 


NATURE 


485 


because  the  geological  structure,  the  anatomy,  is  present 
in  his  mind  throughout,  and  the  outside  form  is  the  in- 
evitable consequence  of  that  structure.  Indeed  the  reading 
of  a  good  geological  map  to  the  geologist  is  like  the  read- 
ing of  score  by  a  musician. 

Surely  it  would  be  most  unwise  if  the  Committee  on 
Military  Education  were  to  cut  out  of  their  curriculum  the 
one  subject  which  has  exercised  and  educated  this  faculty, 
and  one  which  is  at  the  same  time  doing  a  great  deal  to 
counteract  that  degeneration  of  observing  faculties  insepar- 
able from  a  town  life.  Some  cadets  at  least  ought  to  be 
chosen  from  amongst  those  men  who  have  been  trained  by 
this  method  to  see  quickly  and  accurately  into  the  topo- 
graphic character  and  possibilities  of  a  country,  and  pro- 
vision should  be  made  for  educating  their  faculties  further 
until  they  become  of  genuine  strategic  value. 

Ihen  I  believe  it  would  be  correct  to  say  that  no  class  of 
men  get  to  know  their  own  country  with  anything  like  the 
minuteness  and  accuracy  of  the  geological  surveyor.  The 
mere  topographer  simply  transfers  his  impressions  on  the 
spot  as  quickly  as  may  be  to  paper,  and  has  no  further 
concern  with  them.  The  geologist  must  keep  them  stored 
in  his  mind,  watching  the  variation  and  development  of 
each  feature  from  point  to  point  for  his  own  purposes.  He 
must  traverse  every  inch  of  his  ground,  he  must  know 
where  he  can  climb  each  mountain  and  ford  every  brook, 
where  there  are  quarries  or  roads,  springs  or  flats  ;  what 
can  be  seen  from  every  point  of  view,  how  the  habitability 
or  habitations  vary  from  point  to  point ;  in  short,  he  must 
become  a  veritable  walking  map  of  his  own  district.  Why 
not  scatter  such  men  in  every  quarter  of  the  globe,  par- 
ticularly where  any  trouble  is  likely  to  arise?  They  are 
cheap  enough,  they  will  waste  no  time,  and  they  will  be 
so  glad  of  the  chance  for  research  that  they  will  not  be 
hard  to  satisfy  in  the  matter  of  pay  and  equipment.  Thus 
you  will  acquire  a  corps  of  guides,  ready  wherever  and 
whenever  they  are  wanted ;  and  when  trouble  arises  they 
may  do  a  great  deal  by  means  of  their  minute  knowledge 
of  topography  to  save  millions  of  money  and  thousands  of 
lives,  and  to  prevent  the  irritating  recurrence  of  the  kind 
of  disaster  with  which  we  have  become  sadly  familiar  within 
the  last  five  years. 

In  dealing  with  the  relationship  of  Geology  to  Geography 
geologists  are  frequently  charged  with  claiming  too  much. 
On  this  point  at  least,  however,  there  can  be  no  difference 
of  opinion,  that  the  majority  of  geological  surveyors  and 
unofficial  investigators  have  kept  their  eyes  open  to  this 
relationship,  and  have  often  contributed  new  explanations 
to  old  problems.  They  have  been  compelled  to  observe,  and 
often  to  explain,  surface-features  before  making  use  of 
them  in  their  own  mapping,  and  in  doing  so  have  often 
hit  upon  new  principles.  It  is  hardly  needful  to  mention 
such  examples  as  Ramsay's  great  conception  of  plains  of 
marine  denudation,  Whitaker's  convincing  memoir  on  sub- 
aerial  denudation,  Jukes's  explanation  of  the  laws  of  river 
adjustment,  Gilbert's  scientific  essay  on  erosion,  Heim's 
demonstration  of  the  share  taken  by  earth-movement  in  the 
modelling  of  landscape  features,  and  the  exceedingly  valu- 
able proofs  of  the  relation  of  human  settlement  and  move- 
ment to  underground  structure,  worked  out  with  such  skill 
and  diligence  by  Topley  in  his  masterly  memoir  on  the 
Weald — the  jumping-off  place,  if  I  may  so  term  it,  of  the 
new  geography. 

No  one  is  more  pleased  than  geologists  that  geographers 
have  ceased  to  draw  their  knowledge  of  causation  solely 
from  history,  and  that  they  have  turned  their  attention  to 
the  dependence  and  reaction  of  mankind  on  nature  as  well. 
But  while  hoping  that  geographers  will  continue  to  study, 
so  far  as  they  logically  can,  the  relationship  of  plant's, 
animals,  and  mankind  to  the  solid  framework  of  the  globe 
on  which  they  live,  we  must  draw  the  line  at  the  invention 
of  new  geological  hypotheses  to  explain  geographic  difficul- 
ties on  no  better  evidence  than  that  furnished  by  the  difficul- 
ties themselves  ;  on  the  other  hand,  we  must  insist  that  each 
new  geological  principle  must  take  its  place  amongst 
geographic  explanations  as  soon  as  it  is  freely  admitted 
to  be  based  on  a  sound  substratum  of  fact. 

I  must  confine  myself  to  a  few  instances  of  what  I  mean. 
Mr.  Marr's  geological  work  on  the  origin  of  lake-basins 
has   led   to   some   remarkable   and    unexpected    conclusions 


NO.    1768,  VOL.  68] 


with  regard  to  the  history  and  origin  of  the  drainage  of 
the  Lake  district.  Some  of  the  very  difficult  questions 
raised  by  the  physical  geography  of  the  North  Riding  of 
Yorkshire  have  received  a  new  explanation  from  the  re- 
searches of  Prof.  Kendall  and  Mr.  Dwerryhouse,  an  ex- 
planation which  is  the  outcome  of  purely  geological  methods 
of  observation  of  geological  materials.  Again,  the  simple 
geological  interpretation  of  a  well-known  unconformity 
between  Archaean  and  Triassic  rocks  has  made  it  extremely 
probable  that  many  of  the  present  landscapes,  not  only  in 
the  Midlands  but  elsewhere,  may  be  really  fossil  landscapes^ 
of  great  antiquity  and  due  to  causes  quite  different  from 
those  in  operation  there  at  the  present  day.  In  mountain 
regions,  too,  it  can  only  be  by  geological  observation  that 
we  shall  ever  determine  what  has  been  the  precise  direct 
share  of  earth-movement  in  the  production  of  surface  relief. 
Such  e.xamples  seem  to  indicate  that  many  of  the  principles, 
must  be  of  geological  origin  but  of  geographic  application. 

While  Geology  has  been  of  direct  scientific  utility  in  topo- 
graphy and  geography  there  is  another  domain,  that  of 
Economic  Geology,  which  is  entirely  its  own.  The  appli- 
cation of  Geology  extends  to  every  industry  and  occupation 
which  has  to  do  with  our  connection  with  the  earth  on 
which  we  live.  Agriculture,  engineering,  the  obtaining  of 
the  useful  and  precious  metals,  chemical  substances,  build- 
ing materials,  and  road  metals,  sanitary  science,  the 
winning  and  working  of  coal,  iron,  oil,  gas,  and  water, 
all  these  and  many  more  pursuits  are  carried  on  the  better 
if  founded  on  a  knowledge  of  the  structure  of  the  earth *s 
crust.  Indeed  a  geological  map  of  this  country,  showing 
rocks,  solid  and  superficial,  of  which  no  economic  use  could 
b'i  made,  would  be  nearly  blank.  Yet  so  much  has  this  side 
of  the  science  been  neglected  of  recent  years  that  our  only 
comprehensive  text-books  on  it  are  altogether  out  of  date. 

But  in  teaching  Geology  as  a  technical  science,  or  rather 
as  one  with  technological  applications,  one  of  the  greatest 
difficulties  before  us  is  to  steer  between  two  opposing 
schools,  the  so-called  theoretical  school  and  the  practicat 
school. 

There  are  those  who  say  that  there  is  but  one  geology, 
the  theoretical,  and  that  a  thorough  knowledge  of  this 
must  be  obtained  by  all  those  who  intend  to  apply  the 
science.  Others  think  that  this  is  too  much  to  ask — that 
the  time  available  is  not  sufficient — and  that  it  is  only 
necessary  to  teach  so  much  of  the  subject  as  is  obviously 
germane  to  the  question  in  hand. 

The  best  course  appears  to  me  to  be  the  middle  one 
between  the  two  extremes.  If  the  engineer  or  miner,  the 
water-finder  or  quarryman,  has  no  knowledge  of  principles, 
but  only  of  such  facts  as  appear  to  be  required  in  the 
present  position  of  his  profession,  he  will  be  incapable  of 
making  any  improvement  in  his  methods  so  far  as  they 
depend  upon  geology.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  he  is  a  purely 
theoretical  man  without  a  detailed  practical  and  working 
acquaintance  with  the  facts  which  specially  concern  him, 
he  will  be  put  down  by  his  colleagues  as  unpractical ;  he 
will  have  to  learn  the  facts  as  quickly  as  he  can  and  buy 
his  experience  in  the  dearest  market. 

It  seems  to  me  that  there  is  certain  common  ground 
which  must  be  acquired  by  all  types  of  professional  men. 
The  general  petrographic  character  of  the  common  rocks, 
enough  of  their  mode  of  origin  to  aid  the  memory,  the 
principle  of  order  and  age  in  the  stratified  rocks,  the  use 
of  fossils  and  superposition  as  tests  of  age,  the  nature  of 
unconformities,  the  relation  of  structure  to  the  form  of  the 
giound,  the  occurrence  of  folds  and  faults,  and  above  all 
the  reading  of  maps  and  sections,  and  sufficient  field  work 
to  give  confidence  in  the  representation  of  facts  on  maps — 
these  things  are  required  by  everybody  who  makes  any  use 
of  geology  in  his  daily  life. 

But  when  so  much  has  been  acquired  it  should  be  possible 
to  separate  out  the  students  for  more  special  treatment. 
The  coal-miner  will  require  especially  a  full  knowledge  of 
the  coal-bearing  systems,  not  in  our  own  islands  merely, 
but  all  over  the  world  ;  a  special  acquaintance  with  the 
effects  of  folds  and  faults,  and  an  advanced  training  in  the 
maps  and  sections  of  coal-bearing  areas.  The  vein-miner 
should  be  well  up  in  faulting  and  all  the  geometrical  pro- 
blems associated  with  it,  and  he  should  have  an  exhaustive 
acquaintance  with  the  vein  and  metalliferous  minerals. 


486 


NATURE 


[September  17,  1903 


The  water  engrneer  needs  to  know  especially  well  the 
porous  and  impervious  rock  types,  the  texture  and  composi- 
tion of  these  rocks,  the  nature  of  their  cements  and  joints, 
and  the  distribution  of  water  levels  in  them.  Further,  he 
must  know  what  there  is  to  be  known  on  the  problems  of 
permeability  and  absorption,  the  relation  of  rain  to  supply, 
the  changes  undergone  by  water  and  the  paths  taken  by 
it  on  its  route  underground,  and  the  varying  nature  of  rocks 
in  depth.  He  must  also  realise  the  effects  of  folds  and 
faults  on  drainage  areas  and  on  underground  watercourses, 
th.""  special  qualities  of  water-yielding  rocks,  of  those  form- 
ing the  foundation  of  reservoir  sites,  and  those  suitable  for 
the  construction  of  dams. 

The  sanitary  engineer  will  need  to  be  acquainted  with 
the  same  range  of  special  knowledge  as  the  water  engineer, 
but  will  naturally  be  more  interested  in  getting  rid  of 
surface  water  without  contaminating  it  more  than  he  can 
help  than  in  obtaining  it ;  he  will  also  need  a  more  detailed 
acquaintance  with  superficial  deposits  than  any  other  class 
of  professional  men. 

The  quarryman  and  architect  ought  to  know  the  rocks 
both  macroscopically  and  microscopically,  in  their  chemical 
and  mineralogical  character,  their  grains  and  their  cements. 
But  he  ought  to  be  well  acquainted  with  the  laws  of  bedding, 
jointing,  and  cleavage,  with  questions  of  outcrop  and  under- 
ground extent,  and  all  those  other  characters  which  make 
the  difference  between  good  and  bad  stone,  or  between  one 
desirable  and  undesirable  in  the  particular  circumstances 
in  which  a  building  is  to  be  erected.  Further,  he  should 
make  a  particular  study  of  the  action  of  weight  and  weather 
on  the  rocks  which  he  employs. 

The  road  engineer  and  surveyor,  now  that  it  has  been 
discovered  that  it  is  cheaper  and  better  to  use  the  best  and 
most  lasting  road-metal  instead  of  any  that  happens  to  be 
at  hand,  requires  to  have  an  extensive  acquaintance  with 
our  igneous  and  other  durable  rocks.  He  needs,  however, 
not  only  petrographic  and  chemical  knowledge,  but  also  a 
type  of  information  not  at  present  accessible  in  England,  the 
relative  value  of  these  rocks  in  resisting  the  wear  and 
tear  of  traffic,  the  cementing  power  of  the  worn  material, 
and  the  surface  characters  of  roads  made  from  them,  in 
order  that  he  may  in  each  case  select  the  stone  which  in 
his  particular  circumstances  gives  the  best  value  for  money. 
It  would  surely  pay  the  county  councils  to  follow,  with 
modifications,  thfe  example  of  the  French  and  Americans, 
and  carry  out  a  deliberate  and  well-planned  series  of  ex- 
periments on  all  the  material  accessible  to  them  in  their 
respective  districts. 

The  teaching  of  the  application  of  Geology  should  there- 
fore take  some  such  form  as  the  following  : — First,  the 
principles  should  be  thoroughly  taught  with  the  use  for  the 
most  part  of  examples  drawn  from  the  economic  side ;  thus 
cernenting  might  be  illustrated  on  the  side  of  water  perco- 
lation, jointing  from  the  making  of  mine  roads  and  from 
quarry  sites,  faulting  from  effects  on  coal  outcrops  and 
veins,  unconformity  from  its  significance  to  the  coal-miner  ; 
while  in  teaching  the  sequence  of  stratified  rocks  the  systems 
and  stages  could  be  mainly  individualised  by  their  economic 
characters.  When  this  is  done  the  class  must  be  divided 
into  groups,  each  paying  special  attention  to  the  points 
which  are  of  essential  importance  to  them. 

The  teaching  at  all  stages  should  be  practical  and,  so  far 
as  can  be,  experimental,  and  in  all  cases  where  possible  a 
certain  amount  of  field  work  should  be  attempted.  For 
the  field  after  all  is  the  laboratory  of  the  geologist,  where 
he  can  observe  experiments  being  made  on  a  gigantic  scale 
under  his  eyes. 

The  aim  of  the  teaching  should  be  to  give  to  students 
the  equipment  necessary  to  deal  with  the  chief  geological 
problems  that  they  will  meet  with  in  their  varied  pro- 
fessions ;  it  should  show  them  where  to  go  for  maps, 
rnemoirs,  or  descriptions  of  the  areas  with  which  they  are 
dealing ;  and  in  cases  of  great  difficulty  should  enable  them 
to  see  where  further  geological  assistance  is  required,  and 
to  weigh  and  balance  the  expert  evidence  given  them 
against  the  economic  and  other  factors  of  the  problem 
before  them. 

From  men  educated  thus  Geology  has  the  right  to  expect 
a  valuable  return.  There  is  a  vast  amount  of  knowledge 
on  economic  subjects  in  existence  but  not  readily  accessible. 
It  has  been  obtained  by  experts,    and  after  being  used   is 

NO.    1768,   VOL.  68] 


locked  up  or  lost.  And  yet  it  is  the  very  kind  of  knowledge 
which  is  wanted  to  extend  our  principles  further  into  the 
economic  side  of  the  subject.  So  well  is  this  recognised 
that  many  geologists  are  attracted  to  economic  work  mainly 
because  of  the  wide  range  of  new  facts  that  they  can  only 
thus  become  acquainted  with.  It  is  possible  to  make  use 
of  many  of  these  facts  for  scientific  induction  without  in 
any  way  betraying  confidence  or  revealing  the  source  from 
which  they  are  obtained  ;  and  even  if  they  cannot  be  used 
directly  they  are  often  of  great  service  in  giving  moral 
support,  or  the  contrary,  to  working  hypotheses  founded 
on  other  evidence. 

The  knowledge  of  our  mineral  resources  is  of  such  vital 
consequence  to  ourselves  and  to  our  present  and  future 
welfare  as  a  nation,  and  yet  it  is  a  matter  of  so  much 
popular  misconception,  that  I  feel  bound  to  dwell  on  this 
subject  a  little  longer.  To  anyone  who  studies  the  growth 
and  distribution  of  population  in  any  important  modern 
State  the  facts  and  reasons  become  as  clear  as  day. 

It  is  easy  to  construct  maps  showing  at  a  glance  the 
density  of  population  in  any  country.  Perhaps  the  most 
effective  way  to  do  so  is  to  draw  a  series  of  isodemic  lines 
and  to  gradually  increase  the  depth  of  tint  within  them  as 
the  number  of  people  per  square  mile  increases  until  abso- 
lute blackness  represents,  say,  more  than  2000  people  per 
square  mile.  Such  maps  are  the  best  means  of  displaying 
the  geography  of  the  available  sources  of  energy  in  a 
country  at  any  particular  period,  Population  maps  of 
England  and  Wales  in  the  early  part  of  the  eighteenth 
century  would  be  pale  in  tint  with  a  few  rather  darker 
patches,  and  would  show  a  distribution  dependent  solely 
upon  food  as  a  source  of  energy  working  through  the 
medium  of  mankind  and  animals.  Such  maps  would  be 
purely  agricultural  and  maricultural,  dependent  upon  the 
harvests  of  the  land  and  sea.  Maps  made  at  a  later  period 
would  show  a  new  concentration  round  other  sources  of 
energy,  particularly  wind  and  water,  but  would  not  be 
perceptibly  darker  in  tint  as  a  whole  ;  for  although  we  are 
apt  to  think  that  we  have  in  this  country  too  much  wind 
and  water,  they  are  not  in  such  a  form  that  we  can  extract 
any  appreciable  supply  of  energy  directly  from  them. 

r?ut  maps  representing  the  present  population,  while  still 
mainly  energy  maps,  at  once  bring  out  the  fact  that  our 
leading  source  of  energy  is  now  coal  and  no  longer  food, 
wind,  or  water.  The  new  concentrations,  marked  now  by 
patches  and  bands  of  deepest  black,  have  shifted  away 
from  the  agricultural  regions  and  settled  upon  and  around 
the  coalfields.     The  map  has  now  become  geological. 

The  difference  between  the  old  and  the  new  map  is, 
however,  not  only  in  kind  ;  it  is  even  more  remarkable  in 
degree.  The  population  is  everywhere  mu' h  denser.  Not 
only  are  the  mining  and  manufacturing  areas  on  the  new 
map  more  than  eight  times  as  densely  populated  as  any 
areas  on  the  older  map,  not  only  is  the  average  population 
five  times  greater  throughout  the  country,  but  the  lightest 
spot  in  the  new  map  is  nearly  as  dark  as  the  darkest  spot 
on  the  old  one.  The  sparsest  population  at  the  present  day 
is  as  thick  on  the  ground  as  it  was  in  the  densest  spots 
indicated  on  the  older  map,  while  at  the  same  time  the 
standards  of  wages,  living,  and  comfort,  instead  of  de- 
creasing, have  increased. 

The  discovery  of  this  new  source  of  energy,  coal,  immedi- 
ately gave  employment  to  a  much  larger  number  of  people ; 
it  paid  for  their  food  and  provided  the  means  of  transport- 
ing it  from  the  uttermost  parts  of  the  earth.  Under  agri- 
cultural conditions  the  map  shows  that  the  population 
attained  a  given  maximum  density,  and  no  further  increase 
was  possible,  the  density  being  regulated  by  the  food  supply 
raised  on  the  surface  of  the  land.  Our  dwelling-house  was 
but  one  story  high.  Under  industrial  conditions  our 
mineral  resources  can  support  five  times  the  number.  Our 
dwelling-house  is  of  five  stories — one  above  ground  and 
four  below  it. 

At  the  same  time  the  type  of  distribution  is  altered.  The 
agricultural  areas  are  now  covered  by  a  relatively  scanty 
population,  and  the  dense  areas  are  situated  on  or  near 
to  the  coal  and  iron  fields,  the  regions  yielding  other  metals, 
those  suitable  for  industries  which  consume  large  supplies 
of  fuel,  and  a  host  of  new  distributing  centres,  nodal  points 
on  the  new  lines  of  traffic,  either  inside  the  cou'ntry  or  on 


September  17,  1903] 


NATURE 


487 


its  margins  where  the  great  routes  of  ocean  transport  con- 
verge, or  where  the  sea  penetrates  far  in  towards  the 
industrial  regions. 

It  has  been  the  good  fortune  of  this  country  to  be  the 
first  to  realise,  and  with  characteristic  energy  to  take 
advantage  of,  the  new  possibilities  for  development  opened 
up  by  the  discovery  and  utilisation  of  its  mineral  wealth. 
We  were  e.xceedingly  fortunate  in  having  so  much  of  this 
wealth  at  hand,  easy  to  get  and  work  from  geological  con- 
siderations, cheap  to  transport  and  export  from  geographical 
considerations.  So  we  were  able  to  pay  cash  for  the  pro- 
ducts of  the  whole  world,  to  handle,  manufacture,  and 
transport  them,  and  thus  to  become  the  traders  and  carriers 
of  the  world. 

But  other  nations  are  waking  up.  We  have  no  monopoly 
of  underground  wealth,  and  day  by  day  we  are  feeling  the 
competition  of  their  awakening  strength.  Can  we  carry 
on  the  straggle  and  maintain  the  lead  we  have  gained? 

In  answering  this  question  there  are  three  great  con- 
siderations to  keep  in  mind.  First,  our  own  mineral  wealth 
is  unexhausted ;  secondly,  that  of  our  colonies  is  as  yet 
almost  untouched ;  and  thirdly,  there  are  still  many  un- 
colonised  areas  left  in  the  world. 

The  very  plenty  of  our  coal  and  iron,  and  the  ease  of 
extracting  it,  has  been  an  economic  danger.  There  has 
been  waste  in  exploration  because  of  ignorance  of  the 
structure  and  position  of  the  coal-yielding  rocks  ;  waste  in 
extraction  because  of  defective  appliances,  of  the  working 
only  of  the  best-paying  seams  and  areas,  of  the  water 
difliculty,  and  the  want  of  well-kept  plans  and  records  of 
areas  worked  and  unworked  ;  waste  in  employment  because 
of  the  low  efficiency  of  the  machinery  which  turns  this 
energy  into  work.  With  all  this  waste  our  coalfields  have" 
hardly  yielded  a  miserable  one  per  cent,  of  the  energy  which 
the  coal  actually  possesses  when  in  situ. 

Engineers  and  miners  are  trying  to  diminish  two  of  these 
sources  of  waste,  and  Geology  has  done  something  to  re- 
duce that  of  exploration.  This  has  been  done  by  detailed 
mapping  and  study,  so  that  we  now  know  the  areas  covered 
by  the  coal-seams,  their  varying  thickness,  the  "  wants," 
folds,  and  faults  by  which  they  are  traversed,  and  all  that 
great  group  of  characters  designated  as  the  geological 
structure  of  the  coalfields.  It  could  not  have  been  accom- 
plished unless  unproductive  as  well  as  productive  areas  had 
been  studied,  the  margins  of  the  fields  mapped  as  well  as 
their  interiors,  and  unless  the  geological  principles  wrested 
from  all  sorts  of  rocks  and  regions  had  been  available  for 
application  to  the  coal  districts  in  question.  We  no  longer 
imagine  every  grey  shale  to  be  an  index  of  coal  ;  we  are 
not  frightened  by  every  roll  or  fault  we  meet  with  under- 
giound;  nor  do  we,  as  in  the  past,  throw  away  vast  sums 
of  money  in  sinking  for  coal  in  Cambrian  or  Silurian 
rocks. 

We  cannot  afford,  hard  bitten  as  we  are  in  the  rough 
school  of  experience  and  with  our  increased  knowledge, 
to  make  all  the  old  mistakes  over  again,  and  yet  we  are 
on  the  very  eve  of  doing  it.  Up  to  the  present  it  is  our 
visible  coalfields  that  we  have  been  working,  and  we  have 
got  to  know  their  extent  and  character  fairly  well.  But 
so  much  coal  has  now  been  raised,  so  much  wasted  in 
extraction,  and  so  many  areas  rendered  dang'erous  or  im- 
possible to  work,  that  we  cannot  shut  our  eyes  to  the  grave 
fact  that  these  visible  fields  are  rapidly  approaching  ex- 
haustion. The  Government  have  done  well  to  take  stock 
again  of  our  coal  supply  and  to  make  a  really  serious 
attempt  by  means  of  a  Royal  Commission  to  gauge  its 
extent  and  duration  ;  and  we  all  look  forward  to  that  Com- 
mission to  direct  attention  to  this  serious  waste  and  to  the 
possibility  of  better  economy  which  will  result  from  the 
fuller  application  of  scientific  method  to  exploration,  work- 
ing   and  employment. 

But  we  still  have  an  area  of  concealed  coalfields  left, 
possibly  at  least  as  large  and  productive  as  those  already 
explored  and  as  full  of  hope  for  increased  industrial  develop- 
ment. It  is  to  these  we  must  now  turn  attention  with  a 
view  of  obtaining  from  them  the  maximum  amount  possible 
of  the  energy  that  they  contain.  The  same  problems  which 
beset  the  earlier  explorers  of  the  visible  coalfields  will  again 
be  present  with  us  in  our  new  task,  and  there  will  be  in 
addition  a  host  of  new  ones,  even  more  difficult  and  costly, 
to  solve.     In  spite  of  this  the  task  will  have  to  be  under- 


NO.   1768,  VOL.  eZ'\ 


taken,  and  we  must  not  rest  until  we  have  as  good  a  know- 
ledge of  the  concealed  coalfields  as  we  have  of  those  at  the 
surface.  This  knowledge  will  have  to  be  obtained  in  the 
old  way  by  geological  surveying  and  mapping  and  by  the 
coordination  of  all  the  observations  available  in  the  pro- 
ductive rocks  themselves  and  in  those  associated  with  them, 
whether  made  in  the  course  of  geological  study  or  in  mining 
and  exploration.  But  now  the  work  will  have  to  be  done 
at  a  depth  of  thousands  instead  of  hundreds  of  feet,  and 
under  a  thick  cover  of  newer  strata  resting  unconformably 
on  those  we  wish  to  pierce  and  work.  When  we  get  under 
the  unconformable  cover  we  meet  the  same  geology  and 
th'i  same  laws  of  stratigraphy  and  structure  as  in  more 
superficial  deposits,  but  accurate  induction  is  rendered  in- 
creasingly ditticult  by  the  paucity  of  exposures  and  the  small 
number  of  facts  available  owing  to  the  great  expense  of 
deep  boring.  How  precious,  then,  becomes  every  scrap  of 
information  obtained  from  sinkings  and  borings,  not  only 
where  success  is  met  with,  but  where  it  is  not ;  and  how 
little  short  of  criminal  is  it  that  there  should  be  the  prob- 
ability that  much  of  this  information  is  being  and  will  be 
irretrievably  lost ! 

Mr.  Harmer  pointed  out  in  a  paper  to  this  Section  in 
1895  that  under  present  conditions  there  was  an  automatic 
check  on  all  explorations  of  this  kind.  The  only  person 
who  can  carry  it  out  is  the  landowner.  If  he  fails  he  loses 
his  money  and  does  not  even  secure  the  sympathy  of  his 
neighbours.  If  he  succeeds  his  neighbours  stand  to  gain 
as  much  as  he  does  without  sharing  in  the  expense.  The 
successful  explorer  naturally  conceals  the  information  he 
has  acquired  because  he  has  had  to  pay  so  heavily  for  it 
that  he  cannot  afford  to  put  his  neighbours  in  as  good  a 
position  as  himself  and  make  them  his  rivals  as  well ; 
while  the  unsuccessful  man  is  only  too  glad  to  forget  as 
soon  as  possible  all  about  his  unfortunate  venture.  And 
yet  in  work  of  this  kind  failure  is  second  only  to  success 
in  the  value  of  the  information  it  gives  as  to  the  under- 
giound  structure  which  it  is  so  necessary  to  have  if  deep 
mining  is  to  become  a  real  addition  to  the  resources  of  the 
country. 

Systematic  and  detailed  exploration,  guided  by  scientific 
principles,  and  advancing  from  the  known  to  the  unknown, 
ought  to  be  our  next  move  forward  :  a  method  of  explor- 
ation which  shall  benefit  the  nation  as  well  as  the  in- 
dividual, a  careful  record  of  everything  done,  a  body  of 
men  who  shall  interpret  and  map  the  facts  as  they  are 
acquired  and  draw  conclusions  with  regard  to  structure 
and  position  from  them^ — in  short  a  Geological  Survey  which 
shall  do  as  much  for  Hypogean  Geology  as  existing  surveys 
have  done  for  Epigean  Geology,  is  now  our  crying  need. 
Unless  something  of  this  sort  is  done,  and  done  in  a  system- 
atic and  masterful  manner,  we  run  a  great  risk  of  frittering 
away  the  most  important  of  our  national  resources  left  to 
u;,  of  destroying  confidence,  of  wasting  time  and  money  at 
a  most  precious  and  critical  period  of  our  history,  and  of 
slipping  downhill  at  a  time  when  our  equipment  and  re- 
sources are  ready  to  enable  us  to  stride  forward. 

We  do  not  want  to  be  in  the  position  of  a  certain  town 
council  which  kept  a  list  of  its  old  workmen  and  entered 
opposite  one,  formerly  sewerage  inspector,  that  he  possessed 
"  an  extensive  memory  which  is  at  the  disposal  of  the 
corporation." 

Even  supposing  the  scheme  outlined  by  Mr.  Harmer 
cannot  be  carried  out  in  its  complete  form,  a  great  deal 
will  be  done  if  mining  engineers  can  receive  a  sufficient 
geological  training  to  enable  them  to  realise  the  significance 
of  these  underground  problems,  so  that  they  can  recognise 
when  any  exploration  they  are  carrying  out  inside  their 
own  area  is  likely  to  be  of  far-reaching  geological  and 
economic  significance  outside  the  immediate  district  in 
which  they  are  personally  and   immediately  concerned. 

Turning  to  our  colonies  it  is  true  that  in  many  of  them 
much  is  being  done  by  competent  surveys  to  attain  a  know- 
ledge of  mineral  resources,  but  this  work  should  be  pushed 
forward  more  rapidly,  with  greater  strength  and  larger- 
staffs,  and  above  all  it  should  not  be  limited  to  areas  that 
happen  to  be  of  known  economic  value  just  at  (he  present 
moment.  It  is  almost  a  truism  that  the  scientific  principle 
of  to-day  is  the  economic  instrument  of  to-morrow,  and  it 
will  be  a  good  investment  to  enlarge  the  bqund^s  of  gpo- 
logical  theory,   trusting  to  the  inevitable  resnlt   thaf  e;yejry 


488 


NATURE 


[September  17,  1903 


new  principle  and  fact  discovered  will  soon  find  its  economic 
application.  Further,  it  is  necessary  that  we  should  obtain 
as  soon  as  possible  a  better  knowledge  of  the  mineral  re- 
sources of  the  smaller  and  thinly  inhabited  colonies,  pro- 
tectorates, and  spheres  of  influence.  This  is  one  of  the 
things  which  would  conduce  to  the  more  rapid,  effective 
occupation  of  these  areas. 

With  regard  to  areas  not  at  present  British  colonies,  it 
seems  to  me  that  no  great  harm  would  be  done  by  obtaining, 
not  in  any  obtrusive  way,  some  general  knowledge  of  the 
mineral  resources  of  likely  areas.  This  at  least  seems  to 
be  what  other  nations  find  it  worth  their  while  to  do,  and 
then,  when  the  opportunity  of  selection  arises,  they  are 
able  to  choose  such  regions  as  will  most  rapidly  fill  up 
and  soonest  yield  a  return  for  the  private  or  public  capital 
invested  in  them. 

To  sum  up,  I  consider  that  the  time  has  come  when 
geologists  should  make  a  firm  and  consistent  stand  for  the 
teaching  of  their  science  in  schools,  technical  colleges,  and 
universities.  Such  an  extension  of  teaching  will  of  course 
need  the  expenditure  of  time  and  money  ;  but  England  is 
at  last  beginning  to  wake  up  to  the  belief,  now  an  axiom 
in  Germany  and  America,  that  one  of  the  best  investments 
of  money  that  can  be  made  by  the  pious  benefactor  or  by 
the  State  is  that  laid  up  at  compound  interest,  "  where 
neither  rust  nor  moth  doth  corrupt,"  in  the  brains  of  its 
young  men. 

This  knowledge  has  been  an  asset  of  monetary  value  to 
hosts'  of  individuals  who  have  made  their  great  wealth  by 
the  utilisation  of  our  mineral  resources,  and  to  our  country, 
which  owes  its  high  position  among  the  nations  to  the 
power  and  importance  given  to  it  by  its  coal  and  iron.  It 
is  surely  good  advice  to  individuals  and  to  the  State  to  ask 
them  to  reinvest  some  of  their  savings  in  the  business  which 
has  already  given  such  excellent  returns,  so  that  they  and 
we  may  not  be  losers  through  our  lack  of  knowledge  of 
those  sources  of  energy  which  have  made  us  what  we  are, 
and  are  capable  of  keeping  for  many  years  the  position 
they  have  won  for  us. 

And  in  our  present  revival  of  education  it  would  be  well 
that  its  rightful  position  should  be  given  to  a  science  which 
is  useful  in  training  and  exercising  the  faculty  of  observ- 
ation and  the  power  of  reasoning,  which  conduces  to  the 
open-air  life  and  to  the  appreciation  of  the  beautiful  in 
nature,  which  places  its  services  at  the  disposal  of  the  allied 
sciences  of  topography  and  geography,  which  is  the  hand- 
maid of  many  of  the  useful  arts,  and  which  brings  about 
a  better  knowledge  and  appreciation  of  the  life  and  growth 
of  that  planet  which  we  inhabit  for  a  while,  and  wish  to 
hand  on  to  our  descendants  as  little  impaired  in  vitality  and 
energy  as  is  consistent  with  the  economic  use  of  our  own 
life-interest  in  it. 


iVOTE5. 

The  following  have  been  elected  Fellows  of  the  Reale 
Accademia  dei  Lincei  : — As  Ordinary  Fellows  ("  Soci 
nazionali  "),  Messrs.  J.  Dalla  Vedova  for  geography, 
A.  Naccari  for  physics,  C.  de  Stefani  for  geology,  A.  Borzl, 
J  Fano,  A.  Maffucci  for  zoology,  pathology,  &c.  As 
Corresponding  Fellows  ("  Corrispondenti  "),  Messrs.  P. 
Pizzetti  for  mechanics,  A.  Angeli  for  chemistry,  R.  Fusari 
and  A.  Stefani  for  zoology  and  physiology.  As  Foreign 
Fellows,  Messrs.  D.  Hilbert  and  J.  D.  van  der  Waals  for 
mathematics  and  mechanics,  J.  Thomson  and  H.  Becquerel 
for  physics,  R.  Lydekker  for  geology  and  palaeontology, 
E.  B.  Wilson,  T.  Schlosing,  P.  Sorauer  and  F.  Marchand 
for  zoology,  agronomy  and  pathology. 

The  prizes  offered  by  the  Reale  Accademia  dei  Lincei  for 
the  present  year  have  been  allotted  as  follows  : — Royal 
prizes  have  been  awarded  to  Prof.  Artini  for  mineralogy 
and  geology,  to  Prof.  Ghino  Valenti  for  social  and  economic 
science,  and  to  the  late  Prof.  Contardo  Ferrini  for  juris- 
prudence and  political  science.  Of  the  prizes  offered  by  the 
Minister  of  Public  Instruction,  awards  have  been  made  for 
NO.    1768,  VOL.   68] 


physical  and  chemical  science  to  Profs.  Cicconetti  and  Pier- 
paoli  (jointly),  and  to  Prof.  Baggio  Lera,  and  for  philology 
to  Profs.  Toldo,  G.  T^mbara  and  V.  Ussani.  The  Carpi 
prize  for  botany  has  been  conferred  on  Dr.  Biagio  Longo, 
of  Rome.  The  award  of  the  Royal  prize  for  mathematics 
has  been  deferred. 

We  have  received  a  copy  of  the  programme  of  prizes  to 
be  awarded  in  1904  by  the  Soci6t6  Industrielle  de  Mulhouse. 
The  present  publication  takes  the  place  of  all  previous  issues, 
and  copies  of  the  programme,  in  which  certain  changes 
have  been  made,  can  be  obtained  on  application  to  the 
secretary  of  the  society.  There  are  no  fewer  than  fifty-six 
competitions  concerned  with  chemical  technology,  more 
than  twenty  dealing  with  the  mechanical  arts,  and  twelve 
with  natural  history  and  agriculture.  Several  prizes  are 
off'ered  with  the  object  of  improving  and  stimulating  local 
industries.  The  programme  also  contains  full  particulars 
of  several  large  prizes  of  five  thousand  francs,  which  are 
awarded  for  scientific  work  at  intervals  of  in  some  cases 
ten,  and  in  others  five  years. 

The  death  is  announced,  at  the  age  of  eighty-one  years, 
of  the  Rev.  Maxwell  Henry  Close,  treasurer  of  the  Royal 
Irish  Academy,  and  author  of  numerous  contributions  to 
the  Proceedings  of  the  Royal  Irish  Academy. 

Violent  earthquake  shocks  of  seventeen  seconds'  duration 
are  reported  by  Reuter  to  have  been  experienced  in"^ 
Bucharest,  Roumania,  at  10  a.m.  on  Sunday  last. 

An  earthquake  is  stated  in  the  Globe  to  have  taken  place 
in  Lisbon  at  1.34  p.m.  on  Monday  last.  It  was  of  three 
seconds'  duration. 

Dr.  W.  H.  Allchin  is  to  deliver  the  Harveian  oration 
at  the  Royal  College  of  Physicians  of  London  on  Monday, 
October  19.  The  Bradshaw  lecture  (the  subject  of  which 
will  be  "  Some  Observations  on  Tuberculosis  of  the  Nervous 
System  ")  will  be  delivered  at  the  college  by  Dr.  E.  F. 
Trevelyan  on  Thursday,  November  5. 

A  COURSE  of  lectures  on  bacteriology  for  medical  men, 
veterinary  surgeons,  agriculturists,  brewers,  farmers,  sani- 
tary inspectors,  teachers  and  others  is  to  be  given  by  Dr. 
F.  Bushnell  at  Plymouth  under  the  direction  of  the  educa- 
tion authority  for  that  town.  The  lectures  will  be  illus- 
trated by  lantern  slides,  cultures  and  demonstrations,  and 
it  is  hoped  to  make  arrangements  for  a  class  of  practical 
bacteriology  in  the  future. 

An  International  Exhibition  of  Inventions  is  to  be  held 
at  Brighton  in  November  next.  The  object  of  the  exhibition 
is  to  afiford  inventors  and  patentees  an  opportunity  of  bring- 
ing their  inventions  before  the  notice  of  capitalists,  manu- 
facturers, and  users.  Awards  of  gold,  silver,  and  bronze 
medals  will  be  made  for  inventions  possessing  the  greatest 
merit  combined  with  commercial  utility. 

It  has  been  decided  to  start  a  school  of  colonial  medicine 
at  Marseilles,  and  Surgeon-Major  Martine,  of  the  colonial 
military  service,  has  just  been  appointed  by  the  French 
Minister  of  War  to  confer  with  the  municipality  of 
Marseilles  relative  to  its  establishment. 

The  U.S.  Consul-General  at  Frankfort  is  reported  by 
the  Chemist  and  Druggist  to  have  stated  that  "  the  city  of 
Dusseldorf  will  soon  have  the  first  academy  for  practical 
medicine  in  Germany,  and  it  will  be  in  connection  with  the 
new  hospital  to  be  erected."  Prof.  Witzel,  of  the  Uni- 
versity of  Bonn,  is  proposed  as  director  of  the  academy. 
The  establishment  of  other  similar  academies  is  under 
consideration. 


September  17,  1903] 


NATURE 


489 


:  An  exposition  is  to  be  held  in  Baltimore  under  the  auspices 
of  the  Maryland  Public  Health  Association  and  the  Tubercu- 
losis Commission  appointed  by  the  Governor. of  that  State, 
the  object  of  which  is  to  arouse  public  and  professional 
interest  in  the  subject  of  tuberculosis.  The  basis  for  the 
exposition  will,  says  the  Lancet,  be  the  investigations  of 
the  Tuberculosis  Commission  into  the  cause,  the  prevalence, 
and  the  distribution  of  human  tuberculosis  in  that  State, 
its  influence  on  the  public  welfare,  and  the  best  methods  of 
restricting  and  controlling  the  disease.  The  medical 
questions  involved,  the  importance  of  habits,  occupation, 
and  housing  conditions  will  receive  consideration.  The 
ultimate  purpose  of  the  exposition  is  to  determine  the  proper 
legislation,  municipal,  State,  and  national,  to  be  recom- 
mended, some  definite  line  of  prophylaxis,  as  well  as 
measures  relating  to  the  care  and  cure  of  both  advanced 
and  incipient  cases  of  pulmonary  tuberculosis. 

It  is  stated  in  the  British  Medical  Journal  that  a  number 
of  consumptive  patients  have  been  taken  by  Dr.  Kuss,  of 
Paris,  to  the  Vallot  Observatory,  near  the  summit  of 
Mont  Blanc,  for  the  purpose  of  ascertaining  the  effect  of 
rarefied  air  on  their  lungs.  The  patients  remain  in  the 
open  for  the  greater  part  of  the  twenty-four  hours  in  every 
kind  of  weather. 

The  next  meeting  of  the  International  Congress  of 
Ophthalmology  is  to  take  place  at  Lucerne  from  September 
19  to  21  of  next  year,  under  the  presidency  of  Prof.  Dufour. 
According  to  the  official  circular  which  has  recently  been 
distributed,  no  papers  are  to  be  read,  but  such,  if  written 
in  English,  French,  German,  or  Italian,  and  sent  with  the 
admittance  fee  before  May  i  next  to  Prof.  Mellinger,  of 
Basle,  will  be  printed  and  grouped  according  to  their  sub- 
jects, and  this  printed  report  will  be  sent  to  each  member 
with  his  admission  card  at  least  two  weeks  before  the  date 
appointed  for  the  opening  of  the  congress.  At  the  meetings 
the  authors  of  the  papers  will  have  the  opportunity  of  stating 
the  conclusion  of  their  respective  papers  in  a  few  words,  and 
the  discussion  will  then  commence.  Members  present  who 
are  interested  in  the  subject  of  the  paper  will,  of  course, 
have  had  the  opportunity  of  reading  the  paper  before  the 
opening  of  the  congress.  The  discussions  will  be  printed 
and  published  at  the  close  of  the  congress,  and  possibly 
papers  received  too.  late  to  be  printed  before  the  opening  of 
the  congress  will  also  be  discussed  and  printed  with  the 
discussions.  The  afternoons  of  the  congress  will  be  devoted 
to  practical  demonstrations. 

The  Paris  Society  of  Pharmacy  is  to  celebrate  its 
centenary  on  October  17,  and  in  connection  with  it  an 
historical  account  of  the  Society  has  been  prepared  and  will 
be  read  by  Prof.  E.  M.  Bourquelot,  the  general  secretary, 
at  a  public  meeting.  This  history,  together  with  other 
original  matter  that  may  be  supplied  by  members  of  the 
Society,  will,  says  the  Chemist  and  Druggist,  form  the 
material  of  a  book  which  will  be  published  later.  The 
work  will  also  contain  the  portraits  and  biographies  of 
leading  pharmacists  and  chemists  who  have  been  connected 
with  the  Society,  such  as  Nicolas  Hoiiel,  the  founder,  the 
"  Citizen  "  Trusson,  one  of  the  last  directors  of  the  Free 
Society  of  Pharmacists,  Parmentier,  Vauquelin,  Bouillon- 
Lagrange,  and  others. 

A  MEETING  was  recently  held  in  America,  under  the  chair- 
manship of  Dn  D.  C.  Gilman,  to  promote  a  proposed 
memorial  to  the  late  Major  Reed,  M.D.,  well  known  for  his 
work  in  connection  with  the  discovery  of  the  mode  by 
which  yellow  fever  has  been  spread,  and  the  suppression 
of  the  disease.  According  to  Science  the  meeting  decided 
NO.    17-68.  VOL.  68] 


that  an  effort  should  be  made  to  raise  a  memorial  fund  o£ 
25,000  dollars  or  more,  the  income  to  be  given  to  the  widow; 
and  daughter  of  Dr.  Reed,  and  that  after  their  decease  the 
principal  shall  be  appropriated  either  to  the  promotion  of  re- 
searches in  Dr.  Reed's  special  field,  or  to  the  erection  o£ 
a  memorial  in  his  honour  at  Washington. 

Particulars,  according  to  the  Lancet,  have  been  received 
of  the  medical  results  of  the  expedition  of  investigation  to 
the  Bahamas  which  was  sent  out  some  time  ago  by  the 
Johns  Hopkins  University  and  the  Baltimore  Geographical 
Society,  from  which  we  glean  the  follov/ing.  Skin  diseases, 
and  especially  leprosy,  were  found  to  be  very  prevalent.  No 
effort  is  made  to  prevent  the  spread  of  leprosy,  and  many 
instances  were  noted  where  persons  suffering  from  that 
disease  were  engaged  in  the  sale  of  provisions,  in  piloting 
vessels,  and  in  other  pursuits.  -No  cases  of  yellow  fever 
were  discovered,  and  but  two  cases  of  malaria  were  recog- 
nised. Many  species  of  mosquito  were  secured  for  subse- 
quent study.  A  special  feature  of  the  work  of  the  medical 
department  was  the  study  of  the  degenerates  of  Abaco, 
descendants  of  the  Torys,  who  closely  intermarry. 

According  to  the  Times  a  prehistoric  British  barrow  has 
just  been  opened  at  Martinstown,  Dorset.  The  barrow 
contained  worked  flints,  a  quantity  of  pottery,  and  a  large 
British  urn  inverted  on  a  slab  of  stone,  covering  some 
cremated  remains  which  had  been  wrapped  in  a  rough 
material  of  cloth  or  rushes,  the  texture  of  the  weaving  of 
which  was  still  traceable.  In  another  barrow  close  by  have 
been  found  a  vase  and  a  bronze  knife  with  a  portion  of  a 
willow  handle. 

On  this  day  week,  September  10,  a  storm  of  unusual 
violence  advanced  over  the  central  portion  of  the  British 
Islands,  causing  enormous  damage  in  its  passage  over  sea 
and  land.  The  Daily  Weather  Report  issued  by  the  Meteor- 
ological Office  for  8h.  a.m.  of  that  day  showed  that  a  de- 
pression lay  to.  the  westward  of  the  Irish  coasts ;  by  6h. 
p.m.  the  disturbance  reached  the  Irish  Sea,  and  had 
advanced  at  the  rate  of  about  fifty  miles  an  hour,  while 
by  the  evening  it  had  spread  over  nearly  the  whole  country. 
So  rapid  was  its  rate  of  progression  that  the  Daily  Weather 
Report  of  the  morning  of  September  11  showed  that  the 
centre  of  the  storm  had  reached  the  north  of  Holland. 
The  destruction  was  so  general  that  it  seems  somewhat 
invidious  to  refer  to  individual  instances.  We  merely  quote 
two  cases  to  illustrate  its  violence — the  demolition  of  the 
solid  breakwater  at  Dover,  and  the  uprooting  of  trees  in 
the  vicinity  of  London  that  had  withstood  the  storms  of  a 
hundred  years.  During  the  passage  of  the  gale  the  baro- 
meter fell  at  the  unusual  rate  of  more  than  01  inch  an 
hour.  The  velocity  of  the  wind  to  the  southward  of  the 
centre  of  the  storm  was  much  greater  than  to  the  north- 
ward ;  near  the  mouth  of  the  Channel  on  the  evening  of 
September  10  it  reached  nearly  70  miles  an  hour.  The 
rainfall  measured  in  the  twenty-four  hours  ending  on  Friday 
exceeded  an  inch  and  a  half  in  the  north-west,  aftd  an  inch 
and  a  quarter  in  fhe  east  of  England. 

The  September  issue  of  the  Meteorological  Office  pilot 
chart  contains,  in  addition  to  the  twelve  maps  showing  the 
tidal  streams  round  the  British  Isles,  a  reproduction  of  Dr. 
Hermann  Berghaus's  chart  of  cotidal  lines  round  our  own 
and  the  North  Sea  coasts,  with  explanatory  remarks  by  Prof. 
G.  H,  Darwin.  To  render  the  information  more  complete 
to  the  mariner,  there  is  a  table  giving  the  times  of  high 
water  at  Dover  throughout  the  month.  Another  addition 
deals  with  a  proposal  to  alter  the  steamship  route  between 
the  Bristol  Channel  and  Jamaica.     A  comparison  has  been 


490 


NATURE 


[September  17,  1903 


instituted  to  show  the  merits  and  demerits  of  the  Great 
Circle  track,  3524  miles ;  the  Rhumb  track,  3603  miles ; 
and  the  suggested  route  iii&.  the  Azores  and  the  Mona 
passage,  3722  miles.  The  conclusion  arrived  at  is  that, 
"  taking  into  consideration  the  wind  direction,  the  wind 
force,  and  the  sea-surface  currents,  it  seems  safe  to  assume 
that  the  Azores  routes  will  be  covered  by  a  vessel  at  her 
usual  speed  in  an  interval  of  time  certainly  not  greater  than 
that  occupied  by  the  same  ship  in  following  either  the 
Great  Circle  route  or  the  Rhumb  track,  and  probably  in 
less." 


The  report  of  the  Meteorological  Commission  of  Cape 
Colony  for  the  year  1901  shows  a  considerable  falling  off 
as  regards  the  number  of  stations,  compared  with  that  of 
the  previous  year,  owing  to  the  difTiculties  of  observation 
and  communication  under  the  operation  of  Martial  Law 
within  the  colony.  Nevertheless,  the  commission  has  been 
able  to  publish  rainfall  statistics  from  436  stations,  ex- 
cluding those  connected  with  the  Kenilworth  Observatory, 
and  a  large  amount  of  valuable  general  meteorological 
observations.  Many  of  the  stations  destroyed  or  discon- 
tinued were  situated  in  the  more  sparsely  populated  dis- 
tricts, and  it  is  estimated  that  it  will  take  years  to  recover 
the  lost  ground.  The  commission  reports,  however,  that 
there  is  an  awakening  sense  of  the  importance  of  meteor- 
ology among  the  governing  bodies  of  the  other  British 
South  African  territories,  and  that,  in  spite  of  the  troublous 
times  recently  passed  through,  the  prospects  of  the  de- 
velopment of  meteorological  observations  are  much  brighter 
now  than  ever  they  have  been.  We  wish  the  commission 
success  in  the  continuation  of  its  very  useful  operations. 

Particulars  are  given  in  the  Scientific  American  of  an 
ingenious  invention  which  has  been  brought  out  to  notify 
automatically  the  outbreak  of  fire,  and  to  indicate  to  the 
fire  stations  the  name  and  position  of  the  building  which 
is  in  danger.  Of  the  device,  which  is  the  invention  of 
M.  Emile  Guarini,  the  essential  feature  is  a  thermometer 
which  is  so  arranged  that  it  is  capable  of  releasing  a  toothed 
wheel  which  serves  to  transmit  the  requisite  information. 
When  the  heat  reaches  the  thermometer  and  the  mercury 
rises  in  the  tube  until  it  reaches  the  mark  indicated  by 
42°  on  the  Reaumur  scale  it  touches  a  small  platinum  wire 
inserted  in  the  upper  end  of  the  tube,  and  thereby  closes  an 
electric  circuit  including  an  electro-magnet.  Thus  excited 
the  magnet  attracts  and  holds  its  armature.  This  motion 
releases  a  toothed  wheel  of  peculiar  construction,  which,  by 
means  of  a  weight  or  spring,  is  made  to  revolve,  and  pro- 
duces during  each  revolution  a  series  of  makes  and  breaks 
upon  a  contact  piece  placed  in  its  path.  A  connected  in- 
duction coil  describes  the  exact  location  of  the  endangered 
property  to  the  neighbouring  fire  station,  where  the  message 
is  registered  by  a  Morse  apparatus,  and  the  attention  of 
the  attendants  is  directed  by  an  electric  gong  to  the  signal 
received.  An  incandescent  lamp  also  glows  when  the  alarm 
is  sounded. 

It  will  not  be  owing  to  want  of  help  from  the  Imperial 
Department  of  Agriculture  if  West  Indian  planters  fail  to 
get  profitable  returns  from  their  land.  In  the  last  number 
of  the  West  Indian  Bulletin  the  value  of  ground  nuts, 
Eucalyptus  trees,  and  the  bay  tree  is  brought  to  notice. 
Mr.  W.  G.  Freeman  has  collected  much  practical  inform- 
ation on  the  subject  of  ground  nuts,  known  also  as  monkey 
nuts  and  pea  nuts.  Besides  furnishing  oils  of  which  the 
best  grades  ai-e  nearly  equal  to  olive  oil,  the  ground  nut, 
Arachis  hypogaea,  offers  another  source  of  profit,  since  it 
may  be  manufactured  into  oil-cake,  for  which '  there  is 
evident  deiliahd,  as  at  the  present  time  large  quantities  are 
NO.    1768,  VOL.    68] 


imported.  For  the  manufacture  of  bay  oil  and  bay  rum 
the  tree  Pintenta  acris  has  a  considerable  value ;  it  is  in- 
digenous to  many  of  the  islands,  but  must  be  distinguished 
from  the  tree  known  as  "  bois  d'Inde  citron  "  iri  Dominica, 
the  product  from  which  is  inferior. 

Judging  from  a  circular  which  has  been  received  from  the 
Forestry  Bureau  of  the  U.S.  Department  of  Agriculture 
the  lumbermen  of  the  United  States  of  America  do  not 
yet  thoroughly  recognise  that  their  interests  coincide  with 
those  of  the  forester.  Of  the  three  papers  included  in  the 
circular,  the  first  is  an  address  delivered  by  President 
Roosevelt  in  which  he  states  that  "the  forest  problem  is 
in  many  ways  the  most  vital  internal  problem  in  the  United 
States."  Chief-forester  Pinchot  discusses  the  mutual  posi- 
tion of  the  lumberman  and  the  forester. 

We  have  received  a  chart  of  fossil  shells  found  in  con- 
nection with  the  seams  of  coal  and  ironstone  in  nor.th 
Staffordshire,  drawn  up  by  Dr.  Wheelton  Hind  and  Mr.  J.  T. 
Stobbs.  There  are  columns  showing  the  strata  met  with 
in  the  Potteries  and  Cheadle  coal-fields,  but  the  information 
relates  chiefly  to  the  former  and  more  important  district. 
The  species  figured  are  chiefly  Mollusca,  and  they  are 
arranged  alongside  the  divisions  which  they  characterise. 
The  chart  is  published  by  the  North  Staffordshire  Institute 
of  Mining  and  Mechanical  Engineers,  and  it  should  prove 
of  practical  use  to  mining  students  and  to  those  engaged  in 
sinking  for  coal. 

Dr.  J.  F.  Whiteaves  has  described  some  additional  fossils 
from  the  Cretaceous  rocks  of  Vancouver,  and  has  given  a 
revised  list  of  the  species  therefrom,  in  the  fifth  and  con- 
cluding part  of  his  first  volume  on  Mesozoic  fossils  (Geol. 
Survey  of.  Canada,  August).  A  number  of  Crustacea,  of 
Cephalopoda  and  other  Mollusca,  and  Brachiopoda  are 
figured.  Echinoderms  are  represented  only  by  fragments, 
and  corals  and  Polyzoa  by  two  or  three  specimens.  A  few 
fish-remains  occur,  including  Lamna  appendiculata,  which 
extends  through  the  Upper  Cretaceous  strata,  and  ranges 
from  northern  Europe  to  New  Jersey  and  Queensland. 

Dr.  Ernest  W.  Skeats  contributes  an  essay  on  the 
chemical  composition  of  limestones  from  upraised  coral 
islands,  with  notes  on  their  microscopic  structure  (Bull. 
Museum  Comp.  Zool.,  Harvard  Coll.,  vol.  xlii.).  The  rocks 
consist  of  true  coral  reefs  and  of  fragmental  strata  made  up 
of  organic  debris.  The  author,  after  describing  the 
materials,  briefly  discusses  the  relation  of  the  distribution 
of  magnesium  carbonate  in  the  limestones  to  the  question 
of  the  origin  of  dolomite.  It  seems  probable  that  the  in- 
troduction of  magnesium  into  the  rocks  takes  place  from 
the  waters  of  lagoons  under  certain  favourable  conditions. 

In  addition  to  his  presidential  address  on  the  distribution 
of  life  in  the  Antarctic,  Dr.  H.  Woodward  contributes  a 
paper  on  East  Anglian  geology  to  the  Transactions  of  the 
Norfolk  and  Norwich  Natiiralists'  Society  for  1902-1903. 

We  have  received  two  parts  of  the  Bulletin  International 
(Rospravy  Ceske  Ak.  Praze)  for  1903.  Among  their  con- 
tents, reference  may  be  made  to  an  important  article,  by. 
Dr.  O.  Volker,  on  the  development  of  the  pancreas  in  the 
amniote  vertebrates,  and  to  a  second,  by  Prof.  J.  Janosik,  on 
that  of  the  blood  corpuscles  in  the  same  great  group. 

A  LENGTHY  illustrated  account  of  the  "  Bathymetrical 
Survey  of  the  Fresh-water  Lochs  of  Scotland  "  appears  in 
the  current  Geographical  Journal,  the  introductory  portion 
of  which  gives  the  history  of  the  origin  of  the  survey  ;  this 
is  followed  by  particulars  of  some  six  of  the  lochs.  The , 
Geographical  Journal  is  to  publish  the  bathymetrical  maps 


September  17,  1903] 


NATURE 


491 


and  the  other  observations  of  the  survey  staff,  and  the 
series  of  articles  will,  it  is  hoped,  when  completed,  form  a 
worthy  memorial  of  the  late  Mr.  F.  P.   Pullar. 

The  September  issue  of  the  American  Journal  of  Science 
contains,  as  frontispiece,  a  process  portrait  of  Prof.  J. 
Willard  Gibbs,  and  an  obituary  notice  of  Prof.  Gibbs  by 
Prof.  H.  A.  Bumstead.  The  number  also  contains  an 
article  by  Mr.  J.  Stanley  Gardiner,  of  Cambridge,  on  "  The 
Origin  of  Coral  Reefs  as  shown  by  the  Maldives." 

The  September  issue  of  the  Popular  Science  Monthly 
(New  York)  is  full  of  interesting  matter,  and  contains, 
among  other  contributions,  articles  on  "  Palm  and  Sole 
Impressions  and  their  use  for  Purposes  of  Personal  Identifi- 
cation," by  Prof.  H.  H.  Wilder;  "  Theories  of  Sleep,"  by 
Dr.  P.  G.  Stiles;  "Mosquitoes  and  Suggestions  for  their 
Extermination,"  by  W.  L.  Underwood;  and  part  iv.  of  a 
series  of  articles  by  Prof.  J.  A.  Fleming,  F.R.S.,  on 
"  Hertzian  Wave  Wireless  Telegraphy." 

-Messrs.  Watts  and  Co.  have  issued,  for  the  Rationalist 
Pjtss  Association,  a  reprint,  at  si.xpence,  of  the  first  edition 
of  "  The  Origin  of  Species."  It  will  be  remembered  that 
an  edition  of  the  final  form  of  this  great  classic  was  brought 
out  not  long  ago  by  Mr.  Murray  in  paper  covers  at  one 
shilling. 

The  additions  to  the  Zoological  Society's  Gardens  during 
the  past  week  include  a  Sooty  Mangabey  (Cercocebus  fuli- 
ginosus)  from  West  Africa,  presented  by  Mr.  C.  Pells ; 
two  .Masai  Ostriches  (Struthio  camelus,  var.  massaicus) 
from  East  Africa,  presented  by  Mr.  A.  Marsden  ;  two  Grey- 
breasted  Parrakeets  (Myopsittacus  monachus)  from  Monte 
Video,  presented  by  Mr.  C.  Martin;  a  Vervet  Monkey 
(Cercopithecus  lalandii)  from  South  Africa,  two  Mozambique 
Monkeys  {Cercopithecus  pygerythrus)  from  East  Africa,  a 
Black-striped  Wallaby  (Macropus  dorsalis),  a  Black-tailed 
Wallaby  {Macropus  walabates),  a  Rufous  Hare  Wallaby 
{Lagorchestes  hirsutus)  from  New  South  Wales,  two  Black- 
headed  Caiques  {Caia  melanocephala)  from  Demerara,  an 
Australian  Barn  Owl  {Strix  delicatula),  a  Winking  Owl 
{Ninox  connivens),  a  Burton's  Lizard  {Lialis  burtoni),  a 
Limbless  Lizard  {Pygopus  lepidopus)  from  Australia,'  a 
Javan  Loris  {Nycticebus  jqvanicus)  from  Java,  two  Grey 
Monitors  {Varanus  griseus)  from  North  Africa,  two  Muri- 
cated  Lizards  {Amphibolurus  muricatus)  from  Australia, 
deposited. 


OUR  ASTRONOMICAL  COLUMN. 
Search-ephemeris  for  Comet  1896  v.  (Giacobim)  — Herr 
M.  Ebell  contributes  to  No.  3898  of  the  Astronomische 
Nachnchten  a  second  portion  of  the  ephemeris  for  comet 
1896  v.  which  he  commenced  in  No.  3881  of  the  same 
journal.  This  ephemeris  takes  as  the  time  of  perihelion 
June  22  5,  1903,  but  Herr  Ebell  also  gives  ephemerides  in 
which  the  time  of  perihelion  passage  is  taken  as  June  6c 
and  Julv  85  respectively.  ' 


Efhe 


\2h.   M.T.  {Berlin).     T=  June  225    190J. 


1903 

a 

h.    m.    s. 

ept.  26  . 

•  4     4  43  •• 

„     30 

•4     S  48  . 

)ct.      4  . 

•  469. 

„       8  . 

•  4     5  47  . 

>>      12  . 

••4  -4  45- 

M            16    . 

•4    3    4. 

„           20    . 

•  4    0  49  . 

»            24     . 

•  3  58    3  . 

log  r 

o  2492 

02604 


•  3  54  51 


+  14    12-2 

+  13   297 

-f-  12   450 

+  11    590 

+  11     12-2   ...  02717 

+  10  24  9 

+  9  J7-8  ...  0-2831 

+  8  51-4 

+  8    6-5  ...  0-2943 


NO. 


1768,  VOL.  68] 


00177 
..  o  on  1 

-  9-9973 
. .  o  0076 
..  o  0130 


Bright- 
ness. 
.  266 

.  261 

.  2  64 

239 

2  21 


Intensity  of  Spectral  Lines. — Circular  No.  72  of  the 
Harvard  College  Observatory  is  devoted  to  the  explanation 
of  a  scheme,  proposed  by  Prof.  Pickering,  for  the  form- 
ation of  a  uniform  universal  method  of  recording  the 
absolute  intensities  of  spectral  lines. 

Comparative  intensities  are  easily  determined,  in  the  case 
of  bright  lines  by  the  bolometric  method,  in  the  case  of 
dark  lines  by  using  the  bright  background  as  the  standard 
unity  intensity.  Absolute  values,  however,  are  much  more 
difficult  to  determine,  and  two  methods  offered  themselves 
to  Prof.  Pickering's  choice.  First,  the  determination  once 
for  all  of  the  intensities  of  certain  well-known  lines ; 
secondly,  the  construction  of  an  artificial  standard  with 
which  ail  lines  might  be  directly  compared  ;  he  decided  to 
use  the  second  method. 

A  standard  scale  was  constructed  in  which  each  line  was 
1-26  times  as  wide  as  the  one  next  below  it,  so  that  the 
logarithms  of  their  widths  diff'ered  by  o  i,  and  the  scale 
was  then  reduced  rather  more  than  twenty  times  and  printed 
on  sensitised  paper,  the  haziness,  which  is  characteristic  of 
real  spectral  lines,  being  produced  by  inserting  various 
thicknesses  of  white  paper  between  the  negative  and  the 
sensitive  paper. 

To  standardise  this  prepared  scale  the  line  E  of  the 
Fraunhofer  spectrum  on  Higgs's  charts  was  used,  and  the 
intensities  of  thirty-six  lines  between  X  5261-8  and  A.  52762 
were  measured,  on  the  scale,  on  five  different  charts,  and 
the  five  independent  scale  readings,  their  mean,  the 
residuals  from  the  mean  and  the  width  of  each  line  in 
Angstrom  units,  are  given  in  the  table  accompanying  Prof. 
Pickering's  paper. 

A  Provisional  Catalogue  of  Variable  Stars. — No.  3 
vol.  xlviii.  of  the  Harvard  College  Observatory  Annals  is 
devoted  to  a  provisional  catalogue  of  variable  stars  in  which 
reference  is  made  to  some  1227  different  variables.  The  cata- 
logue has  been  prepared  from  a  card-index  of  variable  stars, 
commenced  by  Prof.  W.  M.  Reed  in  1888,  and  carried  for- 
ward by  Miss  A.  J.  Cannon  since  1900,  which  now  contains 
about  34,000  cards  referring  to  observations  of  variables. 

A  new  notation  has  been  adopted  after  grave  consideration 
in  this  catalogue.  Each  star  is  designated  by  a  number 
containing  six  figures,  which  are  printed  in  ordinary  type 
if  the  star  is  in  the  northern  hemisphere  and  in  italics  if 
it  is  in  the  southern.  The  first  two  figures  give  the  hours 
and  the  second  two  the  minutes  in  the  R..\.,  whilst  the 
last  two  give  the  degrees  in  the  declination ;  thus  the 
designation  of  the  first  star  in  the  catalogue  (V.  Sculptoris) 
is  ooojjg  which,  when  translated,  gives  the  approximate 
position  of  the  star  as  R.A.=oh.  3m.,  Dec.  =  —39°. 

The  catalogue  also  gives  the  Chandler  number,  the  name 
of  the  star  or  its  constellation,  the  D.M.  number,  the  exact 
position  for  1900,  the  chief  particulars  of  the  elements,  the 
class  of  the  variable  and  of  its  spectrum,  and  the  date  of 
discovery,  with  the  name  of  the  discoverer,  for  each 
variable. 

Mass  of  Mercury. — In  No.  3897  of  the  Astronomische 
Nachrichten,  Prof.  T.  J.  J.  See,  of  Washington,  gives  the 
results  of  his  recomputation  of  the  mass  of  Mercury,  and 
points  out,  en  passant,  the  importance  to  workers  in 
celestial  mechanics  of  obtaining  the  truest  possible  value 
of  this  constant. 

The  latest  measurements  of  the  planet's  diameter  have 
slightly  increased  the  former  values,  and  Prof.  See  adopts 
6"  00  as  the  most  probable  value  of  the  diameter  at  unit 
distance;  this  gives  an  absolute-  diameter  of  4351  ± 72km. 
and  a  resulting  mass  of  171  =  1:148685481743427,  which 
Prof.  See  adopts  as  the  definite  value.  The  mean  specific 
gravity  of  the  planet,  with  this  mass,  is  3  09,  and  this 
conforms  very  well  with  the  other  densities  obtaining  in 
the  solar  system. 

Corrections  to  Existing  Star  Catalogues. — Since  the 
publication  of  the  "  Catalogue  of  Reference  Stars  in  the 
Zone  +46°  to  +55°,"  by  the  Royal  Observatory  of  Catania, 
Signor  G.  Boccardi  has  discovered  a  number  of  errors  in 
various  existing  catalogues.  These  are  set  forth  and  their 
corrections  given  in  «  paper  communicated  by  him  to  No. 
3898  of  the  Astronomische  Nachrichten  ;  they  include  errata 
in  the  coordinates  and  in  the  precessional  corrections. 

Twelve  catalogues  are  dealt  with,  including,  amone 
others,' "  The  Radcliffe  Catalogue  of  6317  Stars  (18450),' 


492 


NATURE 


[September  17,  1903 


"The  Brussels  Catalogue  of  10,792  Stars  (18650),"  "The 
Harvard  College  Catalogue  of  8627  Stars,  A.G.  Zone 
4-50°  to  +55°  "  (Leipzig,  1892),  and  "  The  Bonn  Cata- 
logue of  18,457  Stars  (18750),  A.G.  Zone  +40°  to  +50°," 
published  at  Leipzig  in  1894. 

UNIVERSITY    AND    EDUCATIONAL 
INTELLIGENCE. 

Oxford. — An  examination  for  a  geographical  scholarship 
of  the  value  of  60I.  will  be  held  on  Wednesday,  October  14. 
Candidates,  who  must  have  taken  honours  in  one  of  the 
final  schools  of  the  university,  should  send  in  their  names 
to  the  reader  in  geography  not  later  than  Thursday, 
October  i.  The  scholar  elected  will  be  required  to  attend 
the  full  course  of  instruction  at  the  School  of  Geography 
during  the  academic  year  1903-4,  and  to  enter  for  the 
university  diploma  in  geography  in  June,  1904. 


Dr.  F.  H.  Newman,  principal  of  the  Carlisle  Technical 
School  and  director  of  higher  education  in  that  city,  has  been 
appointed  principal  of  the  Norwich  Technical  Institute  and 
organiser  of  higher  education. 

It  is  stated  in  Science  that  a  gift  of  ten  thousand  dollars 
has  been  made  to  Washington  and  Lee  University  by  Mrs. 
Cjrus  H.  McCormick  and  her  three  sons,  of  Chicago,  the 
interest  of  which  sum  is  to  be  devoted  to  the  development 
of  the  department  of  physics.  A  new  laboratory  of  engineer- 
ing and  physics,  the  gift  of  an  anonymous  donor,  is  ex- 
pected to  be  ready  for  occupation  in  the  summer  of  next 
year. 

The  evening  continuation  schools  in  connection  with  the 
School  Board  for  London  reopened  on  September  14.  As 
the  School  Board  will  cease  to  exist  after  the  end  of  April 
next  the  present  session  will  be  the  last  under  the  Board. 
.Among  the  numerous  classes  arranged  we  notice  that 
doctors  and  nurses  will  teach  first  aid  and  home  nursing 
in  upwards  of  two  hundred  schools.  There  will  also  be 
facilities  for  women  and  girls  to  learn  practical  cookery, 
dress-cutting  and  making,  and  laundrywork,  and  for  men 
and  boys  to  receive  instruction  in  woodwork.  The  lantern 
will,  in  many  cases,  be  used  to  illustrate  the  lessons  in 
geography.  The  Board  has  arranged  for  medical  men  to 
give  simple  lectures  on  health  in  twenty  schools  ;  the  sub- 
jects will  include  the  air  and  ventilation,  the  house,  pre- 
vention of  consumption,  the  care  of  the  skin,  personal 
hv-riene,  how  to  prevent  the  spread  of  infectious  disease, 
the  care  cf  infancy  and  childhood,  ill-health  in  women,  &c.  ; 
all  the  lectures  will  be  illustrated  by  diaorams,  and  many 
simple  experiments  will  be  shown  by  the  lecturers. 

The  Board  of  Education,  South  Kensington,  has  issued 
the  following  list  of  candidates  successful  in  the  IQ03  com- 
petition for  the  Whitworth  scholarships  and  exhibitions  :— 
Scholarships,  125L  a  year  each  (tenable  for  three  years), 
John  S.  Nicholson,  Alford,  Aberdeenshire ;  Leonard 
Southerns,  Retford,  Notts.  ;  Alec  J.  Simpson,  Edinburgh  ; 
Alexander  Gray,  Edinburgh.  Exhibitions,  50/.  (tenable  for 
one  year),  Frederick  G.  Turner,  Southsea  ;  James  Cunning- 
ham, Banbury ;  William  Welch,  London  ;  Edmund  W. 
Spalding,  Lincoln ;  William  E.  Hogg,  London  ;  Alfred  R. 
Stamford,  Plumstead,  Kent ;  Joseph  Lloyd,  Pembroke 
Dock ;  John  A.  Davenport,  Liverpool  ;  Stewart  S.  Spears, 
Sheerness-on-Sea ;  James  Lees,  Southsea;  William  H. 
Powell,  London  ;  Edwin  C.  Trew,  Landport,  Portsmouth  ; 
Frederick  W.  B.  Sellers,  JSutton,  Surrey;  John  E.  Lister, 
Doncaster ;  Richard  W.  Bailey,  Manor  Park,  Essex ; 
Laurence  H.  Pomeroy,  London ;  Christopher  J.  Lees, 
London ;  Fred  Newell,  Plumstead,  Kent ;  Edmund  G. 
Nicholls,  Swansea;  Maurice  K.  Pedlar,  East  Stonehouse, 
Devon;  George  F.  Sutherland,  Aberdeen,  N.B.  ;  Charles  I. 
Sutton,  Plumstead,  Kent ;  Robert  H.  Barr,  Barrow-in-Fur- 
ness ;  William  H.  Hemer,  Devonport ;  James  Nicol,  Barr- 
head, N.B.  ;  Frederick  E.  Pollard,  Eastwood,  Notts.; 
Arnold  Sykes,  Huddersfield ;  Wilfred  C.  Kimber,  London  ; 
Henry  F.  Elliott,  Plumstead,  Kent;  David  Richardson, 
Crewe. 

The  following  list  of  successful  candidates  for  royal  ex- 
hibitions, national  scholarships,  and  free  studentships 
(science),  1903,  has  been  issued  by  the  Board  of  Education, 
South  Kensington  : — Frederick  G.  Turner,  Southsea  ;  James 
M.  Mackintosh,  Inverness,  N.B.  ;  Samuel  Lees,  Broughton, 

NO.    1768,  VOL.   68] 


Manchester  ;  John  H.  Hugon,  Eccles,  Manchester ;  Arthur 
A.  Rowse,  Southsea  ;  William  E.  Hogg,  London  ;  William 
L.  Perry,  Plymouth,  royal  exhibitions ;  Archibald  Ward, 
Sheffield ;  Alexander  Gray,  Edinburgh ;  Edwin  S.  Crump, 
Wolverhampton ;  Leslie  G.  Milner,  New  Brompton,  Kent ; 
Archibald  R.  Richardson,  London ;  Francis  G.  Steed, 
Devonport,  national  scholarships  for  mechanics  (group  A) ; 
Harold  H.  Broughton,  Huddersfield ;  George  F.  Suther- 
land, Aberdeen,  N.B.,  free  studentships  for  mechanics 
(group  A) ;  William  H.  L.  Patterson,  Chiswick ;  Arthur  E. 
Hall,  Swindon ;  William  F.  G.  Swann,  Brighton ;  James 
Hoggarth,  Bath ;  John  Watson,  Sunderland,  national 
scholarships  for  physics  (group  B) ;  Charles  I.  Robinson, 
London,  free  studentship  for  physics  (group  B) ;  Frederick 
Dewhurst,  Middleton  Junction,  Manchester ;  William 
Godden,  Canterbury ;  George  S.  Whitby,  Hull ;  John  F. 
Stansfield,  Morley,  Leeds ;  Henry  Holmes,  Middlesbrough  ; 
Thomas  Jackson,  Middlesbrough,  national  scholarships  for 
chemistry  (group  C) ;  Frederic  W.  Caton,  Hove,  Sussex ; 
John  Keegan,  Burnley,  free  studentships  for  chemistry 
(group  C) ;  Edward  Hindle,  East  Bierley,  Bradford  ;  Ethel 
Mellor,  Burnley,  national  scholarships  for  biology  (group 
D) ;  Ellis  L.  Jones,  Blaenau  Festiniog,  free  studentship  for 
biology  (group  D)  ;  Winifred  M.  Clune,  Bristol ;  Fred 
Thistlethwaite,  Burnley ;  Diogo  F.  de  Souza,  London, 
national  scholarships  for  geology  (group  E). 


SOCIETIES  AND  ACADEMIES. 

Paris. 
Academy  of  Sciences,  September  7. — M.  Albert  Gaudry 
in  the  chair. — Parthenogenesis  of  the  larvae  of  Asteriae  by 
the  action  of  carbonic  acid,  by  M.  Yves  Delage.  By 
modifying  the  conditions,  the  larvae  develop  to  the  stage 
when  all  the  essential  organs  are  well  marked. — On  the 
production  of  glycogen  in  fungi  cultivated  in  weak  sugar 
solutions,  by  M.  Emile  Laurent.  The  production  of  reserve 
carbohydrates  is  related  both  in  fungi  and  in  vascular 
plants  to  a  food  supply  containing  an  abundance  of  sugar 
or  analogous  substances.  The  author  has  discovered  an 
interesting  exception  to  this  rule,  four  species  of  moulds, 
Mticor  racemosus,  Sclerotinia  Libertiana,  Botrytis  cinerea, 
and  Saccharomyces  cerevisiae,  all  giving  considerable 
quantities  of  glycogen  when  grown  in  very  dilute  organic 
solutions. — Observations  of  the  planet  MA  (August  24, 
1903)  made  at  the  Observatory  of  Besan^on,  by  M.  P. 
Chofardet. — On  a  bacterial  disease  of  tobacco,  "  chancre  " 
Of  "  anthracnose,"  by  M.  G.  Delacroix.  This  disease  is 
due  to  a  bacillus,  not  previously  described,  and  to  which 
the  name  of  Bacillus  oeruginosus  is  given,  on  account  of 
the  coloration  it  develops  in  certain  culture  media. 


CONTENTS.  PAGE 

The  Worth  of  Experimental  Psychology.     By  Dr. 

C.  S.   Myers '.    .        .    .     465 

Hydraulics 465 

Our  Book  Shelf:— 

Fischer :    "  Synthesen    in    der     Purin-  und    Zucker- 

gruppe." — T.  M.  L 466 

Pearson  :    "  Report  on  Field  Experiments  in  Victoria, 

1S87-1900" 467 

The  British  Association 467 

Section  A. — Sub-section  of  Astronomy  and  Meteor- 

ologv.  —  Opening    Address    by     W.     N.     Shaw, 

Sc.D.,    F.R  S.,  Chairman  of  the  Sub-section        .    468 

Section  B. — Chemistry.— Opening  Address  by  Prof. 

W.    N.    Hartley,    D.Sc,    F.R.S.,    F.R.S.E., 

President  of  the  Section 472 

Section    C— Geology.  — Opening  Address   by  Prof. 
W.  W.   Watts,  M.A.,  M.Sc,  President  of  the 

Section 481 

Notes 488 

Our  Astronomical  Column  : — 

Search-ephemeris  for  Comet  1896  v.  (Giacobini).  .    .    491 

Intensity  of  Spectral  Lines 491 

A  Provisional  Catalogue  of  Variable  Stars 491 

Mass  of  Mercury 491 

Corrections  to  Existing  Star  Catalogues 491 

University  and  Educational  Intelligence 492 

Societies  and  Academies 492 


NATURE 


493 


THURSDAY.     SEPTEMBER 


^4,    1903- 


PLANT    PHYSIOLOGY. 
A  Text-book  of  Plant  Physiology.     By  George  James 
Pelrce,   Ph.D.     Pp.   iv  +  285.     (New  York:    Henry 
Holt  and  Co.,  1903.) 

THE  author's  object  is  to  present  "  the  main  facts 
of  plant  physiolog-y  and  the  saner  hypotheses 
regarding  them,  striving  to  express  safe  views  rather 
than  to  echo  the  most  recent  .  .  .  and  everywhere 
trying  to  avoid  giving  the  impression  that  the  science, 
or  any  part  of  it,  has  reached  ultimate  knowledge  and 
final  conclusions."  The  standard  adopted  is  to  treat 
the  subject  "  less  exhaustively  than  Pfeffer's  '  Hand- 
buch,'  and  more  fully  than  Noll's  section  of  the  Bonn 
t<  \t-book." 

This,  though  doubtless  an  admirable  object,  is  one 
not  easy  to  attain,  and  the  result,  it  must  be  confessed, 
is  a  book  of  unequal  merit.  As  an  instance  of  the 
author  at  his  best  may  be  mentioned  the  section  (p.  72) 
on  "  Root-tubercle  Plants."  The  six  pages  devoted  to 
the  matter  give  a  clear  and  readable  account  which 
should  suflice  for  the  needs  of  the  moderately  elemen- 
tary student.  On  the  other  hand,  the  final  section  of 
the  same  chapter — that  on  the  ash  constituents — is  un- 
satisfactory. The  student  gets  from  it  neither  a  clear 
conception  of  what  is  meant  by  the  essential  con- 
stituents of  the  mineral  food-supply  nor  a  knowledge 
of  the  more  interesting  details.  For  instance,  the 
reader  is  not  even  directed  by  references  to  Schimper's 
work  on  oxalates  in  reference  to  the  assimilation  of 
nitrates.  It  is  possible  that  the  author  does  not  con- 
sider this  to  be  one  of  the  "saner  hypotheses,"  but 
in  that  case  it  might  have  been  discussed  with  a 
caution. 

When  the  author  deals  with  photosynthesis  the  re- 
sult is  better,  and  there  is  much  to  interest  the  reader. 
The  chief  fault  in  his  presentment  of  the  subject  is 
that  he  docs  not  fully  face  the  relation  between  the 
photosynthetic  activity  of  different  parts  of  the  spec- 
trum and  the  absorption  bands  of  the  chlorophyll 
spectrum.  This  is  a  fundamental  point,  and  should  be 
discussed  in  a  treatise  such  as  the  present. 

Dr.  Peirce's  style  might  here  and  there  be  mended. 
Take,  for  instance,  the  following  sentence  (p.  43),  with 
which  photosynthesis  is  introduced  : — 

"  The  source  of  carbon  for  all  organisms  except  the 
nitrogen  bacteria  and  plants  containing  chlorophyll 
or  its  apparent  equivalent  physiologically,  bacterio- 
purpurin,  is,  directly  or  indirectly,  these  colour-contain- 
ing plants." 

The  chapter  (p.  103)  on  the  "  absorption  and  move- 
ment of  water,  &c.,"  is  not  uniformly  good.  The 
student  will  learn  from  it  if  he  has  the  gift  of  picking 
out  what  is  best,  but  we  fear  that  he  will  not  get  to 
the  root  of  the  matter.  This  p?irt  suffers  especially 
from  the  author's  plan  of  not  in  general  describing 
methods  of  research.  It  seems  to  us  impossible  to 
give  a  clear  or  interesting  view  of  the  problem  of  water- 
NO.    1769,  VOL.  68] 


transport  without  a  more  direct  appeal  to  experiment- 
Thus,  in  the  section  on  *'  the  means  of  transfer  of 
nutrient  solutions  "  (pp.  1 16-124),  ^^'^  miss  an  account 
of  the  fundamental  fact  that  a  cut  branch  in  a  glass 
of  water  is  a  self-regulating  mechanism,  in  which 
absorption  is  practically  equal  to  loss  by  transpiration. 
It  is  only  at  p.  141  that  we  get  the  idea  briefly  stated 
without  proof. 

Chapters  v.,  vi.  and  vii.  are  respectively  devoted  tO' 
growth,  irritability,  and  reproduction.  It  is  doubtless 
a  difficult  matter  to  give  an  adequate  account  of 
irritability  in  such  a  book  as  the  text-book  before  us, 
but  when  full  allowance  has  been  made  for  such 
difficulty,  there  remains  a  good  deal  to  which  excep- 
tion must  be  taken. 

We  miss  a  general  statement  of  the  widely  accepted 
view  according  to  which  a  plant  (like  an  animal)  is 
guided  by  certain  definite  irritabilities  strictly  com- 
parable to  the  senses  of  animals.*  It  seems  to  us 
clear  that  Dr.  Peirce's  views  do  not  harmonise  with  the 
modern  conception  of  irritability.  Thus,  in  speaking 
(p.  213)  of  heliotropic  curvatures,  he  asserts  that  the 
bending  of  a  stem  towards  the  light  is  the  mechanical 
result  of  the  increased  growth-rate  on  the  shady  side 
of  the  stem.  He  thus  ignwes  the  well-known  fact 
that  the  growth-rate  of  apheliotropic  organs  is  also 
increased  by  darkness,  a  result  fatal  to  his  point  of 
view.  It  is  depressing  to  find  this  way  of  looking  at 
heliotropism  (which  we  had  hoped  was  dead  and 
buried)  once  more  to  the  fore. 

In  some  matters  of  fact  we  cannot  agree  with  the 
author's  statements.     Thus    at  p.  214  we  read  :— 

"  So  much  more  does  gravity  influence  the  directior» 
of  growth  of  roots  that  the  influence  of  light  is 
scarcely  apparent  until  all  parts  are  uniformly  sub- 
jected to  gravitation  by  means  of  the  clinostat." 

The  student  who  has  grown  mustard  seedlings  in 
a  glass  of  water  and  exposed  them  to  one-sided 
illumination  will  read  the  above  statement  with  sur- 
prise. Elsewhere  the  author's  treatment  of  the  action 
of  light  and  gravitation  is  singularly  confused,  if  not 
downright  wrong.  Thus  (p.  214)  we  read  that  the 
direction  of  growth  of  leaves  is  a  resultant  of  two 
forces,  gravity  and  light,  in  Illustration  of  which  he 
describes  leaves  assuming  a  normal  light  position 
while  slowly  rotated  on  the  clinostat,  the  whole  point 
of  the  experiment  being  in  reality  to  prove  that  the 
normal  light  position  may  be  assumed  in  response  to 
light  alone,  and  not  as  a  compromise  between  sensi- 
tiveness to  light  and  gravitation. 

On  the  whole,  we  think  the  part  on  irritability 
suffers  from  the  attempt  to  crowd  too  much  into  the 
available  space.  The  student  would  gain  if  less  detail 
were  attempted,  and  a  simpler,  broader  treatment 
adopted. 

What  we  have  said  of  one  section  may  be  perhaps 
applied  to  the  book  as  a  whole.  A  reader  with  a  power 
of  selection  will  be  able  to  make  use  of  It,  and  he  will 
find  much  that  is  not  to  be  obtained  from  ordinary 
English  text-books.  F.   D. 

1  Brief  and  partial  statements  occur  at  pp.  206  and  207. 

Y 


494 


NATURE 


[September  24,  1903 


THE    MINERAL   RESOURCES    OF   THE 
FRENCH    COLONIES. 
Les  Produits  Coloniaux  d'Origine  Minirale.     By  Prof. 
Laurent.     Pp.  viii   +   352.     (Paris  :   Bailliere,   1903.) 
Price  5  francs. 

THIS  little  work  forms  one  volume  of  the  "  Colonial 
Library,"  which  is  a  small  series  of  four-shilling 
books  dealing  with  the  animal,  vegetable,  and  mineral 
products  of  the  French  colonies,  as  well  as  with  the 
question  of  hygiene.  It  is  divided  into  two  chapters ; 
the  first  briefly  describes  the  geology  of  each  colony 
and  enumerates  its  various  mineral  products ;  in  the 
second,  each  useful  mineral  is  taken  in  its  turn,  and 
the  sources  of  supply  in  each  colony  are  discussed. 

The  book  would  have  been  improved  by  a  summary, 
giving  at  a  glance  a  general  idea  of  the  mineral  wealth 
of  the  French  possessions.  This  I  have  endeavoured 
to  supply  so  far  as  official  information  is  available. 


the  mining  district,  and  it  is  expected  that  the  output 
for  1903  will  be  about  300,000  tons.  The  phosphatic 
beds  occur  in  rocks  of  Lower  Eocene  age ;  the  prin- 
cipal seam  now  being  worked  at  Gafsa  is  11  ft.  6  ins. 
thick,  and  contains  60  per  cent,  of  tribasic  phosphate 
of  lime. 

In  spite  of  being  full  of  valuable  information,  Prof. 
Laurent's  book  is  unsatisfactory,  because  he  has  intro- 
duced much  matter  which  is  entirely  out  of  place  under 
the  title  chosen  for  the  volume.  But  in  his  preface 
he  tells  us  that  the  book  is  a  risumi  of  his  lectures  to 
young  men  who  propose  to  go  to  the  colonies,  and  that 
he  wishes  them  to  know  something  of  the  modes  of 
occurrence  and  methods  of  treatment  of  minerals  in 
other  countries,  so  that  they  may  be  able  to  take 
advantage  of  the  possible  resources  of  new  districts. 
He  consequently  enters  into  details  which  make  parts 
of  the  book  Into  a  jumble  of  geology,  mineralogy,  pro- 
specting, mining,  quarrying,  dressing,  smelting,  salt- 


Mineral  Outtut  of  the  French  Colonies  and  frotec /orates,  1901. 


Mineral 

Algeria 

French  Guiana 

Indo-China 

1                                                                                        1 

Madagascar       ,     New  Caledonia                  Tunis             1               Total 

Quantity  j  Value 

Quantity 

Value 

Quantity     Value 

Quantity  ^    Value     Quantity      Value      Quantity     Value   j  Quantity        Value 

Brown  Coal 

Coal        

Chrome  Ore 

Clay       

Cobalt  Ore 
Copper  Ore 

Flags      

Gold       

Gypsum- 
Iron  Ore 
Lead  Ore 
Limestone 
Nickel  Ore 

Onyx        

Phosphate  of  Lime 

Plaster      

Potter's  Clay      „. 

Salt           

Sand  and  Gravel 
Stone,  Building 

„      Rough 
Zinc  Ore 

Metric 
Tons. 
213 

119-195 

7,267 
8,3  =  0 

~6oo 

514,473 

1,614 

27,000 

294 
265,000 
34,740 

i8,5iS 
86,727 
798,560 
1,436,250 
26,913 

£ 

17.040 

5,035 
3,424 

60 

198,679 

4,383 

25,500 

3,352 
212,000 
26,397 

15,905 
3,774 
73,744 
56,550 
52,704 

Kilos. 
4,021 

434,320 

Metric            r 
Tons             ^ 

248,622     1  I2,43jl 

2,502         :         4,050 

Kilos.            £ 
1,045        112,860 

Metric              ,            Metric             ,       j     Metric 
Tons              *             Tons            *             Tons 
_                   2,3 

—  -               -               -            248,622 
17,451        37,840            -               -              17,451 

—  ~      •        -        \      —      \      "9''9S 
3,123       16,600    :        —             —      1         3,j23 
1,088         3,960           _       I      _      1         8,355 

=      =      =      =   kiis?:^° 

—  —      —      —        600 

—  —      —      —     514,473 

—  —       8,200  26  760     9,814 

—  —               34,800  ,     29  635          6i,Soo 
132,814      297,400           —                —             132,814 

—  —                —                —                    294 

—  —                          172,375         105,700    :             437,375 

—  —                                       12,984                24,078      ;                     47,724 

—  i       —                 6.375            300            6,375 

—  —               16,900      14,880          37,920 

—  -                -                -               86,727 

—  —             873,805      61,251      1,672,365 

—  —                —         1       —       '   1,436,250 

—  .             —               17,900  ,    43,240           44.813 

£ 

102 
12,4311 
37.840 

8.995 

3,424 
547,18c 
60 
198,679 
31.143 
55.135 
297.400 

3,352 
317,700 
50,475 

300 
34.925 

3.774 
134,995 
56,550 
95,944 

Total        ... 

- 

698.739 

- 

434,320 

-                         16,481 

-           112,860          -          355,800          -        1  305.844}        - 

1,924,044 

The  total  value  of  all  the  minerals  produced  by  the 
French  colonies  Is  about  2  millions  sterling,  of  which 
Algeria  claims  more  than  one-third.  The  mineral 
wealth  of  this  colony  is  derived  mainly  from  its  iron 
ore  and  phosphate  of  lime ;  French  Guiana  is  the 
largest  gold  producer;  New  Caledonia  is  famous  for 
its  nickel  ore;  and  Tunisia  is  coming  Into  notice  on 
account  of  its  phosphatic  deposits. 

The  growing  importance  of  the  phosphate  industry 
of  northern  Africa  is  worthy  of  notice,  indeed,  this 
mineral  comes  second  In  order  of  value  In  the  table. 
The  author  gives  some  Interesting  details  concerning 
the  phosphatic  beds  at  Gafsa,  from  which  nearly  all 
the  phosphate  of  Tunisia  is  obtained.  The  mineral 
was  not  discovered  at  Gafsa  until  1885,  and  the  con- 
cession for  working  it  was  not  obtained  until  1896. 
Since  that  date  the  French  have  constructed  a  railway 
156  miles  long,  from  the  port  of  Sfax  to  the  centre  of 
NO.    1769,  VOL.  68] 


making,  &c.  There  Is  no  royal  road  to  learning,  and 
the  attempt  to  teach  In  one  course  of  lectures  what  In 
reality  requires  at  least  four  separate  courses  should 
certainly  be  discouraged.  And  there  are  other  grounds 
for  complaint;  the  figure  of  a  sulphur-still  Is  very 
antiquated,  and,  if  my  memory  serves  me  aright,  it 
appeared  in  my  French  lesson  books  half  a  century 
ago.  I  doubt  very  much  whether  this  old  form  is  ever 
used  now;  at  all  events,  it  Is  very  different  from  the 
"  dopploni  "  which  were  employed  for  treating  the 
sulphur  rock  In  the  Romagna  In  the  early  'seventies. 
The  picture  of  the  modern  kiln  does  not  give  the  pro- 
portions of  an  ordinary  Sicilian  "  calcarone. "  Other 
second-hand  figures  have  been  picked  up  and  inserted 
here  and  there  with  little  advantage  to  the  reader. 
Nothing  could  well  be  worse  than  the  figure  of  a  blast- 
furnace, and  a  student  unacquainted  with  Blake's 
stone-breaker  would  fail  to  understand  its  action  by 


September  24,  1903] 


NATURE 


495 


reference  to  the  illustration.  It  is  true  this  is  well 
lettered,  but  no  explanation  is  furnished  as  to  what 
each  letter  denotes.  Many  of  the  figures  prepared 
specially  for  the  book  from  photographs  are  of  little 
use. 

In  a  word,  the  book  would  have  been  more  accept- 
able if  the  author  had  confined  his  attention  to  the 
matters  really  included  in  the  title,  and  had  supplied 
better  illustrations. 


EXPERIMENTAL  SCIENCE   FOR    BEGINNERS. 

Practical  Chemistry.  By  Walter  Harris,  M.A.,  Ph.D. 
Vol.  i.  Measurement.  Vol.  ii.  Exercises  and  Pro- 
blems. Vol.  iii.  Qualitative  and  Quantitative 
Analysis.  Pp.  x  +  91;  ix+172;  vii+146.  (London: 
Whittaker  and  Co.,  1903.) 

THERE  are  probably  few  teachers,  who,  with  half- 
a-dozen  pupils  and  plenty  of  time  to  devote  to 
them,  would  not  prefer  the  oral  to  the  book  process  of 
imparting  the  elements  of  experimental  science.  Yet 
when  the  number  in  a  class  is  large,  and  laboratory 
work  is  limited  to  one  or  two  hours  a  week — the  usual 
order  of  things  in  schools — the  demonstrator  must  be 
relieved  by  the  aid  of  some  form  of  printed  instruc- 
tions. 

In  compiling  a  book  of  this  kind,  the  chief  difficulty 
which  presents  itself  is  to  know  how  much  to  tell 
about  the  processes,  and  how  much  to  leave  to  the 
pupil's  intelligence  and  initiative. 

Given  the  budding  philosopher  and  plenty  of  time, 
very  little  book  direction  is  necessary,  and  he  may 
safely  be  left  to  worry  out  details  for  himself.  The 
everyday  youth  is  not  a  philosopher,  and  if,  in  addi- 
tion, he  has  only  one  hour  a  week  in  the  laboratory, 
he  must  be  helped  to  his  results  in  a  very  substantial 
manner,  to  enable  him  not  only  to  absorb  a  variety 
of  facts  in  the  time  at  his  disposal,  but  (and  this  is 
equally  important)  to  avoid  the  discouraging  conse- 
quences of  repeated  experimental  failures.  These 
points  have  been  recognised  in  the  three  little  volumes 
which  together  make  up  Dr.  Harris's  "  Practical 
Chemistry."  Vol.  i.  deals  really  with  elementary 
physics,  and  contains  exercises  in  measurement  of 
length  and  volume,  mass  and  density.  Vol.  ii.  con- 
tains easy  qualitative  and  quantitative  experiments  in 
chemistry.  The  third  volume  contains  the  elements 
of  qualitative  and  quantitative  analysis,  in  reference 
to  which  the  author  laconically  remarks  that  "  for 
those  who  do  not  require  this  section  for  examination 
purposes,  it  should  be  omitted."  The  experiments  in 
the  first  two  volumes  are  numerous,  simple,  and  sug- 
gestive, and  well  adapted  for  a  school  laboratory,  and 
there  are  many  things  which  will  be  found  of  value 
to  the  teacher  as  well  as  to  the  student. 

One  feels  compelled  to  differ  from  the  author  on  the 
subject  of  illustrations.  The  author  says  :  "  The  omis- 
sion of  all  illustrations  of  apparatus  is  a  new  de- 
parture." Is  it  a  good  one?  We  must  remember 
that  the  beginner  does  not  recognise  by  name  even 
"  the  permanent  apparatus  commonly  seen  in  labora- 
tories," and  although  it  is  very  desirable  that  "the 
student  should  be  encouraged  to  devise  his  own  ap- 
NO.    1769,  VOL.   68] 


paratus,"  it  is  a  process  which  is  certain  to  result  in 
failure  and  loss  of  time.  Those  who  have  attempted 
with  all  the  knowledge  of  laboratory  resources  to 
reduce  an  apparatus  to  a  simple  form,  will  recognise 
how  troublesome  the  process  is.  Moreover,  the  authc«: 
gives  no  directions  for  working  glass;  which,  one 
would  suppose,  would  be  the  first  step  in  fitting  up 
glass  apparatus. 

May  one  further  suggestion  be  offered?  Experi- 
ment I,  in  section  ii.,  on  homogeneous  and  hetero- 
geneous substances,  is  not  a  single  experiment  at  all, 
but  a  very  condensed  account  of  the  separation  of 
solids  and  liquids,  in  which  filtration,  sublimation, 
levigation,  and  fractional  distillation  are  discussed  in 
turn.  This  and  some  other  chapters  would  be  im- 
proved by  dividing  them  up  and  by  giving,  in  addi- 
tion to  general  principles,  a  description  of  specific 
instances,  from  which  the  teacher  might  make  his 
own   selection. 

There  is  no  doubt  that  these  volumes  will  form  a 
useful  addition  to  the  modern  literature  on  science 
teaching.  J.  B.  C. 


OUR   BOOK  SHELF. 

U titer suchun gen  iiber  Amylase  und  Amyloseartige 
Korper.  By  O.  Butschli.  (Heidelberg:  Carl 
Winter,  1903.) 

This  pamphlet  of  about  100  pages  is  a  reprint  from 
the  Proceedings  of  the  Heidelberg  Association  for 
Natural  History  and  Medicine  (vol.  vii.  part  iii.), 
which  is  one  of  the  best  known  of  the  German  scien- 
tific societies.  It  illustrates  a  tendency,  not  infre- 
quently seen  in  Germany,  to  utilise  the  pages  of  a 
journal  for  the  issue  of  what  is  practically  a  book. 
The  author,  Prof.  Butschli,  is  well  known  to  students 
of  biology  for  his  work  on  protoplasm,  and  distant  as 
the  subject  of  starch  may  at  first  appear  from  zoo- 
logical studies,  the  present  research  is  a  direct  outcome 
of  the  former.  The  microscopic  investigation  of 
various  colloids  occurring  in  nature  which  led  Butschli 
to  his  well-known  hypothesis  of  the  foam-like  structure 
of  protoplasm  caused  him  later  to  direct  his  attention 
to  the  formation  of  starch  grains,  cellulose  membranes 
and  the  like  in  the  vegetable  world.  Some  years  ago 
he  published  his  view  .that  starch  grains  are  of  the 
nature  of  sphaero-crystals.  From  this  he  passed  on 
to  attempt  to  prepare  starch  grains  artificially  from 
starch  solutions,  and  he  was  rewarded  by  the  dis- 
covery that,  under  certain  conditions,  especially  on 
evaporating  a  solution  containing  also  5  per  cent,  of 
gelatin,  particles  differing  but  slightly  from  natural 
starch  grains  are  deposited.  These  results  were 
criticised  by  Arthur  Meyer,  who  expressed  the  opinion 
that  these  particles  consisted  not  of  starch,  but  of 
amylodextrin.  The  present  pamphlet  is  a  reply  to 
these  criticisms,  and  on  the  ground  of  various  chemical 
reactions  the  conclusion  is  finally  reached  that  Meyer 
was  wrong,  and  the  author  right  in  his  original  con- 
tention. 

This  is  the  gist  of  the  monograph,  and  its  length 
is  due  to  the  fact  that  it  became  necessary  for  the 
author  to  make  a  chemical  investigation  of  various 
starches,  dextrins,  and  allied  carbohydrates  in  order 
to  justify  his  main  conclusions. 

From  the  purely  chemical  standpoint  very  little  real 
progress  is  contributed  to  our  knowledge  of  the  carbo- 
hydrates. The  sugars,  thanks  to  Fischer  and  others, 
we  now  know  something  about,  but  concerning  the 


496 


NATURE 


[September  24,  1903 


molecular  size  and  constitution  of  the  heavy  carbo- 
hydrates, like  starch  and  glycogen,  and  the  family  of 
<lextrins  intermediate  between  these  and  the  sugars, 
we  have  at  present  little  more  than  guesses  to  go  upon. 
To  give,  as  the  present  author  does,  long  lists  of  re- 
actions with  iodine  and  other  reagents,  and  on  the 
strength  of  differences  in  these  to  describe  as  separate 
substances  amylose,  amylosan,  amylodextrin,  and 
other  forms  of  dextrin,  and  to  add  to  the  list  amylo- 
porphyrin  and  amylorubin,  does  not  really  advance 
matters  much.  Biitschli  apologises  at  the  start  for  his 
lack  of  chemical  knowledge,  and  in  the  end  admits 
that  several  of  his  preparations  are  mere  mixtures ; 
we  therefore  fear  that,  from  the  chemists,  his  work 
will  meet  with  but  scant  courtesy.  He  has  neverthe- 
less succeeded  in  producing  a  very  readable  little 
brochure,  and  if  his  main  contention  is  accepted,  his 
labours  will  not  have  been  useless. 

Lessons  on   Country   Life.     By   H.    B.    M.    Buchanan 
and  R.  R.  C.  Gregory.       Pp.  xi  +  330.       (London: 
'    Macmillan  and  Co.,  Ltd.,  1903.)     Price  3s.  6d. 

One  of  the  authors  of  the  above  book,  Mr.  H.  B.  M. 
Buchanan,  produced  a  little  time  ago  two  small 
"Country  Readers,"  most  excellent  books  for  the 
children  of  a  rural  elementary  school,  in  which  our 
common  domestic  animals  were  discussed  from  a  full 
knowledge  in  an  easy,  pleasant  style.  We  are  sorry 
we  cannot  give  the  same  praise  to  the  "  Lessons  " 
before  us ;  the  educational  value  of  the  former  book 
has  disappeared,  and  the  authors  have  allowed  a 
craving  for  completeness  to  swamp  -their  judgment, 
so  that  the  result  is  a  miniature  and  scrappy  encyclo- 
paedia instead  of  a  book. 

Country  life  is  a  vast  subject,  so  vast  that  no  child 
•can  learn  during  his  school  life  even  a  fraction  of 
the  information  it  may  be  desirable  he  should  possess 
in  his  after  life ;  the  teacher,  then,  must  abandon  the 
attempt  to  impart  information,  but  devote  his  energies 
to  instilling  into  his  pupils  the  right  way  of  looking 
at  things,  the  method  which  they  can  employ  them- 
selves when  going  about  the  world.  The  method 
■consists  in  a  trainmg  in  observation  and  experiment. 
Here  instead  we  have  first  a  sout  of  abbreviated  text- 
book on  live  stock,  hints  on  breeding  and  feeding, 
twelve  breeds  of  cattle  described  at  lengths  varying 
from  a  page  down  to  two  lines,  horses,  sheep  and  pigs 
to  correspond,  analyses  of  milk,  rules  for  making 
butter  and  cheddar  cheese;  with  such  a  programme 
what  chance  is  there  of  observation  or  experiment  for 
school  children  ? 

The  latter  portion  of  the  book  deals  with  common 
birds  and  mammals  in  a  much  better  spirit ;  strike  out 
the  unnecessary  Latin  names  for  orders,  families  and 
species,  and  it  forms  a  fair  reading  book.  The  last 
section,  on  insects,  is  again  spoiled  by  a  wholly  un- 
necessary passion  for  classification ;  classification  is 
only  grammar,  and  the  parts  of  rvnTa  are  just  as 
good  in  this  way  as  "  Coleoptera,  Euplexoptera, 
Orthoptera,  Thysanoptera,  &c. "  We  know  by  sad  ex- 
perience how  easy  the  schoolmaster  finds  it  to  write 
these  things  on  the  blackboard  and  make  his  class  copy 
them  with  due  attention  to  neatness  and  spelling; 
•observation  and  experiment  require  both  labour  and 
thought.  We  grieve  to  speak  unkindly  of  Mr. 
Buchanan,  who  has  done  such  excellent  work  before ; 
there  are  good  things  in  the  book,  e.g.  the  section  on 
poultry  and  the  illustrations,  but,  like  the  curate's  egg, 
it  is  only  good  "  In  parts."  If  the  new  teaching  on 
country  life  is  to  succeed  in  our  schools,  it  will  be  in 
virtue  of  the  spirit,  and  not  of  the  information  which 
the  teacher  imparts  to  his  pupil,  and  we  consider  that 
^^hls  book  fatally  misses  the  spirit. 

NO.    1769,  VOL.  68] 


LETTERS  TO  THE  EDITOR. 
[The  Editor  does  not  hold  himself  responsible  for  opinions 
expressed  by  his  correspondents.  Neither  can  he  undertake 
to  return,  or  to  correspond  with  the  writers  of,  rejected 
manuscripts  intended  for  this  or  any  other  part  of  Nature. 
No  notice  is  taken  of  anonymous  communications.] 

Radio-activity  and  the  Age  of  the  Sun. 

In  the  Appendix  E  of  Thomson  and  Tait's  "  Natural 
Philosophy,"  Lord  Kelvin  has  computed  the  energy  lost  in 
the  concentration  of  the  sun  from  a  condition  of  infinite 
dispersion,  and  argues  thence  that  it  seems  "  on  the  whole 
probable  that  the  sun  has  not  illuminated  the  earth  for 
100,000,000  years,  and  almost  certain  that  he  has  not  done 
so  for  500,000,000  years.  As  for  the  future,  we  may  say, 
with  equal  certainty,  that  inhabitants  of  the  earth  cannot 
continue  to  enjoy  the  light  and  heat  essential  to  their  life 
for  many  million  years  longer,  unless  sources  now  unknown 
to  us  are  prepared  in  the  great  storehouse  of  creation." 

The  object  of  the  present  note  is  to  point  out  that  we 
have  recently  learnt  the  existence  of  another  source  of 
energy,  and  that  the  amount  of  energy  available  is  so  great 
as  to  render  it  impossible  to  say  how  long  the  sun's  heat 
has  already  existed,  or  how  long  it  will  last  in  the  future. 

Ihe  lost  energy  of  concentration  of  the  sun,  supposed  to 
be  a  homogeneous  sphere  of  mass  M  and  radius  a,  is 
ifiM^/a,  where  n  is  the  constant  of  gravitation.  On  in- 
troducing numerical  values  for  the  symbols  in  this  formula 
I  find  the  lost  energy  to  be  2-7x10'  M  calories,  where  M 
is  expressed  in  grammes.  If  we  adopt  Langley's  value  of 
the  solar  constant  this  heat  suffices  to  give  a  supply  for  12 
million  years.  Lord  Kelvin  used  Pouillet's  value  for  that 
constant,  but  if  he  had  been  able  to  use  Langley's  his  100 
million  would  have  been  reduced  to  60  million.  The  dis- 
crepancy between  my  result  of  12  million  and  his  of  60 
million  is  explained  by  a  conjectural  augmentation  of  the 
lost  energy  to  allow  fgr  the  concentration  of  the  solar  mass 
towards  its  central  parts.  I  should  have  thought  the 
augmentation  somewhat  too  liberal,  but  for  the  present 
argument  it  is  immaterial  whether  it  is  so  or  not. 

Now  Prof.  Rutherford  has  recently  shown  that  a  gramme 
of  radium  is  capable  of  giving  forth  10'  calories.  If,  then, 
the  sun  were  made  of  such  a  radio-active  material  it  would 
be  capable  of  emitting  lo"  M  calories  without  reference  to 
gravitation.  This  energy  is  nearly  forty  times  as  much  as 
the  gravitational  lost  energy  of  the  homogeneous  sun,  and 
eight  times  as  much  as  Lord  Kelvin's  conjecturally  con- 
centrated sun. 

Knowing,  as  we  now  do,  that  an  atom  of  matter  is 
capable  of  containing  an  enormous  store  of  energy  in 
itself,  I  think  we  have  no  right  to  assume  that  the  sun 
is  incapable  of  liberating  atomic  energy  to  a  degree  at 
least  comparable  with  that  which  it  would  do  if  made  of 
radium.  Accordingly,  I  see  no  reason  for  doubting  the 
possibility  of  augmenting  the  estimate  of  solar  heat  as 
derived  from  the  theory  of  gravitation  by  some  such  factor 
as  ten  or  twenty. 

In  an  address  to  Section  A  of  the  British  Association  in 
1886  I  discussed  the  various  estimates  which  have  been 
made  of  geological  time,  and  I  said,  "  Although  specula- 
tions as  to  the  future  course  of  science  are  usually  of  little 
avail,  yet  it  seems  as  likely  that  meteorology  and  geology 
will  pass  the  word  of  command  to  cosmical  physics  as  the 
converse."  I  think  the  recent  extraordinary  discoveries 
show  that  this  forecast  was  reasonable. 

It  is  probable  that  the  bearing  of  radio-activity  on  the 
cosmical  time-scale  has  occurred  to  others,  but  I  do  not 
happen  to  have  seen  any  such  statement. 

Cambridge,  September  20.  G.   H.   Darwin. 


The  Principle  of  Radium. 

Would  some  of  your  readers  inform  me  whether  the  case 
of  the  radium  phenomena  is  quite  unique?  When  a  small 
magnet  in  my  drawer  has  been  ready  to  act  on  a  compass 
at   any    time   during   the   last    twenty    years,    and    has    not 


September  24,  1903] 


NATURE 


497 


altered  its  appearance  in  any  appreciable  way,  I  ask  whence 
comes  the  continuous  magnetic  supply? 

Again,  when  a  lady  has  had  for  a  great  many  years  a 
cedar  work-box  which  has  never  failed  in  its  characteristic 
odour,  it  is  a  natural  question  to  ask,  whence  comes  the 
smell  ?  The  statement  in  books,  both  of  physics  and  physi- 
ology, is  that  something  material  is  given  off  from  the 
wood  which  alights  on  the  olfactory  membrane  of  the  nose. 
This  is  purely  gratuitous,  as  the  statement  is  without  a 
shadow  of  proof,  the  box  being  to  all  appearances  in  no 
way  diminished  in  size  or  otherwise  altered.  If  the  hypo- 
thesis, for  it  is  nothing  more,  fails,  how  does  the  case  differ 
in  principle  from  that  of  radium?  S.  W. 


Normally  Unequal  Growth  as  a  Possible  Cause  of 
Death. 

I  HAVE  found  from  a  good  many  years'  experience  that 
it  is  frequently  difficult  to  assign  any  definite  cause  of  death 
to  the  lower  Vertebrata  which  die  in  the  Zoological  Society's 
Gardens  from  time  to  time.  The  examination  of  a  large 
example  of  the  Japanese  salamander  {Megalobatrachus 
japonicus),  which  lived  for  a  good  many  (nineteen)  years 
here,  and  measured  some  three  feet  in  length,  has  suggested 
to  me  a  rather  curious  and  truly  "  natural  "  cause  of  death 
— if  my  inferences  be  correct.  The  animal  showed  no 
obvious  signs  of  disease  in  any  organ.  Judging  from  its 
length  it  must  have  been  old,  for  a  specimen  three  feet 
long  is  asserted  to  have  been,  at  least  fifty-two  years  old 
{vide  Gadow,  Cambridge  Natural  History,  "  Amphibia  and 
Reptiles,"  p.  99).  Comparing  this  specimen  with  one 
some  twenty  inches  in  length  I  found  that  the  size  of  the 
heart,  as  of  the  other  organs,  was,  as  might  be  expected, 
actually  larger,  but  that  all  the  subdivisions  of  the  heart 
were  of  the  same  proportions  in  the  two  animals.  But  in 
the  course  of  a  dissection  of  the  heart  it  was  plain  that  the 
two  series  of  valves,  which  lie  respectively  at  the  anterior 
and  at  the  posterior  end  of  the  pylangium,  were  so  small, 
relatively  speaking,  that,  when  forced  backwards  by  the 
pressure  of  blood  in  the  entire  conus  arteriosus,  they  would 
not  meet  in  the  middle  line.  On  the  other  hand,  in  the 
smaller  salamander  the  three  valves  in  question  were  in  the 
first  place  situated  closer  together  than  in  the  large  animal, 
being  nearly  in  actual  contact,  and  in  the  second  place 
their  size  was  so  great  in  relation  to  the  diameter  of  the 
pylangium  that  they  would — or,  I  should  rather  say,  could 
— meet  after  the  systole  of  the  ventricle.  The  fact  is  that 
these  valves  do  not  appear  to  grow  pari  passu  with  the 
general  increase  in  size  of  the  heart  and  the  conus 
arteriosus.  My  own  observations  as  to  the  small  size  of 
the  valves  in  the  large  example  are  quite  in  accord  with 
those  of  Hyrtl  {Cryptobranchus  japonicus,  Vindobonae, 
1865),  who  dissected  an  animal  two  and  a  half  feet  in 
length,  and  figures  the  valves,  incorrectly  as  I  believe  in 
some  particulars,  but  correctly  in  representing  them  to  be 
of  small  relative  size.  It  might  be  suggested,  therefore, 
that  the  imperfection  of  the  circulatory  mechanism  neces- 
sarily caused  by  the  condition  of  the  valves  would  lead  to 
serious  disturbances,  and  perhaps  to  death.  If  so  the 
animal  has  a  term  put  to  its  life  by  the  mere  fact  that, 
while  the  heart  grows  with  the  increase  in  bodily  size,  the 
semilunar  valves  of  the  conus  arteriosus  do  not. 

Frank  E.  Beddard. 

Zoological  Society's  Gardens,   London,   N.W. 


Can  Carrier-pigeons  Cross  the  Atlantic? 

Could  any  of  your  readers  give  me  an  answer  to  this 
query?  It  is  stated  in  the  London  Standard  (April  20, 
circd)  that  this  feat  was  accomplished  in  1886,  when  three 
out  of  nine  American  carrier-pigeons  set  free  in  London 
returned  to  their  home-huts.  I  have  hitherto  been  un- 
successful in  getting  the  authority  for  this  particular  ex- 
periment. From  the  points  of  view  of  bird  migration  and 
of  seed  dispersal,  it  is  a  query  of  considerable  importance. 

H.  B.  Glppy. 

21  Henleaze  Gardens,  Westbury,  Bristol,  September  21. 

NO.   1769,  VOL    68]' 


A   TECHNICAL  SCHOOL  FOR   THE  HIGH- 
i.^    LANDS  OF  SCOTLAND. 

THE  difRciIiTt  problem  of  catering  for  the  educational 
needs  of  remote  and  isolated  rural  districts  has 
been  dealt  \Kith  practically  in  this  country  by  such 
enlightened  benefactors  as  the  Countess  of  Warwick 
in  her  school  at  Bigods,  near  Dunmow,  in  Essex, 
which  has  been  carrying  on  its  useful  work  for  some 
five  years,  and  which  is  now  about  to  be  made  still 
more  strictly  into  a  school  of  agriculture,  so  as  to  bring 
it  into  harmony  with  the  requirements  of  the  district 
and  of  the  counties  which  it  serves.  Lady  Warwick's 
sister,  the  Duchess  of  Sutherland,  has  faced  the  still 
more  difficult  problem  of  providing  a  technical  school 
for  the  Highlands  of  Scotland,  and  a  preliminary 
account  of  the  first  scheme  was  given  in  these  columns 
at  the  time  of  its  inception  (N.vruRE,  vol.  Ixv.  p.  106, 
December  5,  1901).  The  work  thus  set  going  by  Her 
Grace  was  formally  inaugurated  on  September  8  by 
Lord  Balfour  of  Burleigh,  Secretary  for  Scotland,  at  a 
public  ceremony  held  for  the  purpose  of  laying  the 
memorial  stone.  The  building,  the  design  of  which  is 
by  Mr.  Dick  Peddie,  of  Edinburgh,  is  already  several 
feet  above  its  foundations,  and  is  situated  on  the  pic- 
turesque slope  of  a  hill  overlooking  the  little  town  of 
Golspie,  on  the  shore  of  Dornoch  Firth,  and  within  two 
miles  of  the  beautiful  grounds  of  Dunrobin  Castle,  the 
Scottish  home  of  the  Sutherlands.  The  main  features' 
of  the  educational  scheme,  as  set  forth  in  the  state- 
ment published  in  our  first  notice,  have  been  adhered 
to,  but  the  details  of  a  curriculum  suitable  for  require- 
ments of  such  a  very  diverse  nature  as  have  to  be  met 
in  this'  remote  Highland  district  can  only  be  worked 
out  by  actual  experience — it  will  be  a  case,  as  Lord 
Balfour  said  at  the  meeting,  of  solvitur  ambulando. 
How  diverse  these  conditions  are  will  be  realised  when 
it  is  pointed  out  that  the  industries  which  have  to  be 
catered  for  are  agriculture,  almost  entirely  of  the 
"  crofting  "  type,  textiles  and  dyeing,  small  mechanical 
trades  and  handicrafts,  and  fishing. 

The  ceremony  on  September  8,  rendered  picturesque 
by  the  surroundings  and  by  the  great  gathering  of 
some  2000  people  from  the  neighbourhood  and  from  all 
the  towns  and  villages  served  by  the  Highland  Rail- 
way from  Inverness  northwards,  was  opened  by  the 
singing  of  the  Hundredth  Psalm,  and  by  a  prayer  for 
the  success  of  the  undertaking  by  Archdeacon  Sinclair. 
The  gathering  was  in  itself  a  memorable  one,  the  Duke 
of  Sutherland,  who  presided,  being  supported  by  the 
Di:chess  and  their  family,  by  the  Duke  and  Duchess 
of  Portland,  Mr.  Andrew  Carnegie  and  his  partner 
Mr.  Henry  Phipps,  Mr.  R.  B.  Haldane,  K.C.,  M.P., 
Prof.  Meldola,  by  representatives  of  nearly  all  the 
leading  Scottish  families,  .by  Members  of  Parliament, 
Provosts  and  Sheriffs,  the  Principals  of  the  Scotch 
universities,  the  chairman  of  the  governors  of  the 
Glasgow  and  W^est  of  Scotland  Technical  College,  the 
conveners  of  the  county  councils,  and  by  educationists 
of  every  class,  including  professors  and  inspectors  of 
schools.  Mr.  James  Macdonald,  W.S.  of  Edinburgh, 
the  hon.  secretary  of  the  school  committee,  had  made 
himself  responsible  for  the  organisation  of  the  meet- 
ing, which  was  in  qvery.  way  successful.  After  the 
laying  of  the  stone,  Lord  Balfour  said  in  the  course 
of  his  speech  : —  , 

"  This  is  to  be  a  sphool  for  Sutherland  and  these 
other  counties  (Caithness,  Ross  and  Cromarty).  It  is 
not  only  to  be  accessible  to  Sutherland  and  these  other 
counties,  as  any  other  school  might  be,  but  it  is  a 
school  expressly  designed  for  the  needs  and  wants  of 
the  district  in  which  we  are  met.  Its  curriculum  will 
be  based  on  a  careful  study  of  the  condition  of  things 
as  they  now  exist,   and  will  have,   as  the  promoters 


498 


NA  TURE 


[September  24,  1903 


clearly  indicate,  a  direct  reference  to  the  special  wants 
and  wishes  of  those  in  the  district  around  it.  I  think 
I  am  not  wrong  in  claiming  for  this  departure  on  the 
part  of  its  promoters  that  it  is'  to  be  a  new  fact  in  the 
educational  history  of  our  country  .  .  .  this  school  is 
not  merely  a  copy — still  less  is  it  intended  to  be  a  rival 
of  other  educational  agencies  and  institutions,  whether 
they  be  of  an  elementary  or  of  a  higher  or  secondary 
type  ...  it  is  an  intelligent  effort  and  a  new  attempt 
to  solve  a  difficult  problem,  and  one  which  never  was 
more  difficult  than  it  is  to-day,  as  to  whether  you  can, 
in  regard  to  any  given  population,  living  under  certain 
given  conditions,  which  perhaps  cannot  in  the  district 
be  much  altered,  give  education  and  ameliorate  for 
them  those  conditions,  and  if  so,  what  kind  of  educa- 
tion will  best  do  it  ...  in  this  matter  the  promoters 
have  set  themselves  not  to  consider  codes  or  grants  or 
examination  successes." 

In  view  of  the  fact  that  the  Sutherland  Technical 
School  is  entirely  due  to  private  enterprise,  and  is 
therefore  in  the  same  position  as  regards  support  from 
public  sources  as  Lady  Warwick's  school  in  Essex,  it 
will  be  of  importance  to  those  interested  in  this  phase 
of  recent  educational  development  to  give  another 
extract   from    Lord   Balfour's   speech  : — 

"  This  school  is  an  experiment,  a  highly  desirable 
and  promising  experiment,  but  not  one  on  which  any 
local  authority  could  itself  venture.  Nor  could  the 
Education  Department  do  it,  much  as  we  approve  of 
the  proposal.  It  is  work  for  private  initiative,  for 
private  enterprise,  and  for  individual  enthusiasm. 
May  I  just  say  in  passing  that  if  we  remodel  our 
educational  system,  as  I  for  one  sincerely  hope  we 
shall  do,  that  we  bring  it  up  to  date,  and  that  we  make 
it  more  complete  than  it  is  at  present,  let  us'  leave  some 
place  for  free  individual  action.  Boards,  committees 
and  departments  are  all  very  well  in  their  way,  but 
they  are  apt  to  be  regulative  rather  than  initiative, 
critical  rather  than  constructive.  Many  advances  in 
education  must  start  outside  the  established  system. 
Do  not  let  us  keep  private  institutions  out  of  that 
system.  Widen  your  local  powers  if  you  like.  Let 
them  take  advantage  of  and  help  those  Institutions 
outside  their  own  system  which  are  well  managed.  In 
the  present  instance,  as  I  understand,  the  local 
authority — the  technical  committee  of  the  county— has 
promised  a  considerable  measure  of  support,  and 
under  the  freer  conditions  of  State  recognition  that 
have  obtained  in  recent  years-,  we  do  not  anticipate 
there  will  be  any  difficulty  in  our  helping  them.  What 
the  exact  measure  of  that  support  may  be,  and  on  what 
conditions  it  Is  given,  It  is  difficult  to  say  until  the 
plan  of  the  school  work  becomes  more  defined;  but  I 
can  give  you  this  assurance  with  every  intention  of 
seeing  it  carried  out,  that  the  progress  of  the  school 
will  be  watched  with  interest  and  sympathy  by  the 
officials  of  my  department,  and  that  as  large  a  measure 
of  support  will  be  accorded  it  as  the  conditions  laid 
down  by  Parliament  for  supporting  education  will 
allow." 

In  moving  a  vote  of  thanks  to  Lord  Balfour,  the 
Duchess  of  Sutherland,  In  the  course  of  an  admirable 
speech,  made  some  remarks  so  thoroughly  in  harmony 
with  the  views  of  the  advocates  of  the  newer  education 
that  they  may  appropriately  be  transferred  to  these 
columns  :■ — 

''  It  has  been  suggested  that  in  Scotland  the  old 
system  of  what  is  called  classical  education  is  sufficient 
to  meet  all  requirements ;  that  the  secondary  depart- 
ments of  the  primary  schools  are  fairly  equipped,  and 
that  If  a  boy  wishes  to  pursue  so-called  technical  studies 
he  might  be  awarded  a  sum  of  money  to  enable  him 
to  go  into  large  cities  and  there  pursue  them.  It  has 
even  been  suggested  that  essentially  a  rural  agri- 
cultural school  must  in  its  alms'  be  opposed  to  mental 

NO.   1769,  VOL.  68] 


culture.  Such  ideas  are  fallacies.  I  am  afraid  that  the 
studies  of  the  immortal  wonders  of  the  classics  and  of 
what  are  so  strangely  called  the  deal  languages  have 
too  often  proved  a  dead  study  to  the  student.  A  mere 
mechanical  acquisition  of  knowledge  leads  us  nowhere. 
How  would  Aristophanes,  author  of  the  "  Birds  "  and 
the  "  Clouds,"  how  would  Heslod,  the  poet  of  the 
husbandman,  how  would  Theocritus  and  Virgil, 
singers  of  pastoral  delights,  turn  in  their  graves  if 
they  could  know  that  only  their  dog-eared  books  spoke 
their  music  to  our  children,  and  that  the  chords  from 
which  that  music  sprang  were  unassayed,  unloved, 
even  unnoticed  by  the  scholars  of  to-day.  Not,  in- 
deed, that  the  children  will  not  notice,  and  that  they 
cannot  love,  but  the  present  time  education  has,  until 
ver^-  recently,  driven  them  away  from  the  region  of 
growth  to  the  region  of  the  cut  and  dried.  They  live 
In  this  Inspiring  country  at  an  age  when  the  swelling 
of  the  grain  on  the  hillside,  the  habits  of  the  birds, 
the  marvellous  nature  of  a  handful  of  earth,  might 
rouse  a  passionate  interest  and  quicken  every  faculty 
of  observation.  In  a  school  such  as  this  we  would 
draw  culture  from  its  source  until  the  youth,  who  for 
himself  has  seen  and  understood,  should  turn  away 
from  the  intoxication  of  his  own  experiments  to  the 
books  of  those  who  long  ago  saw  and  understood, 
and  there  find  a  background  for  his  own  ideas  and  an 
echo  to  his  conclusions.  I  deny  .  .  .  that  there  is  any 
divorce  between  these  imaginations  and  the  practical 
conditions  of  to-day.  .  .  .  This  is  a  scientific  age ;  that 
Is  why  we  need  the  scientific  schools.  Every  hour 
fresh  marvels  of  the  mysterious  nature  which  sur- 
rounds us  are  being  by  science  revealed." 

The  Duke  of  Portland,  in  seconding  the  vote  of 
thanks,  dwelt  forcibly  upon  the  point  that  the  new 
school  would  not  In  any  way  compete  with  or  overlap 
the  work  of  existing  Institutions.  A  vote  of  thanks  to 
the  donors  of  the  building  fund,  the  Duke  of  Suther- 
land and  Mr.  Andrew  Carnegie,  was  proposed  by  Mr. 
R.  B.  Haldane,  M.P.,  and  seconded  by  Sheriff  Guthrie, 
who  in  the  course  of  his  speech  pointed  out  the 
immense  amount  of  harm  that  had  been  done  to  the 
cause  of  education  in  this  country  by  certain  classes 
of  writers  and  speakers  whose  sole  function  had  been 
to  act  the  part  of  destructive  critics  without  making 
any  constructive  contributions  of  any  kind.  Mr. 
Carnegie  replied  on  behalf  of  the  donors. 

The  school  thus  launched  is  intended  to  accommo- 
date forty  residential  pupils-  and  a  limited  number  of 
day  pupils  from  the  immediate  neighbourhood.  The 
building  will  contain  fifty-six  rooms,  of  which  fourteen 
are  to  be  used  as  class-rooms,  laboratories,  and  work- 
shops. The  cost  of  erection  and  equipment  Is  estim- 
ated at  16,000?.,  of  which  8000Z.  have  been  contributed 
by  the  Duke  of  Sutherland  and  8000/.  by  Mr.  Carnegie. 
The  Duke  of  Portland  and  many  others  interested  In 
the  district  have  also  given  substantial  aid.  Forty 
bursaries  of  30?.  each  have  been  given  by  the  Duchess 
of  Sutherland,  Mrs.  Carnegie,  and  many  other 
generous  friends  of  the  movement.  The  site  of  the 
school  has  been  given  by  the  Duke  of  Sutherland. 
The  educational  experiment  which  the  enlightened  zeal 
of  the  Duchess  of  Sutherland  has  now  set  going  in 
the  extreme  north  merits  the  warmest  sympathy  of  our 
readers  and  of  all  who  have  the  cause  of  scientific 
education  at  heart.  The  undertaking  Is  unquestion- 
ably a  bold  one,  and  If,  as  Lord  Balfour  intimates.  It 
Is  to  be  left  solely  to  private  enterprise  In  this  country 
to  Initiate  this  kind  of  work,  it  is  a  matter  of  con- 
gratulation that  we  have  among  us  such  enthusiasts 
as  the  noble  sisters  whose  names  will  always  be  associ- 
ated with  the  cause  of  scientific  education  in  rural 
districts.  The  school  at  Golspie  will  be  unique  of  its 
kind  in  the  north  of  Scotland.  The  Highlander  by 
temperament    and  the  surroundings  of  his  birth,   by 


September  24,  1903] 


NATURE 


499 


the  excellence  of  his  primary  education  and  by  the 
natural  zeal  which  he  possesses  for  the  acquisition  of 
knowledge  is  certain  to  rise  to  the  opportunity  now  to 
bo  placed  in  his  way.  It  is  unnecessary  to  institute 
comparisons,  but  it  may  be  safely  said  that  this  High- 
land school  will  have  raw  material  to  deal  with  of 
which  many  an  English  rural  district  might  well  be 
envious. 


RESIN -TAFFISG. 

CRUDE  resin  is  almost  always  obtained  from  pines 
of  various  species,  e.g.  Pinus  Pinaster  or  P. 
maritima  in  Europe,  P.  palustris,  P.  Taeda  and  P. 
australis  in  America,  and  P.  longifolia,  P.  excelsa,  &c., 
in  India.     It  may  also  be  obtainea  from  other  Conifers 


Fig.  I.— Cup  and  Gutters  used  in  collecting  Crude  Turpentine. 

(spruce,  larch,  &c.),  and  even  from  some  Dicotyledons. 
The  universal  practice  is  to  cut  through  the  cortex 
and  to  allow  the  crude  viscous  liquid  oleo-resin  to 
drip  into  some  form  of  receptacle,  e.g.  a  hole  in  the 
sandy  soil,  or  an  excavated  "  box  "  in  the  foot  of  the 
bole,  or  a  metal  or  earthenware  "  pot  "  hung  on  to 
the  tree. 

From  the  crude  resin  thus  obtained,  numerous  other 
products  are  derived  by  means  of  distillation,  &c. 
Among  these  spirits  or  oil  of  turpentine,  colophany 
(rosin),  pitch  and  tar  are  the  most  important,  and  the 
quantities  of  these  substances  required  annually  for 
naval  purposes,  for  making  varnishes,  sealing-wax, 
&c.,  are  so  great  that  the  resin  industry  is  a  large  and 
lucrative  one. 

There  are  certain  limits  to  the  working  of  a  pine-' 

NO.    1769,  VOL.  681 


tree  as  a  resin-factory  which  increase  the  expense  of 
production  so  considerably  that  it  has  long  been  the 
practice  in  America  recklessly  to  abandon  a  tract 
worked  for  resin  and  push  forward  into  newer  regions. 
These  limits  of  production  depend  especially  on  the 
fact  that  cutting  large  holes  in  the  basal  parts  of  the 
bole  of  a  tree  is  bound  to  result  in  disaster  sooner  or 
later;  and  since  the  American  plan  systematically 
pursued  has  been  that  of  "  boxing  " — i.e.  cutting  large 
holes  in  the  wood  below,  into  which  the  resin  from 
the  cut  and  scarified  cortex  should  slowly  drain — the 
inevitable  result  has  been  the  wholesale  destruction 
of  the  trees  by  means  of  rot-fungi,  wind  throwing, 
ground  fires,  &c. 

This  state  of  affairs  has  naturally  driven  the  authori- 
ties to  seek  for  some  better  methods  of  extracting  the 
resin,  and  in  a  recent  publication  *  Dr.  Hertz  brings 
forward  the  results  of  a  very  complete  set  of  experi- 
ments designed  to  compare  the  yield  and  value  of  the 
resin  obtained  by  the  old  "  boxing  "  method,  and  that 
obtained  by  a  modification  of  the  European  systems. 

The  latter  consists  in  allowing  the  resin  from  the 
periodically  scarified  cortex  and  young  wood  to  drain 
down  Into  two  slanting  spouts  of  thin  tin,  which  direct 
It  Into  a  pot  hung  properly  beneath.  The  advantages 
claimed  for  the  improved  system  are,  a  longer  life  of 
the  tapped  tree,  a  greater  yield  of  resin  all  the  time, 
less  waste  in  catching  the  resin,  diminished  evapor- 
ation of  volatile  products,  and  less  dirt  and  dis- 
coloration as  the  liquid  flows  over  the  face  exposed, 
as  well  as  other  and  minor  points. 

These  matters,  expressed  in  terms  of  money  value, 
are  given  in  a  series  of  tables,  from  which  the  follow- 
ing is  one  extract  only  : — 


Half  crop. 


From 
dip. 


From 
scrape. 


Second  year.                     j  Dollars. 

Cups    ..I  266.34 

Boxes j  104,51 

Third  year. 

Cups    171.27 

Boxes  39.49 

Fourth  year.  | 

Cups    167.33 

Boxes I  36.09 


Dollars. 
49.25 
66.95 

27.44 
26.57 

29.23 
27.91 


Dollars. 
315-59 
171.46 

198.71 
66.06 

196.56 
60.00 


Dollars. 
144.13 


132.65 
13256 


The  bulletin  is  admirably  written,  and  affords  an 
excellent  example  of  what  may  be  done  by  a  properly 
trained  expert  in  learning  the  methods  of  an  old  in- 
dustry practised  in  another  country,  improving  and 
adapting  them  to  the  wants  of  his  own  locality,  and, 
above  all,  in  demonstrating  his  points  so  convincingly 
by  means  of  experiments  that  the  most  prejudiced  of 
his  workmen  becomes  reconciled  to  the  innovations. 

The  illustrations,  of  which  we  select  one,  are  well 
chosen,  sufficient,  and  admirably  executed. 


THE  SOUTH  PORT  MEETING  OF  THE  BRITISH 
ASSOCIATION. 

THE  Southport  meeting  of  the  British  Association 
was  concluded  as  we  went  to  press  last  week. 
At  the  meeting  of  the  General  Committee  on  Wednes- 
day, September  i6,  the  resolutions  sent  forward  by 
the  Committee  of  Recommendations,  and  printed  in 
last  week's  N.-vture,  were  adopted.  In  addition,  the 
two   following   resolutions   were   carried  : — 

(i)  That  the  systematic  investigation  of  the  upper 
currents    of    the    atmosphere    by    means    of    kites    or 

1  "  A  New  Method  of  Turpentine  Orcharding,"  by  Dr.  C.  H.   Hertz. 
U.S.  Department  of  Agriculture,  Bu/l.  xl.,  1903.  t. 


500 


NATURE 


[September  24,  1903 


balloons  is  of  great  importance  in  meteorology,  and 
that  the  Council  should  take  such  steps  as  thej^  might 
think  fit  to  urge  upon  the  Treasury  the  importance 
of  providing  the  Meteorological  Council  with  the  funds 
necessary  for  the  purpose.  (2)  That  the  Sectional 
Committees  be  continued  in  existence  until  the  ap- 
pointment of  the  Sectional  Committees  for  the  succeed- 
ing year,  on  being  summoned  by  the  president  of  the 
committee  or  by  the  Council,  and  that  they  be  author- 
ised to  bring  to  the  notice  of  the  Council  in  the 
interval  between  the  annual  meetings  any  matter 
which  might  be  desired  in  the  interest  of  the  several, 
sections. 

At  the  concluding  meeting,  held  on  the  same  day, 
resolutions  were  proposed  and  unanimously  carried 
conveying  thanks  to  the  Mayor  and  Corporation, 
Local  Committee,  and  other  bodies  who  had  helped 
to  rnake  the  meeting  a  success  by  their  personal 
services  and  generous  hospitality.  Appreciation  of 
the  handsome  way  in  which  the  visitors  were  treated 
was  also  expressed  at  a  dinner  which  the  Mayor  of 
Southport,  Mr.  T.  T.  L.  Scarisbrick,  gave  on  Wednes- 
day evening,  when  a  distinguished  company  was 
entertained  by  him  at  Greaves  Hall,  Banks,  to  meet 
Sir  Norman  Lockyer  and  Prof.  E.  Mascart,  president 
of  the  International  Meteorological  Committee. 

SECTION     E.  ,,         . 

GEOGRAPHY. 

Opening  Address  by  Captain  Ettrick  W.  Creak,  C.B., 
R.N.,  F.R.S.,  President  of  the  Section. 

Of  the  six  distinguished  naval  officers  who  have  previously 
presided  over  this  Section,  four  were  Arctic  explorers  ;  and 
therefore,  possessing  personal  experience  in  Arctic  regions, 
they  naturally  gave  prominence  to  the  deeply  interesting  sub- 
ject of  the  past  and  future  of  Arctic  discovery  in  their 
addresses,  whilst  not  forgetting  other  matters  relating  to  the 
geography  of  the  sea.  The  remaining  officers,  from  their 
immediate  connection  with  all  that  relates  to  the  physical 
condition  of  the  ocean,  in  its  widest  sense,  coupled  with  the 
great  importance  of  giving  the  fruits  of  their  knowledge  to 
the  world,  took  that  subject  as  their  principal  theme. 

Valuable  as  are  contributions  to  our  knowledge  of  the 
physics  of, the  ocean  to  the  world  in  general,  and  especially 
to  the  mariner  and  water-borne  landsman,  I  propose  to  take 
a  different  course,  and  bring  to  your  notice  the  subject  of 
Terrestrial  Magnetism  in  its  relation  to  Geography.  In 
doing  so,  I  shall  endeavour  to  show  that  much  may  be  done 
by  the  traveller  on  land  and  the  seaman  at  sea  in  helping  to 
fathom  the  mysteries  connected  with  the  behaviour  of  the 
freely  suspended  magnetic  needle,  as  it  is  carried  about  over 
that  great  magnet,  the  Earth,  by  observations  in  different 
regions,  and  even  in  limited  areas. 

I  would,  however,  pause  a  moment  to  call  attention  to  the 
presence  of  several  distinguished  meteorologists  at  this  meet- 
ing, who  will  surely  attract  many  to  the  consideration  of 
matters  connected  with  the  important  science  of  meteorology, 
which  already  occupies  considerable  attention  from  travellers. 
I  feel  sure,  therefore,  that  geographers  will  be  glad  to  accord 
a  hearty  welcome  to  the  members  of  the  International 
Meteorological  Congress  now  assembled  in  this  town,  and 
especially  to  the  foreign  visitors  who  honour  us  by  their 
presence. 

Someone  may  ask.  What  has  Terrestrial  Magnetism  to  do 
with  Geography  ?  1  reply,  excellent  lectures  on  that  sub- 
ject of  growing  importance  have  been  given  under  the 
direct  auspices  of  the  Royal  Geographical  Society  ;  one  in 
1878  by  the  late  Captain  Sir  Frederick  Evans,  and  another  in 
1897  by  Sir  Arthur  Riicker.  And  I  would  here  quote  the 
opinion  of  Dr.  Mill  when  defining  geography,  in  my  sup- 
port :  "  Geography  is  the  science  which  deals  with  the  forms 
of  the  Earth's  crust,  and  with  the  influence  which  these 
forms  exercise  on  the  distribution  of  other  phenomena." 

We  know  now  that  the  normal  distribution  of  the  Earth's 
magnetism  for  any  epoch  is  in  many  localities  seriously 
affected  accordingly  as  the  nature  of  the  country  surveyed  be 
mountainous,  or  generally  a  plain,  in  the  form  of  islands  (or 


NO.   1769,  VOL.  68] 


mountains  standing  out  of  the  sea),  and  from  land  under  the 
sea.  There  is  also  reason  to  suspect  that  the  magnetism  of 
that  portion  of  the  earth  covered  by  the  oceans  differs  in  in- 
tensity from  that  of  the  dry  land  we  inhabit.  A  connection 
between  the  disturbances  of  the  earth's  crust  in  ea-'thquakes 
and  disturbances  of  the  magnetic  needle  also  seems  to  exist, 
although  the  evidence  on  this  point  is  not  conclusive. 

Magnetic  Surveys. 

Previously  to  the  year  1880  there  were  two  periods  of  ex- 
ceptional activity  on  the  part  of  contributors  to  our  know- 
ledge of  the  earth's  magnetism,  during  which  the  scientific 
sailor  in  his  ship  on  the  trackless  ocean  combined  with  his 
brethren  on  land  in  making  a  magnetic  survey  of  the  globe. 

The  first  period  was  that  of  1843-49,  during  which  not 
only  were  fixed  observatories  established  at  Toronto,  St. 
Helena,  Capetown,  and  Ilobart  for  hourly  observations  of  the 
movements  of  the  magnetic  needle,  but,  to  use  Sabine's 
words,  "  that  great  national  undertaking,  the  Magnetic  Sur- 
vey of  the  South  Polar  Regions  of  the  Globe,"  the  forerunner 
of  our  present  Antarctic  Expedition,  was  accomplished  by 
Ross  and  his  companions  almost  entirely  at  sea. 

This  Antarctic  survey  was  carried  out  during  the  years 
1840-45,  and  the  results  given  to  the  world  as  soon  as  pos- 
sible by  Sabine.  The  results  afterwards  formed  a  valuable 
contribution  when  constructing  his  maps  of  equal  lines  of 
Magnetic  Declination,  Inclination,  and  Intensity  for  the 
whole  world,  a  great  work  for  the  completion  of  which 
Sabine  employed  every  available  observation  made  up  to  the 
year  1870,  whether  on  land  or  at  sea. 

Readers  of  these  contributions  cannot  fail  to  be  struck  with 
the  great  number  of  observations  made  by  such  travellers 
as  Hansteen  and  Due,  Erman  and  Wrangel,  extending  from 
Western  Europe  to  far  into  Siberia. 

The  second  period  was  that  of  1870-80,  during  which  not 
only  was  there  much  activity  amongst  observers  on  land,  but 
that  expedition  so  fruitful  to  science,  the  voyage  of  H.M.S. 
Challenger,  took  place.  During  the  years  1872-76  we  find 
the  sailor  in  the  Challenger  doing  most  valuable  work  in 
carrying  out  a  magnetic  survey  of  certain  portions  of  the 
great  oceans,  valuable  not  only  for  needful  uses  in  making 
charts  for  the  seaman,  but  also  as  a  contribution  to  mag- 
netic science. 

Prior  to  this  expedition  very  little  was  known  from  observ- 
ation of  the  distribution  of  Terrestrial  Magnetism  in  the 
central  regions  of  the  North  and  South  Pacific  Oceans, 
and  Sabine's  charts  are  consequently  defective  there.  . 

Combining  the  Challenger  magnetical  results  with  those 
of  all  available  observations  made  by  others  of  H.M.  ships, 
and  by  colonial  and  foreign  Governments,  I  was  enabled  to 
compile  the  charts  of  the  magnetic  elements  for  the  epoch 
1880,  which  were  published  in  the  report  of  the  scientific 
results  of  H.M.S.  Challenger.  I  will  venture  to  say  that 
these  charts  give  a  fairly  accurate  representation  of  the 
normal  distribution  of  the  earth's  magnetism  between 
parallels  of  70°  N.  and  40°  S.  Beyond  these  limits,  either 
northward  or  southward,  there  is  a  degree  of  uncertainty 
about  the  value  of  the  lines  of  equal  value,  especially  in  the 
Southern  regions,  an  uncertainty  which  we  have  reason  to 
hope  will  be  dissipated  when  we  know  the  full  results  ob- 
tained by  Captain  Scott  and  the  gallant  band  he  commands, 
for  as  yet  we  have  to  be  content  with  some  eddies  of  the  ful! 
tide  of  his  success. 

Until  the  Discovery  was  built,  the  Challenger  was  the  last 
vessel  specially  selected  with  the  view  of  obtaining  magnetic 
observations  at  sea,  so  that  for  several  years  past  results 
obtained  on  land  have  been  our  mainstay.  Thus,  elaborate 
magnetic  surveys  with  fruitful  results  have  been  carried  out 
in  recent  years  in  the  British  Isles  by  Riicker  and  Thorpe. 
France,  Germany,  Holland,  and  some  smaller  districts  in 
Europe  have  also  been  carefully  surveyed,  and  British  India 
partially  so,  by  Messrs.  Schlagintweit  in  1857-58.  The 
latter  country  is  being  again  magnetically  surveyed  under 
the  auspices  of  the  Indian  Government. 

On  the  American  continent  the  Coast  and  Geodetic  survey 
of  the  vast  territories  comprised  in  the  United  States,  which 
has  been  so  many  years  in  progress,  has  been  accompanied 
by  an  extended  magnetic  survey  during  the  last  fifty-two 
years,  which  is  now  under  the  able  direction  of  Dr.  L.  A. 
Bauer.  Resulting  from  this  some  excellent  charts  of  the 
magnetic  declination  in  the  United  States  have  been  pub- 


September  24,  1903] 


NATURE 


501 


lished  from  time  to  time;  and  the  last,  for  the  epoch  1902, 
is  based  upon  8000  observations. 

There  are  other  contributions  to  terrestrial  magnetism  for 
positions  on  various  coasts  from  the  surveying  service  of  the 
Royal  Navy,  and  our  ships  of  war  are  constantly  assisting 
with  their  quota  to  the  magnetic  declination,  or  variation, 
as  sailors  prefer  to  call  it ;  and  wisely  so,  I  trow,  for  have 
they  not  the  declination  of  the  sun  and  other  heavenly  bodies 
constantly  in  use  in  the  computation  of  their  ship's  position? 

This  work  of  the  Royal  Navy  and  the  Indian  Marine  is  one 
of  great  importance,  both  in  the  interests  of  practical  navi- 
gation and  of  science  ;  for  besides  the  equipment  of  instru- 
ments for  absolute  determinations  of  the  declination,  dip, 
and  horizontal  force  supplied  to  certain  of  our  surveying- 
ships,  every  seagoing  vessel  in  the  service  carries  a  landing 
compass,  specially  tested,  by  means  of  which  the  declination 
can  be  pbserved  with  considerable  accuracy  on  land. 

Although  observers  of  many  other  objects  may  still  speak 
of  their  "  heritage  the  sea  "  as  a  mine  of  wealth  waiting  for 
them  to  explore,  unfortunately  for  magnetic  observations  we 
can  no  longer  say  "  the  hollow  oak  our  palace  is,"  for  wood 
has  been  everywhere  replaced  by  iron  or  steel  in  our  ships, 
to  the  destruction  of  accurate  observations  of  dip  and  force 
on  board  of  them.  Experience,  however,  has  shown  that 
very  useful  results,  as  regards  the  declination,  can  be  ob- 
tained every  time  a  ship  is  "  swung,"  either  for  that  purpose 
alone,  or  in  the  ordinary  course  of  ascertaining  the  errors  of 
the  compass  due  to  the  iron  or  steel  of  the  ship. 

As  an  e.xample  of  this  method,  the  cruise  of  the  training 
squadron  to  Spitsbergen  and  Norway  in  1895  may  be  cited, 
when  several  most  useful  observations  were  made  at  sea  in 
regions  but  seldom  visited.  Again,  only  this  year  a 
squadron  of  our  ships,  cruising  together  near  Madagascar, 
separated  to  a  distance  of  a  mile  apart  and  "  swung  "  to 
ascertain  the  declination. 

I  would  here  note  that  all  the  magnetic  observations  made 
by  the  officers  of  H.M.  ships  during  the  years  1890-1900  have 
been  published  in  a  convenient  form  by  the  Hydrographic 
Department  of  the  Admiralty. 

The  fact  remains,  however,  that  a  great  portion  of  the 
world,  other  than  the  coasts,  continues  unknown  to  the 
searching  action  of  the  magnetic  needle,  whilst  the  two- 
thirds  of  the  globe  covered  by  water  is  still  worse  off. 
Amongst  other  regions  I  would  specify  Africa,  which,  apart 
from  the  coasts.  Cape  Colony,  and  the  Nile  valley  to  lat. 
5^°  N.,  is  absolutely  a  new  field  for  the  observer. 

Moreover,  the  elaborate  surveys  I  have  mentioned  show 
how  much  the  result  depend  upon  the  nature  of  the  locality. 
I  am  therefore  convinced  that  travellers  on  land,  provided 
with  a  proper  equipment  of  instruments  for  conducting  a 
land  survey  of  the  strange  countries  which  they  may  visit, 
and  mapping  the  same  correctly,  can,  with  a  small  addition 
to  the  weight  they  have  to  carry,  make  a  valuable  contribu- 
tion to  our  knowledge  of  terrestrial  magnetism,  commencing 
with  observations  at  their  principal  stations  and  filling  in 
the  intermediate  space  with  as  many  others  as  circumstances 
will  permit. 

The  Antarctic  Expedition. 

Of  the  magnetic  work  of  our  Antarctic  expedition  we  know 
that  since  the  Discovery  entered  the  pack — and,  so  far  as 
terrestrial  magnetism  is  concerned,  upon  the  most  important 
part  of  that  work — every  opportunity  has  been  seized  for 
making  observations. 

Lyttelton,  New  Zealand  (where  there  is  now  a  regular 
fixed  magnetic  observatory),  was  made  the  primary  southern 
base-station  of  the  expedition  ;  the  winter  quarters  of  the  Dis- 
covery, the  secondary  southern  base-station.  Before  settling 
down  in  winter  quarters,  magnetic  observations  were  made 
on  board  the  ship  during  the  cruise  to  and  from  the  most 
easterly  position  attained  off  King  Edward  VII.  Land  in 
lat.  7b°  S.,  long.  152^°  W.,  and  she  was  successfully  swung 
off  Cape  Crozier  to  ascertain  the  disturbing  effects  of  the 
iron  upon  the  compasses  and  dip  and  force  instruments 
mounted  in  the  ship's  observatory. 

As  a  ship  fitted  to  meet  the  most  stormy  seas  and  to  buffet 
with  the  ice,  the  Discovery  has  been  a  great  success.  Let  me 
add  another  tribute  to  her  value.  From  Spithead  until  she 
reached  New  Zealand  but  small  corrections  were  required  for 
reducing  the  observations  made  on  board.  The  experience 
of  Ross's    Antarctic    expedition    had,   however,   taught    the 

NO.    1769,  VOL.  68] 


lesson  that  two  wood-built  ships,  the  Erebus  and  Terror, 
with  but  some  3°  to  4°  of  deviation  of  the  compass  at  Simon's 
Bay,  South  Africa,  found  as  much  as  56°  of  deviation  at  their 
position  farthest  south,  an  amount  almost  prohibitory  of 
good  results  being  obtained  on  board. 

How  fared  the  Discovery?  I  have  been  told  by  Lieutenant 
Shackleton — for  the  cause  of  whose  return  to  England  we 
must  all  feel  great  sympathy — that  a  maximum  of  only  11° 
of  deviation  was  observed  at  her  most  southerly  position. 
From  this  we  may  look  forward  hopefully  to  magnetic  re- 
sults of  a  value  hitherto  unattained  in  those  regions. 

At  winter  quarters,  besides  the  monthly  absolute  observ- 
ations of  the  magnetic  elements,  the  Eschenhagen  vario- 
meters or  self-registering  instruments  for  continuously  re- 
cording the  changes  in  the  declination,  horizontal  force,  and 
vertical  force  were  established,  and  in  good  working  order 
at  the  time  appointed  for  commencing  the  year's  observ- 
ations. 

I  may  here  remind  you  that  some  time  previously  to  the 
departure  of  the  British  and  German  Antarctic  e.xpeditions, 
a  scheme  of  co-operation  had  been  established  between  them, 
according  to  which  observations  of  exactly  the  same  nature, 
with  the  same  form  of  variometers,  were  to  be  carried  out  at 
their  respective  winter  quarters  during  a  whole  year,  com- 
mencing March  i,  1902.  Besides  the  continuous  observations 
with  the  variometers,  regular  term-days  and  term-hours  were 
agreed  upon  for  obtaining  special  observations  with  them  at 
the  same  moment  of  Greenwich  mean  time.  Both  expedi- 
tions have  successfully  completed  this  part  of  their  intended 
work. 

To  co-operate  in  like  manner  with  these  far  southern 
stations,  the  Argentine  Government  sent  a  special  party  of 
observers  to  Staten  Island,  near  Cape  Horn,  and  the 
Germans  another  to  Kerguelen  Land,  whilst  New  Zealand 
entered  heartily  into  the  work.  In  addition,  similar  observ- 
ations were  arranged  to  be  made  in  certain  British  and 
colonial  observatories,  which  include  Kew,  Falmouth,  Bom- 
bay, Mauritius,  and  Melbourne  ;  also  in  German  and  other 
foreign  observatories. 

We  have  all  read  thrilling  accounts  of  the  journeys  of  the 
several  travelling  parties  which  set  out  from  the  Discovery, 
and  of  the  imminent  dangers  to  life  they  encountered  and 
how  they  happily  escaped  them  except  one  brave  fellow 
named  \'ince,  who  disappeared  over  one  of  those  mighty  ice- 
cliffs,  upon  which  all  Antarctic  voyagers  descant,  into  the 
sea.  In  spite  of  all  this  there  is  a  record  of  magnetic 
observations  taken  on  these  journeys  of  which  only  an  outline 
has  yet  been  given.  Anticipations  of  the  value  of  these 
observations  are  somewhat  clouded  when  we  read  in  one 
report  that  hills  "  more  inland  were  composed  of  granite 
rock,  split  and  broken,  as  well  as  weatherworn,  into  extra- 
ordinary shapes.  The  lower  or  more  outer  hills  consisted  of 
quartz,  &c.,  with  basaltic  dykes  cutting  through  them." 
Consequently,  we  have  to  fear  the  effects  of  local  magnetic 
disturbances  of  the  needle  in  the  land  observations,  whilst 
buoyed  up  with  the  hope  of  obtaining  normal  results  on 
board  the  ship.  • 

Judging  from  some  land  observations  which  have  been 
received,  it  appears  that  considerable  changes  have  taken 
place  in  the  values  of  the  magnetic  elements  in  the  regions 
we  are  considering,  but  when  making  comparisons  we  have 
to  remember  the  sixty  years  which  have  elapsed  since  Ross's 
time,  and  that  he  had  nothing  like  the  advantage  of  steam 
for  his  ships,  or  of  instruments  of  precision  like  our  present 
ship  Discovery.  His  ships  also  were,  as  we  have  already  re- 
marked, much  worse  magnetically,  causing  far  more  serious 
disturbance  of  the  instruments.  Hence  the  changes  we  note 
may  not  be  entirely  due  to  changes  in  the  earth's  magnetism. 
The  observations  made  by  the  officers  of  the  Southern 
Cros's  at  Cape  .Adare  in  1899-1900  *ilso  contribute  to  this 
question  of  magnetic  change. 

The  Magnetic  Poles  of  the  Earth. 

I  will  now  refer  to  those  two  areas  on  the  globe  where  the 
dipping  needle  stands  vertically,  known  as  the  magnetic 
poles.  The  determination  of  the  exact  position  of  these  areas 
is  of  great  importance  to  magnetic  science,  and  I  will  just 
glance  at  what  is  being  done  to  solve  the  problem. 

Let  us  consider  the  North  Pole  first,  the  approximate 
position  of  which  we  know  best  from  observation.  If  one 
were  asked  to  say  exactly  where  that  pole  has  been  in  observ- 


502 


NA  TURE 


[Shl'l  EMBER  24,    1903 


ation  times,  whether  it  has  moved,  or  where  it  now  is,  the 
answer  must  be  "  I  do  not  know."  It  is  true  that  Ross  in 
183 1,  by  a  single  observation,  considered  he  had  fixed  its 
position,  and  I  believe  hoisted  the  British  flag  over  the  spot, 
taking  possession  thereof ;  but  he  may  or  may  not  have  set 
up  his  dip  circle  over  a  position  affected  by  serious  magnetic 
disturbance,  and  therefore  we  must  still  be  doubtful  of  his 
complete  success  from  a  magnetic  point  of  view.  Although 
eminent  mathematicians  have  calculated  its  position,  and 
Neumayer  in  1885  gave  a  place  to  it  on  his  charts  of  that 
year,  we  have  still  to  wait  for  observation  to  settle  the 
question,  for  one  epoch  at  least. 

Happily,  I  am  able  to  repeat  the  good  news  that  the  Nor- 
wegian, Captain  Roald  Amundsen,  sailed  in  June  last  with 
the  express  object  of  making  a  magnetic  survey  of  Ross's 
position  and  of  the  surrounding  regions,  in  order  to  fix  the 
position  of  the  north  magnetic  pole.  Furnished  with  suitable 
instruments  of  the  latest  pattern,  he  proposes  to  continue 
his  investigations  until  1905,  when  we  may  look  for  his  re- 
turn and  the  fulfilment  of  our  hopes. 

So  far  as  we  can  now  see,  the  south  magnetic  pole  cannot 
be  approached  very  nearly  by  the  traveller,  and  we  can  only 
lay  siege  to  it  by  observing  at  stations  some  distance  off  but 
encircling  it.  We  have  our  own  expedition  on  one  side  of 
it,  and  now  with  the  return  of  the  Gauss  to  South  Africa  in 
June  last,  we  have  learnt  that  that  vessel  wintered  in  lat. 
66°  2'  S.,  long.  89°  48'  E.,  a  position  on  the  opposite  side  of 
the  supposed  site  of  the  magnetic  pole  to  that  of  the  Dis- 
covery. We  may  now  pause  to  record  our  warm  congratu- 
lations to  Dr.  von  Drygalski  and  his  companions  on  their 
safe  return,  accompanied  by  the  welcome  report  that  their 
expedition  has  proved  successful. 

In  addition  to  the  British  and  German  expeditions,  there 
are  the  Swedish  expedition  and  the  Scottish  expedition. 
Therefore,  with  so  many  nationalities  working  in  widely 
different  localities  surrounding  it,  we  have  every  reason  to 
expect  that  the  position  of  the  south  magnetic  pole  will  be 
determined. 

The  Secular  Change. 

When  in  the  year  1600  Gilbert  announced  to  the  world 
that  the  earth  is  a  great  magnet,  he  believed  it  to  be  a  stable 
magnet ;  and  it  was  left  to  Gellibrand,  some  thirty-four 
years  later,  by  his  discovery  of  the  annual  change  of  the 
magnetic  declination  near  London,  to  show  that  this  could 
hardly  be  the  case.  Ever  since  then  the  remarkable  and 
unceasing  changes  in  the  magnetism  of  the  earth  have  been 
the  subject  of  constant  observation  by  magneticians  and  of 
investigation  by  some  of  the  ablest  philosophers  in  Europe 
and  America.  Year  after  year  new  data  are  amassed  as  to 
the  changes  going  on  in  the  distribution  of  the  magnetism 
of  the  earth,  but  as  yet  we  have  been  favoured  by  hypotheses 
only  as  to  the  causes  of  the  wondrous  changes  which  the 
magnetic  needle  records. 

These  hypotheses  were  at  one  time  chiefly  based  upon  a 
consideration  of  the  secular  change  in  the  declination,  but  it 
is  now  certain  that  we  must  take  into  account  the  whole  of 
the  phenomena  connected  with  the  movements  of  the  needle, 
if  we  are  to  arrive  at  any  satisfactory  result.  Besides,  it  will 
not  suffice  to  take  our  data  solely  from  existing  fixed 
observatories,  however  relatively  well  placed  and  equipped, 
and  valuable  as  they  certainly  are,  for  it  now  appears  that 
the  secular  change  is  partly  dependent  upon  locality,  and 
that  even  at  places  not  many  miles  apart  differences  in  re- 
sults unaccounted  for  by  distance  have  been  obtained. 

The  tendency  of  observation  is  increasingly  to  show  that 
the  secular  change  of  the  magnetic  elements  is  not  a  world- 
wide progress  of  the  magnetic  needle  moving  regularly  in 
certain  directions,  as  if  solely  caused  by  the  regular  rotation 
during  a  long  series  of  years  of  the  magnetic  poles  round  the 
geographical  poles,  for  if  you  examine  Map  No.  i,  showing 
the  results  of  observations  during  the  years  1840-80  as  re- 
gards secular  change,  you  will  observe  that  there  are  local 
causes  at  work  in  certain  regions,  whilst  in  others  there  is 
rest,  which  must  largely  modify  the  effect  of  any  polar  rota- 
tion. 

Allow  me  to  explain  further.  The  plain  lines  on  Map  No.  i 
indicate  approximate  regions  of  no  secular  change  in  the 
declination,  and  the  small  arrows  the  general  direction  (not 
the  amount)  in  which  the  north-seeking  end  of  the  hori- 
2ontal   needle   was  moving  during  those  forty  years.     The 

NO.    1769,  VOL.  68] 


foci  of  greatest  change  in  the  declination,  with  the  approxi- 
mate amount  of  annual  change  in  the  northern  hemisphere, 
are  shown  in  the  German  Ocean  and  N.W.  Alaska,  in  the 
southern  hemisphere  off  the  coast  of  Brazil,  and  in  the  South 
Pacific  between  New  Zealand  and  Cape  Horn.  The  two  foci 
of  greatest  annual  change  in  the  dip  are  shown,  one  in  the 
Gulf  of  Guinea  where  the  north-seeking  end  of  the  needle 
was  being  repelled  strongly  upwards,  the  other  on  the  west 
side  of  Tierra  del  Fuego,  where  the  north-seeking  end  of  the 
needle  was  being  attracted  strongly  downwards. 

It  is  remarkable  that  the  lines  of  no  change  in  the  de- 
clination pass  through  the  foci  of  greatest  change  in  the  dip. 
If  the  needle  be  repelled  upwards,  as  at  the  Gulf  of  Guinea 
focus,  it  will  be  found  to  be  moving  to  the  eastward  on  the 
east  side  of  the  whole  line  of  no  change  in  the  declination 
from  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  to  Labrador  ;  to  the  westward 
on  the  west  side.  If  the  needle  be  attracted  downwards,  as 
at  the  Tierra  del  Fuego  focus,  it  will  be  found  moving  to  the 
westward  on  the  east  side  of  the  whole  line  of  no  declination 
from  that  focus  to  near  Vancouver  Island  ;  to  the  eastward 
on  the  west  side. 

A  similar  result  may  be  seen  in  the  line  passing  through  a 
minor  focus  of  the  dip  near  Hong  Kong. 

Judging  from  analogy  there  should  be  another  focus  of 
change  in  the  dip  in  lat.  70°  N.,  long.  115°  E.,  or  about  the 
position  assigned  to  the  Siberian  focus  of  greatest  force. 

On  Map  No.  2  are  shown  lines  of  equal  value  of  the  de- 
clination— the  red  lines  for  the  year  1880,  the  black  lines  for 
the  year  1895.  From  these,  when  shown  on  a  large  scale,  we 
may  deduce  the  mean  annual  change  which  has  taken  place 
in  the  declination  during  the  fifteen  years  elapsed. 

In  this  map  we  are  reminded  of  the  different  results  we 
obtain  in  different  localities,  for  if  a  line  be  drawn  from  Wel- 
lington in  New  Zealand  past  Cape  York  in  Australia  to 
Hong  Kong,  little  or  no  change  will  be  found  in  the  neigh- 
bouring region  since  1840.  Again,  the  line  of  no  change  in 
the  declination  shown  on  Map  No.  i  to  be  following  much 
the  same  direction  as  the  great  mountain  ranges  on  the  west 
side  of  the  American  continent  has  hardly  moved  for  many 
years  according  to  the  observations  available. 

On  the  other  hand,  let  us  now  turn  to  an  example  of  the 
remarkable  changes  which  may  take  place  in  the  declination 
unexpectedly  and  locally.  The  island  of  Zanzibar  and  the 
east  coast  of  Africa  were  constantly  being  visited  by  our  sur- 
veying-ships and  ships  of  war  up  to  the  year  1880,  observ- 
ations of  the  declination  being  made  every  year  at  Zanzibar 
during  the  epoch  1870-80.  The  results  showed  that  from 
Capetown  nearly  to  Cape  Guardafui  the  annual  change  of 
that  element  hardly  exceeded   i'. 

During  the  succeeding  years  of  1890-gi  observations  were 
made  by  the  Germans  at  Dar-es-Salaam  and  some  other 
places  on  the  neighbouring  coasts,  with  the  result  that  the 
declination  was  found  to  be  changing  at  first  3'  annually, 
and  since  that  period  it  had  reached  10'  to  12'  at  Dar-es- 
Salaam.  Subsequent  observations  at  the  latter  place  in 
1896-98  confirmed  the  fact  of  the  great  change,  and  in  addi- 
tion our  surveying-ship  on  the  station,  specially  ordered  to 
"  swing  "  at  different  places  in  deep  water  off  the  coast, 
generally  confirmed  the  results.  It  is  remarkable  that  whilst 
such  great  changes  should  have  taken  place  between  Cape- 
town and  Cape  Guardafui,  Aden  and  the  region  about  the 
straits  of  Bab-el-Mandeb  seem  to  be  comparatively  unaffected. 

Local  Magnetic  Disturbance. 

In  Map  No.  2  normal  lines  of  equal  value  of  the  declin- 
ation are  recorded,  and  so  far  as  the  greater  part  of  the 
globe  covered  by  water  is  concerned,  we  may  accept  them  as 
undisturbed  values,  for  we  have  yet  to  learn  that  there  are 
any  local  magnetic  disturbances  of  the  needle  in  depths 
bevond  100  fathoms. 

When,  however,  we  come  to  the  land,  there  is  an  increas- 
ing difficulty  in  finding  districts  of  only  a  few  miles  in  ex- 
tent where  the  observed  values  of  the  magnetic  elements  at 
different  stations  therein  do  not  differ  more  widely  than  they 
should  if  we  considered  only  their  relative  position  on  the 
earth  as  a  magnet.  Take  Rucker  and  Thorpe's  maps  of  the 
British  Isles  and  those  of  the  United  States,  for  example, 
where  the  lines  of  equal  value  are  drawn  in  accordance  with 
the  observations,  with  the  result  that  they  form  extraordinary 
loops  and  curves  differing  largely  from  the  normal  curves  of 
calculation. 


September  24,  1903] 


NA  TURE 


503 


Frcm  among  numerous  examples  of  disturbance  of  the  de- 
clination on  land,  two  may  be  quoted.  In  the  Rapakivi  dis- 
trict, near  Wiborg,  a  Russian  surveying  officer  in  the  year 
1S90  observed  a  disturbance  of  i8o°.  or,  in  other  words,  the 
north  point  of  his  compass  pointed  due  south.  At  Inver- 
cargill,  in  New  Zealand,  within  a  circle  of  30  feet  radius,  a 
difference  of  56°  was  found.  Even  on  board  ships  in  the 
same  harbour  different  results  are  sometimes  observed,  as 
our  training  squadron  found  at  Reikiavik  in  Iceland,  and 
notably  in  our  ships  at  Bermuda. 

It  is  hardly  necessary  to  add  that  the  dip  and  force  are 
often  largely  subject  to  like  disturbance,  but  I  do  so  in  order 
to  warn  travellers  and  surveyors  that  observations  in  one 
position  often  convey  but  a  partial  truth  ;  they  should  be 
supplemented  by  as  many  more  as  possible  in  the  neighbour- 
hood  or  district.  Erroneous  values  of  the  secular  change 
have  also  been  published  from  the  various  observers  not  hav- 
ing occupied  exactly  the  same  spot,  and  even  varied  heights 
of  the  instrument  from  the  ground  may  make  a  serious  dif- 
ference, as  at  Rapakivi  before  mentioned,  and  at  Madeira, 
where  the  officers  of  the  Challenger  expedition  found  the  dip 
at  a  foot  above  the  ground  to  be  48°  46'  N.  ;  at  3J  feet  above 
the  ground  56°  18'  \.  at  the  same  spot. 

All  mountainous  districts  are  specially  open  to  suspicion  of 
magnetic  disturbance,  and  we  know  from  comparison  with 
normal  observations  at  sea  that  those  mountains  standing 
out  of  the  deep  sea,  which  we  call  islands,  are  considerably 
so  affected. 

Magnetic  Shoals. 

The  idea  that  the  compasses  of  ships  could  be  affected  by 
the  attraction  of  the  neighbouring  dry  land,  causing  those 
ships  to  be  unsuspectingly  diverted  from  their  correct  course, 
was  long  a  favourite  theory  of  those  who  discussed  the  causes 
of  shipwreck,  but  it  was  "  a  fond  thing  vainly  inven<:ed."  I 
can  hardly  say  this  idea  is  yet  exploded,  but  from  what  has 
already  been  said  about  local  magnetic  disturbance  on  land, 
it  is  not  a  matter  of  surprise  that  similar  sources  of  dis- 
turbance should  exist  in  the  land  under  the  sea,  for  it  has 
been  found  that  in  certain  localities,  in  depths  of  wa'.er  suf- 
ficient to  float  the  largest  ironclad,  considerable  disturbances 
are  caused  in  the  compasses  of  ships. 

An  area  of  remarkable  disturbance  having  been  reported 
as  existing  off  Cossack,  N.W.  Australia,  H.M.S.  Penguin, 
a  surveying-ship  provided  with  the  necessary  magnetic  in- 
-truments,  was  sent  by  the  Admiralty  in  189 1  to  make  a  com- 
i'lete  magnetic  survey  of  the  locality,  with  a  view  to  ascer- 
tain the  facts  and  place  them  on  a  scientific  basis.  An 
area  of  disturbance  3-5  miles  long  by  2  miles  broad,  with 
not  less  than  8  fathoms  of  water  over  it,  was  found  lying  in 
a  N.E.  by  E.  and  S.W.  by  W.  direction.  At  one  position 
the  disturbing  force  was  sufficient  to  deflect  the  Penguin's 
compass  56°  ;  in  another — the  focus  of  principal  disturbance 
— the  dip  on  board  was  increased  by  29°,  and  this  at  a  dis- 
tance of  more  than  2  miles  from  the  nearest  visible  land,  upon 
which  only  a  small  disturbance  of  the  dip  was  found. 

This  remarkable  area  of  disturbance  was  then  called  a 
"  Magnetic  Shoal,"  a  term  which  at  first  sight  hardly  ap- 
pears to  be  applicable.  We  have,  however,  become  familiar 
with  the  terms  "  ridge  line,  valley  line,  peak,  and  col,"  as 
applied  to  areas  of  magnetic  disturbance  on  land  ;  there- 
fore I  think  we  may  conveniently  designate  areas  of  mag- 
netic disturbance  in  land  under  the  sea  "  Magnetic  Shoals." 

This  year  H.M.  surveying-ship  Research  has  examined 
and  placed  a  magnetic  shoal  in  East  Loch  Rcag  (Island  of 
Lewis),  but  as  all  our  surveying-ships  are  practically  iron 
ships,  it  was  impossible  from  observations  on  board  to  obtain 
the  exact  values  of  the  disturbing  forces  prevailing  in  this 
shoal.  The  reason  for  this  is  that,  although  we  may 
accurately  measure  the  disturbing  forces  of  the  iron  of  the 
ship  in  deep  water,  directly  she  is  placed  over  the  shoal  in- 
duction takes  place,  and  we  can  no  longer  determine  to  what 
extent  the  observed  disturbances  are  due  to  the  ship's  newly 
developed  magnetism,  or  to  what  extent  the  shoal  alone  pro- 
duces them. 

We  can,  nevertheless,  even  in  an  iron  ship,  accurately 
place  and  show  the  dimensions  of  a  magnetic  shoal  and  the 
direction  in  which  a  ship's  compass  will  be  deflected  in  any 
part  of  it  by  compass  observations  only.  Is  it  not,  therefore, 
the  duty  of  any  ship  meeting  with  such  shoals  to  stop  and  fix 
their  position? 

NO.    1769,  VOL.  68] 


The  general  law  governing  the  distribution  of  magnetism 
on  these  magnetic  shoals  is  that  in  the  northern  hemisphere 
the  north  point  of  the  compass  is  drawn  towards  the  focus  of 
greatest  dip ;  in  the  southern  hemisphere  it  is  repelled.  The 
results  at  East  Loch  Roag  proved  an  exception,  the  north 
point  of  the  compass  being  repelled. 

Terrestrial  Magnetism  and  Geology. 

I  have  already  referred  to  the  question  of  local  magnetic 
disturbance  as  one  of  great  importance  in  magnetic  surveys. 
The  causes  of  these  disturbances  were  at  one  time  a  matter 
of  opinion,  but  the  evidence  of  the  elaborate  magnetic  sur- 
veys I  have  alluded  to,  when  compared  with  the  geological 
maps  of  the  same  countries,  points  clearly  to  magnetic  rocks 
as  their  chief  origin. 

Magnetic  rocks  may  be  present,  but  from  their  peculiar 
position  fail  to  disturb  the  needle  ;  but,  on  the  other  hand, 
as  Rucker  writes  in  his  summary  of  the  results  of  the  great 
magnetic  survey  of  the  British  Isles  conducted  by  Thorpe 
and  himself,  "  the  magnet  would  be  capable  of  detecting 
large  masses  of  magnetic  rock  at  a  depth  of  several  miles," 
a  distance  not  yet  attained  by  the  science  of  the  geologist. 

Again,  Dr.  Rijckevorsel,  in  his  survey  of  Holland  for  the 
epoch  1891,  was  convinced  that  "  in  some  cases,  in  many 
perhaps,  there  must  be  a  direct  relation  between  geology  and 
terrestrial  magnetism,  and  that  many  of  the  magnetic  fea- 
tures must  be  in  some  way  determined  by  the  geological 
structure  of  the  under-ground." 

During  the  years  1897-99  a  magnetic  survey  was  made  of 
the  Kaiser-stuhl,  a  mountainous  district  in  the  neighbour- 
hood of  Freiburg,  in  Baden,  by  Dr.  G.  Meyer.  Exact  topo- 
graphical and  geological  surveys  had  been  previously  made, 
and  the  object  of  the  magnetic  survey  was  to  show  how  far 
the  magnetic  disturbances  of  the  needle  were  connected  with 
geological  conformations.  Here,  again,  it  was  found  that 
the  magnetic  and  geological  features  of  the  district  showed 
considerable  agreement,  basaltic  rocks  being  the  origin  of 
the  disturbance.  This  was  not  all,  for  in  the  level  country 
adjacent  to  the  Rhine  and  near  Breisach  unsuspected  masses 
of  basalt  were  found  by  the  agency  of  the  magnetic  needle. 

More  recently  we  find  our  naval  officers  in  H.M.S.  Pen- 
guin, with  a  complete  outfit  of  magnetic  instruments,  mak- 
ing a  magnetic  survey  of  Funafuti  atoll  and  assisting  the 
geologist  by  pointing  out,  by  means  of  the  observed  dis- 
turbance of  the  needle,  the  probable  positions  in  the  lagoon 
in  which  rock  would  be  most  accessible  to  their  boring 
apparatus. 

Leaving  the  geologist  and  the  magnetician  to  work  in 
harmony  for  their  common  weal,  let  us  turn  to  some  other 
aspects  of  the  good  work  already  accomplished  and  to  be 
accomplished  by  magnetic  observers. 

Magnetic  Charts. 

Of  the  valuable  work  of  the  several  fixed  magnetic  observ- 
atories of  the  world,  I  may  remark  that  they  are  constantly 
recording  the  never-ceasing  movements  of  the  needle,  the 
key  to  many  mysteries  to  science  existing  in  the  world  and 
external  to  it,  but  of  which  we  have  not  yet  learnt  the  use. 
Unfortunately  many  of  these  once  fixed  observatories  have 
become  travellers  to  positions  where  the  earth  can  carry  on 
its  work  on  the  needle  undisturbed  by  electric  trams  and  rail- 
ways which  have  sprung  up  near  them,  and  it  is  to  be  hoped 
they  will  find  rest  there  for  many  years  to  come. 

Of  the  forty-two  observatories  which  publish  the  values 
of  the  magnetic  elements  obtained  there,  thirty-two  are  situ- 
ated northward  of  the  parallel  of  30°  N.,  and  only  four  in 
south  latitude  ;  and  it  is  a  grief  to  magneticians  that  so  im- 
portant a  position  as  Capetown  or  its  neighbourhood  does 
not  make  an  additional  fixed  magnetic  observatory  of  the  first 
order. 

Thus,  so  far  as  our  present  question  of  magnetic  charts 
and  their  compilation  is  concerned,  the  observatories  do  not 
contribute  largely,  but  we  should  be  very  grateful  to  them 
for  the  accurate  observations  of  the  secular  change  they  pro- 
vide which  are  so  difficult  to  obtain  elsewhere. 

Of  the  value  of  magnetic  charts  for  different  epochs  I  have 
much  to  say,  as  they  are  required  for  purely  scientific  inquiry 
as  well  as  for  practical  uses.  It  is  only  by  their  means  that 
we  can  really  compare  the  enormous  changes  which  take 
place  in  the  magnetism  of  the  globe  as  a  whole ;  they  are  use- 
ful to  the  miner,  but  considerably  more  so  to  the  seaman. 


504 


NA  TURE 


[September  24,  1903 


Had  it  not  been  for  the  charts  compiled  from  the  results  of 
the  untiring  labours  of  travellers  bj-  land  and  observers  at  sea 
in  the  field  of  terrestrial  magnetism  during  the  last  century, 
not  only  would  science  have  been  miserably  poorer,  but  it  is 
not  too  much  to  say  that  the  modern  iron  or  steel  steamship 
traversing  the  ocean  on  the  darkest  night  at  great  speed 
would  have  been  almost  an  impossibility,  whereas  with  their 
aid  the  modern  navigators  can  drive  their  ships  at  a  speed 
of  26-5  statute  miles  an  hour  with  comparative  confidence, 
even  when  neither  sun,  moon,  nor  stars  are  appearing. 

Of  the  large  number  of  travellers  by  sea,  including  those 
who  embark  with  the  purpose  of  increasing  our  geographical 
knowledge  of  distant  lands  and  busying  themselves  with 
most  useful  inquiries  into  the  geology,  botany,  zoology,  and 
meteorology  of  the  regions  they  visit,  few  realise  that  when 
they  set  foot  on  board  ship  (for  all  ships  are  now  constructed 
of  iron  or  steel)  they  are  living  inside  a  magnet.  Truly  a 
magnet,  having  become  one  by  the  inductive  action  of  that 
great  parent  magnet — the  Earth. 

How  fares  the  compass  on  board  those  magnets,  the  ships, 
that  instrurhent  so  indispensable  to  navigation,  which  Victor 
Hugo  has  forcibly  called  "  the  soul  of  the  ship,"  and  of 
which  it  has  been  written, 

"  A  rusted  nail,  placed  near  the  faithful  compass, 
Will  sway  it  from  the  truth,  and  wreck  an  argosy  "  ? 

And  if  so  small  a  thing  as  an  iron  nail  be  a  danger,  what  are 
we  to  say  to  the  iron  ship?  Let  us  for  a  moment  consider 
this  important  matter. 

If  the  nature  of  the  whole  of  the  iron  or  steel  used  in  con- 
struction of  ships  were  such  as  to  become  permanently  mag- 
netic, their  navigation  would  be  much  simplified,  as  our 
knowledge  of  terrestrial  magnetism  would  enable  us  to  pro- 
vide correctors  for  any  disturbing  effects  of  such  iron  on  the 
compass,  which  would  then  point  correctly.  But  ships,  taken 
as  a  whole,  are  generally  more  or  less  unstable  magnets,  and 
constantly  subject  to  change,  not  only  on  change  of  geo- 
graphical position,  but  also  of  direction  of  the  ship's  head 
with  regard  to  the  magnetic  meridian.  Thus  a  ship  steer- 
ing on  an  easterly  course  may  be  temporarily  magnetised  to 
a  certain  extent,  but  on  reversing  the  ship's  course  to  west 
she  would  after  a  time  become  temporarily  magnetised  to  the 
same  amount,  but  in  the  opposite  direction,  the  north  point 
of  the  compass  being  attracted  in  each  case  to  that  side  of 
the  ship  which  is  southernmost. 

Shortly,  we  may  define  the  action  of  the  earth's  magnetism 
on  the  iron  of  a  ship  as  follows  :  The  earth  being  surrounded 
by  a  magnetic  field  of  force  differing  greatly  in  intensity  and 
direction  in  the  regions  from  the  North  Pole  to  the  Equator 
and  the  Equator  to  the  South  Pole,  the  ship's  magnetic  con- 
dition is  largely  dependent  upon  the  direction  of  her  head 
whilst  building  and  the  part  of  that  field  she  occupied  at  the 
time ;  partly  upon  her  position  in  the  magnetic  field  she 
traverses  at  any  given  time  during  a  voyage. 

For  the  reasons  I  have  given,  magnetic  charts  are  a  neces- 
sity for  practical  purposes  and  in  the  following  order  of 
value.  That  of  the  magnetic  declination  or  variation  which 
is  constantly  in  use,  especially  in  such  parts  of  the  world  as 
the  St.  Lawrence  and  the  approaches  to  the  English  Channel, 
where  the  declination  changes  very  rapidly  as  the  ship  pro- 
ceeds on  her  course.  Next,  that  of  the  dip  and  force,  which 
are  not  only  immediately  useful  when  correcting  the  ship's 
compass,  but  are  required  in  the  analysis  of  a  ship's  mag- 
netism both  as  regards  present  knowledge  and  future  im- 
provements in  placing  compasses  on  board. 

If  astronomers  have  for  a  very  long  time  been  able  to  pub- 
lish for  several  years  in  advance  exact  data  concerning  the 
heavenly  bodies,  is  it  too  much  to  hope  that  magneticians 
will  before  long  also  be  able  to  publish  correct  magnetic 
charts  to  cover  several  years  in  .advance  of  any  present  epoch  ? 
If  this  is  to  be  done  within  reasonable  time  there  must  be  a 
long  pull,  a  strong  pull,  and  a  pull  all  together  of  magnetic 
observers  in  all  lands,  and  accumulated  data  must  also  be 
discussed. 

On  Magnetic  Instruments  for  Travellers. 

Travellers  in  unsurveyed  countries,  if  properly  instructed 
and  equipped,  can  do  good  service  to  science  by  observing 
the  three  magnetic  elements  of  declination,  inclination  or 
dip,  and  force  at  as  many  stations  as  circumstances  will  per- 
mit ;  hence  the  following  remarks. 

For  the  purpose  of  making  the  most  exact  magnetic  sur- 
NO.    1769,  VOL.  681 


vey  the  best  equipment  of  instruments  consists  of  the  well- 
known  unifilar  magnetometer,  with  fittings  for  observing 
the  declination,  and  a  Barrow's  dip  circle.  To  some 
travellers  these  instruments  might  be  found  too  bulky,  and 
in  some  regions  too  delicate  as  well  as  heavy  to  carry. 

Of  suitable  instruments  made  abroad,  those  used  by  M. 
Moureaux  in  his  survey  of  France  may  be  mentioned,  as  they 
are  of  similar  type,  but  much  smaller  and  lighter  than  the 
instruments  above  mentioned. 

Another  form  of  instrument,  called  an  L.C.  instrument,  for 
observing  both  the  inclination  and  total  force,  is  shown  in 
the  instrument  before  you.  Originally  designed  for  observ- 
ations on  board  ships  at  sea  where  the  ordinary  magnetic 
instruments  are  unmanageable,  it  has  also  been  found  to 
give  satisfactory  results  in  a  land  survey,  where  greater 
accuracy  is  expected  than  at  sea.  Thus,  during  a  series  of 
observations  extending  from  the  north  side  of  Lake  Superior 
to  the  southern  part  of  Texas  last  year,  comparisons  were 
made  between  the  results  obtained  with  an  L.C.  instrument 
and  those  of  the  regular  unifilar  magnetometer  and  dip 
circle,  when  the  agreement  was  found  satisfactory. 

■I  am  therefore  of  the  opinion  that  a  traveller  furnished 
with  a  theodolite  for  land-surveying  purposes,  but  fitted  with 
a  reversible  magnetic  needle,  can  at  any  time  he  observes  a 
true  bearing  obtain  a  trustworthy  value  of  the  declination. 
Dismounting  the  theodolite  from  his  tripod,  the  latter  will 
serve  for  mounting  an  L.C.  instrument  with  which  to  ob- 
serve the  inclination  and  force.  Thus,  by  adding  to  his 
ordinary  equipment  an  instrument  weighing  in  its  box  about 
21  lb.,  he  can  obtain  valuable  contributions  to  terrestrial 
magnetism,  and  at  the  same  time  give  useful  assistance  to 
geological  investigations. 

Concluding  Remarks. 

Although  a  great  subject  like  terrestrial  magnetism,  even 
to  exhibit  our  present  knowledge  of  the  science,  cannot  be 
brought  within  the  compass  of  an  address — for  it  requires  a 
treatise  of  many  pages — I  have  brought  some  of  the  broad 
features  of  it  before  the  Section  in  order  to  show  its  con- 
nection with  Geography. 

I  also  entertain  the  hope  that  geographers  will  become 
more  interested  in  a  subject  so  important  to  pure  science  and 
in  its  practical  applications,  and  that  it  will  become  an  addi- 
tional subject  to  the  instruction  which  travellers  can  now 
obtain  under  the  auspices  of  the  Royal  Geographical  Society 
in  geology,  botany,  zoology,  meteorology,  and  surveying. 

There  is  a  wide  field  open  to  observers,  and  where  results 
often  depend  so  much  upon  locality  we  require  to  explore 
more  and  more  with  the  magnetic  needle.  To  look  over  the 
great  oceans  and  think  how  little  is  being  done  for  terrestrial 
magnetism  is  a  great  matter  for  regret.  Vet  even  there  we 
may  begin  to  be  hopeful,  for  the  United  States  Coast  and 
Geodetic  Survey  authorities  are  making  arrangements  to  fit 
out  its  vessels  with  the  necessary  instruments  for  determin- 
ing the  magnetic  elements  at  sea. 

We  wish  them  all  success  ;  but  I  must  again  remind  you 
that  although  we  cannot  compel  observers  to  start,  there  is 
room  for  them  and  to  spare. 

I  would  fain  make  some  remarks  on  the  prevailing 
ignorance  of  sound  geography  in  many  quarters,  and  on  the 
defective  methods  of  teaching  the  science  ;  but  I  feel  that  the 
subject  is  placed  in  very  able  hands,  and  will  be  fully  dis- 
cussed elsewhere  during  the  present  meeting. 


SECTION    G. 
engineering. 

Opening  Address  by  Mr.  Charles  Hawksley,  Past 
President  Inst.C.E.,  President  of  the  Section. 
Since  the  last  meeting  of  the  British  Association  there 
has  passed  from  our  midst,  to  the  deep  regret  of  all  who 
had  the  privilege  of  knowing  him,  one.  who,  though  full 
of  years,  actively  followed  his  profession  as  a  Civil  Engineer 
until  within  a  few  days  of  his  death.  I  refer  to  Mr.  Edward 
Woods,  who  presided  over  Section  G  of  the  British  Associ- 
ation at  Plymouth  in  1877.  Mr.  Woods  commenced  his 
professional  career  on  the  Liverpool  and  Manchester  Rail- 
way soon  after  it  was  opened  for  traffic.  In  1875  Mr. 
Woods  was  invited  by  the  Royal  Commission  on  Railway 
Accidents  to  undertake,  in  conjunction  with  Colonel  Inglis, 


September  24,  1903] 


NATURE 


505 


R.E.,  an  exhaustive  series  of  trials  of  the  different  kinds  of 
railway  brakes  then  in  use  in  England,  the  results  of  which 
were  recorded  in  an  elaborate  and  valuable  report.  These 
trials  were  referred  to  by  Mr.  Woods  in  his  address  as 
President  of  Section  G.  Mr.  Woods  was  President  of  the 
Institution  of  Civil  Engineers  in  1886-1887,  and  he  died  on 
June  14,  1903,  at  the  ripe  age  of  eighty-nine. 

Technical  Education. 

The  subject  of  the  technical  education  of  engineers  was 
treated  very  fully  in  the  interesting  address  delivered  by 
Prof.  Perry,  as  President  of  Section  G  at  the  meeting  of 
the  British  .Association  in  Belfast  last  year.  This  question 
also  received  thorough  consideration  at  the  meeting  of  the 
Engineering  Conference  held  in  London  in  June  last,  as 
well  as  at  recent  meetings  of  the  Institution  of  Mechanical 
Engineers  and  of  the  Institute  of  Naval  .Architects.  The 
systems  in  vogue  in  the  United  States  of  America  and  on 
the  Continent  of  Europe  were  on  those  occasions  brought 
forward  in  carefully  prepared  papers  and  fully  discussed. 
The  main  points  at  issue  are  :  (i)  whether  actual  handicraft 
should  be  taught  in  the  Technological  School  or  College 
along  with  the  principles  underlying  the  Engineers'  art  ; 
(2)  whether  the  year  should  be  divided  into  periods  in  one 
or  more  of  which  the  science  of  engineering  should  be 
taught,  and  in  another  or  others  of  which  craft  skill  should 
be  acquired  at  works  ;  (3)  whether  the  principles  should  be 
first  acquired,  during  a  longer  or  shorter  term,  leaving 
experience  in  applying  those  principles  to  be  gained  at  the 
termination  of  the  course.  As  regards  the  first  of  these 
suggestions  it  appears  to  be  in  opposition  to  the  judgment 
of  the  most  e.xperienced  teachers.  In  respect  to  the  second, 
the  Admiralty  have  carried  it  out  for  the  last  forty  years, 
and  with  satisfaction  to  the  Service  ;  it  is  also  common  in 
Glasgow,  and  Mr.  Yarrow  has  included  this  system  in  the 
apprenticeship  rules  he  has  recently  laid  down,  whilst  it  is 
to  be  tried  experimentally  in  the  Engineering  Course  at 
King's  College,  London.  .At  the  Engineering  Conference 
it  was  determined  that  the  subject  was  of  such  importance 
that  its  further  consideration  should  be  left  to  a  Committee, 
to  be  subsequently  appointed. 

Since  the  British  Association  last  met  in  Lancashire  (in 
1896)  there  have  been  important  events  and  changes  in  the 
chief  technical  institutions  of  the  county.  First,  there  were 
last  year  the  Jubilee  celebrations  of  Owens  College,  Man- 
chester, when  it  received  congratulations  on  its  half-century 
of  work  from  universities  and  learned  societies  in  all  parts 
of  the  world.  Here,  as  I  need  hardly  remind  you,  the 
engineering  laboratory  is  under  the  able  direction  of  Prof. 
Osborne  Reynolds,  F.  R.S.,  who  presided  over  Section  G 
of  the  British  Association  at  their  Meeting  in  Manchester 
in  1887.  Then,  also  in  Manchester,  there  is  the  recently 
completed  and  admirable  Municipal  School  of  Technology  ; 
but  as  a  paper  will  be  read  on  this  subject,  and  members 
will  have  an  opportunity  of  visiting  the  school  and  inspect- 
ing its  engineering  laboratory,  I  will  content  myself  with 
wishing  it  every  success  in  the  manifold  fields  of'industrial 
education  in  which  it  is  engaged.  .Again,  only  this  year 
Victoria  University  has  lost  a  College,  and  Liverpool  has 
gained  a  University.  At  University  College,  Liverpool,  in 
the  Session  of  1884-5,  'i  Professorship  of  Engineering  was 
instituted  as  a  provisional  measure.  The  erection  of 
engineering  laboratories  and  the  endowment  of  the  Chair 
were  afterwards  provided  for  by  gifts  in  commemoration 
of  the  Jubilee  year  of  the  reign  of  Her  late  Majestv,  Queen 
\irtoria.  Prof.  H.  E.  Hele-Shaw,  F.R.S.,  was  appointed 
the  Chair  in  the  first  instance,  a  position  which  he  still 

ntinues  to  hold. 

This  ylar  a  Royal  Charter  has  been  granted  establishing 
the  University  of  Liverpool,  and  transferring  to  it  the 
powers  of  University  College,  Liverpool.  I  think  one 
cannot  offer  to  the  University  of  Liverpool  a  heartier  wish 
than  that  it  may  be  as  successful  in  the  future  as  University 
College,  Liverpool,  has  been  in  the  past,  a  wish  in  which 
1  am  sure  you  will  all  join. 

There  is  yet  one  other  college  to  which,  though  not  in 
Lancashire,  I  should  like  to  make  a  passing  reference,  the 
first  to  include  engineering  in  its  educational  curriculum, 
viz.  University  College,  London.  It  was  originallv  founded 
in  1828  under  the  name  of  the  "  University  of  London," 
:md  has  recently,  together  with  King's  College,  become 
merged   in   the  present    University    of   London.       The    first 

NO.    1769,   VOL.   68] 


engineering  laboratory  was  established  at  University 
College  in  1878,  fifty  years  after  the  inauguration  of  the 
college,  whilst  a  separate  chair  for  electrical  engineering 
was  founded  in  1885,  and  an  electrical  laboratory  was 
added  ten  years  ago.  One  cannot  say  farewell  to  it  as  it 
used  to  be  without  mentioning  the  name  of  Dr.  A.  B.  W. 
Kennedy,  F.R.S.,  who  was  President  of  this  Section  of  the 
British  .Association  in  1894  at  Oxford,  and  who  has  done 
so  much  for  engineering  education. 

Before  leaving  the  subject  of  technical  education,  1 
venture  to  express  the  hope  that  in  the  training  of  engineer- 
ing students  increased  attention  will  be  paid  to  the  com- 
bination of  artistic  merit  with  excellence  of  structural  de- 
sign, so  that  in  respect  to  artistic  treatment  our  engineer- 
ing structures  may  not  remain  so  far  behind  those  of  our 
Continental  brethren  as  is  unfortunately  now  frequently  the 
case. 

Engineering  Standards. 

A  very  important  work  has  been  going  on  quietly  and 
unostentatiously  in  our  midst  for  some  time  past,  the  results 
of  which  must  affect  the  engineering  profession  at  home 
and  abroad.  I  refer  to  the  work  of  the  Engineering 
Standards  Committee,  which  as  many  of  my  hearers  know, 
was  appointed  in  1901  and  is  now  composed  of  178  members,, 
among  whom  are  many  Government  officials.  I  alluded  to 
the  earlier  work  of  this  Committee  in  my  Presidential 
.Address  to  the  Institution  of  Civil  Engineers  in  1901,  and 
that  work  has  since  been  gradually  but  surely  extended. 
The  Committee  has  received  not  only  the  moral  but  the 
financial  support  of  His  Majesty's  Government,  and  the 
results  of  its  labours  are  being  adopted  by  all  the  leading 
Government  departments. 

In  addition  to  the  main  Committee  there  are  no  fewer 
than  twenty-five  separate  committees  and  sub-committees 
engaged  on  work,  covering  a  wide  range  of  operations, 
many  of  the  members  sitting  on  more  than  one  committee. 

A  few  details  of  the  work  accomplished  and  in  progress- 
may  be  of  interest.  After  careful  deliberation  the  Com- 
mittee published  their  first  series  of  British  standards 
sections,  covering  all  rolled  steel  sections  used  in  construc- 
tional work,  shipbuilding  and  so  forth.  The  Committee  on 
Rails  has  just  issued  the  standard  sections  and  specification 
for  British  girder  tramway  rails,  and  it  is  now  actively 
engaged  in  drawing  up  a  series  of  standard  sections  of  bull- 
headed  and  flat-bottomed  rails  for  railway   work. 

Another  committee  of  a  thoroughly  representative 
character  is  occupied  in  drawing  up  a  standard  specification 
and  standard  tests  for  cement,  and  a  standard  specification 
drawn  up  by  so  large  a  body  of  our  leading  engineers,  con- 
tractors, and  manufacturers  must  be  of  great  interest  to 
all  those  who  are  called  on  to  specify  tests  for  this  materiaL 

The  Government  of  India  control  to  a  very  considerable 
extent  the  working  of  railways  in  India,  and  they  have 
referred  to  the  Standards  Committee  the  important  question 
of  drawing  up  a  series  of  standard  types  of  locomotives  for 
use  on  the  Indian  railways.  The  Committee  which  in- 
vestigated this  difficult  subject  has  just  forwarded  its  report 
to  the  Secretary  of  State  for  India.  Other  committees  are 
preparing  standard  specifications  for  locomotive  copper  fire- 
box plates  and  steel  boiler  plates,  which  it  is  hoped  will  be 
published  at  an  early  date. 

The  subject  of  screw-threads  is  one  which  has  occupied 
a  Committee  of  the  British  .Association  for  some  years  past, 
and  I  am  glad  to  learn  that  the  Committee  of  this  Associ- 
ation has  been  co-operating  with  the  Standards  Committee 
and  discussing  the  question  of  screw-threads  of  both  smaller 
and  larger  diameters,  and  also  considering  the  cognate 
subject  of  limit  gauges  so  essential  to  all  accurate  work  in 
mechanical  engineering. 

.Another  Committee  is  dealing  with  standard  flanges,  and 
I  understand  it  is  shortly  proposed  to  consider  the  standard- 
isation of  cast-iron  pipes. 

A  very  large  and  influential  committee  is  engaged  on  the 
subject  of  the  materials  used  in  the  construction  of  ships 
and  their  machinery,  and  most  valuable  information  is  being 
collected  with  a  view  to  the  preparation  of  a  standard 
specification  for  steel  and  to  the  determination  of  forms  for 
standard  test-pieces  to  be  used  when  testing  plates,  forgings, 
castings,  and  so  forth. 

There  are  about  half  a  dozen  committees  engaged  on 
various  important  electrical  subjects,  but  as  their  work  will 


5o6 


NATURE 


[September  24,  1903 


no  doubt  be  referred  to  in  another  Section  of  this  Associ- 
ation, I  do  not  propose  to  make  further  reference  to  it 
here. 

In  my  Presidential  Address  before  the  Institution  of  Civil 
Engineers  in  190 1,  I  raised  a  note  of  warning  in  regard 
to  the  stereotyping  of  design  and  the  consequent  cramping 
of  originality.  The  constitution  of  the  Standards  Com- 
mittee and  the  professional  standing  of  its  members  afford 
a  guarantee  that  its  work  will  accord  with  the  best  practice 
of  this  country,  since  those  engaged  in  drawing  up  the 
standards  are  not  only  in  the  forefront  of  engineering 
practice,  l)ut  are  alive  to  the  necessity  for  extending  the 
number  of  standards  if  and  when  needed  to  meet  the  require- 
ments of  the  engineer. 

National  Physical  Laboratory. 

An  outline  scheme  for  a  National  Physical  Laboratory 
was  set  forth  in  1891,  by  Sir  (then  Dr.)  Oliver  Lodge, 
F.R.S.,  in  his  Address  at  Cardiff  to  Section  A  of  the  British 
Association.  In  his  Presidential  Address  to  this  Association 
In  1895  at  Ipswich,  the  late  Sir  Douglas  Galton,  F.R.S., 
emphasised  the  importance  of  such  an  Institution,  a  Com- 
mittee of  this  Association  reported  in  favour  of  it,  and 
later,  when  after  forwarding  a  petition  to  the  late  Lord 
Salisbury,  a  Treasury  Committee  with  Lord  Rayleigh, 
F.R.S.,  in  the  Chair  was  formed,  Sir  Douglas  Galton  gave 
evidence  to  the  effect  that  if  Great  Britain  was  to  retain 
its  industrial  supremacy,  we  must  have  accurate  standards 
available  to  our  research  students  and  to  our  manufacturers. 

In  1901,  the  National  Physical  Laboratory  was  inaugur- 
ated at  Bushy  House,  near  Teddington,  and  an  annual 
grant  of  4000?.  towards  its  support  was  made  by  Govern- 
ment. It  is  divided  into  three  departments,  of  which  the 
one  dealing  with  all  branches  of  Civil,  Mechanical,  and 
Electrical  Engineering  is  chiefly  interesting  to  us  in  Section 
G  In  this  department  tests  are  now  undertaken  of  the 
strength  of  materials  of  construction,  of  pressure  and 
vacuum  gauges,  of  indicators  and  indicator  springs,  and  of 
length  gauges  and  screw  gauges,  and  photomicroscopic 
investigation  is  made  of  metals  and  alloys,  and  especially 
of  steel  rails. 

But  beside  the  ordinary  work  of  testing,  various  in- 
vestigations are  in  progress,  such  as  measurement  of  wind 
pressure,  elastic  fatigue  in  nickel  steel  and  other  materials 
used  by  engineers,  and  the  magnetic  and  mechanical 
properties  of  aluminium-iron  and  other  alloys.  For  the 
British  Association  a  set  of  platinum  thermometers  has 
been  constructed  and  subjected  to  stringent  tests,  and  an 
investigation  has  been  undertaken  for  the  Engineering 
Standards  Committee  into  the  changes  in  insulating 
strength  of  various  dielectrics  used  in  motors,  transformers, 
&c.,  due  to  continued  heating.  In  the  language  of  Dr. 
Glazebrook,  F.R.S.,  the  Director,  who  it  may  be  mentioned 
was  previously  Principal  of  University  College,  Liverpool, 
science  is  not  yet  regarded  as  a  commercial  factor  in  this 
country,  but  it  is  one  of  the  aims  of  the  National  Physical 
Laboratory  to  bring  about  the  alliance  of  science  with 
commerce  and  industry.  The  expenditure  of  the  National 
Physical  Laboratory  is  met  by  an  annual  Treasury  grant 
of  4000/.  ;  500L  a  year  from  an  endowment ;  fees  for  tests, 
now  amounting  to  about  3500/.  annually  ;  and  from  dona- 
tions and  subscriptions. 

The  Director  is  anxious  that  the  revenue  derived  from 
fees  for  testing  should  be  largely  augmented,  and  I  would 
urge  on  engineers,  contractors  and  manufacturers,  as  well 
as  on  private  individuals,  that  they  should  avail  themselves 
of  the  opportunity  to  have  tests  and  experiments  of  interest 
to  them,  and  which  will  be  generally  accepted  as  unim- 
peachable, conducted  at  this  laboratory!  I  may  add  that  an 
appeal  has  been  made  for  further  donations'  and  annual 
contributions,  as  the  funds  now  at  the  disposal  of  the  Board 
of  Management  are  insufficient  to  carry  on  the  work  of 
the  laboratory  on  a  sound  financial  basis',  and  I  venture  to 
hope  that  many  of  those  who  are  interested  in  the  practical 
applications  of  science  will  assist  in  supporting  the  work  of 
this  national  institution. 

Intercommunication. 
General  Progress. 
At  the  commencement  of  the  nineteenth  century.   South- 
port,    which   now  has   its  parks,    a  promenade,   and   a  pier 
NO.    1769,  VOL.  68] 


more  than  three-quarters  of  a  mile  in  length,  its  halls, 
free  library,  art  gallery  and  science  and  art  schools,  and 
railway  connection  with  all  parts  of  the  kingdom,  was  not 
even  to  be  found  on  the  maps,  the  first  house  having  been 
erected  in  the  year  1792.  In  185 1  the  population  of  South- 
port  and  the  adjoining  place  Birkdale  was  5390,  whereas 
at  the  census  of  1901,  Southport  had  a  population  of  48,083 
and  Birkdale  14,197,  together  62,280.  Here  is  evidence  of 
great  local  enterprise,  resulting  in  a  development  of  which 
its  people  may  be  justly  proud. 

At  the  commencement  of  the  nineteenth  century  the 
population  of  the  United  Kingdom  was  nearly  15I  millions, 
at  the  beginning  of  the  twentieth  nearly  41J  millions. 
Then  there  was  not  a  mile  of  railway  in  the  United 
Kingdom  :  now  there  are  about  22,000  miles.  Here,  too, 
is  evidence  not  only  of  the  prosperity  which  has  prevailed 
throughout  Great  Britain  during  the  century  that  has 
passed,  but  also  of  the  enormously  increased  demands  which 
have  arisen  during  the  same  period  on  the  means  of 
locomotion. 

It  was  towards  the  latter  half  of  the  eighteenth  century 
that  the  formation  of  good  roads  was  commenced  in  Lanca- 
shire and  the  adjoining  counties  by  John  Metcalf,  the  blind 
road-maker,  and  that  Palmer  in  1784  introduced  mail 
coaches  travelling  at  from  six  to  seven  miles  an  hour  on 
the  main  roads.  In  1801  the  mail  coach  from  London  to 
Holyhead  occupied  nearly  forty-six  hours  on  the  journey, 
and  the  mails  reached  Dublin  on  the  third  day  after  leaving 
London.  Now  the  journey  from  London  to  Holyhead  is 
performed  in  5J  hours,  and  Dublin  is  reached  in  gl  hours 
after  leaving  London. 

In  1803,  just  one  hundred  years  ago,  Telford  reported  to 
the  Government  on  the  state  of  the  roads,  and  as  a  result 
tha-  great  road  to  Liverpool  from  the  Metropolis  and  the 
other  great  highways  were  constructed.  It  was  enlightened 
wisdom  that  eighty  years  ago  placed  intercommunication 
in  the  forefront  of  the  definition  of  engineering ;  it  still 
maintains  that  position,  and  I  purpose  to  say  a  few  words 
on  the  present  aspect  of  the  question. 

Road  Traffic — Motors. 

Speed  in  locomotion  appears  to  be  now  the  first  consider- 
ation, whether  as  regards  mails,  passengers,  or  goods.  I 
would  refer  in  the  first  instance  to  locomotion  on  our  main 
roads.  Here  three  or  four  classes  of  machines  appear  to  be 
ambitious  to  drive  pedestrians,  horsemen,  and  horse-drawn 
vehicles  off  the  road. 

The  first  practical  steam  carriage  was  used  by  Trevithick 
in  the  year  1802  ;  and  now,  a  hundred  years  later,  it  is 
found  that  for  the  traction  of  heavy  loads  on  the  main  roads 
steam  is  still  most  suitable.  The  points  of  importance  in 
connection  with  traction  engines  and  their  trailers  are  their 
speed,  weight,  and  width  ;  of  course,  there  is  no  question 
that,  as  regards  facilitating  trafHc,  the  large  heavy  waggon 
replacing  many  smaller  horse-drawn  ones  will  be  found  a 
boon.  Mr.  E.  R.  Calthrop,  M.Inst.C.E.,  one  of  the 
founders  of  the  Liverpool  Self-propelled  Traffic  Association, 
is  opposed  to  any  weight  restriction,  but  it  must  be  re- 
membered that  the  momentum  of  heavily  laden  waggons 
drawn  by  a  powerful  traction  engine  at  the  maximum  speed 
of  five  miles  an  hour  is  very  great,  and  causes  uncomfort- 
able vibration  in  the  houses  along  the  main  thoroughfares 
of  our  towns ;  on  the  other  hand,  light  traction  engines 
are  now  being  successfully  used,  drawing  from  four  to  five 
tons  of  market  produce  through  the  streets  of  London 
without  causing  undue  vibration,  and  at  a  cost,  I  am  in- 
formed, of  about  one-half  that  of  horse  traction. 

But  a  far  more  burning  question  is  that  of  th#speed  of 
motor  cars  along  our  public  thoroughfares.  The  struro-le 
to  maintain  a  trophy  at  home,  or  to  regain  it  from  abroad, 
is  one  in  which  every  inhabitant  of  this  country  sympathises. 
The  great  Gordon-Bennett  Cup  Race  in  July  last  redounded 
to  the  credit  of  the  Automobile  Club  of  Great  Britain  and 
Ireland,  who  made  and  carried  out  the  arrangements  and 
were  at  considerable  pains  to  find  a  suitable  course  in  a 
sparsely  inhabited  district ;  every  measure  which  experience 
has  shown  to  be  needful  having  been  taken  to  prevent 
accident.  The  race  was  decidedly  international  in  character, 
French,  Germans,  Americans,  and  English  contesting  for 
the  prize ;  and  in  heartily  congratulating  the  German  Auto- 
mobile  Club   on    their   success,    it    mav   be    noted    that   M. 


September  24,  1903] 


NATURE 


507 


Jenatzy  covered  a  distance  of  327J  miles  in  6  hours  39 
minutes,  or  at  the  rate  of  4qJ  miles  an  hour,  though  he 
attained  to  a  speed  of  61  miles  an  hour  between  the  points 
of  control.  Even  this  speed  was  exceeded  at  a  trial  in 
Phcenix  Park,  Dublin,  when  Baron  de  Forest  attained  to 
a  rate  of  86  miles  an  hour.  But  between  racing  speed  and 
ordinary  travelling  speed  there  is  necessarily  a  great  differ- 
ence, and  our  twenty  miles  maximum  on  country  roads  is 
in  excess  of  that  allowed  in  France,  where  it  is  now  fixed, 
though  I  believe  not  enforced  in  the  open  country,  at  \%\ 
miles,  and  at  12J  miles  where  there  is  much  traffic.  The 
two  classes  of  motors  used  for  higher  speeds  are  the  petrol 
and  the  electric.  The  former  are  mainly  internal-combus- 
tion engines ;  having  to  be  light,  they  run  at  the  com- 
paratively high  speed  of  800  revolutions  per  minute.  They 
are  generally  used  in  connection  with  bicycles,  tricycles,  or 
light  carriages.  They  have  also  been  used  for  light  vans 
and  coaches,  and  successful  trials  have  been  made  with 
self-propelled  lorries  for  military  purposes,  and  by  local 
authorities  for  watering  and  dust  collecting.  Their  appli- 
cation to  omnibuses  has  not  proved  economical,  owing  to 
the  difficulty  of  providing  pneumatic  tyres  for  such  heavy 
vehicles. 

The  electric  motor  depends  on  storage  batteries ;  those  in 
general  use  are  of  Plants 's  lead-couple  type.  Like  the 
petrol  motor,  the  electric  motor  is  rather  a  luxury  ;  most 
of  the  automobile  carriages  used  in  London  are  of  this 
class  ;  there  is  liability  of  injury  to  the  batteries  by  over- 
discharging  them.  Colonel  Crompton,  in  a  paper  recently 
read  at  the  Engineering  Conference,  suggested  the  use  of 
"  standardised  accumulators,"  to  be  supplied  to  the  owners 
of  electrical  vehicles  at  dep6ts  on  production  of  a  subscription 
.ticket,  and  the  Engineering  Standards  Committee  has 
appointed  a  sub-committee  to  consider  the  question.  Motor 
cars  are  now  used  by  some  of  the  railway  companies  as 
feeders  to  their  lines,  and  also  in  competition  with  tramway 
lines. 

The  increasing  use  of  motor  cars  renders  more  than  ever 
necessary  the  regulation  of  traffic  in  crowded  thoroughfares, 
a  subject  which  will  doubtless  be  dealt  with  in  the  paper 
on  "  The  Problem  of  Modern  Street  Traffic,"  which  Colonel 
Crompton  is  about  to  read  before  this  Section  of  the  British 
Association. 

The  use  of  motor-driven  vehicles  for  road  traffic  is  so  in- 
timately associated  with  improvements  in  prime  movers  that 
it  will  interest  the  members  of  this  Section  to  be  reminded 
of  the  opinion  expressed  more  than  twenty  years  ago  by 
Sir  Frederick  Bramwell,  F.R.S.,  Past  President  Inst.C.E., 
who  presided  over  the  Meeting  of  the  British  Association 
at  Bath  in  1888.  In  a  paper  read  before  this  Section  at  the 
Jubilee  Meeting  of  our  Association  at  York  in  1881,  and 
afterwards  printed  in  extenso,  Sir  Frederick  Bramwell  said  : 
"  However  much  the  Mechanical  Section  of  the  British 
Association  may  to-day  contemplate  with  regret  even  the 
mere  distant  prospect  of  the  steam-engine  becoming  a  thing 
of  the  past,  I  very  much  doubt  whether  those  who  meet 
here  fifty  years  hence  will  then  speak  of  that  motor  except 
in  the  character  of  a  curiosity  to  be  found  in  a  museum." 
In  a  letter  addressed  to  the  President  of  this  Association 
on  July  2  last,  Sir  Frederick  Bramwell  directed  attention 
to  the  largely  increasing  development  of  internal-combustion 
engines,  and  expressed  a  feeling  of  assurance  that,  although 
steam-engines  might  be  at  work  in  193 1,  the  output  in  that 
year  would  be  small  of  steam  as  compared  with  internal- 
combustion  engines. 

To  keep  alive  the  interest  of  the  Association  in  this  sub- 
ject, Sir  Frederick  Bramwell  has  kindly  offered,  and  the 
Council  has  accepted,  the  sum  of  50/.  for  investment  in  2^ 
per  cent,  self-accumulative  Consols,  the  resulting  sum  to 
be  paid  as  an  honorarium  to  a  gentleman  to  be  selected  by 
the  Council  to  prepare  a  paper  having  Sir  Frederick's 
utterances  in  1881  as  a  sort  of  text,  and  dealing  with  the 
whole  question  of  the  prime  movers  of  193 1,  and  especially 
with  the  then  relation  between  steam-engines  and  internal- 
combustion  engines.  That  paper  will  doubtless  prove  to  be 
a  very  valuable  contribution  to  the  proceedings  of  this 
Association,  and  one  can  only  regret  that  many  of  those 
assembled  here  to-day  cannot  hope  to  be  present  when  it  is 
read,  and  to  listen  to  an  account  of  the  nearest  approach 
which  has  then  been  made  towards  the  production  of  a 
perfect  prime  mover. 


Electric  Tramways  and  Light  Railways. 
I  now  pass  to  the  application  of  electricity  to  tramways, 
and  in  doing  so  may  quote  from  the  careful  expression  of 
opinion  given  in  this  town  from  this  Chair  twenty  years 
ago  by  the  late  Sir  (then  Mr.)  James  Brunlees,  President- 
of  the  Institution  of  Civil  Engineers :  "  The  working  of 
railways  by  electricity  has  not  advanced  further  than  to 
justify  merely  a  brief  reference  to  it  in  this  paper  as  among 
the  possibilities,  perhaps  the  probabilities,  of  the  not  distant 
future." 

It  was  stated  in  a  paper  read  by  Mr.  P.  Dawson  in  April 
last  before  the  Tramways  and  Light  Railways  Association, 
that  the  total  route-length  of  electric  tramways  and  light 
railways  in  the  United  Kingdom,  either  completed,  under 
construction,  or  authorised,  amounted  at  the  end  of  last 
year  to  3000  miles,  the  length  of  single  track  being  5000 
miles,  on  which  some  6000  cars  were  running. 

It  cannot,  in  my  opinion,  be  regarded  as  being  fair  to 
the  railway  companies^— which  have  to  pay  large  sums  of 
money  for  the  land  on  which  their  lines  have  been  con- 
structed— to  have  to  compete  with  tramways  which  are  laid 
along  the  public  roads  without  any  payment  being  made 
for  their  use.  The  roads  are  disfigured  by  aerial  conductors 
and  the  supporting  posts  by  which  the  electric  current  is 
conveyed  to  the  cars,  except  in  those  comparatively  rare 
instances  in  which  the  conduit  system  is  used  ;  nor  can  it 
be  denied  that  tramways  greatly  interfere  with  the  use  of 
the  roads  for  ordinary  traffic.  The  effect  of  electrolytic 
action  on  iron  pipes  laid  beneath  the  roads  is  still  under- 
going investigation. 

Railways. 

Turning  now  to  railways,  it  may  be  noted  that  on  some 
of  the  principal  lines  in  Great  Britain  the  length  of  the 
runs  without  a  stop  is  being  increased  in  the  case  of  fast 
trains,  the  speed  of  which  is  in  some  cases  from  forty-eight 
to  fifty-nine  miles  an  hour. 

Railway  companies  are  turning  their  attention  to  the  in- 
troduction of  electric  traction  wherever  it  can  be  beneficially 
used,  as  for  instance  on  the  Mersey  Railway,  the  North- 
Eastern  Railway  between  Newcastle-upon-Tyne  and  Tyne- 
mouth,  and  the  Lancashire  and  Yorkshire  Railway  between 
Liverpool  and  Southport.  With  the  object  of  facilitating 
the  introduction  and  use  of  electrical  power  on  railways. 
Parliament  has  passed  an  Act  entitled  the  "  Railways 
(Electrical  Power)  Act,  1903,"  which  will  come  into  oper- 
ation on  January  i  next. 

The  electrical  service  on  the  Mersey  Railway  has  now 
been  in  regular  and  uninterrupted  operation  since  the 
beginning  of  May  in  the  present  year.  Trains  are  run  at 
three-minute  intervals,  there  being  750  trains  in  all  between 
5  a.m.  and  12  midnight;  and  as  it  is  the  first  example  of 
a  British  steam  railway  converted  to  the  use  of  electric 
traction,  a  short  description  of  it  cannot  fail  to  be  of  interest. 

The  Mersey  Railway  viras  first  opened  for  traffic  on 
Februarv  i,  1886,  and  was  afterwards  extended  at  both 
ends,  the  last  extension  to  the  Liverpool  Central  Station 
being  opened  for  traffic  in  January,  1892.  With  steam 
locomotives,  largely  owing  to  the  want  of  adequate  ventil- 
ation, the  railway  was  not  a  success.  Electrification  was 
decided  upon,  and  in  the  latter  part  of  1901  the  British 
Westinghouse  Electric  and  Manufacturing  Company, 
Limited,  undertook  the  entire  contract.  The  length  of  the 
railway  is  about  3S  miles,  and  there  are  gradients  in  the 
tunnel  below  the  river  of  i  in  27  and  i  in  30. 

The  power  station  is  at  Birkenhead,  and  contains  plant 
aggregating  more  than  6000  horse-power,  comprising  three 
engines  of  the  Westinghouse-Corliss  vertical  cross-compound 
type. 

The  generators  are  all  three  alike,  mounted  on  the  engine 
shaft  between  the  cylinders.  They  are  standard  Westing- 
house  multipolar  machines,  of  the  double-current  type,  of 
1250  kilowatts  capacity.  Direct-current  is  collected  from 
the  armature  at  650  volts,  no  alternating  current  being  used 
at  present. 

Leads  are  carried  below  the  floor  from  the  machines  to 
a  switchboard,  from  which  are  controlled  the  main  gener- 
ators, the  auxiliary  lighting  sets,  battery,  booster,  and 
feeders.  The  battery  consists  of  320  chloride  cells  con- 
nected in  parallel  with  the  generators  through  a  differential 
booster,    and    charge   or   discharge    according   as    the    line 


NO.    1769,  VOL.  68] 


5o8 


NATURE 


[September  24,  1903 


loau  is  light  or  heavy.  They  have  a  capacity  of  looo 
ampere-hours,  and  a  momentary  discharge  capacity  of 
2000  amperes. 

The  auxiliary  sets,  two  in  number,  are  for  lighting  pur- 
. poses,  and  yielding  direct  current  at  650  volts,  are  available 
in  case  of  need  to  supply  current  to  the  main  traction 
circuits.  210  volt  incandescent  lamps  are  used  for  light- 
ing, arranged  in  groups  of  three  in  series. 

The  feeders  are  carried  from  the  switchboard  down  the 
ventilation  shaft  to  feed  the  insulated  electrical  collector 
rails,  which  are  placed  in  the  space  between  the  up  and 
the  down  lines,  and  somewhat  above  the  level  of  the  rails, 
an  insulated  return  collector  rail  being  placed  between  each 
pair  of  rails.  A  train  consists  of  two  motor  cars,  one  at 
each  end,  and  from  one  to  three  trailers  as  required,  de- 
pending on  the  amount  of  traffic.  The  motor  cars  each 
carry  an  equipment  of  four  Westinghouse  motors  of  100 
horse-power,  making  400  horse-power  per  car,  or  800  horse- 
power per  train.  These  motors  are  all  controlled  in  unison 
from  the  motorman's  compartment  at  either  end  of  the 
train  by  means  of  the  Westinghouse  multiple  controlled 
system,  which  has  worked  from  the  start  without  a  hitch. 

In  conclusion,  it  may  be  noted  that  every  precaution  has 
been  taken  against  fire.  The  electrical  equipment  is  all 
thoroughly  fireproof,  and  the  motorman's  compartment  is 
encased  in  asbestos  slate,  cutting  it  off  completely  from  the 
remainder  of  the  train. 

Of  tube  railways  with  electric  traction  there  are  three 
now  working  in  London,  two  between  the  City  and  the 
south  side  of  the  River  Thames,  using  the  ordinary  two 
wire  500  volts  continuous  current  system,  and  another  (the 
Central  London)  extending  from  the  City  to  Shepherd's 
Bush,  using  the  composite  system.  This  railway  conveyed 
during  the  year  1902  no  fewer  than  45  million  passengers. 
There  are  eight  other  tube  railways  now  in  course  of  con- 
struction in  London.  The  recent  terrible  catastrophe  in 
Paris  must  serve  as  a  warning  in  the  future  equipment  of 
such  lines  where  currents  at  high  tension  are  employed, 
and  where  short-circuiting  may  bring  about  disastrous 
results. 

A  paper  will  be  read  before  this  Section  by  Mr.  F.  B. 
Behr  on  the  authorised  Manchester  and  Liverpool  Express 
Railway,  which  is  intended  to  be  constructed  on  the  Mono- 
rail system,  and  to  be  worked  electrically. 

Canals. 

Concurrently  with  the  construction  of  roads  in  this 
country  was  the  formation  of  canals,  as  a  means  of  inland 
communication,  mainly  for  the  carriage  of  minerals  and 
merchandise,  though  they  also  conveyed  passengers  by 
express  boats.  The  only  recent  structure  of  this  character 
in  the  United  Kingdom  is  the  famous  Manchester  Ship 
Canal,  with  which  the  name  of  Sir  E.  Leader  Williams, 
M.Inst.C.E.,  is  associated.  This,  however,  is  hardly  a 
canal  in  the  sense  in  which  that  word  was  employed  by 
Brindley,  "  the  father  of  inland  canal  navigation  in 
England,"  as  the  largest  amount  by  far,  in  the  proportion 
of  10  to  I,  is  its  seaborne  as  compared  with  its  local  traffic. 
It  is  interesting  to  notice  that  a  very  important  wheat  trade 
is  being  carried  on  with  India,  exported  both  from  Bombay 
and  Kurrachee.  The  seaborne  traffic  and  the  barge  traffic 
for  1894  was  686,158  tons  and  239,501  tons  respectively, 
and  has  during  eight  years  increased,  until  in  1902  it  had 
reached  3,137,348  tons  and  280,711  tons  respectively.  The 
most  interesting  recent  development  of  the  works  is  the 
new  Dock  now  in  course  of  construction,  with  its  five  sets  of 
transit  sheds,  which  are  being  built  on  the  Ferro-Concrete 
system. 

Ships. 

The  intercommunication  of  the  nations  of  the  world  is 
largely  dependent  on  the  navigation  of  the  ocean.  The 
first  vessel  to  cross  the  Atlantic  fitted  with  steam  power  was 
the  Savannah,  of  about  300  tons,  which  arrived  at  Liverpool 
from  Savannah,  in  Georgia,  in  thirty  days,  partly  under 
steam  and  partly  under  sail.  Ocean  steam'  traffic  has  been 
extending  ever  since.  Two  years  ago  I  had  occasion,  in 
connection  with  my  Presidential  Address  to  the  Institution 
of  Civil  Engineers,  to  collect  some  statistics  with  regard 
to  shipping,  and  found  that  according  to  Lloyd's  Register 
the  largest  British  vessels  then  afloat  were  the  twin-screw 
steamers  Oceanic,  of  17,274  tons,   and  the  Celtic,  of  20,904 

NO.    1769,  VOL.  68] 


tons,  both  gross  register,  built  for  the  White  Star  line^ 
and  regularly  making  the  passage  between  Liverpool  and 
New  York  in  seven  days  and  eight  days  respectively  ;  and 
the  Celtic  is  still  the  largest  mercantile  steamship  afloat^ 
th'^  tonnage  of  the  new  German  steamer,  Kaiser 
Wilhehn  II.,  being  19,360  tons  gross  register. 

Unfortunately  these  fine  ships,  with  many  others,  are 
now  no  longer  owned  in  this  country,  although  still  flying 
the  British  flag.  The  latest  German  steamer  on  the 
American  line,  together  with  others  recently  launched  from 
the  Vulcan  W'orks  at  Stettin,  have  maintained  a  speed 
averaging  more  than  23  knots,  whilst  the  Cunard  Com- 
pany's liners — still,  happily,  English — the  Campania  and 
Lucania,  built  ten  years  ago,  average  22  knots.  This  com- 
pany is  under  contract  with  the  Government  to  build  two 
liners  to  maintain  an  average  speed  of  245  knots.  The 
secretary  of  "  Lloyd's  Register  of  British  and  Foreign. 
Shipping  "  has  kindly  supplied  me  with  a  list  of  the 
steamers  of  10,000  tons  and  upwards  which  have  been 
launched  in  the  United  Kingdom  between  1900  and  June,, 
1903.      It  is  given  in  aggregate  below  :— 


1900 
1901 
1902 

1903  I 

(six  months  to  June  30)/ 


No.  ot  ships 


Aggregate  gross 
tonnage 


95>275 
107,396 

98,505 
/  67,600 
1^  (approximate) 


In  the  Address  already  referred  to  I  mentioned  the  appli-  • 
cation  as  having  been  then  recently  made  of  the  Parsons 
steam  turbine  to  H.M.  torpedo-boat  destroyers.  The  South- 
Eastern  and  Chatham  Railway  Company's  new  steamer  The 
Queen  has  been  fitted  with  this  class  of  engine  of  latest 
design.  There  is  a  central  high-pressure  turbine,  driving 
its  shaft  at  700  revolutions  a  minute,  and  two  side  low- 
pressure  turbines,  each  driving  its  separate  shaft  at  50a 
revolutions  a  minute.  The  steamer  is  310  feet  long,  and 
is  now  running  successfully  in  the  service  between  Dover 
and  Calais. 

For  some  time  past  much  attention  has  been  paid,  more 
especially  in  France,  to  the  perfecting  of  submarine  vessels 
for  the  purposes  of  naval  warfare,  but  it  cannot  yet  be  said 
that  they  have  passed  beyond  the  experimental  stage, 
although  the  advance  made  has  been  such  as  to  cause  our 
Admiralty  to  order  several  additional  vessels  of  the  sub- 
marine type.  These  vessels  are  to  be  propelled  by  internal- 
combustion  engines  when  on  the  surface  of  the  water  and 
by  electric  motors  when  submerged. 

Aeronautics. 

Another  of  the  attempted  means  of  locomotion  is  that  of 
aerial  navigation.  How  little  we  appear  to  have  advanced 
beyond  where  we  were  fifty  years  ago,  when  on  September 
2\,  1852,  that  eminent  French  engineer,  Henri  Giffard, 
succeeded  during  an  experimental  ascent  in  Paris  in  drivings 
a  balloon  against  the  wind  for  a  very  short  distance, 
although  on  October  19,  1901,  M.  Santos  Dumont  was 
successful  in  navigating  his  balloon  from  St.  Cloud  round 
the  Eiffel  Tower  in  Paris  and  back  to  the  spot  where  he 
had  started  only  half  an  hour  previously.  Many  have  been 
engaged  in  this  so  far  unsolved  problem  of  aerial  navi- 
gation, but  there  is  one  of  whom  we  seldom  hear.  I  will 
quote  what  Dr.  Janssen  said  in  his  Presidential  Address 
to  the  International  Aeronautic  Congress,  held  in  France 
on  September  15,  1900,  regarding  Mr.  Langley,  Correspon- 
dent of  the  Institute  of  France  and  Secretary  of  the  Smith- 
sonian Institution  at  Washington.  "  Independently  of  the  fine 
and  profound  researches  of  this  investigator  upon  the  resist- 
ance of  air,  Mr.  Langley  has  constructed  an  aeroplane  which 
has  progressed  and  has  sustained  itself  during  a  time  notably 
longer  than  any  of  the  apparatus  previously  constructed." 

In  the  last  report  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution,  that  for 
1901,  it  is  stated  that  this  steel  flying-machine  had  a  sup- 
porting area  of  54  square  feet,  a  weight  of  30  lb.,  developed 
I3  horse-power,  and  repeatedly  flew  from  one-half  a  mile 
to  three-quarters  of  a  mile.  I  cannot  close  this  portion  of 
my  Address  without  referring  to  the  death  on   February  7 


1 


September  24,  1903] 


NATURE 


509 


last,  in  the  ninety-fourth  year  of  his  age,  of  that  eminent 
scientific  aeronaut,  Mr.  James  Glaisher,  F.R.S.,  who  in 
1863  made  his  famous  ascent  to  an  altitude  of  seven  miles, 
and  who  described  at  the  Newcastle-upon-Tyne  Meeting  in 
that  year,  in  an  evening  lecture,  the  balloon  ascents  made 
for  the  British  Association. 

Wireless  Telegraphy. 

In  addressing  this  Section  I  feel  that  I  ought  to  say  a 
few  words  on  the  subject  of  "  wireless  telegraphy."  With 
regard  to  signalling  Signor  Marconi  certainly  seems  to  have 
made  progress.  In  January,  1901,  signals  were  conveyed 
from  Poldhu  in  Cornwall  to  the  Isle  of  Wight,  a  distance 
of  200  miles,  and  in  December  of  the  same  year,  between 
Cornwall  and  St.  John's,  Newfoundland,  a  distance  of  2000 
miles.  In  the  year  1902  signals  were  transmitted  from 
England  to  the  Baltic  and  the  Mediterranean,  which  had 
thus  passed  over  both  sea  and  land.  It  seems  to  be  not 
improbable  that  signals  can  be  sent  any  distance,  so  long  as 
the  sending  station  can  develop  sufficient  energy.  The 
question  of  "  syntonism,"  by  which  it  is  proposed  to  assure 
the  secrecy  of  messages,  appears  to  be  still  sub  judice,  but 
is  undergoing  further  investigation. 

There  appears  to  be  a  practical  field  for  the  development 
of  "wireless  telegraphy,"  more  especially  where  ordinary 
telegraphy  cannot  be  applied,  as,  for  instance,  between  shore 
and  ships  at  sea  or  between  one  ship  and  another. 

The  Marconi  Wireless  Telegraph  Company  have  oblig- 
ingly furnished  me  with  a  list  of  eighteen  land  stations 
fitted  on  the  Marconi  system  for  commercial  ship  signalling, 
together  with  a  list  of  forty-three  passenger-steamers 
already  furnished  with  the  Marconi  apparatus,  thus  afford- 
ing evidence  of  its  application  to  practical  purposes. 

The  system  of  "  wireless  telegraphy  "  by  Sir  Oliver  Lodge 
and  Dr.  Muirhead  has,  I  understand,  been  fitted  to  cable 
steamers  of  the  Eastern  Extension  Telegraph  Company,  to 
enable  communication  to  be  made  with  their  cable  stations. 

Sewage  Disposal. 

The  bacterial  treatment  of  sewage  is  receiving  much 
attention,  and  by  the  courtesy  of  Mr.  J.  Corbett, 
M.Inst.C.E.,  the  Borough  Engineer  of  Salford,  I  am  en- 
abled to  make  a  brief  reference  to  the  system  of  sewage 
treatment  now  carried  on  at  the  Salford  Corporation  Sewage 
Works,  adjoining  the  Manchester  Ship  Canal.  Twenty 
years  ago  the  works  were  constructed  with  precipitation 
tanks  for  lime  treatment  of  the  sewage.  After  fourteen 
years  of  experiments  with  various  precipitation  and  filtra- 
tion processes,  ten  of  the  original  precipitation  tanks  were 
formed  into  two  large  tanks  in  which  precipitation  takes 
place  with  the  aid  of  milk  of  lime  and  salts  of  iron.  The 
other  two  original  tanks  were  converted  into  six  roughing 
fillers  containing  3  feet  in  depth  of  fine  gravel,  to  intercept 
particles  which  have  escaped  the  precipitation  process,  and 
which  would  tend  to  choke  the  final  filters.  The  final 
purification  is  on  bacteria  beds  or  aerated  filters,  with  an 
open  false  floor  of  perforated  tiles  and  large  open  culverts 
giving  constant  ventilation  through  the  beds,  some  of  which 
are  filled  to  a  depth  of  5  feet  and  others  to  a  depth  of  8  feet 
with  crushed  clinkers  of  from  y\  inch  to  f  inch  diameter. 
The  liquid  is  "  rained  "  on  to  the  surface  by  spray  jets, 
and  the  beds  are  used  generally  in  shifts  of  two  hours  each 
foi  eight  hours  a  day  in  dry  weather  and  for  twenty-four 
hours  during  heavy  rainfall.  An  average  quantity  of  from 
400  to  500  gallons  of  sewage  per  square  yard  per  day  is 
treated  with  satisfactory  results. 

Liverpool  Docks. 

Although  there  may  seem  little  of  interest  in  the  vast 
areas  of  sand  which  separate  Southport  from  the  sea,  yet 
if  the  whole  sea  coast  from  the  Dee  to  the  Kibble  be  taken 
into  consideration,  there  are  few  areas  of  greater  interest 
to  the  hydraulic  engineer  than  these  rivers  with  the  shores 
that  bound  them,  and  few  in  which  stranger  changes  in 
land  level  have  occurred  within  historic  times.  In  the 
Itinerary  of  Ptolemy,  the  Ribble  is  named  immediately  after 
th>'  Dee,  the  Mersey  being  omitted  altogether. 

-At  the  meeting  of  this  .Association  at  Liverpool  in  1896, 
reference  was  made  to  these  matters,  not  only  by  the 
President  of  this  Section,  Sir  Douglas  Fox,  Past  President 

NO.    1769.  VOL.  68] 


Inst.C.E.,  but  also  in  papers  read,  one  of  which,  by  Mr. 
T  M.  Reade,  F".G.S.,  is  entitled  "  Oscillations  in  the  Level 
of  the  Land,  as  shown  by  the  Buried  River  N'alleys  and 
Later  Deposits  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Liverpool." 

PLvidence  of  the  gradual  sinking  of  the  land  is  given  by 
the  very  interesting  discovery  in  1850  of  a  Roman  bridge 
at  Wallasey  Pool,  Birkenhead.  After  excavating  fourteert 
feet,  the  workmen  came  upon  a  bridge  of  solid  oak  beams, 
supported  in  the  centre  by  stone  piers  and  resting  at  the 
ends  upon  the  solid  rock  at  the  sides  of  the  creek.  The 
length  of  the  bridge  was  100  feet  and  its  width  24  feet, 
and  the  beams  were  each  33  feet  long,  18  inches  wide, 
and  9  inches  thick  ;  there  were  36  beams  formed  into  12 
compound  beams,  each  27  inches  in  depth.  Careful  draw- 
ings of  this  bridge  were  made  by  Mr.  Snow,  an  engineer 
employed  on  the  work  then  in  progress.  The  drawings 
show  that  the  rocky  bed  of  the  stream  was  some  13  feet 
below  the  bridge,  which  was  itself  about  16  feet  below 
present  high-water  level. 

F^ormerly  Liverpool  was  one  of  the  ports  subordinate  to 
the  Comptroller  of  Chester,  and  is  styled  in  the  Patent  "  a 
creek  in  that  port." 

The  first  Act  of  Parliament  authorising  the  construction 
of  Dock  works  was  obtained  in  1709,  and  in  1853  the  water 
area  of  the  docks  had  been  increased  to  178  acres.  Since 
i8i;3  the  progress  has  been  much  more  rapid,  especially 
within  the  last  thirty  years.  The  total  area  of  the  docks 
and  basins  at  Liverpool  and  Birkenhead  is  now  566  acres, 
whilst  in  connection  therewith  there  are  rather  more- than 
35  miles  of  quayage.  The  marked  tendency  in  recent  years 
to  increase  the'  length,  beam,  and  depth  of  ocean-going 
steamers  has  necessitated  the  provision  of  dock  accommoda- 
tion for  a  much  larger  class  of  vessel  than  formerly  existed  ; 
and  during  the  last  decade  works  of  great  magnitude  have 
been  successfully  carried  out  by  the  Mersey  Docks  and 
Harbour  Board,'  under  the  able'  direction  of  the  late  Mr. 
G.  F.  Lyster,  M.Inst.C.E.,  and,  since  his  death,  of  his 
son,  Mr.  Anthony  G.  Lyster,  M.Inst.C.E.  In  the  northern 
section  a  new  graving-dock  has  been  constructed,  extensive 
additions  have  been  made  to  the  Canada  and  Huskisson 
Docks,  whilst  the  difficult  work  of  constructing  new  river 
entrances  has  also  been  satisfactorily  comp'leted.  In  the 
southern  section,  the  Queen's  Dock  has  been  enlarged  and 
other  important  additions  have  been  executed  and  brought 
into  use. 

To  convey  some  idea  of  the  magnitude  of  the  works 
executed,  it  may  be  mentioned  that  the  amount  expended 
by  the  Dock  Board  in  the  extensions  above  indicated 
exceeds  1,750,000/. 

The  largest  lock  connected  with  the  port  of  Liverpool 
is  the  Canada,  600  feet  long  by  100  feet  wide,  the  sill  being 
14  feet  below  the  datum  of  Old  Dock  sill,  which  datum  is 
4  feet  8  inches  below  Ordnance  datum,  or  mean  sea-level. 
Two  large  river-entrance  locks  into  the  Brunswick  Dock 
are  now  approaching  completion,  the  larger  lock  having  a 
length  of  350  feet  and  a  width  of  100  feet,  with  a  sill  19  feet 
6  inches  below  the  datum  of  Old  Dock  sill. 

One  of  the  striking  features  in  connection  with  the 
port  of  Liverpool  is  the  difficult  and  extensive  work  con- 
nected with  the  dredging  operations  at  the  Mersey  Bar. 
Since  the  commencement  in  1890,  to  August,  1903,  no  less 
than  72,000,000  tons  of  material  have  been  dredged  and 
removed  from  the  Bar  and  sea  channels,  and  the  average 
quantity  for  the  last  five  years  has  been  in  round  figures, 
7,000,000  tons  per  annum.  The  total  tonnage  of  the  port 
for  the  year  ended  July  i,  1903,  was  13,308,305,  and  the 
receipts  therefrom  amounted  to  1,185,066/.,  exclusive  of 
graving  dock  and  other  rates. 

Irrigation. 
This  being  the  first  Meeting  of  the  British  Association 
since  the  completion  of  the  Assuan  dam,  which  I  had  the 
opportunity  to  inspect  when  visiting  Egypt  in  the  early  part 
of  this  year,  I  should  like  to  devote  to  it  a  short  portion 
of  my  .Address.  Those  who  desire  to  learn  all  about  that 
work  in  detail  I  would  refer  to  the  papers  (to  which, 
indeed,  I  am  indebted  for  my  information  on  the  subject) 
read  before  the  Institution  of  Civil  Engineers  on  January  27 
last  by  Mr.  .Maurice  Fitzmaurice,  C.M.G.,  M.Inst.C.E., 
who  had  charge  of  the  work  on  behalf  of  the  Egyptian 
Government  from  its  commencement  in  1898  until 
December,  1901,  and  by  Mr.  F.  W.  S.  Stokes,  M.Inst.C.E., 


5IO 


NATURE 


[SeptExMBer  24,  1903 


managing  director  of  Messrs.  Ransomes  and  Rapier,  of 
Ipswich,  who  undertook  the  manufacture  and  erection  of 
the  sluices  and  lock-gates. 

The  Nile  reservoir  has  been  constructed  for  the  purpose 
of  impounding  the  water  of  the  River  Nile  during  the  winter 
months,  and  discharging  it  in  the  months  of  May,  June, 
and  July,  so  as  to  supplement  the  ordinary  flow  of  the  river, 
and  thus  enable  land  to  be  irrigated  which  would  otherwise 
receive  either  no  water,  or  an  insufficient  supply.  The 
situation  chosen  for  the  dam  was  the  head  of  the  Assuan 
cataract.  There  were  various  reasons  for  the  choice  :  there 
was  a  wide  section  of  the  river,  the  waterway  being  about 
seven-eighths  of  a  mile,  thus  permitting  the  construction  of 
sufficient  sluices  at  different  levels  to  discharge  the  whole 
volume  of  the  Nile  in  flood  without  weakening  the  dam  by 
placing  them  too  close  together ;  the  height  of  the  dam 
would  be  moderate  ;  the  site  chosen  seemed  to  promise  good 
rock  foundation  throughout,  and  there  were  several  natural 
channels  when  the  water  was  low,  each  of  which  could  be 
dealt  with  separately  if  desired. 

Arrangements  had  to  be  made  to  house  and  feed  a 
population  of  15,000;  offices,  workshops,  a  hospital,  and 
other  temporary  buildings  had  to  be  erected,  and  a  line  of 
railway  about  3  miles  in  length  had  to  be  constructed  to 
connect  the  railway  from  Luxor  to  Assuan  with  the  works 
at  the  dam.  This  preliminary  work  was  carried  out  in 
1898,  and  on  February  12,  1899,  H.R.H.  the  Duke  of 
Connaught  laid   the   foundation-stone  of  the  dam. 

To- enclose  the  site  of  the  permanent  masonry  dam,  and 
to  render  it  dry  for  the  purpose  of  excavation  and  laying 
the  masonry,  temporary  dams,  known  in  Egypt  as  "  sudds,'' 
had  to  be  formed  both  above  and  below  the  site  of  the 
permanent  dam.  At  low  Nile  the  river  at  the  Assuan 
cataract  divides  itself  into  five  channels,  and  this  work  was 
done  in  five  sections.  The  down  stream  "  sudds  "  were  first 
made,  and  consisted  t)f  stones.  After  the  rush  of  water 
had  been  thus  stopped,  the  up-stream  "  sudds  "  were  formed 
of  bags  of  sand. 

It  was  found  that  the  rock  on  the  site  of  the  dam  was 
decomposed.  The  importance  of  a  solid  rock  foundation 
was  paramount^  and  to  obtain  it  the  excavation  had  to  be 
carried  down  to  a  considerable  depth,  necessitating  the  re- 
m.oval  of  double  the  amount  of  material  which  had  been 
contracted  for,  and  the  construction  of  nearly  one  and  a 
half  times  the  quantity  of  masonry  that  had  been  antici- 
pated. The  masonry,  consisting  of  local  granite  set  in 
Portland  cement  mortar,  was  commenced  in  May,  1900, 
was  carried  on  vigorously  during  two  working  seasons  in 
which  the  Nile  was  abnormally  low,  and  was  finished  in 
June,  1902,  less  than  3^  years  after  the  first  stone  was  laid, 
and  one  year  before  the  expiration  of  the  contract  time. 
The  dam  is  nearly  i^  miles  in  length,  and  the  difference 
between  the  surface  of  the  water  on  the  up-stream  side  and 
that  on  down-stream  side  is  655  feet  when  the  reservoir 
is  full.  The  masonry  is  pierced  by  180  sluices,  of  which 
140  are  23  feet  high  by  6  feet  6f  inches  wide  and  40  are 
II  feet  6  inches  high  by  6  feet  b\  inches  wide. 

The  construction  of  the  dam  having  closed  the  river  to 
navigation,  provision  for  the  passage  of  vessels  was  made 
by  means  of  a  canal  formed  on  the  west  bank  of  the  Nile 
and  having  a  succession  of  four  locks. 

The  capacity  of  the  Nile  reservoir  when  filled  to  the  top 
water  height  of  348  feet  above  mean  sea  level  is  about 
37,600  million  cubic  feet,  a  quantity  which  might  have  been 
greatly  increased  had  not  the  desire  to  preserve  the  Temple 
of  Phil?E  prevented  the  raising  of  the  water  to  the  level 
originally  proposed.  Even  now  many  portions  of  the  temple 
or  its  adjacent  buildings  are  partially  submerged. 

It  is  anticipated  that  by  allowing"  the  whole  volume  of 
the  Nile  to  pass  through  the  sluices  when  most  laden  with 
mud  during  floods,  the  silting  up  of  the  reservoir  to  anv 
considerable  extent  will  be  prevented.  The  cost  of  the 
works  was  nearly  2,450,000/.  or  about  loZ.  per  million 
gallons  of  water  impounded. 

The  original  surveys  and  designs  for  the  works  were  pre- 
pared by  Mr.  Willcocks  (now  Sir  William  Willcocks, 
K.C.M.G.),  under  the  instructions  of  Lord  Cromer  and  Sir 
William  Garstin,  Sir  Benjamin  Baker,  K.C.B.,  K.C.M.G., 
F.R.S.,  Past  President  Inst.C.E.,  being  the  consulting 
engineer.  On  the  retirement  of  Mr.  Fitzmaurice,  he  was 
succeeded  by  Mr.  C.  R.  May,  M. Inst.C.E.,  as  engineer  in 
charge.     The  work  was  carried  out  by  Messrs.  John  Aird 


NO.    1769,  VOL.   68] 


and     Co.,      as      contractors,      Mr.      John      A.      C.      Blue, 
Assoc. M. Inst.C.E.,  acting  as  their  agent. 

All  concerned  in  the  inception  and  execution  of  this  great 
undertaking  are  to  be  congratulated  on  its  successful  and 
speedy  completion,  in  the  face  of  the  many  difficulties  which 
were  encountered  and  overcome. 

Water  Supply. 

To  everyone  a  plentiful  supply  of  good  water  is  not  only 
a  luxury,  but  almost  a  necessity  of  existence,  yet  how  few 
even  amongst  the  more  intelligent  of  the  millions  who  are 
accustomed  to  find  such  a  supply  ready  to  hand  at  the 
nearest  tap  have  more  than  a  very  imperfect  notion  of  the 
works  that  have  to  be  constructed" to  obtain  it,  or  the  daily 
care  and  attention  given  to  secure  and  maintain  its  purity, 
to  ensure  its  efficient  distribution,  and  to  prevent  its  waste 
by  careless,  ignorant,  or  reckless  consumers.  It  may  there- 
fore not  be  out  of  place  that  when  the  chair  of  this  Section 
of  the  British  Association  happens,  as  now,  to  be  occupied 
by  one  whose  professional  life  has  been  largely  associated 
with  waterworks  undertakings,  he  should  address  you  on 
that  subject,  and  endeavour  briefly  to  direct  attention  to 
some  of  the  main  features  of  waterworks  construction  and 
management.  In  following  that  course  I  shall,  however, 
necessarily  have  to  describe  what  is  already  well  known  to 
at  least  a  portion  of  my  audience,  on  whose  indulgence  I 
must  therefore  rely. 

Water  supplies  may  be  divided  into  two  main  classes, 
namely,  "  Gravitation  "  and  "  Pumping."  In  some  in- 
stances a  combination  of  gravitaiton  and  pumping  is  re- 
sorted to,  especially  in  those  cases  in  which  the  more 
elevated  portions  of  the  district  to  be  supplied  are  situate 
above  the  gravitation  level.  In  selecting  a  suitable  source  of 
supply  the  main  points  for  consideration  are  the  quantity 
and  the  quality  of  the  water.  The  quantity  should  be  such 
as  will  not  only  suffice  to  meet  the  requirements  throughout 
the  most  protracted  periods  of  drought  and  frost  of  the 
existing  population  to  be  served,  but  should  provide  for  the 
probable  growth  of  that  population  during  a  reasonable 
number  of  years  to  come.  The  quality  of  the  water  selected 
should  be  the  best  that  can  be  obtained,  having  due  regard 
to  considerations  of  expense.  The  question  of  the  altitude 
being  sufficient  to  permit  of  a  supply  by  gravitation  is  of 
far  less  moment  than  those  of  quantity  and  quality,  because 
the  difference  in  cost  between  water  derived  by  gravitation 
and  that  obtained  by  pumping  is,  in  the  United  Kingdom, 
less  than  is  generally  supposed  ;  indeed,  contrary  to  popular 
belief,  gravitation  water  is  frequently  more  costly  than 
pumped  water,  owing  to  the  much  greater  capital  outlay 
usually  incurred  in  the  construction  of  the  works  for  storing 
and  conveying  it. 

Gravitation  works  may  be  divided  into  three  classes, 
namely,  those  in  which  water  is  taken  directly  from  a  spring 
or  stream  without  storage,  those  in  which  it  is  taken  from 
a  natural  lake,  in  which  case  the  surface  level  of  the  water 
is  usually  raised  so  as  to  increase  the  capacity  of  the  lake 
as  at  Thirlmere,  and  those  more  numerous  cases  in  which 
the  water  of  a  spring  is  impounded  in  an  artificial  reservoir 
generally  formed  by  the  construction  of  an  earthen  or 
masonry  dam  across  the  valley  along  which  flows  the 
stream  to  be  taken. 

In  the  more  populated  portions  of  England  it  is  becoming 
more  and  more  difficult  to  find  an  unappropriated  gathering 
ground  available  as  a  source  of  water  supply.  The  gather- 
ing ground,  or  drainage  area  as  it  is  frequently  termed, 
should  either  be  free  from  human  habitations  and  other 
sources  of  possible  pollution,  or  any  pollution  arising  there- 
from should  be  capable  of  being  efficiently  disposed  of  by 
removal  from  the  area  of  the  gathering  ground  or  other- 
wise. 

The  gathering  ground  must  also  possess  a  site  suitable 
for  the  formation  of  an  impounding  reservoir.  When  this 
has  been  selected  it  next  becomes  necessary  to  ascertain  the 
amount  of  the  available  rainfall,  as  tecorded  by  rain-gauges 
situate  in  the  drainage  area  or  its  immediate  vicinity,  or 
where  these  are  not  available,  as  deduced  from  the  returns 
obtained  from  more  distant  rain-gauges,  care  being  always 
taken  that  some  at  least  of  the  gauges  have  been  observed 
for  a  sufficient  number  of  years  to  enable  the  true  average 
rainfall  to  be  determined.  To  store  the  whole  of  the  water 
flowing  from  a  gathering  ground  during  a  cycle  of  wet 
years  in  order  to  utilise  it  during  a  cycle  of  dry  years  would 


September  24,  1903] 


NATURE 


5" 


entail  the  construction  of  reservoirs  of  enormous  capacity, 
at  a  cost  incommensurate  with  the  object  to  be  attained  ; 
it  is  therefore  customary  to  make  them  of  such  size  as  to 
enable  the  supply  to  be  maintained  without  risk  of  failure 
throughout  the  three  driest  consecutive  years,  the  mean 
annual  rainfall  of  which  years  generally  amounts  to  about 
four-fifths  of  the  average  taken  over  a  long  period — say, 
forty  or  fifty  years.  From  the  mean  rainfall  of  the  three 
driest  consecutive  years  a  deduction  must  be  made  for  loss 
by  evaporation,  which  is  usually  between  twelve  and  sixteen 
inches.  The  result  is  known  as  the  available  rainfall,  and 
represents  the  quantity  of  water  which  can  be  drawn  con- 
tinuously from  an  impounding  reservoir  without  fear  of 
failure  in  the  driest  years.  But  the  whole  of  this  water 
can  rarely  be  abstracted  from  a  stream  without  injuriously 
affecting  mill-owners  or  other  riparian  owners  on  the  stream 
below  the  reservoir ;  therefore  they  have  to  be  compensated 
for  the  injury  they  sustain.  This  is  sometimes  done  by 
payments  in  money,  but  where  the  mills  on  the  stream  are 
numerous  it  is  generally  more  economical  to  make  com- 
pensation in  water  delivered  into  the  stream  immediately 
below  the  reservoir,  because  the  same  water  compensates 
each  mill  in  succession  as  it  flows  down  the  stream. 

It  has  now  become  an  accepted  principle  that  one-third 
of  the  available  rainfall  flowing  down  a  stream  in  a  regu- 
lated quantity  day  by  day  throughout  the  year  is  of  greater 
benefit  to  the  mill-owners  (with  a  few  exceptions)  than  the 
whole  of  the  rainfall  allowed  to  flow  in  the  irregular  manner 
in  which  it  is  provided  by  nature.  This  compensation  water 
is  discharged  from  the  reservoir  into  the  stream  either 
during  certain  hours  on  working  days  or  by  a  uniform  flow- 
throughout  the  twenty-four  hours  of  every  day  ;  a  method 
now  frequently  demanded  by  County  Councils  on  so-called 
sanitary  grounds,  but  which  is  in  my  opinion  not  infre- 
quently detrimental  to  the  interests  of  mill-owners  without 
a  corresponding  advantage  to  the  public. 

Where  compensation  in  water  is  given  there  remains  for 
distribution  in  the  district  to  be  supplied  a  quantity  equal 
to  only  two-thirds  of  the  available  rainfall. 

Assume  for  the  sake  of  illustration  a  case  in  which  the 
gross  annual  rainfall  is  40  inches.     Then  we  have  : — 


Inches 
40 


Gross    annual    rainfall        

Deduct  to  arrive  at  the  mean  annual  rainfall  of 
the  three  driest  consecutive  years — say  one- 
fifth  of  fortv         8 


Mean  annual  rainfall  of  three  driest  consecutive 

years  32 

Deduct  for  evaporation,  say         14 

Available  for  supply  if  no  compensation  water 
be  given     ...         18 

Or  if  compensation  water  be  given  deduct  one- 
third  6 

Leaving  available  for  supply       12 

Having  now  ascertained  the  amount  of  the  rainfall  avail- 
able for  the  supply  of  the  district,  it  remains  to  be  seen 
whether  or  not  the  area  of  the  gathering  ground  above  the 
reservoir  is  sufficient  to  give  the  required  quantity  of  water. 
If  it  is  not,  the  area  may  in  some  cases  be  extended  by 
means  of  catch-waters  in  the  form  of  open  conduits  cut 
along  the  sides  of  the  valley  below  the  embankment  of  the 
reservoir,  and  at  such  an  elevation  as  will  enable  them  to 
discharge  the  waters  they  collect  into  the  reservoir  above 
its  top  water  line. 

Almost  all  waters  derived  from  gathering  grounds  are 
much  improved  by  filtration  before  use  for  potable  purposes. 
In  some  cities  and  towns  in  this  country,  more  especially 
in  Lancashire  and  Yorkshire,  the  benefit  derived  from 
filtration  has  not  been  sufficiently  appreciated,  and  the  water 
is  still  delivered  into  the  houses  unfiltered ;  but  I  am  of 
opinion  that  the  time  will  come  when  nearly  every  town 
of  importance  supplied  with  water  derived  from  gathering 
grounds  will  adopt  filtration,  for  it  not  only  removes  matters 
in  suspension  but  it  also  diminishes  the  discoloration  due 
•     ppat  which  is  to  be  found  in  most  moorland  waters. 

I^pservoir  dams  in  Great  Britain  consist  either  of  earthen 

.l)ankments  or  masonry  wails.  Of  the  former,  examples 
NO.    1769,  VOL.  68] 


of  considerable  size  may  be  seen  at  the  reservoirs  of  the 
Manchester  Waterworks,  designed  by  Mr.  J.  F.  Bateman, 
F.R.S.,  Past  President  Inst.C.E.,  who  was  President  of 
Section  G  of  the  British  Association  at  the  Manchester 
Meeting  in  186 1  ;  and  at  the  Rivington  reservoirs  of  the 
Liverpool  Waterworks,  designed  by  my  father,  the  late  Mr. 
Thomas  Hawksley,  F.R.S.,  Past  President  Inst.C.E.,  who 
was  President  of  this  Section  at  the  Meeting  at  Nottingham 
in  1866. 

Earthen  embankments  are  formed  of  the  most  suitable 
materials  to  be  obtained  by  excavation  in  their  neighbour- 
hood ;  the  water  is  retained  by  a  wall  of  watertight  clay 
puddle  forming  the  core  of  the'  embankment,  extending  for 
its  whole  length  and  continued  at  each  end  into  the  natural 
ground  forming  the  hillsides.  This  puddle  core  has  to  be 
carried  down  into  the  ground  until  watertight  strata  be 
met  with,  occasionally  necessitating  a  puddle  trench  having 
a  depth  of  80  feet  or  more  below  the  bottom  of  the  valley 
and  200  feet  or  more  in  depth  in  the  hillsides.  W'here  the 
strata  forming  the  sides  of  the  valley  are  not  watertight,  it 
is  necessary  to  continue  the  puddle  core  along  the  sides  of 
the  reservoir  by  means  of  wing  trenches.  The  determin- 
ation of  the  depth  and  extent  of  the  puddle  trench  in  order 
to  secure  the  watertightness  of  the  reservoir  is  one  of  the 
most  difficult  and  anxious  duties  of  the  engineer  on  whonv 
rests  the  responsibility  of  its  construction.  In  forming  his- 
judgment  he  has  to  rely  entirely  on  his  experience  for  guid- 
ance, this  being  one  of  those  matters  which  cannot  be  learnt 
at  an  engineering  school  or  even  in  an  engineer's  office. 
How  much  depends  on  the  exercise  of  a  wise  and  trained, 
judgment  may  be  understood  when  it  is  realised  that  art 
error  in  this  respect  may  result  in  very  costly  works  having 
subsequently  to  be  undertaken  to  stop  an  escape  of  water 
which  might  in  the  first  instance  have  been  prevented  by  a 
comparatively  small  outlay. 

Provision  has  to  be  made  for  the  passage  of  flood-waters 
during  the  construction  of  the  embankment.  This  is 
ordinarily  effected  by  the  construction  at  about  the  level  of 
the  stream  of  a  tunnel  of  sufficient  diameter  to  convey 
with  onh'  a  slight  head  the  volume  of  water  produced  by 
t'le  greatest  flood  which  experience  has  taught  us  to  antici- 
pate. This  tunnel  is  sometimes  formed  beneath  the  em- 
bankment, but  preferably,  where  the  circumstances  are 
favourable,  it  is  carried  through  the  natural  ground  near 
to  one  end  of  tfie  embankment.  A  shaft  is  built  in  con- 
nection with  the  tunnel,  in  which,  after  the  embankment 
has  reached  its  full  height,  are  placed  the  outlet  valves  of 
the  reservoir. 

It  is  of  the  utmost  importance  that  ample  provision  should 
be  made  for  carrying  off  the  flood  and  other  surplus  waters 
coming  from  the  gathering  ground  when  the  reservoir  is 
full,  for  if  this  be  not  done  serious  consequences  may  ensue, 
including  the  washing  away  of  the  embankment  with  re- 
sulting destruction  of  property  and  even  of  life.  The 
surplus  waters  sometimes  fall  down  a  shaft  erected  within 
the  reservoir,  and  make  their  escape  by  means  of  the  tunnef 
previously  mentioned,  but  more  frequently  they  flow  over  a 
masonry  weir  and  reach  the  stream  below  the  embankment 
by  means  of  a  bye  wash  formed  in  the  hillside.  In  my 
opinion  the  latter'  method  is  in  most  cases  to  be  preferred, 
as  being  free  from  the  risk  of  blockage  by  ice  to  which 
th-;  shaft  and  tunnel  are  liable.  Engineers  are  occasionally 
reproached  with  extravagance  in  the  magnitude  of  the 
provision  made  for  the  escape  of  flood  waters,  but  it  must 
always  be  borne  in  mind  that  a  maximum  flood  has  to  be 
provided  for,  such  a  flood  as  may  occur  only  once  jn  twenty 
o"-  thirty  years,  but  which  must  find  a  means  of  escape 
when  it  does  occur,  without  danger  to  life  or  property. 

Masonry  dams  are  not  so  frequent  in  this  country  as 
eaithen  dams,  partly  by  reason  of  their  greater  cost  and 
partly  because  the  geological  conditions  are  generally  not 
favourable  to  their  formation,  for  not  only  do  they  require 
a  supply  of  suitable  stone  near  to  hand  for  their  construc- 
tion, but  they  also  need  an  incompressible  foundation,  such 
as  rock  or  very  strong  shale.  .Any  irregularity  in  the  com- 
pression of  the  foundation  occasioned  by  the  weight  of  the 
dam  would  be  liable  to  fracture  the  masonry  of  which  it 
was  built. 

In  the  case  of  masonry  dams  a  tunnel  for  the  passage  of 
flood  waters  during  construction  is  formed  at  a  suitable 
level  in  the  masonry  of  the  dam,  and  after  completion  of 
the  work  they  are  generally  allowed  to  pass  over  the  top 


512 


NATURE 


[September  24,  1903 


of  the  dam  for  the  whole  or  a  portion  of  its  length,  thus 
obviating  the  necessity  for  and  the  cost  of  an  independent 
bye  wash. 

Whilst  masonry  dams  have  the  advantage  over  earthen 
dams  of  not  being  liable  to  be  breached  by  a  waterspout,  I 
am  not  aware  of  any  case  in  which  an  earthen  dam  has 
been  destroyed  in  that  manner,  and  so  far  as  I  am  able 
to  form  an  opinion  the  accidents  due  to  other  causes  have 
been  as  frequent  in  the  case  of  masonry  dams  as  in  that 
of  earthen  dams.  The  destruction  of  masonry  dams  has 
in  some  instances  been  the  result  of  too  great  reliance 
having  been  placed  on  theoretical  calculations,  without 
sufficient  allowance  having  been  made  for  the  many  defects 
in  material  and  workmanship  which  might  occur  iii  a  work 
of  that  kind.  It  was  the  opinion  of  the  late  Mr.  Thomas 
Hawksley  that  in  some  cases  the  destruction  of  masonry 
dams  had  been  occasioned  by  the  neglect  of  the  effects  of 
uplift  due  to  the  pressure  exerted  by  water  finding  its  way 
beneath  the  bottom  of  the  dam,  a  possible  condition  which 
he  was  very  careful  to  take  into  account  when  designing 
the  masonry  dam  of  the  Vyrnwy  reservoir  of  the  Liverpool 
Waterworks. 

Examples  of  large  masonry  dams  in  the  United  Kingdom 
may  be  seen  in  that  constructed  by  Mr.  G.  H.  Hill  at 
Thirlmere  Lake,  from  which  the  city  of  Manchester  is 
partly  supplied  with  water.  Also  at  the  Vyrnwy  reservoir 
of  the  Liverpool  Corporation  Waterworks,  designed  by  and 
partially  carried  out  under  the  direction  of  the  late  Mr. 
Thomas  Hawksley,  after  whose  retirement  it  was  completed 
by  Mr.  G.  F.  Deacon,  who  presided  over  Section  G  on  the 
occasion  of  the  visit  of  the  British  Association  to  Toronto 
in  1897 ;  and  again  at  the  reservoirs  near  Rhayader,  in 
Wales,  now  approaching  completion,  from  the  designs  and 
under  the  direction  of  Mr.  James  Mansergh,  F.R.S.,  Past 
President  Inst.C.E.,  for  the  supply  of  water  to  the  city  of 
Birmingham. 

From  the  impounding  reservoir  the  water  has  to  be  con- 
veyed to  the  point  of  distribution  by  an  aqueduct.  This 
aqueduct,  which  is  sometimes  of  great  length,  rnay  consist 
either  wholly  of  metal  pipes,  usually  of  cast  iron'  or  partly 
of  a  conduit  constructed  of  masonry,  brickwork  or  concrete 
following  the  contour  of  the  ground,  with  occasional  tunnels 
where  high  ground  has  to  be  passed  through,  and  metal 
(inverted  syphon)  pipes  where  valleys  ha*-e  to  be  crossed. 
These  conduits  may  be  either  open  or  covered,  the  latter 
method  being  generally  adopted,  when  they  become  what 
is  technically  known  as  "  cut  and  cover  "  conduits.  In  the 
case  of  a  continuous  pipe-line  of  considerable  length  it  is 
divided  into  sections  by  means  of  break-pressure  tanks  inter- 
posed at  suitable  elevations,  each  tank  being  say  loo  feet 
or  thereabouts  below  the  preceding  tank,  by  which  means 
the  pipes  are  relieved  from  the  excessive  pressure  to  which 
they  would  be  subjected  if  the  head  due  to  the  elevation  of 
the  impounding  reservoir  was  carried  forward  to  the  service 
reservoir,  from  which  the  water  is  distributed  to  the  con- 
sumer. Steel  pipes  are  frequently  used  abroad  vi'here  the 
cost  of  carriage  is  great,  but  they  have  not  yet  been  much 
employed  in  this  country,  sufficient  experience  not  having 
yet  been  gained  in  reference  to  the  deterioration  of  steel 
pipes  due  to  the  action  of  the  water  from  within  and  of  the 
ground  in  which  they  are  laid  from  without. 

The  lines  of  pipe  are  provided  at  intervals  with  suitable 
stopcocks,  sluice-valves,  and  air-valves,  and  also  in  some 
cases  with  self-acting  valves  which  close  automatically  in 
the  event  of  the  velocity  of  the  water  in  the  pipe  becoming 
abnormally  increased  owing  to  the  bursting  of  a  pipe 
beyond. 

I  have  already  stated  that  most  waters  obtained  from 
gathering  grounds  are  much  improved  bv  filtration.  The 
process  of  filtration  may  be  carried  on  where  the  water 
leaves  the  impounding  reservoir  or  at  any  convenient  point  on 
the  line  of  conduit  thence  to  the  place  of  distribution,  pro- 
vided the  filter-beds  are  situate  at  such  an  elevation  as  to 
place  them  on  the  line  of  hydraulic  gradient.  Various  con- 
siderations will  influence  the  determination  of  their  position, 
but  it  is  desirable  that  the  water  should  not  be  subjected 
to  long  exposure  to  light  after  filtration.  Filtration  by  the 
slow  passage  of  the  water  through  a  bed  of  sand  from'  two 
to  three  feet  in  thickness,  supported  by  small  gravel  or 
other  suitable  material,  is  the  method  usually  adopted  in 
Europe,  though  what  is  known  as  mechanical  'filtration  has 


NO.    1769,  VOL.  68] 


been  used  to  a  considerable  extent  in  the  United  States, 
and  may  under  certain  conditions  be  usefully  employed. 
However  I  do  not  think  it  is  likely  to  take  the  place  to  any 
considerable  extent  in  this  country  of  the  efficient  system 
of  sand-filtration  introduced  so  long  ago  as  the  year  1828 
by  the  late  Mr.  James  Simpson,  Past  President  of  the 
Institution  of  Civil  Engineers.  The  rate  of  filtration,  to 
be  thoroughly  effective,  must  depend  on  the  condition  of 
the  water  to  be  filtered,  but  a  rate  of  from  450  to  550 
gallons  per  square  yard  of  surface  of  sand  per  day  (i.e. 
twenty-four  hours)  is  usually  found  to  be  efficient.  Filter- 
beds  are  generally  open  to  the  sky,  but  occasionally,  when 
situate  at  considerable  elevations,  they  are  covered  by  roofs 
to  prevent  interruption  by  the  formation  of  ice  in  times  of 
severe  frost.  In  certain  exceptional  cases  in  which  the 
water  is  difficult  to  treat  it  is  twice  filtered  with  excellent 
results.  The  water  after  filtration  should  be  discharged 
into  a  pure-water  tank  or  service  reservoir  of  sufficient 
capacity  to  enable  the  process  of  filtration  to  proceed  at  a 
uniform  rate  by  night  as  well  as  by  day,  without  regard  to 
irregularities  in  the  rate  of  demand  in  the  district  of  supply. 

The  particles  in  suspension  in  the  water,  which  are  inter- 
cepted by  the  process  of  filtration,  gradually  form  a  film 
over  the  surface  of  the  sand,  and  thus  improve  the  filtra- 
tion ;  but  this  film  at  last  becomes  so  thick  as  unduly  to 
reduce  the  rate  at  which  the  water  passes  through  the 
sand.  The  filter-bed  is  then  laid  off  and,  the  water  having 
been  withdrawn,  the  surface  of  the  sand  is  scraped  off  to  a 
depth  of  about  a  quarter  of  an  inch  ;  the  sand  thus  removed 
is  washed  in  suitable  machines  to  free  it  from  the  matter 
intercepted  during  the  process  of  filtration,  and  is  after- 
wards replaced  in  the  filter-bed  either  immediately  or  after 
several  similar  scrapings  have  taken  place,  care  being  taken 
that  the  thickness  of  the  sand  left  in  the  bed  shall  not  at 
any  time  be  reduced  below  that  required  to  ensure  efficient 
fiUration.  From  time  to  time  the  sand  is  removed  to  a 
depth  of  several  inches  and  washed,  and  occasionally  it  is 
taken  out  and  washed  to  its  full  depth.  From  the  fore- 
going description  it  will  be  understood  that  the  filtration 
of  water,  although  a  simple  process,  is  one  which  necessi- 
tates constant  watchfulness  on  the  part  of  those  responsible 
for  the  management  of  those  waterworks  undertakings  in 
which  the  water  undergoes  filtration. 

As  near  to- the  termination  of  the  aqueduct  conveying  the 
water  from  the  impounding  reservoir  to  the  point  of  distri- 
bution as  the  levels  of  the  ground  will  permit,  a  service 
reservoir  should  be  constructed  for  the  purpose  of  equalising 
the  flow  of  water  along  the  aqueduct,  and  for  maintaining 
the  supply  to  the  district  during  any  temporary  interruption 
on  the  line  of  aqueduct  due  to  a  burst  pipe  or  otherwise. 
The  service  reservoir  should  contain  not  less  than  one  day's 
supplv,  two  or  three  days,  and,  in  exceptional  cases,  even 
more  being  sometimes  desirable.  Service  reservoirs  should 
by  preference  be  covered  so  as  to  exclude  light,  and  thus 
prevent  the  growth  of  vegetation  which  would  otherwise 
take  place.  The  covering,  when  consisting  of  brick  arches, 
has  also  the  advantage  of  keeping  the  water  cool  in  summer, 
and  preventing  the  temperature  from  becoming  too  much 
reduced  in  winter.  The  rate  of  draught  on  the  service 
reservoir  is  continually  varying  throughout  the  day  and 
night  according  to  the  hourly  requirements  of  the  popula- 
tion which  it  serves.  This  variation  is  very  considerable, 
amounting  during  certain  hours  of  the  day  to  at  least  twice 
the  average  rate  of  consumption  during '  the  twenty-four 
hours.  It  will  therefore  be  apparent  that  were  it  not  for 
the  equalising  efi^ect  of  the  service  reservoir  the  aqueduct 
must  have  a  capacity  at  least  double  that  which  is  needful 
where  a  service  reservoir  is  available.  At  Southport,  foi 
example,  although  the  water  is  distributed  from  a  service 
reservoir,  that  reservoir  is  situate  at  a  distance  of  about 
seven  miles  from  the  town,  because,  owing  to  the  great 
extent  of  comparatively  flat  land  in  the  neighbourhood  of 
Scuthport,  it  was  impossible  to  obtain  a  suitable  elevation 
nearer  to  the  town  than  Gorse  Hill,  on  the  summit  of  which 
the  reservoir  stands.  Consequently  the  main  pipes  thence 
to  the  town  have  to  be  of  sufficient  capacity  to  convey  the 
water  at  a  rate  corresponding  with  the  demand  at  the  time 
of  maximum  consumption,  or,  in  other  words,  of  about 
twice  the  capacity  which  would  have  been  needed  if  the 
service  reservoir  could  have  been  placed  close  to  the  town, 
when  these  pipes  would,  for  the  greater  part  of  their  length, 


September  24,  1903] 


NATURE 


51S 


have  been  situate  on  the  inlet  instead  of  on  the  outlet  side 
of  the  reservoir. 

Having  now  followed  the  water  in  the  case  of  a  gravita- 
tion supply  from  its  source  to  the  service  reservoir  from 
which  it  is  to  be  distributed  to  the  consumers,  it  will  be 
convenient  to  follow  in  a  similar  manner  water  obtained  by 
means  of  pumping,  leaving  until  later  the  consideration  of 
its  distribution,  which,  after  it  leaves  the  service  reservoir, 
is  common  to  both  gravitation  and  pumped  water. 

Pumping  supplies  may  be  divided  into  two  sections — first, 
those  where  the  water  is  drawn  from  a  source  only  slightly 
below  the  level  of  the  pumping  engines,  such  as  where  the 
water  is  taken  from  a  stream  or  lake,  or  from  culverts 
formed  in  gravel  beds,  or  is  discharged  from  impounding 
reservoirs  situate  at  too  low  a  level  to  enable  the  water  to 
gravitate  to  the  point  of  distribution  ;  and  secondly,  where 
the  water  is  raised  from  deep  wells  sunk  in  the  sandstone, 
chalk,  or  other  water-bearing  strata. 

In  the  first-mentioned  cases  the  water  has  usually  to  be 
filtered,  when  it  is  generally  found  convenient  to  place  the 
filter-beds  at  the  pumping  station,  the  water  being  firstly 
lifted  (unless  it  will  gravitate)  on  to  the  filter-beds,  and 
secondly,  after  filtration,  and  by  means  of  a  separate  pump, 
forced  through  pipes  up  to  the  service  reservoir  whence  it 
is  to  be  distributed. 

In  the  case  of  deep  wells,  the  water  seldom,  if  ever,  re- 
quires filtration,  and  is  usually  raised  either  directly  or 
through  pipes  into  the  service  reservoir,  the  total  lift  being 
frequently  divided  between  lift  pumps  and  force  pumps  with 
th°  object  of  balancing  the  work  to  be  done  by  the  engine. 

Sometimes  the  well  alone  will  yield  a  sufficient  supply 
water,  but  often  it  has  to  be  aided  by  boreholes  or  by 
Irifts  or  headings  driven  horizontally  in  the  water-bearing 
strata  near  the  level  of  the  bottom  of  the  well,  and  occasion- 
ally continued  for  a  considerable  distance,  even  as  much 
as  a  mile  or  more  from  the  well,  the  length  of  the  head- 
ings depending  on  the  quantity  of  water  which  can  be 
profitably  obtained  from  them,  and  also  on  other  consider- 
ations too  various  to  be  mentioned  here.  There  are  cases 
in  which  it  is  possible  to  obtain  sufficient  water  by  boring 
fiom  the  surface  of  the  ground  and  lowering  a  pump  down 
the  bore  hole.  The  e.xpense  of  a  large  well  is  thus  saved, 
but  it  is,  of  course,  impossible  to  augment  the  supply  by 
drifting. 

The  time  at  my  disposal  will  not  admit  of  any  observ- 
ations on  the  merits  of  the  various  kinds  of  engines  and 
pumps  employed  in  raising  water ;  they  are  not  only  very 
numerous,  but  each  has  to  be  considered  in  relation  to  its 
suitability  for  the  particular  circumstances  of  the  case  in 
question.  Suffice  it  to  say  that,  although  most  of  the  water 
pumped  in  the  United  Kingdom  is  raised  by  means  of  steam 
engines,  water  turbines,  gas  engines,  oil  engines,  and  (to 
some  slight  extent)  electric  motors  are  also  employed.  It 
may  be  mentioned  that  one  of  the  largest  oil  engines  in  this 
country  is  engaged  in  pumping  water  from  a  deep  well,  and 
it  is  not  improbable  that  gas  and  oil  engines  will  in  the 
future  become  more  largely  employed  for  waterworks 
jrposes. 

It    should    here   be   mentioned    that    there   are   a   few   in- 

ances  in  this  country,  and  many  in  the  United  States  of 
\inerica,    in    which    a    service   reservoir   is   dispensed    with, 

id  water  is  pumped  directly  into  the  main  and  distributing 
pipes  of  the  district  to  be  served,  a  method  which,  although 
employed  with  success,  should  not,  in  my  opinion,  be 
adopted  where  the  circumstances  admit  of  the  use  of  a 
service  reservoir.  Where  direct  pumping  is  used,  provision 
must  be  made  to  ensure  continuous  pumping  day  and  night 
without  intermission,  so  as  to  avoid  interruption  to  the 
supoly  of  the  district,  and  the  speed  of  the  engines  must 
be  constantly  varied  to  meet  the  demands  of  the  consumers 
for  the  moment.  The  maintenance  of  uniformity  of  pressure 
in  the  main  pipes  may  be  assisted  by  the  employment  of 
large  air  vessels,  or  by  accumulators  such  as  are  used  for 
the  supply  of  hydraulic  pressure,  or  preferably  by  a  com- 
bination of  air  vessels  and  accumulators. 

We  will  now  return  to  the  service  reservoir.  When  this 
reservoir  is  situate  between  the  source  of  supply  and  the 
i strict  to  be  supplied,  it  receives  the  whole  of  the  water 
Mid  delivers  it  into  the  district  as  needed  for  use;  but  when 
iie  district  lies  between  the  source  and  the  service  reservoir, 
it  receives  the  excess  of  supply  over  consumption,   and   on 


NO.   1769,  VOL.  68] 


the  other  hand  makes  good  any  deficiency  during  those 
hours  when  the  consumption  exceeds  the  supply.  In  either 
case  this  reservoir  has  the  effect  of  equalising  the  flow 
from  the  source  to  the  reservoir  throughout  the  twenty-four 
hours  of  the  day. 

From  the  service  reservoir  the  water  is  conveyed  by  one 
or  more  main  pipes  into  the  district  of  supply.  These  pipes 
are  gradually  reduced  in  diameter  as  they  pass  through  the 
district,  the  water  which  they  convey  is  taken  off  by  other 
main  pipes  branching  from  them,  and  finally  enters  the 
service  pipes,  which  are  usually  from  five  inches  to  three 
inches  diameter,  and  are  those  from  which  the  consumers' 
communication  pipes  are  taken.  The  service  pipes  should 
in  all  cases  be  controlled  by  valves,  so  that  the  water  can 
be  shut  off  from  them  without  interfering  with  the  flow 
through  the  main  pipes.  Consumers'  communication  pipes 
are  not  generally  allowed  to  be  attached  to  pipes  of  greater 
diameter  than  five  inches,  and  where  a  pipe  of  six  inches 
diameter  and  upwards  is  carried  along  a  street,  another 
pipe  of  three  or  four  inches  diameter  (preferably  the  latter 
size),  and  called  a  ryder  pipe,  is  laid  alongside  to  receive 
the  attachments  of  the  communication  pipes.  The  ryder 
pipe  is  divided  into  lengths  of  from  350  to  400  yards,  each 
of  which  is  controlled  by  a  valve  at  its  junction  with  the 
main  pipe.  Hydrants  for  use  in  case  of  fire  are  attached 
to  the  ryder  a^d  other  service  pipes  throughout  the  district 
at  a  distance  apart  not  exceeding  100  yards.  Except  in 
streets  where  the  houses  are  small  and  not  high,  it  is 
desirable  to  lay  the  service  pipes  of  not  less  than  four  inches 
diameter,  not  because  a  smaller  pipe  would  not  suffice  to 
meet  the  requirements  of  the  domestic  consumers,  but  in 
order  to  ensure  an  ample  supply  of  water  in  case  of  fire. 
When  determining  the  sizes  of  the  main  pipes  to  be  laid 
throughout  a  town,  the  engineer  commences  with  the  pipes 
most  remote  from  the  service  reservoir,  and  gradually  in- 
creases the  diameter  according  to  the  probable  number  and 
magnitude  of  the  supplies  to  be  taken  from  them. 

Pipes  of  cast  iron  having  sockets  run  with  lead  and  set 
up  with  a  hammer  are  mostly  used  for  waterworks  purposes, 
but  in  some  instances  turned  and  bored  joints  put  together 
without  lead  have  been  used  with  success,  but  these  are 
only  suitable  where  there  is  an  unyielding  foundation.  I 
remember  a  case  in  Yorkshire,  where  turned  and  bored 
pipes  were,  much  against  the  advice  of  the  engineer,  used 
for  the  distribution  of  gas  in  a  colliery  district,  with  the 
result  that  in  a  few  years  nearly  every  joint  was  leaking ; 
fortunately  the  engineer  had  anticipated  that  result,  and 
had  laid  the  pipes  with  sockets  in  addition  to  the  turned 
and  bored  joints  ;  consequently,  by  opening  the  ground  at 
each  joint  and  running  the  joint  with  lead,  the  leakage  was 
stopped  without  necessitating  the  relaying  of  the  system  of 
pipes.  The  main  pipe  of  forty-four  inches  diameter,  con- 
veying water  from  Rivington  to  Liverpool,  passes  for  several 
miles  over  a  coalfield,  and  the  ground  has  in  places  sub- 
sided over  the  coal  workings  as  much  as  four  feet  without 
interfering  with  the  supply  of  water ;  the  ground  having 
been  opened  at  the  pipe  joints,  the  lead,  which  had  been 
partially  drawn  from  the  joints,  was  forced  back  by  hammer- 
ing, and  the  joint  was  again  made  sound. 

In  soms  countries,  where  the  cold  is  intense,  water  pipes 
have  to  be  laid  at  a  depth  of  from  10  feet  to  12  feet  below* 
the  surface  of  the  ground  to  protect  the  water  from  frost, 
but  in  the  United  Kingdom  a  depth  of  from  2  feet  6  inches 
to  3  feet  has  been  found  to  be  sufficient  even  in  very  severe 
frosts.  • 

Water,  especially  when  soft,  causes  the  interior  of  cast- 
iron  pipes  to  become  incrusted  with  nodules  of  iron,  which 
reduce  the  effective  diameter  of  the  pipe  and  so  diminish 
its  capacity.  This  action  is  greatly  retarded  and  in  some 
instances  entirely  prevented  by  the  application  to  the  pipes, 
soon  after  they  have  been  cast,  of  the  coating  introduced 
many  years  ago  by  the  late  Dr.  Angus  Smith,  a  process 
now  nearly  always  employed. 

It  was  at  Southport  that  I  witnessed  the  bursting  of  a 
main  pipe,  the  only  occurrence  of  the  kind  that  I  have  seen 
during  a  period  of  forty  years,  of  which  a  considerable 
portion  has  been  spent  amongst  waterworks.  Owing  to  the 
introduction  of  a  new  supply  of  water,  the  original  main 
pipe  was  charged  with  water  at  a  higher  pressure  than  it 
had  been  intended  to  bear,  with  the  result  that  several 
fractures  occurred.     I   happened   to  be  standing  on  one  of 


5'i4 


NATURE 


[September  24,  1903 


the  roads  at  a  little  distance  from  the  town  when  I  heard 
a  sound,  and  looking  in  the  direction  whence  it  came,  saw 
in  a  field  near  by  a  black  column  rise  vertically  in  the  air 
for  about  forty  feet  in  height.  A  girl  who  happened  to  be 
working  in  the  field  put  her  hands  to  her  ears  and  fled, 
probably  thinking  she  had  seen  Satan  himself,  but  the 
column  soon  became  clear,  the  black  colour  having  been 
caused  by  the  peat  carried  up  with  the  water. 

Having  traced  the  water  from  its  source  to  the  door  of 
the  consumer,  we  now  enter  into  another  branch  of  the 
subject.  Up  to  this  point  the  water  has  been  entirely  under 
the  control  of  the  company  or  local  authority  by  whom  it 
is  provided,  but  from  the  moment  it  enters  the  consumer's 
communication  pipe,  or  where  the  communication  pipe  is 
the  property  of  the  water  supplier,  from  the  moment  the 
water  reaches  the  premises  of  the  consumer,  it  comes  under 
his  control,  subject  only  to  such  regulations  and  super- 
vision as  the  Legislature  has  given  the  water  supplier 
power  to  make  and  to  exercise. 

When  water  was  supplied  on  the  now  almost  obsolete 
"intermittent  service,"  under  which  a  town  was  divided 
into  a  number  of  districts  into  each  of  which  in  succession 
the  water  was  turned  for  only  one  or  two  hours  a  day,  the 
water  suppliers  paid  but  little  attention  to  the  fittings  within 
the  houses  of  the  consumers,  because,  however  great  the 
quantity  of  water  wasted  through  defective*  fittings,  the 
waste  could  only  last  for  the  short  time  during  which  the 
■water  was  turned  on  in  each  district,  and  it  ceased 
altogether  during  the  night. 

About  the  year  183 1  the  system  of  "constant  service," 
'by  which  is  meant  a  supply  of  water  available  from  the 
pipes  of  the  water  suppliers  at  any  moment  throughout  the 
-day  or  night,  was  introduced  into  this  country  by  the  late 
Mr.  Thomas  Hawksley,  at  Nottingham,  and  it  soon  became 
evident  that  if  a  constant  service  was  to  be  maintained  the 
fittings  within  the  houses  of  the  consumers  must  be  adapted 
to  the  new  conditions  and  be  placed  under  regulation  and 
supervision.  Suitable  regulations  were  therefore  formu- 
lated, and  have  since  been  improved  and  modified  to  meet 
modern  requirements.  These  regulations,  which  are  mainly 
directed  to  the  use  of  proper  pipes,  taps  and  other  fittings, 
and  to  service  cisterns  so  constructed  as  to  prevent  a  con- 
tinuous flow  and  consequent  waste  of  water,  do  not  in  any 
way  limit  the  use  of  water  by  a  consumer,  who  is  at  liberty 
to  take  as  much  as  he  requires  whether  by  day  or  by  night, 
nor  does  their  strict  enforcement  inflict  any  hardship  on 
the  consumer,  to  whom  good  water  fittings  kept  in  a  proper 
state  of  repair  are  in  the  end  more  economical  than  cheaper 
and  inferior  fittings  requiring  the  frequent  attendance  of 
the  plumber. 

About  five  years  ago,  I  had  occasion  to  obtain  statistics 
relating  to  the  consumption  of  water  in  sixteen  towns  (in- 
cluding Sou-thport)  in  England,  containing  an  aggregate 
population  within  the  district  supplied  of  rather  more  than 
five  millions  of  people,  and  found  that  the  average  quantity 
of  water  consumed  in  those  towns  for  domestic  purposes 
was  183  gallons  per  head  per  diem,  showing  what  can  be 
€ffected  by  good  management  and  a  careful  observance  of 
proper  regulations  for  the  prevention  of  waste  without  im- 
posing any  restriction  on  the  quantity  of  water  legitimately 
■used.  The  figures  which  I  have  quoted  as  water  for 
domestic  purposes  include  the  unmetered  trade  supplies  and 
■that  comparatively  small  amount  of  waste  which  cannot  be 
prevented,  but  do  not  include  the  water  supplied  by  meter 
for  trade  purposes,  the  amount  of  which  varies  greatly  in 
different  towns,  but  being  paid  for  by  the  consumer  accord- 
ing to  the  quantity  used  may  be  disregarded  when  com- 
paring the  management  of  waterworks  undertakings. 

Some  soft  waters,  more  especially  those  derived  from 
moorlands,  have  an  injurious  action  on  lead  pipes  and  lead- 
lined  cisterns,  and  are  liable  to  cause  lead  poisoning  in 
sensitive  persons  drinking  the  water,  but  this  action  is  now 
commonly  prevented  by  bringing  the  water  into  contact 
with  lime  before  distribution. 

In  certain  instances  of  public  supplies,  the  hardness  of 
the  water  is  reduced  by  one  of  the  several  softening  pro- 
cesses now  in  use,  but  it  more  frequently  happens  that  the 
softening  is  effected  by  those  consumers  who  require  soft 
water  for  boiler  or  other  trade  purposes. 

A  few  words  with  regard  to  the  water  supply  of  the  town 
in  which  the  Meeting  of  the  British  Association  is  now  being 


held  may  not  be  out  of  place,  the  more  especially  when  it 
is  borne  in  mind  that  the  rapid  growth  of  its  population 
during  the  last  half  century  could  not  have  taken  place 
but  for  the  introduction  of  a  supply  of  good  water. 

The  Southport  Waterworks  Company,  by  whom  water 
was  originally  brought  to  Southport,  was  established  under 
the  authority  of  an  Act  of  Parliament  passed  in  the  year 
1854.  Water  was  first  obtained  from  a  well  sunk  at  Scaris- 
brick,  about  five  miles  south-east  of  Southport,  a  source 
which  was  practically  superseded  by  another  well  which 
was  a  few  years  later  sunk  at  the  Aughton  pumping  station 
near  Ormskirk.  As  the  population  to  be  supplied  increased 
in  numbers,  the  Company  subsequently  sank  a  third  well, 
and  constructed  the  still  larger  Springfield  pumping  station 
near  Town  Green,  about  nine  miles  south-east  of  Southport, 
and  it  is  from  the  Aughton  and  Springfield  wells,  both  sunk 
into  the  Bunter  Beds  of  the  New  Red  Sandstone  formation, 
that  the  present  excellent  supply  of  water  is  derived.  At 
each  pumping  station  the  water  is  raised  by  a  pair  of  beam 
rotative  steam-engines  into  two  covered  service  reservoirs 
situate  on  the  summit  of  Gorse  Hill,  near  Ormskirk,  at  an 
elevation  of  260  feet  above  ordnance  datum,  or  in  other 
words,  above  the  mean  level  of  the  sea.  From  this  reservoir 
th^  water  is  brought  through  two  main  pipes  to  Southport 
and  Birkdale,  which  places  have  from  the  commencement 
of  the  undertaking  had  the  advantage  of  a  constant  service. 
The  late  Mr.  Thomas  Hawksley  acted  as  engineer  to  the 
company  from  its  formation  until  his  death  in  1893,  and  I 
subsequently  acted  in  that  capacity  until  the  transfer,  under 
the  powers  of  the  Southport  Water  (Transfer)  Act,  190 1, 
of  the  undertaking  of  the  company  to  the  Southport,  Birk- 
dale, and  West  Lancashire  Water  Board,  consisting  of  re- 
presentatives of  the  Corporation  of  Southport,  the  Urban 
District  Council  of  Birkdale,  and  the  Rural  District  Council 
of  West  Lancashire. 

The  advances  in  recent  years  in  chemical  science,  and  the 
application  of  the  science  of  bacteriology  to  the  examination 
of  water,  have  led  to  the  condemnation  of  waters  which 
a  few  years  ago  would  have  been  deemed  to  be  perfectly 
suitable  for  a  town  supply.  W'hilst  fully  appreciating  the 
advantages  to  be  derived  from  the  most  careful  examin- 
ation of  water  supplied  for  domestic  consumption,  I  cannot 
but  think  that  we  are  sometimes  unnecessarily  alarmed  by 
the  results  obtained.  Taking  a  broad  view  of  the  subject, 
and  looking  to  the  healthy  condition  of  towns  which  have 
for  many  years  been  supplied  with  water  from  sources  now 
regarded  with  suspicion,  I  venture  to  think  that  the  teach- 
ings of  chemistry  and  bacteriology  are  as  yet  but  imperfectly 
understood,  and  that  in  the  future  it  will  be  found  that 
some  waters  now  considered  of  doubtful  character  are  per- 
fectly good  and  wholesome.  I  am  well  aware  that  the  ex- 
pression of  these  views  may  call  forth  the  indignation  of 
some  of  my  friends  amongst  eminent  chemists  and  bacteri- 
ologists to  whose  opinions  on  such  subjects  I  feel  bound  to 
pay  deference.  A  Royal  Commission  has  recently  recom- 
mended that  a  Government  department  be  established  and 
endowed  with  enormous  powers  of  interference  with  the 
action  and  discretion  of  the  bodies  entrusted  by  Parliament 
with  the  responsibility  of  the  administration  of  water  sup- 
plies, and  it  behoves  those  bodies  to  give  careful  consider- 
ation to  that  recommendation,  and  to  take  such  steps  as 
may  be  necessary  to  check  any  attempt  to  give  effect  to  a 
proposal  which  may  result  in  committing  them  to  the  carry- 
ing out  of  unreasonable  requirements,  possibly  involving 
needless  expenditure,  at  the  bidding  of  a  Department  from 
whose  dictum  they  may  have  no  appeal.  • 

Although  a  matter  only  indirectly  connected  with  water 
supply,  I  think  it  may  be  of  scientific  interest  to  this 
Section  to  have  brought  to  their  notice  the  case  of  the  River 
Rede  in  Northumberland,  which  takes  its  rise  in  the  Cheviots. 
At  a  place  called  Catcleugh,  about  four  miles  below  the 
source  of  the  Rede,  its  waters  are  diverted  by  the  Newcastle 
and  Gateshead  Water  Company  for  the  supply  of  their  dis- 
trict. The  gathering-ground  above  the  point  of  diversion 
is  about  10,000  acres  in  extent,  and  the  quantity  of  water 
taken  is  ascertained  by  means  of  a  gauge,  and  registered 
continuously  by  a  recording  instrument.  An  inspection  of 
the  diagrams  taken  during  periods  in  which  there  was  no 
rainfall  shows  a  daily  variation  in  the  volume  of  water 
flowing  down  the  river.  For  example,  during  a  period  of 
eight  days  (June  9  to  16,  1899)  without  interruption  by  rain, 


NO.    1769,  VOL.   68] 


September  24,  1903J 


NATURE 


515 


tlie  gradual  rise  and  fall  of  the  river  was  almost  regular, 
day  by  day,  the  maximum  flow  occurring  about  q  a.m., 
and  the  minimum  about  9  p.m.,  the  difference  between  the 
two  amounting  to  nearly  10  per  cent,  of  the  total  quantity 
passing  down  the  river  at  the  time  of  minimum  flow. 
Various  suggestions  as  to  the  cause  of  this  phenomenon 
have  been  made,  but  I  am  unable  to  give  any  satisfactory 
explanation.  It  occurs  in  winter  as  well  as  in  summer, 
and  may  take  place  daily  throughout  the  year,  though  it 
cannot  be  observed  except  during  dry  periods.  It  may  well 
br'  that  a  similar  phenomenon  occurs  in  other  rivers,  but 
has  escaped  observation  owing  to  the  absence  of  recording 
gauges. 


THE  INTERNATIONAL  GEOLOGICAL 
CONGRESS. 
HTHE  ninth  gathering  of  the  International  Geological 
■*•  Congress  was  held  this  year  in  Vienna.  After  a  pre- 
liminary series  of  excursions  through  different  parts  of 
Austria-Hungary  the  members  assembled  in  the  rooms  of  the 
University  on  Thursday,  August  20,  when  the  meeting  was 
inaugurated  by  the  Archduke  Rainer  and  the  Minister  of 
Public  Instruction.  According  to  the  programme  prepared 
by  the  committee  of  organisation,  each  alternate  day  was 
to  be  devoted  to  the  reading  and  discussion  of  papers  on  given 
subjects  of  general  interest,  while  the  intervening  days  were 
given  up  to  excursions  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  imperial 
city.  After  the  formal  opening  of  the  congress,  the  after- 
noon of  the  first  day  was  spent,  under  the  presidency  of  Mr. 
Emmons,  of  the  United  States  Geological  Survey,  in  receiv- 
ing a  miscellaneous  group  of  communications,  including  a 
paper  on  the  Laccolites  of  the  Aar-massif  by  Prof.  Baltzer, 
and  an  account  of  the  recent  volcanic  eruptions  of  Martinique 
and  St.  Vincent  by  Mr.  E.  O.  Hovey,  illustrated  by  an  ex- 
cellent series  of  photographic  lantern  slides.  The  next  day 
of  discussion  (August  22)  was  dedicated  to  the  crystalline 
schists,  under  the  chairmanship  of  Prof.  Zirkel  in  the  morn- 
ing and  Prof.  Loewinson-Lessing  in  the  afternoon.  Until 
the  various  communications  are  in  print  and  can  be  studied 
and  compared,  it  is  hardly  possible  to  say  how  far  they  have 
advanced  our  knowledge  of  the  subject.  The  speakers  on 
this  and  subsequently  on  the  other  selected  subjects  of  dis- 
cussion showed  a  prevailing  tendency  to  dwell  on  the  local 
peculiarities  of  the  regions  most  familiar  to  them,  and  rather 
to  lose  sight  of  the  general  principles  to  which  local  observ- 
ations should  properly  lead.  The  crystalline  schists  of  Ger- 
many, Austria,  the  Alps,  Finland  and  North  America  were 
all  brought  into  review,  so  that  a  sufficiently  wide  basis  was 
provided  for  satisfactory  generalisation.  The  third  day 
(August  24)  for  the  reading  of  papers,  under  the  presidency 
of  Sir  Archibald  Geikie  in  the  forenoon  and  Prof.  Heim  in 
the  afternoon,  was  spent  in  listening  to  essays  by  various 
geologists  on  the  important  phenomena  embraced  under  the 
general  designation  of  "  overthrusts."  MM.  Lugeon  and 
Haug  described  the  structures  displayed  in  the  .\lps.  Prof. 
Uhlig  those  of  the  Carpathians,  Mr.  Bailey  Willis  those  of 
the  United  States.  In  an  interesting  discussion  Prof. 
Heim  indicated  that  he  surrendered  the  so-called  "  double- 
fold  "  of  the  Glarnish,  as  originally  advocated  by  him,  and 
now  admitted  that  the  structure  implied  a  gigantic  over- 
thrust.  Prof.  Rothpletz,  who  has  long  maintained  this 
view,  also  took  part  in  the  debate,  which  at  times  became 
lively  from  the  energy  of  the  speakers  and  the  difficulty 
which  they  found  in  confining  their  exuberance  within  the 
limits  of  time  prescribed  by  the  council.  Though  the 
doctrine  of  overthrusts  was  admitted,  considerable  diver- 
gence of  opinion  appeared  as  to  the  true  nature  and  origin 
of  the  structure. 

Wednesday  (August  26)  was  dedicated  to  a  consideration 
of  the  geology  of  the  Balkan  peninsula  and  the  East,  under 
the  presidency  of  Prof.  Barrois  in  the  forenoon  and  Prof. 
Tschernyschew  in  the  afternoon.  An  interesting  and  im- 
portant series  of  papers  was  read,  in  which  the  present  state 
of  our  knowledge  of  these  regions  was  detailed  by  those 
geologists  to  whom  the  recent  advance  of  that  knowledge  has 
mainly  been  due. 

On  Thursday  (August  27)  the  morning  was  taken  up  in  the 
reception  of  miscellaneous  communications  in  four  different 


I 


NO.   1769,   VOL.  68] 


rooms  of  the  University.  As  this  extensive  building  includes 
a  large  number  of  rooms  separated  from  each  other  by  stair- 
cases and  passages,  and  as  no  adequate  system  of  placards 
was  adopted  to  guide  the  members  to  these  various  meeting- 
places,  much  time  was  lost  in  trying  to  find  them,  and 
in  some  instances  the  search  was  abandoned  in  despair.  The 
afternoon  was  devoted  first  to  the  reception  of  the  reports  of 
the  various  Commissions  appointed  by  the  congress  at  pre- 
tIous  meetings.  A  satisfactory  statement  was  made  by  Prof. 
Beyschlag  as  to  the  progress  of  the  international  geological 
map  of  Europe.  Sir  Archibald  Geikie  gave  in  the  report  of 
the  Commission  on  lines  of  raised  beach  in  the  northern 
hemisphere  and  also  that  of  the  Commission  on  international 
cooperation  in  geological  research.  On  his  proposal  it  was 
agreed  to  form  a  small  committee  for  the  purpose  of  collect- 
ing information  from  different  countries  with  a  view  to  com- 
bined effort  in  those  branches  of  inquiry  which  are  not  purely 
geological  but  require  the  services  of  other  sciences.  The 
first  number  of  the  "  Palasontologia  Universalis  "  was  laid 
before  the  meeting  by  M.  Oehlert,  who  was  warmly  con- 
gratulated on  the  successful  launching  of  this  enterprise. 
The  report  of  the  Commission  on  glaciers  was  presented  by 
M.  Finsterwalder.  The  recommendation  of  the  committee 
appointed  to  consider  the  Spendiaroff  prize  was  unanimously 
adopted,  that  the  prize  should  be  awarded  to  Prof.  Brogger, 
of  Christiania.  The  last  oflicial  act  of  the  congress  was  to 
choose  the  next  place  of  meeting,  which,  by  a  majority,  was 
fixed  to  be  Mexico. 

A  very  unpleasant  impression  was  made  on  a  number  of 
members  of  the  congress  by  the  action  of  the  Vienna  com- 
mittee of  organisation  in  regard  to  the  next  meeting  place» 
So  far  back  as  March  last  the  general  secretary  wrote  to  Dr. 
Bell,  acting  director  of  the  Geological  Survey  of  Canada, 
asking  whether  an  invitation  could  be  sent  from  Canada  to 
hold  the  next  meeting  of  congress  there,  and  assuring  him 
that  many  Austrian  geologists  would  be  very  pleased  to  visit 
that  country  and  would  be  happy  to  support  the  invitation 
at  the  approaching  Vienna  meeting.  No  mention  was  made 
in  that  letter,  or  in  any  subsequent  communication,  that 
applications  had  been  sent  to  any  other  country.  Dr.  Bell 
replied  in  the  same  month  of  March  that  he  cordially  wel- 
comed the  proposal  and  would  do  all  in  his  power  to  further 
its  acceptance.  The  Geological  Survey  and  the  Royal  Society 
of  Canada  warmly  supported  it,  and  eventually  the  Govern- 
ment authorities  took  it  up  and  Parliament  actually  voted 
25,000  dollars  towards  the  necessary  expenses  of  the  meet- 
ing. Dr.  Bell  was  commissioned  to  proceed  to  Vienna  and 
personally  invite  the  congress  to  hold  their  next  session  in 
Canada.  On  arriving  in  Vienna,  however,  he  found  that, 
unknown  to  any  one  in  Canada,  the  committee  had  also  been 
simultaneously  in  treaty  with  Mexico,  and  without  writing 
to  know  what  was  being  done  in  Canada  had  inserted  in  the 
official  programme  an  invitation  which  had  in  response  been 
received  from  Mexico.  He  soon  saw  that  though  the  com- 
mittee could  not  bind  the  congress,  they  had  practically  de- 
cided the  question  in  favour  of  Mexico  so  far  as  their  votes 
and  influence  could  go.  The  Canadian  authorities  naturally 
feel  indignant  at  such  treatment,  and  it  will  e.xcite  no  sur- 
prise if  they  are  in  no  hurry  to  renew  their  invitation  should 
the  visit  to  Mexico  fail  of  accomplishment. 

Excursions  have  always  formed  a  prominent  part  of  the 
work  of  the  geological  congress,  and  this  year  they  have 
been  organised  on  a  greater  scale  than  ever  before.  Not 
only  was  there  a  diversified  series  set  on  foot  before  the  meet- 
ing and  another  after  it,  but  half  the  time  of  the  congress 
in  Vienna  was  devoted  to  excursions  in  the  neighbourhood. 
Whether  these  miscellaneous  parties  contribute  as  much  as 
might  be  desired  to  the  enlargement  of  the  geological  ex- 
perience and  knowledge  of  the  congressists,  they  at  least 
have  one  excellent  result  inasmuch  as  they  bring  together 
scientific  friends  who  have  seldom  a  chance  of  meeting  each 
other  and,  likewise,  enable  them  to  make  the  personal 
acquaintance  of  men  with  whose  writings  they  may  have  been 
long  familiar.  Indeed,  it  may  be  asserted  that  the  fostering 
of  such  personal  acquaintance  is  perhaps  the  most  practically 
valuable  part  of  the  work  of  the  congress.  For  the  en- 
lightenment of  the  excursionists  an  admirable  Livret  Guide 
to  Austrian  geology  was  drawn  up  by  Dr.  Teller.  Of  this 
publication  an  account  will  be  given  in  another  issue  of 
Nature. 


5i6 


NATURE 


[September  24,  1903 


NOTES. 

Prof.  Graham  Kerr  has  just  received  a  letter  from  Mr. 
J.  S.  Budgett  in  which  the  latter  announces  that  he  has 
solved^  the  important  problem  of  the  development  of  Poly- 
pterus.  The  letter  is  written  from  southern  Nigeria  and 
dated  August  28.  It  appears  that  Mr.  Budgett  has  been 
able  to  fertilise  a  large  quantity  of  eggs  of  Polypterus 
Senegalus,  and  that  the  early  development  is  "  astoundingly 
frog-like  " — segmentation  being  complete  and  fairly  equal, 
and  the  process  of  invagination  resembling  that  of  the 
frog's  egg.  Prominent  neural  folds  are  formed  which  arch 
over  in  the  normal  fashion.  Mr.  Budgett  had  already  made 
three  expeditions  to  various  parts  of  tropical  Africa  in  his 
endeavour  to  obtain  material  for  studying  the  development 
of  Polypterus,  and  zoologists  will  rejoice  that  his  efforts 
have  been  at  last  attended  with  success.  The  Crossop- 
terygians  have  been  for  some  time  the  most  important 
vertebrate  group  awaiting  the  investigation  of  the  embry- 
ologist,  and  the  results  gained  by  Mr.  Budgett  in  the  work- 
ing out  of  his  material  in  the  laboratory  will  be  looked 
forward  to  with  the  greatest  interest  by  all  vertebrate 
morphologists. 

A  MOVEMENT  is  in  progress  for  erecting  a  memorial  of 
James  Watt,  and  at  a  meeting  recently  held  it  was  decided 
that  the  form  the  memorial  should  take  should  be  an  in- 
stitution for  scientific  research,  and  an  appeal  is  now  being 
made  for  funds  to  carry  out  the  project.  Mr.  Andrew 
Carnegie,  who  is  the  secretary  for  America,  has  promised 
a  subscription  of  lo.oooZ.  towards  the  object. 

The  Bombay  University  Syndicate  announces  that  the 
subject  selected  for  the  Dr.  Theodore  Cooke  memorial  prize 
for  1905  is  "  Electric  Traction  and  the  Application  of 
Electricity  to  the  Requirements  of  Cities  in  India."  Com- 
petitors for  the  prize  should  be  graduates  in  engineering 
of  the  University  of  Bombay  of  not  more  than  seven  years' 
standing. 

The  second  International  Congress  of  Philosophy  is  to  be 
held  in  September  of  next  year  in  Geneva. 

The  fourth  International  Congress  of  Psychology  will,  it 
is  stated,  meet  in  Rome  in  the  spring  of  1905,  instead  of 
in  the  autumn  of  1904,  as  had  been  arranged. 

Dr.  Louis  Parkes  has  been  appointed  to  succeed  the  late 
Prof.  Corfield  as  consulting  sanitary  adviser  to  H.M.  Office 
of  Works. 

The  forty-eighth  annual  exhibition  of  the  Royal  Photo- 
graphic Society  opens  to-day  at  the  New  Gallery,  Regent 
Street.     The  exhibition  will  remain  open  until  October  31. 

Further  trials  on  the  electric  railway  at  Zossen  have 
resulted  in  a  speed  of  nearly  114  miles  an  hour  being 
attained. 

An  exhibition  of  the  pathological  specimens  which  have 
been  added  to  the  St.  George's  Hospital  Museum  during  the 
past  year  will  take  place  at  the  museum  from  October  i 
to  17. 

The  death  is  announced  of  Mr.  Washington  Teasdale,  of 
Leeds,  at  the  age  of  seventy-three.  He  was  a  fellow  of 
several  scientific  societies,  and  president  of  the  Leeds  Astro- 
nomical Society. 

A  Reuter  telegram  from  Santiago  de  Cuba  announces 
that  a  shock  of  earthquake,  the  most  violent  since  1885, 
occurred  there  on  the  morning  of  September  19,  and  lasted 
fifteen  seconds. 


NO.    1769,  VOL.  68] 


The  death,  at  the  advanced  age  of  eighty-five,  is 
announced  of  Dr.  Alexander  Bain,  who  for  twenty  years 
occupied  the  chair  of  logic  in  the  University  of  Aberdeen, 
and  was  a  voluminous  writer  on  language,  logic, 
psychology,  and  kindred  subjects. 

It  is  stated  by  Reuter  that  the  private  subscriptions 
towards  Captain  Bernier's  projected  North  Pole  expedition 
amount  to  i2,oooZ.,  of  which  Lord  Strathcona  has  given 
1000/.  It  is  also  stated  that  the  Canadian  Government 
will  probably  build  and  equip  the  vessel  for  the  expedition. 

A  provincial  sessional  meeting  of  the  Sanitary  Institute 
will  be  held  at  the  University  of  Birmingham  on  Saturday 
next,  September  26.  A  discussion  'on  some  practical  con- 
siderations in  connection  with  modern  methods  of  treating 
sewage  will  be  opened  by  Prof.  A.  Bostock  Hill  and  Mr. 
J.  E.  Willcox. 

The  Colonial  Economic  Committee  of  Berlin  announces 
that  the  utility  of  the  gutta-percha  discovered  by  the  ex- 
pedition which  was  undertaken  to  New  Guinea  under  the 
leadership  of  Herr  Schlechter  has  so  far  been  established  that 
the  gutta-percha  from  the  low-lying  country  may  be  re- 
garded as  suitable  for  cable  purposes  as  an  admixture,  and, 
■if  carefully  obtained,  be  fit  for  cables  in  a  pure  condition. 
Large  quantities  of  gutta-percha  have  been  obtained  from 
New  Guinea,  and  are  at  present  being  tested,  the  Secretary 
of  State  for  the  Imperial  Post  Office  having  granted  a  large 
sum  of  money  for  the  purpose.  It  is  proposed  by  the 
Colonial  Economic  Committee  to  establish  a  gutta-percha 
enterprise  for  the  education  of  the  native  population  of  New 
Guinea  in  the  cultivation  of  gutta-percha  and  its  winning. 
This  will  take  the  form  of  a  fresh  expedition  under  Herr 
Schlechter  for  a  period  of  three  years.  Assistance  will  be 
given  by  natives  of  Borneo  and  others  familiar  with  the 
question  of  rubber  production. 

A  successful  journey  through  eastern  Mongolia  (supple- 
menting  a  more  extended  journey  accomplished  last  year 
by  Mr.  Campbell,  Chinese  Secretary  of  the  British  Lega- 
tion) has,  says  a  Peking  correspondent  of  the  Times,  just 
been  completed  by  Mr.  Claude  Russell  and  Mr.  Hicks  Beach. 
The  party  left  Peking  on  July  20,  and,  passing  through 
Jehol,  struck  north  to  the  Manchurian  Railway  at  Tsitsihar, 
which  was  reached  in  forty-eight  days.  Their  route  lay 
east  of  the  Khingan  Mountains,  the  distance  covered,  1000 
miles,  being  to  a  considerable  extent,  so  far  as  is  known, 
through  country  not  previously  visited  by  any  European. 
The  travellers  rode  on  ponies,  with  pack  mules  for  their 
baggage.  They  had  four  servants,  but  no  escort.  They 
met  with  unfailing  courtesy  from  all  classes,  both  Mongols 
and  Chinese.  The  country  is  thinly  peopled,  but  is  being 
gradually  colonised  by  Chinese  from  within  the  Great  Wall. 

A  British  and  International  Aeronautical  Exhibition, 
organised  by  the  Aeronautical  Institute,  was  opened  at  the 
Alexandra  Palace  on  Thursday  last.  Among  the  exhibits 
are  a  model  balloon,  and  kites  and  specimens  of 
balloon  accessories  sent  by  the  German  Government,  ex- 
amples of  Mr.  S.  F.  Cody's  kites  and  his  gear  for  flying 
them,  various  flying  machines  either  full  size  or  in  model 
form,  and  the  large  machine  which  Dr.  Barton  is  con- 
structing. In  connection  with  the  exhibition  three  com- 
petitions are  to  be  held,  silver  and  bronze  medals  being 
awarded  to  the  two  winners  in  each.  The  first  is  for  kites, 
and  iu  judging  consideration  will  be  taken  of  the  way  in 
which  the  kite  leaves  the  ground,  the  manner  in  which  it 
ascends,  its  steadiness,  the  time  required  to  let  out  the 
whole  mile  of  wire  or  string,  the  altitude  attained,  and  the 


September  24,  1903] 


NATURE 


517 


rapidity  and  manner  of  descent.  The  second  competition 
is  also  for  kites,  and  is  organised  with  a  view  of  ascertain- 
ing the  best  and  safest  form  of  aeroplane  for  man-lifting 
kites  and  dynamic  flying  machines.  The  third  competition 
is  for  parachutes. 

In  the  Atti  della  Fondazione  Scientifica  Cagnola  (vol. 
xviii.),  Prof.  Grassi  gives  an  excellent  survey  of  our  present 
iknowledge  of  malaria.  He  describes  fully  its  epidemiology 
and  prophylaxis,  and  the  morphology  and  development  of 
the  malaria  parasite.  In  the  latter  connection  he  intro- 
duces some  new  terms.  The  asexual  parasites  producing 
the  febrile  attacks  are  named  "  monogonia,"  the  develop- 
mental forms  in  the  mosquito  "  amphigonia,"  while  the 
recurrent  attacks  of  fever  which  occur  at  long  intervals 
after  infection  are  regarded  as  being  due  to  parthenogenetic 
parasites,  which  develop  from  the  non-flagellating  (female) 
sexual  cells,  or  gametocytes. 

The  first  volume  of  reports  of  the  Sleeping  Sickness 
Commission  of  the  Royal  Society  has  just  been  issued. 
In  report  No.  i  Dr.  Aldo  Castellani  describes  his  discovery 
of  the  presence  of  a  trypanosoma  in  this  disease  (see 
Natcre,  Ixviii.,  p.  116).  Report  No.  2  is  a  "  progress  re- 
port "  by  Lieut. -Colonel  Bruce,  F.R.S.,  and  Dr.  Nabarro, 
who  have  continued  the  work  of  Dr.  Castellani,  and  they 
confirm  his  discovery  of  the  presence  of  a  trypanosoma  in 
the  cerebro-spinal  fluid  of  sleeping-sickness.  In  every  one 
of  forty  cases  examined  the  trypanosome  was  found,  even 
in  the  early  stages.  In  fifteen  cases  of  other  diseases  the 
trypanosome  was  not  observed,  so  that  the  parasite  is  not 
present  in  the  cerebro-spinal  fluid  of  the  general  population. 
In  the  blood  also  of  sleeping-sickness  the  trypanosome  is 
practically  always  to  be  met  with.  In  six  individuals 
suffering  from  fever,  but  presenting  no  symptoms  of  sleep- 
ing-sickness, trypanosomes  were  also  detected  in  the  blood 
but  not  in  the  cerebro-spinal  fluid.  The  question  arises 
whether  the  trypanosome  found  in  the  blood  of  these  six 
cases  was  the  same  species  as  that  present  in  sleeping- 
sickness.  Morphologically  there  are  certain  differences 
between  the  two,  but  the  results  of  inoculation  experiments 
are  up  to  the  present  indefinite.  The  distribution  of  sleep- 
ing-sickness in  Uganda  is  striking,  the  disease  occurring 
only  in  a  belt  of  country  fifteen  miles  wide  on  the  northern 
shores  of  the  Victoria  Nyanza.  In  this  district  a  tsetse  fly 
(identified  as  Glossitia  palpalis  by  Mr.  Austen,  of  the  British 
Museum)  was  observed  to  be  very  abundant,  and  the  ques- 
tion is  raised  whether  this  fly  conveys  the  infection  in 
sleeping-sickness,  just  as  one  does  in  the  tsetse  disease 
of  horses,  &c.,  which  is  also  due  to  a  species  of  trypanosoma. 
Flies,  freshly  caught,  were  allowed  to  bite  a  monkey,  and 
in  five  days  trypanosomes  were  found  in  its  blood,  showing 
that  the  flies  do  convey  trypanosome  infection,  though 
whether  the  sleeping-sickness  species  it  is  not  yet  possible 
to  say.  The  report  concludes  with  the  clinical  histories  of 
a  number  of  cases  of  the  disease,  and  is  illustrated  with  ten 
plates. 

We  have  recently  received  meteorological  "  Yearbooks  " 
(i)  from  Dr.  H.  Hergesell,  director  of  the  service  of  Alsace- 
Lorraine,  containing  hourly  observations  for  Strassburg 
and  summaries  at  various  other  stations,  for  the  year  iSqq  ; 
and  (2)  from  Dr.  P.  Berghaus,  containing  hourly  observ- 
ations for  Bremen,  and  rainfall  statistics  at  a  few  stations. 
The  observations  and  results  of  both  "  Yearbooks  "  are 
carefully  prepared  according  to  the  uniform  system  adopted 
for  all  the  States  of  the  German  Empire. 

Dr.    G.    Hellmann    has   published    a    rain    chart    of    the 
Prussian   provinces   of   Hessen-Nassau    and    Rheinland,    in- 
NO.   1769,  VOL.  68] 


eluding  HohenzoUern  and  Oberhessen,  together  with  a  dis- 
cussion of  the  rainfall  statistics  for  the  last  ten  years.  This 
work  is  the  eighth  of  the  valuable  series  prepared  by  him 
at  the  request  of  the  Berlin  Meteorological  Department,  to 
which  we  have  before  referred  in  our  columns.  The  tables 
contain  mean  annual  values  of  rainfall,  monthly  percent- 
ages of  those  values,  the  greatest  falls  in  short  periods,  and 
other  useful  information. 

In  a  paper  read  before  the  Royal  Society  of  New  South 
Wales,  Mr.  H.  C.  Russell  clearly  disproves  a  somewhat 
common  belief  that  a  wet  season  in  England  is  followed  by 
a  wet  season  in  Australia.  A  diagram  illustrating  the 
paper  shows  that,  although  sometimes  heavy  rains  in 
England  will  be  followed  next  year  by  heavy  rains  in 
Australia,  they  seldom  do  so.  Mr.  Russell  finds  that,  from 
1880  to  1885,  and  from  1894  ^o  1901,  for  instance,  rain  was 
abundant  in  England,  while  Australia  was  suffering  a  severe 
drought. 

A  PAPER  read  before  the  South  Staffordshire  and  East 
Worcestershire  Institute  of  Mining  Engineers  by  Mr.  F.  G. 
Meachem  deals  with  underground  temperatures.  The  mean 
increase  in  temperature,  deduced  from  the  summary  of  the 
results  collected  by  the  British  Association  committee  and 
published  in  1882,  was  1°  F.  for  a  descent  of  64  feet.  Since 
1882  other  important  observations  have  been  made,  from 
which  it  appears  that  the  highest  rock-temperature  obtained 
at  a  depth  of  4580  feet  (Calumet  and  Hecla  Copper-mines, 
Lake  Superior)  is  79°  F.,  the  temperature  at  a  depth  of  105 
feet  being  59°  F.  The  difference  of  temperature  in  the 
column  of  4475  feet  of  rock  was  20°  F.,  averaging  1°  F. 
for  every  224  feet.  The  average  annual  temperature  of  the 
air  where  the  observations  were  made  is  48°  F.,  and  that 
of  the  air  at  the  bottom  of  the  shaft  is  72°  F.  The  mean 
increase  obtained  by  the  observations  of  Mr.  H.  A.  Wheeler 
at  other  mines  in  the  Lake  Superior  district  in  1886  was, 
however,  1°  F.  in  ioo-8  feet.  Mr.  Meachem  has  made 
various  temperature-tests  at  Hamstead  Colliery  extending 
over  several  years,  and  all  observations  show  an  increase 
of  temperature  in  undisturbed  strata  of  1°  F.  for  every  no 
feet  of  descent  beyond  65  feet  from  the  surface.  It  has  been 
found  that  the  temperature  of  the  undisturbed  strata  at 
the  pit  bottom,  1950  feet  below  the  surface,  is  66°  F.  This 
was  ascertained  by  inserting  a  maximum  and  minimum 
thermometer,  protected  by  a  metal  case,  into  a  bore-hole 
driven  10  feet  into  freshly-cut  coal.  The  hole  was  closed 
with  clay  and  left  for  various  periods  from  one  to  fourteen 
days.  Repeated  observations  led  to  the  result  stated.  It 
is  concluded  that  by  sinking  larger  shafts  and  introducing 
more  efficient  ventilating  machinery,  miners  will  be  able 
to  do  as  much  work  at  a  depth  of  3000  feet  as  is  now  done 
at  a  depth  of  1000  feet,  and  that  mining  engineers  will 
be  able  to  reach  any  depth  at  which  coal  is  likely  to  be 
found  in  this  country  and  work  the  same. 

We  have  received  the  second  fasciculus  (with  plates  13-24) 
of  Dr.  E.  A.  Goeldi's  "  Album  of  the  Birds  of  Amazonia  " 
(Album  de  Aves  Amazonicas),  in  course  of  publication  by 
the  Museum  Goeldi,  at  Para.  The  plates  of  this  part, 
which,  like  their  predecessors,  are  coloured,  include  selected 
representatives  of  the  Cotingida;,  Psittacidae,  Ccerebidse, 
Picida;,  Formicariidre,  Cuculidae,  Dendrocolaptidae, 
Cracidae,  &c.,  and  likewise  depict  those  extremely  character- 
istic South  American  birds,  the  trumpeter,  serlema,  horned 
screamer,  ruddy  tinamu,  and  rhea.  The  latter  bird,  it  may 
be  mentioned,  is  commonly  known  by  Europeans  in  Brazil 
as  the  emeu  (ema),  while  it  may  also  be  noticed  that  the 
native  name  anhuma  might  conveniently  be  adopted  in 
ornithological    literature    for    the    screamers.       The    plates 


5i8 


NATURE 


[September  24,  1903 


\ 


depict,  so  far  as  possible,  the  birds  in  their  natural  surround- 
ings, and  although  in  some  perhaps  a  trifle  too  gaudy,  the 
colouring  appears  to  be  very  true  to  nature.  When  com- 
plete, the  book  should  be  invaluable  to  all  interested  in  the 
birds  of  Brazil. 

Another  illustrated  work  recently  to  hand  (although  the 
cover  is  dated  1902)  is  part  x.  of  the  atlas  of  the  section 
devoted  to  Crustacea  in  "  Illustrations  of  the  Zoology  of  the 
Investigator,"  by  Major  Alcock  and  the  late  Mr.  A.  F. 
McArdle.  This  part  includes  plates  Ivi.-lxvii.,  the  majority 
of  which  illustrate  crabs,  although  some  crawfishes  are 
also  figured.  In  the  absence  of  the  text,  fuller  notice  is 
difficult. 

The  Boston  (U.S.A.)  Society  of  Natural  History  is  to  be 
congratulated  on  the  decision  to  publish  an  annual  summary 
of  the  work  done  on  the  land  mammals  of  North  America. 
The  part  just  issued,  dealing  with  the  years  1901  and  1902, 
forms  No.  3  of  the  Society's  Proceedings,  and  is  compiled 
by  Messrs.  Miller  and  Rehn.  With  the  aid  of  such 
annual  summaries  naturalists  in  other  countries  may  hope 
to  keep  abreast  of  American  work  in  this  department  of 
zoology. 

We  have  received  the  second  part  of  vol.  xiv.  of  the 
Natural  History  Transactions  of  Northumberland,  Durham, 
and  Newcastle.  It  contains  the  presidential  addresses  for 
the  years  1901  and  1902,  both  of  which  set  an  excellent 
example  in  that  they  deal  exclusively  with  local  subjects. 
The  committee  records  with  regret  the  determination  of 
the  Tyneside  Naturalists'  Field  Club  to  terminate  its 
connection  with  the  Society,  which  has  existed  since  the 
year  1864;  this  feeling  of  regret  will,  we  think,  be  wide- 
spread, especially  as  it  will  involve  in  the  near  future  a 
severance  of  the  Joint  Transactions  of  the  two  bodies. 

Article  two  of  vol.  xvii.  of  the  Journal  of  the  College 
of  Science  of  Tokyo  contains  an  account  of  a  worm  {Cerato- 
cephale  osawai)  which,  at  certain  seasons,  appears  in 
swarms  in  the  Gulf  of  Tokyo  and  the  rivers  debouching 
therein,  after  the  manner  of  the  palolo  worms  of  the  South 
Pacific  and  the  Atlantic.  Instead,  however,  of  belonging 
to  the  Eunicidas,  the  Japanese  species,  which  is  regarded 
by  its  describer,  Mr.  A.  Isuka,  as  new  to  science,  is  refer- 
able to  the  Lycoridae.  According  to  the  experience  of  the 
fishermen,  which  is  confirmed  by  Mr.  Isuka 's  personal 
observations,  the  Japanese  "  palolo  "  swarms  during  the 
months  of  October  and  November,  usually  in  four  periods 
of  a  few  days'  duration  each.  The  swarming  season  always 
takes  place  when  the  moon  is  either  new  or  near  the  full, 
and  invariably  occurs  in  the  evening  just  after  flood-tide. 
On  the  occasion  of  the  author's  observation,  the  height  of 
the  swarm  did  not  last  more  than  a  couple  of  hours,  the 
worms  after  this  apparently  sinking  to  the  bottom  ex- 
hausted. 

The  collections  of  plants  made  by  Mr.  J.  N.  Rose  in 
Mexico  and  Central  America  have  not  only  added  a  number 
of  new  types,  but  have  yielded  several  plants  which  are 
likely  to  be  of  horticultural  value.  In  an  account,  the  third 
which  has  appeared  in  the  Contributions  from  the  United 
States  National  Herbarium,  attention  is  directed  to  two  new 
bulbous  species  of  Polianthes,  and  a  Crinum.  Of  the  genus 
Argemone  the  author  has  obtained  eleven  species,  including 
the  three  well-known  cultivated  species  of  which  wild 
specimens  are  rare,  even  in  herbaria. 

There  is  very  considerable  difficulty  in  obtaining  inform- 
ation concerning  the  botany  of  Siam,   and   the  reason   for 


NO.    1769,  VOL.  68] 


Ihi.-;  appears  to  be  that  no  collectors  have  attempted  to  work 
the  country  systematically.  Mr.  F.  N,  Williams  has  written 
a  short  article  on  this  subject  in  the  current  number  of  the 
Journal  of  Botany,  in  which  he  enumerates  the  few  collec- 
tions of  Siamese  plants  which  he  has  discovered  in  the 
Kew  Herbarium.  Almost  as  little  known  is  the  algal  vegeta- 
tion of  the  Shetland  Isles,  for  which  the  only  records  date 
back  to  the  year  1845.  A  list  of  the  marine  algae  collected 
by  Mr.  B6rgesen — together  with  those  previously  recorded 
— is  contributed  by  him  to  the  same  journal. 

The  growth  of  canker-areas  on  trees  has  been  attributed 
by  some  investigators  to  frost,  and  by  others,  including 
Hartig,  to  the  ravages  of  the  fungus  Nectria  ditissima. 
The  suggestion  made  some  years  ago  that  bacteria  were 
the  cause  of  disease  has  not  met  with  much  support  from 
pathologists.  In  the  Bulletin  International  de  I'Acaddmie 
des  Sciences  de  Cracovie,  Mr.  J.  Brzezinski  adduces  fresh 
evidence  in  favour  of  this  view  so  far  as  apple,  pear,  and 
hazel  trees  are  concerned.  After  unsuccessful  attempts  to 
set  up  disease  in  sound  tissues  by  infection  with  Nectria,  the 
author  sought  for  the  origin  of  disease  in  the  bacteria 
which  are  abundant  in  the  wood  elements.  It  was  not 
difficult  to  get  pure  cultures,  and  after  inoculation  with  the 
bacteria  discoloration  and  destruction  of  the  tissues  soon 
followed.  Canker  spots  were  not  produced,  but  it  is  prob- 
able that  they  would  not  develop  in  the  space  of  time 
during  which  the  experiments  were  conducted. 

A  REPORT  has  recently  been  issued  by  the  Foreign  Office 
giving  the  result  of  inquiries  made  by  His  Majesty's 
ministers  as  to  the  navigable  inland  water-ways  in  France, 
Belgium,  the  Netherlands,  Germany,  and  Austria-Hungary. 
The  reports  are  necessarily  statistical,  but  at  the  same  time 
contain  a  great  deal  of  useful  information.  Each  of  the 
above  countries  has  expended  out  of  State  funds  during  the 
past  twenty-five  years  very  large  sums  in  improving  the 
inland  navigation  either  by  deepening  and  improving  the 
natural  rivers,  or,  where  this  was  not  practicable,  by 
canalising  them,  or  by  the  construction  of  new  water-ways. 
Mr.  Hugh  O'Beirne,  who  drew  up  the  report  relating  to 
France,  has  arrived  at  the  conclusion  that,  taking  into  con- 
sideration the  cost  of  improving  the  water-ways,  which 
varies  from  14,924/.  to  64,516/.  per  mile,  it  would  have 
been  cheaper  and  more  advantageous  to  have  constructed 
railways.  Mr.  Robinson,  the  reporter  for  the  Netherlands, 
directs  attention  to  the  use  of  petrol  motors  for  moving 
the  boats,  and  says  that  the  number  of  small  steamers  and 
tugs  employed  on  the  water-ways  has  immensely  increased 
in  Holland,  and  that  water  transport  seems  to  be  on  the 
verge  of  a  revolution  owing  to  the  introduction  of  the 
cheap,  small  and  practical  petroleum  motors  which  can 
be  fitted  to  almost  every  description  of  craft. 

A.  NEW  edition — the  third — of  "  The  Figures,  Facts  and 
FormulEe  of  Photography  "  has  just  been  published  by 
Messrs.  Dawbarn  and  Ward,  Ltd.  The  work  has  been  con- 
siderably enlarged,  and  now  has  an  index. 

We  have  received  a  copy  of  the  map  and  report  on  the 
auriferous  quartz  reefs  of  Cue  and  Day  Dawn  in  the 
Murchison  Goldfield  of  Western  Australia,  by  Mr.  W.  D. 
Campbell  {Bulletin  No.  7  of  the  Geol.  Survey,  W.A.). 
The  reefs  lie  in  areas  of  granite,  diorite  and  amphibolite. 

The  ninth  edition  of  the  well-known  "  Bloxam's  Chemis- 
try," revised  and  rewritten  by  Prof.  J.  M.  Thomson,  F.R.S., 
and  Mr.  A.  G.  Blo.xam,  has  been  published  by  Messrs. 
J.   and  A.   Churchill.     The  work  retains  its  characteristics 


September  24,  1903] 


NATURE 


519 


as  a  convenient,  though  necessarily  condensed,  account  of 
essential  points  in  inorganic  and  organic  chemistry,  and  it 
will  doubtless  remain  a  popular  volume  of  ready  reference 
for  students. 

Messrs.  C.  Griffin  and  Co.  have  published  a  second 
edition  of  the  late  Dr.  Alder  Wright's  work  on  "  Animal 
and  Vegetable  Fixed  Oils,  Fats,  Butters,  and  Waxes," 
edited  and  partly  rewritten  by  Mr.  C.  A.  Mitchell.  The 
scope  of  the  work  has  been  extended  in  the  direction  of  the 
requirements  of  practical  chemists,  more  details  being  given 
of  analytical  methods  and  processes  for  detecting  adulter- 
ation of  individual  oils.  The  systematic  description  of  tests 
for  adulteration  occupies  222  pages,  and  consists  almost 
entirely  of  new  matter. 

The  additions  to  the  Zoological  Society's  Gardens  during 
the  past  week  include  a  Vervet  Monkey  {Cercopithecus 
lalandii)  from  South  Africa,  presented  by  Mr.  A.  F.  Putz ; 
a  Lesser  White-nosed  Monkey  {Cercopithecus  petaurista) 
from  West  Africa,  presented  bv  Dr.  S.  Carew ;  a  Sooty 
Mangabey  {Cercocehus  fuliginosus)  from  West  Africa,  pre- 
sented by  Mr.  Frank  Ree ;  a  Getulian  Ground  Squirrel 
(Xeriis  getulus)  from  Morocco,  presented  by  Mr.  D.  Seth 
Smith  ;  two  Green  Lizards  {Lacerta  viridis),  European,  pre- 
sented by  Mr.  R.  E.  McLaren ;  a  Chimpanzee  (Anthropo- 
pithecus  troglodytes,  c?)  from  West  Africa,  two  Suricates 
(Suricata  tetradactyla)  from  South  Africa,  an  Indian  Coucal 
(Centropus  rufipennis)  from  India,  deposited. 


OUR  ASTRONOMICAL   COLUMN. 

The  Rotation  Period  of  Saturn. — In  No.  3900  of  the 
Astronotyiische  Nachrichten,  Mr.  W.  F.  Denning  gives  a 
resume  of  his  observations  of  the  white  spots  which  have 
been  visible  on  Saturn  since  July  i  ;  out  of  thirty-two 
observing  nights  only  seven  were  recorded  as  giving  "  good 
seeing."  Mr.  Denning  finds  it  difficult  to  reconcile  the 
rotation  period  observed  with  that  usually  given,  i.e. 
loh.  15m.,  but  finds  that  a  period  of  loh.  39^m.  agrees 
with  the  observations  much  better.  As  the  mean  of  many 
observations  of  seven  of  the  markings,  he  obtains  the  period 
loh.  39m.  211S.,  so  that  if  the  bright  spot  discovered  by 
Prof.  Hall  in  December,  1876,  near  to  the  equator  of  Saturn, 
really  represented,  in  its  period  of  loh.  14m.  23-83.,  the 
rotation  of  that  part  of  the  planet,  there  is  a  difference  of 
25  minutes  between  the  equatorial  and  the  north  temperate 
currents,  the  latter  being  the  slower  ;  this  is  in  accordance 
with  the  Jovian  phenomena,  where  the  north  temperate 
markings  take  5^  minutes  longer  for  one  rotation  than  do 
the  equatorial  markings. 

A  collection  of  the  observations,  made  by  various 
observers,  of  Barnard's  large  white  spot  indicates  a 
rotation  period  of  loh.  38m.  for  that  region  of  the 
planet. 

Xewly  Determined  Stellar  Radial  Velocities. — From 
spectrograms  obtained  at  Potsdam  with  the  spectrograph 
No.  iv.,  in  conjunction  with  the  32-5cm.  refraator.  Prof. 
X'ogel  has  determined  the  radial  velocities  of  P  Arietis, 
a  L'rsa?  Majoris,  and  e  UrsaE?  Majoris.  From  measure- 
iients  of  the  magnesium  line  at  X  4481,  he  has  found  the 
relative  vekxity  in  the  line  of  sight  of  the  components  of 
13  Arietis  to  be  between  60  and  70km.,  of  <u  Ursae  Majoris 
about  45km.,  and  of  e  Ursae  Majoris  about  i5-2okm. 
{Astronomischc  Nachrichten,   No.  3898). 

Report  of  the  Cape  Observatory. — In  his  report  of  the 
Cape  Observatory  for  the  year  1902,  H.M.  Astronomer, 
Sir  David  Gill,  refers  to  several  additions  and  improve- 
ments of  the  instrumental  equipment. 

The  new  24-inch  Zeiss  objective  prism,  presented  to  the 
observatory  by  Dr.  Frank  McClean,  F.R.S..  is  now  ready 
for  mounting,  and  has  a  refracting  angle  of  ii^°. 


NO.    1769,  VOL.  68] 


The  oppositions  of  Uranus,  Saturn,  Jupiter,  and  Neptune 
were  observed  with  the  heliometer,  and  476  observations  of 
o  Centauri  were  made  in  connection  with  a  redetermination 
of  the  parallax  of  that  star  undertaken  by  Messrs.  Cookson 
and   Lowinger. 

Two  hundred  and  eighty  successful  spectra  of  stars 
ranging  in  magnitude  from  35  to  55  were  obtained  with 
the  24-inch  "  Victoria  "  telescope  fitted  with  the  "  Grubb  " 
objective  prism. 

In  connection  with  the  astrographic  chart  work  522 
triple  charts  have  now  been  taken,  and  434  plates,  contain- 
ing 248,921  stars,  have  been  completely  measured  up  to 
dale. 

The  geodetic  survey  of  South  Africa  is  being  carried  out 
despite  climatic  difficulties,  but  the  determination  of  the 
Anglo-German  boundary  in  south-west  Africa  has  been 
delayed  by  the  imperative  necessity  for  giving  the  workers 
a  rest  and  a  change  of  climate ;  the  whole  of  the  triangula- 
tion  is,  however,  complete. 

Liverpool  Astronomical  Society. — The  first  annual  re- 
port of  this  society  shows  that  a  successful  session  has  been 
held.  The  Society  possesses  a  fine  5-inch  equatorial  by 
Cooke  and  Sons,  of  York,  a  3-inch  transit  instrument,  a 
sidereal  clock,  and  a  valuable  library. 

Amongst  the  papers  read  during  the  session,  and  sum- 
marised in  the  report,  may  be  noted  the  presidential  address, 
entitled  "The  Nebular  Hypothesis,"  by  Mr.  W.  E. 
Plummer ;  "Sun-spots  and '  Terrestrial  Magnetism,"  by 
Father  Cortie,  S.J.  (a  vice-president) ;  and  an  account  of 
a  visit  to  the  Yerkes  Observatory  by  the  Rev.  R.  Killip, 
secretary  of  the  Society. 


UNIVERSITY    AND    EDUCATIONAL 
INTELLIGENCE. 

A  school  of  electricity  is  to  be  established  in  connection 
with  the  Harris  Institute,  Preston.  The  cost  will  be  de- 
frayed out  of  a  legacy  of  2000/.  left  for  the  purpose  of 
advancing  mechanical  and  electrical  engineering  by  the  late 
Mr.  J.  Billington  Booth,  of  Preston.  Of  the  bequest,  1000/. 
will  be  devoted  to  the  electrical  engineering  department, 
which  will  be  under  the  superintendence  of  Mr.  G.  E. 
Gittins. 

From  the  calendar  for  the  session  1903-4  of  the  Bristol 
University  College  we  learn  that,  excluding  medical 
students,  there  were  285  day  students  during  the  session 
1902-3,  and  751  evening  students.  The  subscriptions  to  the 
sustentation  fund  for  the  same  year  amounted  to  more  than 
six  hundred  pounds  ;  a  special  fund  of  5500/.  has  been  com- 
pleted, and  amongst  other  amounts  from  various  persons 
and  public  bodies,  the  Bristol  Town  Council  has  contributed 
five  hundred  pounds  for  fifteen  free  studentships. 

Science  announces  that  Prof.  J.  Mark  Baldwin,  of  Prince- 
ton University,  has  been  called  to  a  new  chair  in  philosophv 
and  psychology  in  the  Johns  Hopkins  University,  where  it 
is  proposed  to  organise  a  university  department  in  these 
subjects.  Dr.  E.  W.  Scripture,  assistant  professor  of  ex- 
perimental psychology  at  Yale  University,  has  resigned  and 
is  succeeded  by  Dr.  Charles  H.  Judd.  Dr.  Scripture  is 
spending  the  year  at  Leipzig,  where  he  is  carrying  on  re- 
searches on  the  analysis  of  speech  by  means  of  gramo- 
phone records,  under  the  auspices  of  the  Carnegie  Insti- 
tution. 

As  is  customary  at  this  time  of  the  year,  we  have  recently 
received  a  number  of  prospectuses  of  technical  institutions, 
and  to  some  of  them  reference  has  already  been  made  in 
these  columns.  The  polytechnics  of  London  appear  to  try, 
year  by  year,  to  make  their  courses  of  study  more  and  more 
attractive  to  practical  workmen  as  well  as  increasingly 
useful.  The  workshops  in  them  are  excellently  equipped, 
and  the  practical  demonstrations  and  lectures  in  connection 
therewith  should  prove  of  great  benefit  in  supplying  work- 
men with  a  knowledge  of  the  scientific  principles  upon  which 
their  particular  branches  of  technology  are  based.  It  is 
gratifying  to  observe  a  tendency  towards  specialisation  on 


520 


NATURE 


[September  24,  1903 


the  part  of  the  various  polytechnics,  and  a  growing  dis- 
position to  give  prominent  attention  to  the  industries  in 
their  immediate  neighbourhood.  Thus  at  the  Northampton 
Institute  in  Clerkenwell  there  are,  in  addition  to  many 
other  classes,  a  department  of  electrochemistry  to  rneet  the 
needs  of  the  men  in  the  numerous  workshops  in  the  district 
engaged  in  the  electroplating  industry,  and  a  horological 
department  for  the  large  numbers  employed  in  clock  and 
watch  making.  At  the  Borough  Polytechnic  there  are, 
besides  numerous  other  courses  of  study,  a  special  school 
of  bakery  and  confectionery  managed  by  the  Association  of 
Master  Bakers  and  Confectioners,  and  a  branch  institution 
at  Bermondsey  is  concerned  with  leather  manufacture  in 
all  its  branches.  Some  other  polytechnics,  though  not 
perhaps  specialised  yet  to  the  same  extent  as  those  men- 
tioned, have  numerous  trade  classes  ;  at  the  Battersea  Poly- 
technic, for  example,  the  prospectus  shows  that  mechanical 
and  electrical  engineers,  men  in  the  building  trades,  and 
those  employed  in  technical  applications  of  chemistry,  can 
all   find  classes  designed  to  meet  their  requirements. 


SOCIETIES  AND  ACADEMIES. 

Paris. 
Academy  of  Sciences,  September  14.— M.  Bouquet  de  la 
Grye  in  the  chair. — The  simplicity  of  the  spectra  of  the 
kathode  light  in  gaseous  compounds  of  nitrogen  and  carbon, 
by  M.  H.  Deslandres.  The  kathode  ray  spectra  of  carbon 
monoxide,  carbon  dioxide,  and  acetylene  have  been  studied. 
In  the  luminous  part  already  known,  and  in  the  first  half 
of  the  ultra-violet  region  (A  400  to  A  300),  the  kathode  light 
gives  nearly  the  same  spectrum  as  the  light  from  the 
positive  pole,  but  in  the  second  half  of  the  ultra-violet 
(A.  300  to  A  200)  it  gives  a  characteristic  spectrum,  a  new 
band  spectrum  in  addition  to  the  five  band  spectra  of  carbon 
already  known,  characterised  by  a  remarkable  sirtiplicity  in 
the  arithmetical  relations  of  the  bands. — The  action  of  a 
trace  of  water  on  the  decomposition  of  the  alkaline  hydrides 
by  acetylene,  by  M.  Henri  Moissan.  Dry  acetylene  gas 
only  reacts  with  .  potassium  hydride  at  a  temperature  of 
42°  C.  or  higher  ;  if  the  gas,  however,  contains  a  trace  of 
water,  the  reaction  can  take  place  at  the  ordinary  tempera- 
ture. This  is  attributed  to  the  disengagement  of  heat 
which  occurs  when  the  reaction  is  started  at  any  one  point, 
which  determines  a  rise  of  temperature  to  more  than  42°, 
after  which  the  combination  becomes  total. — On  equations 
of  differences  possessing  a  fundamental  system  of  integrals, 
by  M.  Alph.  Guiatterg. — Description  of  a  localised  storm, 
by  M.  Jean  Mascart. — On  the  resistance  of  Gasterosteus 
aculeatus  to  changes  of  osmotic  pressure  in  the  surrounding 
medium,  by  M.   Michel  Siedlecki. 

GOTTINGEN. 

Royal  Society  of  Sciences.— The  Nachrichten  (physico- 
mathematical  section),  part  iv.  for  1903,  contains  the 
following  memoirs  communicated  to  the  Society  : — 

June  27. — Ed.  Riecke  :  On  the  nearly-saturated  current 
in^  an  air-space  bounded  by  two  concentric  spheres. 
W.  Voist  :  Contribution  to  the  theory  of  light  for  active 
crystals.  On  specific  optical  properties  of  hemimorphous 
crystals.  Ph.  Furtwangler  :  On  the  construction  of  a 
certain  Klassenkorper  (domain). 

July  II. — O.  Wallach  :  Researches  from  the  Gottingen 
University  Chemical  Laboratory,  xii.  (i)  On  the  trans- 
formation of  cyclic  ketones  into  bases  of  nitrogenous  ring- 
systems  ;  (2)  on  a  new  cyclic  base  from  methylheptenone  ; 
(3)  on  the  behaviour  and  constitution  of  menthenone. 
J.  von  Braun  :  Contribution  to  our  knowledge  of  tetra- 
valent  oxygen. 

July  25. — Ed.  Riecke  :  On  nearly-saturated  currents 
between  two  parallel  planes. 

New  South  Wales. 
Linnean  Society,  July  29.— Dr.  T.  Storie  Dixson,  presi- 
dent,  in  the  chair. — The  continental  origin  of  Fiji,   by  Mr. 
Walter    G.    Woolnoug^h.     Part    ii.,    petrology.     The   rocks 
now    described    fall    chronologically    into    two    groups  : — (i) 


NO.    1769,  VOL.  68] 


a  Palaeozoic,  or  even  older  group,  of  quartzites,  slates, 
jointed  tuffs,  granites  and  quartz-diorites ;  and  (2)  a 
Cainozoic  group  of  andesites,  olivine-andesites  akin  to 
basalts,  "  soap-stones,"  and  molluscan  and  coral  limestones. 
— The  bacterial  origin  of  the  gums  of  the  arabin  group, 
by  Dr.  R.  Greig  Smith,  x.  The  pararabin  gum  of  Ster- 
culia.  The  gum  of  Sterculia  diversifolia  consists  of  a 
mixture  of  arabin  and  pararabin.  The  arabin  is  produced 
by  Bact.  acaciac.  Another  organism.  Bad.  pararabinum 
n.sp.,  was  isolated  from  the  gummed  fruits,  &c.  Upon  solid 
media  and  in  solutions  containing  saccharose,  dextrose, 
levulose,  galactose,  mannite  or  glycerine,  a  slime  was 
formed.  By  appropriate  treatment  this  yielded  a  pararabin 
gum  which  was  soluble  in  dilute  acids  and  insoluble  in 
dilute  alkalies.  It  was  not  hydrolysed  by  boiling  5  per 
cent,  sulphuric  acid,  but  by  treatment  with  concentrated 
sulphuric  acid  the  carbohydrate  was  converted  into  arabinose 
and  galactose.  The  bacterium  did  not  secrete  invertase, 
and  in  solutions  of  saccharbse  formed  carbon  dioxide,  ethyl 
alcohol,  succinic,  acetic,  butyric  and  formic  acids. — 
Australian  fungi,  new  or  unrecorded,  decades  v.-vi.,  by 
Mr.  D.  McAlpine.  A  new  genus  of  Hyphomycete  is  pro- 
posed, to  include  a  form  parasitic  upon  the  flowering  stems 
of  Lobelia  gibbosa,  Labill.  ;  also  eighteen  species,  referable 
to  thirteen  genera.  Phoma  lobeliae,  B.  and  Br.,  and 
Seynesia  banksiae,  Henn.,  are  recorded. 


CONTENTS.  PAGE 

Plant  Physiology.     By  F.  D 493 

The  Mineral  Resources  of  the  French  Colonies  .  .  494 
Experimental  Science  for  Beginners.  By  J.  B.  C.  .  495 
Our  Book  Shelf:— 

BUtschli :     "  Untersuchungen     liber     Amylose     und 

Amyloseartige  Korper " 495 

Buchanan     and    Gregory:     "Lessons    on     Country 

Life" 496 

Letters  to  the  Editor  :— 

Radio-activity  and  the  Age  of  the  Sun. — Prof.  G.  H. 

Darwin,   F.R  S 495 

The  Principle  of  Radium.— S.  W 496 

Normally    Unequal   Growth   as  a    Possible  Cause  of 

Death.— Frank  E.  Beddard,  F.R. S 497 

Can    Carrier-pigeons    Cross    the    Atlantic  ? — H.    B. 

Guppy 497 

A  Technical  School  for   the   Highlands    of   Scot- 
land  497 

Resin-Tapping,     illustrated.)        499 

The    Southport    Meeting  of  the    British    Associa- 
tion     4,9^ 

Section      E. — Geography. — Opening      Address      by 
Captain    Ettrick    W.    Creak,     C.B.,     R.  N., 

F.R.S.,  President' of  the  Section 500 

Section     G. — Engineering.— Opening    Address      by 
Mr,    Charles    Hawksley,    Past  President    Inst. 

C.E.,  President  of  the  Section 504 

The  International  Geological  Congress 515 

Notes 516 

Our  Astronomical  Column  :— 

The  Rotation  Period  of  Saturn 519 

Newly  Determined  Stellar  Radial  Velocities    ....     519 

Report  of  the  Cape  Observatory 519 

Liverpool  Astronomical  Society 519 

University  and  Educational  Intelligence 519 

Societies  and  Academies 520 


NATURE 


521 


THURSDAY,     OCTOBER     i,     1903. 


MRS.  MARCET  REDIVIVA. 

Die  Schtile  der  Chetnie.  Erste  Einfuhrung  in  die 
Chemie  fiir  ledermann.  By  Wilhelm  Ostwald. 
Part  i.,  General  Considerations.  Pp.  vii+186. 
(Braunschweig  :  Friedrich  Vieweg  und  Sohn,  1903.) 
Price  4.80  marks. 

PROF.  OSTWALD  is  an  ingenious  man ;  in  his 
own  language,  the  attribute  might  be  expressed 
by  the  adjective  "  schlau."  Having,  as  he  tells  us  in 
his  preface,  published  volumes  of  the  greatest  import- 
ance, and  of  the  widest  range,  on  physical  chemistry 
for  the  use  of  investigators  in  the  domains  of  chemistry 
and  physics,  and  having  next  written  his  work  on 
elementary  chemistry  for  the  ordinary  student  com- 
mencing the  study  of  the  subject  in  universities  or 
Polytechnika  (a  work  of  which  an  excellent  English 
translation  by  Dr.  Findlay  has  been  brought  out),  he 
now  makes  an  attempt  in  this  very  elementary  work 
to  reach  a  larger  public,  and  has  written  this  most 
amusing  book  for  the  use  of  youngsters  about  ten  to 
thirteen  vears  of  age.  The  plan  adopted  is  to  intro- 
duce by  means  of  dialogue  some  chemical  facts  con- 
cerning hydrogen,  oxygen,  water,  nitrogen,  air,  and 
carbon  and  its  oxides,  and  incidentally  to  consider  the 
nature  of  pure  substances  and  mixtures,  including 
solutions,  the  phenomena  relating  to  change  of  state, 
and  the  behaviour  of  gases  with  alteration  of  pressure 
and  temperature.  All  these  subjects  are  treated 
in  a  philosophical  manner,  and  his  own  views  are  in- 
cidentally, and  one  might  almost  say  insidiously, 
introduced,  so  as  to  set  the  young  mind  on  what  he 
considers  to  be  the  right  track. 

Beginning  with  the  notion  of  a  "  Stoff,"  or  "  stuff  " 
— a  convenient  word,  inasmuch  as  the  word  "  Sub- 
stanz,"  or  "  substance,"  from  its  derivational  point  of 
view,  by  no  means  accords  with  the  views  of  the  author 
— ^the  properties  of  a  stuff— sugar — are  considered,  and 
the  pupil  is  made  to  reject  the  idea  of  a  "  substance  " 
by  subtracting  properties,  and  recognising  that  there 
is  no  underlying  entity.  "  You  must  rid  yourself  of 
the  idea,"  the  pupil  is  told,  **  that  there  is  anything 
underlying  the  properties  of  a  thing,  which  is  more 
real  or  important  than  the  properties  themselves. 
Formerly,  before  science  had  progressed,  people  held 
such  notions,  and  our  language  still  retains  expressions 
which  almost  force  us  to  accept  the  notions.  But 
when  once  that  error  is  recognised,  it  can  be  avoided." 
To  which  the  pupil  replies  that  he  is  afraid  that  he 
will  have  difficulty  in  getting  rid  of  the  old  views. 
"  But,"  replies  the  teacher,  "when  you  know  more 
chemistry,  you  will  see  that  you  have  to  do  only  with 
the  properties  of  stuffs,  and  never  with  their  real 
nature ;  so  that  you  will  forget  the  incorrect  method  of 
expression." 

Later  on,  in  talking  about  the  melting  point  of  ice, 
the  teacher  defines  it  as  "  that  temperature  at  which 
solid  and  liquid  can  exist  beside  each  other  ";  and  the 
NO.   1770,  VOL.  68] 


pupil  asks,  "Then,  who  made  this  law?"  The 
teacher  answers,  "  The  word  law  is  only  a  way  of 
speaking.  It  has  been  found  that  stuffs  behave  like 
this,  and  they  have  been  compared  to  obedient  pupils 
who  always  do  what  they  are  told.  In  science  the 
word  law  means  only  that  we  find  that  things  are  re- 
lated to  each  other  in  a  certain  way;  and  that  is  ex- 
pressed in  a  general  form." 

In  discussing  change  of  state,  the  teacher  refers  to 
the  term  "state  of  aggregation,"  and  explains  it  by 
the  conception  of  atoms.  He  elucidates  the  word 
"hypothesis,"  but  declines  to  accept  the  atomic  hypo- 
thesis as  an  "  explanation  "  of  states  of  aggregation, 
and  suggests  the  word  "  Formarten,"  and  this  leads 
to  the  consideration  of  differences  between  the  states 
of  solid,  liquid,  and  gas.  Having  got  the  pupil  to 
infer  that  liquids  when  cooled  become  solid,  and  solids 
when  heated  melt  at  definite  temperatures,  the  pupil 
asks,  "  What  determines  these  temperatures?  " 
"  That  is  a  stupid  question.  You  should  rather  ask  : 
To  what  other  properties  do  they  show  that  they  are 
related?  It  is  just  as  if  you  were  to  ask:  why  are 
there  camels?  All  that  you  can  ask  is,  what  are  the 
properties  of  these  animals,  and  how  are  these  proper- 
ties connected  with  those  of  other  animals?  " 

Talking  of  the  combustion  of  a  candle  and  its  dis- 
appearance, the  pupil  says,  "  But  it  really  vanishes 
before  my  eyes."  "Yes,"  says  the  teacher,  "it  be- 
comes invisible.  But  can't  it  change  into  something 
invisible?  "  "  There  are  no  invisible  things,"  says  the 
pupil.  "  Oho!  "  replies  the  teacher.  "  No,"  says  the 
pupil,  "ghosts  and  goblins  don't  exist."  "  Even  they 
are  said  to  be  sometimes  visible,"  answers  the  teacher. 
"  But  can  you  see  the  air?  "  "  Hum — no,"  says  the 
pupil.  "  But  the  air  is  changed  by  burning.  I  don't 
see  how."  And  so  the  formation  of  an  invisible  gas 
is  brought  out,  and  the  method  of  determining  its 
weight. 

In  considering  heat  and  light  produced  by  combus- 
tion, their  absence  of  weight  is  remarked,  and  the 
pupil  guesses  that  they  are  "forces."  The  teacher 
corrects,  and  explains  that  what  used  to  be  known  as 
force  is  now  known  as  energy,  and  that  it  is  defined 
as  "  what  causes  things  to  change."  Stuffs  contain 
chemical  energy  when  they  can  act  on  each  other  and 
form  new  stuffs,  and  part  of  their  chemical  energy 
takes  the  form  of  heat  or  light,  and  sometimes  of 
electrical  or  mechanical  energy.  The  pupil  is  made 
to  throw  out  suggestions  on  the  conversion  of  one 
form  of  energy  into  another,  and  his  own  energy  is 
traced  to  the  chemical  energy  he  takes  in  as  food. 
"  But  I  am  often  hungry,  even  when  I  do  nothing," 
says  the  pupil.  And  it  is  explained  that  his  tempera- 
ture has  to  be  maintained,  and  that  if  he  likes  he  can 
produce  light  by  rubbing  two  pieces  of  sugar  together, 
and  electricity  by  rubbing  sealing-wax  with  a  cloth. 
In  this  way  an  idea  is  given  of  transformation  and 
equivalence  of  energy. 

Compounds  and  elements  are  next  considered,  and 
the  pupil  asks  the  natural  question,  "  Are  the  con- 
stituents actually  in  the  compound  or  not?  "  "  You 
haven't  considered  your  question.  A  compound  is  not 
a  bag  or  a  box  in  which  something  can  be  contained. 

<     .  ,  z 


522 


NATURE 


[October  i,  1903 


If  you  mean  by  '  in  '  that  the  constituents  can  be  got 
out  again  by  appropriate  means,  then  they  are  'in.' 
But  you  mustn't  suppose  that  the  constituents  are 
locked  up  in  the  compound,  somehow  or  other,  with 
all  their  properties." 

So  far,  it  might  be  supposed  that  this  system  does 
not  differ  from  the  "  heuristic  "  system  which  has  been 
so  much  in  evidence  lately.  But  that  is  not  so.  There 
is  no  attempt  made  to  prove  anything  exhaustively,  or 
to  let  the  pupil  do  so ;  as  a  rule,  the  experiment  is  made 
by  the  teacher,  and  the  pupil  is  sometimes  allowed  to 
repeat  it.  A  little  later,  in  considering  the 
classification  of  certain  elements,  the  pupil  remarks, 
"  But  it  appears  to  me  not  very  scientific  to  take  any- 
thing on  trust  that  I  can't  prove."  To  which  the 
teacher  answers,  "  You  will  be  able  to  prove  this,  when 
you  know  more  chemistry." 

Teleological  "  explanations  "  are  conspicuous  by 
their  absence.  Yet  when  the  pupil  inquires,  "  Why 
have  most  chemical  stuffs  such  a  nasty  smell?  "  he  is 
told,  "  If  they  hadn't,  we  shouldn't  notice  them,  and 
we  should  have  our  skin  hurt  and  get  a  cold  in  the 
head."     This  is  not  quite  consistent. 

That  the  cost  of  an  article  depends  on  the  amount 
of  work  put  into  it  is  illustrated  in  the  case  of 
aluminium,  the  compounds  of  which,  such  as  clay, 
have  almost  no  value,  while  the  metal  is  costly. 
The  pupil  inquires,  "  Can  the  work  be  got  out  of  the 
aluminium  again?"  "Yes,"  says  the  teacher,  and 
shows  the  pupil  the  reduction  of  iron  oxide  by  means 
of  powdered  aluminium. 

The  pupil  is  constantly  afraid  that  he  will  not  be 
able  to  retain  in  his  head  all  that  he  is  taught.  But 
he  is  comforted  by  being  assured  that  he  will  have  to 
go  over  the  subject  again,  and  that  he  really  knows 
a  good  deal.  These  little  remarks  are  very  natural, 
and  the  answers  are  most  judicious.  But  we  agree 
with  the  pupil  when  he  says  "  Chemistry  is  a  fright- 
fully big  subject!  "  Indeed,  he  is  told  that  no  one 
man  knows  all  about  oxygen,  in  reply  to  a  remark, 
flattering  to  the  teacher,  "  But  surely  you  know  all 
about  this!  "  Much  is  in  writing,  however;  and  he 
then  asks,  "  Is  everything  in  these  books  right?  " 
"  Most  of  it,"  he  is  assured;  and  what  is  best  about 
scientific  books  is  that  no  one  intentionally  tries  to 
deceive. 

The  action  of  iron  oxide  in  accelerating  the  evolu- 
tion of  oxygen  from  potassium  chlorate  is  likened  to 
that  of  oil  on  a  rusty  machine,  or  of  a  whip  on  a  horse. 
And  so  catalytic  phenomena  are  introduced.  There 
are  many  such  digressions,  and  often  the  teacher  lets 
them  go  on  to  a  certain  point,  and  then  harks  back  to 
th^  actual  subject  of  the  lesson. 

The  pupil  is  introduced  to  the  idea  of  mass-action 
after  he  has  made  the  natural  remark,  "  But  iron  is 
stronger  than  hydrogen,  and  takes  the  oxygen  from 
it."  "  First  iron  was  stronger  than  hydrogen,  and 
afterwards,  hydrogen  stronger  than  iron.  That's 
surely  a  contradiction."  "The  contradiction  is  owing 
to  your  looking  at  the  reason  of  chemical  changes  as 
a  mechanical  power  or  force;  such  a  force  has  never 
been  proved  to  exist  or  measured. "  And  when  pressed, 
NO.   1770,  VOL.  68] 


the  teacher  fences  thus,  "  A  man  can  carry  a  good  lot 
of  water;  but  a  larger  quantity  of  water  can  carry  a 
man."  "  So  you  mean,  chemical  change  depends  on 
which  stuff  is  present  in  largest  quantity,"  "That's 
about  it;  but  we  must  go  back  to  hydrogen."  And 
the  digression  closes. 

The  laws  of  recurrence  and  of  continuity  are  illus- 
trated and  formulated ;  the  existence  of  allotropic  forms 
of  carbon  is  referred  to  the  difference  in  their  content 
of  energy,  and  the  source  of  all  terrestrial  energy, 
except  that  of  the  tides,  is  traced  to  the  sun,  due  atten- 
tion being  paid  to  the  reciprocal  action  of  plants  and 
animals. 

One  admirable  feature  of  the  work  is  that  the  pupil 
is  allowed  to  fall  into  all  kinds  of  traps.  For  example, 
he  calculates  the  conversion  of  the  Fahrenheit  into 
the  centigrade  scale  in  every  conceivable  wrong 
manner  before  he  finds  the  right  use  of  the  "32""; 
and  after  he  has  seen  experiments  on  the  com- 
pressibility of  air  and  the  observations  have  been 
written  down,  he  is  made  to  find  the  law.  The  method 
is  SO'  good  that  It  Is  worth  quoting.  "  Suppose  you 
have  ten  apples  :  some  in  your  pocket,  some  in  your 
hand.  Call  the  number  of  apples  In  your  pocket  t,  and 
those  in  your  hand  h.  Now  you  know  you  can  calcu- 
late t  if  3^ou  know  h,  and  h  if  you  know  t.  Why  is 
that?  "  "  Because  I  know  that  together  they  make 
10."  "  You  see  then  t+/i  =  io;  and  you  can  calculate 
t  if  you  know  h,  and  vice  versa."  "That's  neat. 
But  I  could  have  done  that  without  a  formula." 
"  Yes ;  but  only  because  the  formula  is  so  simple. 
Now  try  If  your  pressures  and  volumes  can  be  calcu- 
lated as  simply."  "Let  me  see: — 75+100=175; 
62.5 +  120- 182.5;  60+150  =  210.  No;  the  sum  is 
always  getting  bigger."  "The  sum  formula  doesn't 
fit,  then.  You  might  have  seen  that  you  can  only  add 
like  things,  such  as  apples  to  apples  :  you  can't  add  a 
pressure  to  a  volume."  "What  sort  of  formula  can 
it  be,  then?  "  "  If  p  gets  bigger,  v  gets  smaller. 
What  kind  of  combination  of  p  and  v  will  give  that 
result?"  "Probably  a  whole  lot."  "Quite  true; 
but  not  many  simple  combinations.  Try  the  simplest 
you  can  think  of,  besides  the  sum."  "  Perhaps  the 
product.  If  one  factor  gets  smaller,  the  other  must 
get  larger,  so  as  to  make  the  same  product."  And  so 
he  gets  It  out. 

It  must  be  allowed  that  this  is  excellent  teaching. 
The  whole  book  is  so  lively  and  conversational, 
and  withal  so  amusing,  that  it  well  deserves  reading 
by  those  of  an  older  generation.  It  Is  probably  likely 
to  be  more  useful  to  teachers  than  to  pupils,  for  it  will 
serve  them  as  a  guide.  As  the  publishers  say  In  their 
preface,  the  standpoint  from  which  the  book  Is  written 
is  the  most  modern  one;  some,  perhaps,  may  consider 
It  too  modern,  and  that  some  of  the  doctrines  ex- 
pounded are  as  yet  not  In  general  circulation,  and 
perhaps  never  will  attain  universal  consent.  That  is 
a  matter  of  opinion,  and,  of  course,  the  author  believes 
that  they  will.  Anyhow,  he  has  taken  advantage  of 
the  lessons  of  all  missionaries^ — get  hold  of  the 
children,  and  the  doctrines  will  spreads  And  If  an 
attractive  book  can  help  their  dissemination,  this  is. 
one.  W.    R. 


October  i,  1903] 


NATURE 


523 


EXPERIMENTAL    EMBRYOLOGY. 

Lehrbucli  der  vergleichenden  Entwicklungsgeschichte 
der  U'irbellosen  Thiere.  By  Profs.  E.  Korschelt  and 
K.  Heider.  Allg".  Theil,  Erste  Lief.,  Erste  und  Zweite 
Auflage.  Pp.  x  +  538.  (Jena:  Fischer,  1902.) 
Price  14  marks.  Zweite  Lief.,  Erste  und  Zweite 
Auflage.  Pp.  539  to  750.  (Jena  :  Fischer,  1903.) 
Price  5.50  marks. 

ZOOLOGISTS  who  are  already  acquainted  with  the 
"  special  "  part  01  Profs.  Korschelt  and  Heider's 
"  Comparative  Embryology  "  will  have  been  anxiously 
looking  forward  to  the  publication  of  the  present 
volume;  we  are  sure  that  they  will  in  no  wise  be  dis- 
appointed. At  present  we  have  only  a  first  instalment, 
but  even  this  contains  an  enormous  amount  of  matter, 
including,  as  it  does,  a  review  of  all  the  recent  work 
on  the  physiology  of  development,  besides  a  complete 
history  of  the  sexual  cells. 

The  latter  portion,  we  may  as  well  say  at  once, 
should  have  come  first.  Logically,  the  phenomena  of 
what  Roux  has  called  "  Vorentwickelung  "  are  more 
closely  related  to  descriptive  than  to  experimental 
embryology ;  and  if  the  order  of  the  first  and  second 
portions  had  been  reversed,  the  authors  would  have 
been  able  to  include  under  a  common  discussion  the 
kindred  problems  of  ontogeny  and  heredity. 

Of  this  second  portion  we  have  no  space  to  treat  at 
length.  It  must  suffice  to  say  that  the  student  will 
find  here  an  excellent  resumd  of  all  that  is  known  on 
the  structure,  maturation,  and  fertilisation  of  the  germ- 
cells.  Criticism  is  hardly  called  for ;  but  the  definition 
of  the  mammalian  placenta  (p.  292)  is  out  of  date,  and 
we  should  have  liked  to  have  seen  a  less  fragmentary 
account  of  the  maturation  phenomena  in  plants.  On 
the  other  hand,  the  difficult  subject  of  maturation  is 
treated  with  remarkable  lucidity,  while  the  attitude  of 
the  authors  towards  the  vexed  questions  of  qualitative 
reduction,  and,  in  the  next  chapter,  the  individuality 
of  the  centrosome,  is  admirable  in  its  judicial  im- 
partiality. 

By  far  the  most  important  part  of  the  book,  how- 
ever, is  the  first  section — that  dealing  with  the  work 
of  the  new  school  of  experimental  embryologists.  The 
problems  at  issue  are  sharply  defined  in  an  introductory 
preface.  As  the  authors  rightly  remark,  ontogeny 
consists  of  a  series  of  changes  in  which  every  stage  is 
— in  the  strictest  sense  of  the  word — a  cause  of  that 
which  immediately  follows.  The  business  of  the  ex- 
perimenter is  to  analyse  the  phenomena,  to  deter- 
mine what  is  due  to  external,  what  to  internal  factors, 
and,  in  respect  to  the  latter,  how  much  is  attributable 
to  the  initial  structure  visible  or  invisible  of  the  ovum, 
how  much  to  the  mutual  interaction  of  the  parts  that 
are  successively  developed. 

With  this  object  in  view  the  ground  is  first  cleared 
by  a  discussion  of  the  external  factors,  beginning, 
quite  rightly,  not  only  from  a  logical,  but  from  a 
historical  point  of  view,  with  the  pioneer  work 
of  Pfliiger  on  the  influence  of  gravity  on  the 
segmentation  of  the  frog's  egg.  An  account  of  the 
subsequent,  and  consequent,  work  of  Born,  Roux  and 
Hertwig  naturally  follows.       Next  are  described  the 

NO.    1770,  VOL.  68] 


effects  of  heat,  light,  and  physical  and  chemical 
changes  in  the  gaseous  and  liquid  environment,  and 
lastly,  a  little  out  of  their  proper  place  we  think,  the 
few  experiments  that  have  been  made  to  determine 
the  influence  of  electricity  and  magnetism,  and  of 
mechanical  disturbances  on  the  course  of  development. 

It  is  a  pity  that  the  authors  have  not  introduced 
at  this  point  a  critical  summary  of  the  results.  It  is 
of  the  first  importance  to  decide  whether  these  external 
conditions  constitute  a  series  of  "  specific  "  or  merely 
"  indifferent  "  causes.  Hertwig's  artificial  production 
of  monsters  by  heat  and  salt  solutions  would  have 
made  an  apt  text  for  an  interesting  essay  on  "  Abhan- 
gige  Differenzirung,"  and  would  have  served  to  carry 
on  the  reader  to  the  next  chapter,  "  Das  Determin- 
ationsproblem,"  in  which  we  are  taken  straight  to  the 
heart  of  the  "  Streitfrage  "  of  modern  embryology. 

While  the  restoration  of  the  eighteenth  century  doc- 
trine of  preformation  to  a  prominent  place  in  embryo- 
logical  literature  dates  from  His's  theory  of  "  Organ- 
bildende  Keimbezirke,"  the  attempt  to  gauge  its 
worth  experimentally  begins  with  Roux's  work  on  the 
production  of  half-embryos  from  a  single  blastomere 
of  the  frog's  ovum.  Roux's  results,  or  rather  his  in- 
terpretation, were  wholly  in  favour  of  this  doctrine; 
their  value  has,  however,  been  diminished  by  Hert- 
wig's criticism  and  Herlitzka's  work  on  the  newt. 
The  Amphibia,  indeed,  together  with  Amphioxus,  the 
Teleostei,  and  the  Coelenterata,  stand,  so  far  as  the 
"  regulative  "  capacity  of  their  ova  are  concerned,  at 
one  end  of  a  series,  at  the  other  extreme  of  which  are 
forms,  the  Ctenophora  and  Mollusca,  the  isolated 
blastomeres  of  which  are  incapable  of  developing  into 
anything  but  partial  larvae.  The  intermediate  position 
is  occupied  by  the  Echinoderms  and  Ascidians ;  here 
the  segmentation  of  such  blastomeres  is  partial,  but  a 
whole  larva  is  ultimately  formed.  Any  general  theory, 
therefore,  of  the  necessary  predetermination  of  the  parts 
of  the  organism  in  the  cytoplasm  of  the  ovum  is  out 
of  the  question.  A  similar  criticism,  based  on  the 
pressure  experiments  of  Driesch  (Echinus)  and  Hert- 
wig (Rana),  is  applicable  to  the  nucleus,  and,  of 
course,  cuts  at  the  root  of  the  "  Mosaik-Theorie. " 

The  failure  of  the  attempt  to  demonstrate  a  pre- 
formed, though  invisible,  structure  in  the  ovum 
throws  us  back  on  epigenesis,  and  compels  us  to  search 
for  the  internal  causes  of  ontogeny  in  the  mutual  inter- 
action of  the  parts  as  they  are  formed.  To  deduce 
such  interaction,  however,  from  the  known  functions 
of  cells  is  a  very  different  matter;  but  such  facts  as 
are  significant  for  the  purpose  are  brought  together 
in  "the  third  chapter  under  the  heading  of  "  morpho- 
genetic  cellular  processes." 

The  general  discussion  of  the  whole  problem  is  re- 
served for  a  separate  appendix.  The  authors  display 
a  commendable  caution  in  reviewing  the  theories  of 
Weismann,  Hertwig,  and  Driesch,  This  caution, 
indeed,  is  characteristic  of  the  whole  book,  and  will 
certainly  win  the  approbation  of  every  embryologist 
who  is  content  to  say  with  the  authors,  *'  wir  werden 
die  Speculation  nie  entbehren  konnen,  aber  es  wird  die 
Aufgabe  sein,  das  ihr  zu  Grunde  liegende  Beobacht- 
ungsmaterial  moglichst  zu  erweitern." 


524 


NA  TURE 


[October  i,  1903 


THE    STUDY    OF    ECONOMICS. 
The  New   Cambridge  Curriculum  in  Economics.     By 

Alfred       Marshall.     Pp.    34.     (London  :    Macmillan 

and  Co.,  Ltd.)     Price  is.  6d. 
"  T  N   the   United   States  of  America,    in   particular, 

L  and  in  Germany,  the  subjects  of  Economics 
and  Political  Science  are  commonly  represented  by  a 
strong"  and  numerous  staff,  and  afford  the  main 
route  by  which  large  numbers  of  students  obtain 
University  Honours.  .  .  .  England,  on  the  other  hand, 
which  long  held  undisputed  leadership  in  Economics, 
has  suffered  in  recent  years  from  the  lack  of  adequate 
provision  for  the  study  of  that  subject  at  the  Uni- 
versities." 

From  all  sides  evidence  is  forthcoming  of 
attempts  to  remedy  this  defect.  There  is  a  wide- 
spread revival  of  interest  in  the  subject-matter  of 
economics,  and  a  corresponding  determination  on  the 
part  of  its  teachers  to  seize  the  opportunity  to  place 
the  subject  on  firmer  and  broader  foundations  in  the 
schools.  Development  has  taken  place  in  several 
directions.  The  "  monarchical  "  supremacy  of  Mill 
was  broken  up  in  the  'seventies  by  Jevons,  Cliffe 
Leslie,  Bagehot  and  others.  In  1890,  Prof.  Marshall 
published  the  first  edition  of  the  first  volume  of  his 
"Principles."  In  the  last  three  decades  of  the  nine- 
teenth century  economics  lost  much  of  its  insularity  on 
the  one  hand,  and  gained  in  human  interest  on  the 
other.  The  work  of  economists  in  Germany,  Austria, 
and  the  United  States  broadened  the  horizon  and  tested 
the  conclusions  of  the  native  researcher  by  an  appeal  to 
a  richer  experience.  The  advent  of  the  working- 
classes  to  political  power  and  the  influence  of  a  cheap 
Press  kept  social  questions  ever  prominent,  and  ideas 
of  material  well-being,  efficiency  and  comfort  occupied 
an  increasing  part  of  economic  reflection.  The 
writings  of  Mr.  Charles  Booth,  Mr.  Sherwell,  the 
Rowntrees,  Mrs.  Bosanquet,  and  other  investigators 
have  recently  enjoyed  a  wide  currency  in  various  pure 
and  diluted  forms,  and  have  driven  many  to  study 
economics  in  a  systematic  fashion.  Municipal  enter- 
prise has  had  a  similar  effect.  With  all  these  writers 
and  students  the  ruling  motive  has  been  the  desire 
to  lessen  poverty  and  to  improve  the  quality  of  human 
life.  In  the  book  before  us.  Prof.  Marshall  voices  this 
practical  aim  in  a  significant  passage : — 

"The  motto  of  Sidgwick's  'Political  Economy' 
is :  *  Things  are  in  the  saddle  and  ride  mankind. ' 
What  had  made  men  become  economists,  in  three 
cases  out  of  four,  was  the  belief  that  in  spite  of  our 
growing  command  over  nature  it  is  still  things  that 
are  in  the  saddle,  still  the  great  mass  of  mankind  that 
is  oppressed — oppressed  by  things.  The  desire  to  put 
mankind  into  the  saddle  is  the  mainspring  of  most 
economic  study." 

But  not  only  has  there  been  a  quickening  of  interest 
in  the  condition  of  the  people  at  home.  The  sense  of 
imperial  responsibility  has  deepened.  Schemes  of 
federation,  sentimental  and  economic,  have  filled  the 
air.  The  competition  of  advancing  rivals  has  made 
itself  felt  in  our  markets.  We  have  been  driven  to 
ask  with  Sir  Robert  Giffen,  Is  the  central  force  of 
the  Empire,  the  power  to  hold  it  together,  increasing 
as  rapidly  as  the  Empire  generally?  It  would  be 
fatal  while  widening  the  circumference  to  weaken  the 
NO.    1770,  VOL.  68] 


centre;  to  fix  the  spokes  in  a  rottening  hub.  The 
Empire  drains  the  home  country  of  valuable  adminis- 
trative energy  of  which  it  never  has  too  much  for 
high  social  efficiency.  And  in  business,  managers  of 
elastic  minds,  wide  outlook,  and  great  organising 
power,  in  command  of  large  masses  of  capital  are  still 
relatively  scarce. 

It  is  unnecessary  to  point  out  how  the  controversy 
of  the  last  few  months  has  impressed  impartial  ob- 
servers with  the  complexity  of  practical  economic 
problems,  and  with  the  urgency  of  studying  these 
problems  in  an  atmosphere  uncharged  with  the  passion 
of  parties.  The  people  are  suddenly  confronted  with 
political  choices  of  international  moment,  and  their 
instructors  are  too  often  politicians  and  pressmen 
whose  hastily  acquired  information  displays  all  the 
symptoms  of  indigestion.  Can  the  universities  do 
something  to  provide  the  nation  with  more  capable 
administrators  for  central  and  municipal  government, 
and  for  the  diplomatic  and  consular  services?  Can 
they  train  men  for  the  supreme  positions  in  the 
industrial  and  commercial  world?  Prof.  Marshall's 
booklet  tells  us  that  the  University  of  Cambridge  has 
answered  in  the  affirmative  by  instituting  a  new 
honours  school  in  economics  and  associated  branches 
of  political  science,  and  it  supplies  us  with  the  ideas 
which  have  guided  the  Senate  in  framing  the  curri- 
culum. This  is  not  the  place  to  make  detailed  com- 
parisons with  the  similar  courses  newly  arranged  in 
the  Universities  of  London,  Birmingham,  and 
Victoria.  Speaking  broadly,  the  Cambridge  curri- 
culum makes  its  appeal  to  advanced  students  who  will 
be  called  upon  to  decide  main  questions  of  policy  in 
politics  and  industry  rather  than  to  subordinates  who 
wish  to  be  equipped  in  the  technique  of  administration 
and  business.  It  is  theoretical  and  scientific  rather 
than  practical  and  professional.  Only  shallow 
thinkers  will  infer  that,  on  this  account,  it  is  out  of 
touch  with  reality.  Prof.  Marshall  is  under  no  illusion 
on  this  point.  His  little  book  is  a  plea  for  a  training 
which,  while  it  fits  a  man  for  his  duties  as  a  citizen, 
never  loses  sight  of  the  practical  demands  made  upon 
the  employer  and  the  civil  servant  in  these  strenuous 
days.  Prof.  Marshall  himself  is  his  own  best  argu- 
ment, for  these  pages  mirror  the  wisdom  and  fairness 
and  humility  and  idealism  of  a  life  devoted  to 
economic  study.  T.  J. 


OUR   BOOK  SHELF. 

A  Treatise  on  Electromagnetic  Phenomena  and  on  the 

Compass  and  its  Deviations  Aboard  Ship.     Vol.  ii. 

By   Commander  T.    A.    Lyons,    U.S.    Navy.       Pp. 

vii  +  582.     (New  York:   Wiley  and  Sons;   London: 

Chapman  and  Hall,  Ltd.,  1903.)     Price  25s.  6d.  net. 

Some  forty  years  ago  there  appeared  the  second  edition 

of    the    "  Admiralty    Manual    for    Deviations    of    the 

Compass,"  and  as  the  compass  is  "the  soul  of  the 

ship,"  so  the  teaching  of  that  manual  remains   the 

soul  of   the   numerous   works   on   the   subject   which 

different    maritime    countries    have    since    published, 

albeit  that  chapters  on  cognate  subjects  may  have  been 

added  thereto.     Naturally  America  has  provided  her 

quota,  and  this  book  is  her  latest  contribution. 


October  i,  1903] 


NATURE 


525 


This  second  volume  of  the  treatise,  which  is  de- 
voted to  the  "compass  and  deviations  aboard  ship," 
can  hardly  be  fully  mastered  until  after  reading  the 
first  volume,  but  it  is  in  a  great  measure  complete  in 
itself,  especially  to  those  who  have  already  some  know- 
ledge of  terrestrial  magnetism.  All  will  agree  with 
the  author  of  this  book  when  he  insists  upon  the 
necessity  for  every  navigator  knowing  as  much  as 
possible  about  his  compass  and  that  magnet — his  ship 
— which  is  ever  in  antagonism  to  the  earth,  which  does 
its  best  to  direct  the  compass  to  magnetic  north. 

Of  the  five  parts  into  which  this  volume  is  divided, 
part  ii.  treats  of  the  manufacture  of  the  liquid  com- 
pass (the  only  kind  in  use  in  the  U.S.  Navy),  giving 
in  full  detail  the  principles  of  magnetism  and 
mechanics  connected  with  its  construction  and  use 
afterwards. 

In  part  iii.  the  ship  is  shown  to  be  a  magnet  by 
experimental  magnetic  surveys  of  ships  illustrated  by 
diagrams.  The  physical  representation  of  the  theory 
of  the  deviation  of  the  compass  is  fully  given,  but 
decided  exception  must  be  taken  to  the  instructions  for 
determining  the  position  of  the  compass  after  the  ship 
is  launched.  It  is  then  too  late,  and  the  experienced 
Superintendent  of  Compasses  and  the  constructors 
should  long  before  have  agreed  upon  a  place  for  it 
in  the  ship's  drawings,  and  afterwards  worked  in 
harmony  to  keep  iron  fittings  at  a  proper  distance. 

Part  Iv.  traats  of  the  mathematical  theory  of  the 
deviations  of  the  compass,  and  here,  as  in  other  of  the 
mathematical  investigations  he  gives,  the  author  gives 
valuable  assistance  to  those  who  are  not  skilled  mathe- 
maticians by  "  filling  up  those  gaps  in  the  sequence 
of  the  formulas  that  often  yawn  forbiddingly." 

On  the  question  of  compensation  of  the  deviations 
of  the  compass,  to  which  part  v.  is  devoted,  we  have 
the  least  satisfactory  part  of  the  book.  Thus  the 
formula  for  correcting  the  heeling  error  with  spheres 
in  place  is  very  convenient  in  practice,  but  not  mathe- 
matically correct.  The  instructions  for  compensating 
the  secondan,^  part  of  the  quadrantal  deviation  known 
as  coefficient  E  by  spheres  are  incorrect.  Again,  the 
residuary  quadrantal  deviation,  after  compensation,  is 
described  as  "practically  constant  the  world  over"; 
but  this  is  certainly  not  so  in  the  example  given  of  the 
"  Machias,"  where,  between  Aden  and  Pechili  Strait, 
the  quadrantal  deviation  differed  nearly  3°,  as  might 
be  expected  where  soft  iron  correctors  are  placed  near 
the  long  powerful  needles  of  the  Ritchie  compass. 
Further,  the  Flinders  bar  will  not  compensate  any 
important  part  of  the  heeling  error  due  to  soft  iron 
as  here  proposed. 

There  is  much  to  recommend  this  book  to  the 
student,  both  as  regards  the  mathematical  treatment 
of  the  subject  and  for  its  numerous  explanatory 
diagrams.  Its  weak  point  lies  in  the  parts  relating 
to  the  application  of  theory  to  practice,  which  require 
modernising  and  a  carefulVevision.  E.  VV.  C. 

Comity  international  des  Poids  et  Mesures.  Proces- 
Verbaux  des  Sciences.  Deux.  S^rie.  Tome  ii. 
Session  de  1903.  Pp.  170.  (Paris  :  Gauthier-Villars, 
1903-) 
The  Proces-Verbaux  recently  issued  by  the  Comit^ 
international  des  Poids  et  Mesures  refers  to  their  meet- 
ing at  Paris  in  April  last.  The  committee  included 
Dr.  W.  Foerster  (president).  Prof.  P.  Blazerna  (secre- 
tary). Dr.  Benoit  (director  of  the  bureau),  and  MM. 
Arndsten,  D'Arrillaga,  de  Bodola,  Egoroff,  Gautier, 
Hasselberg,  and  von  Lang.  Their  proceedings 
mainly  had  reference  to  the  work  at  their  bureau 
(Pavilion  de  Breteuil,  Sevres,  Paris)  for  the  current 
year,  including  the  consideration  of  the  annual  ex- 
penses of  the  committee  (100,000  francs). 

NO.    1770,  VOL.  68] 


The  committee  lament  the  death  of  their  distin- 
guished colleague.  Prof.  A.  Cornu,  on  April  12  last, 
and  also  of  Dr.  H.  von  Wild,  September  5,  1902,  an 
honorary  member  of  the  committee.  They  announce 
th-^  unanimous  election  on  the  committee  of  M.  E. 
Mascart,  and  of  Dr.  A.  Chappuis  as  an  honorary 
member.  Count  de  Macedo  (Portugal),  Dr.  A.  Michel- 
son  (United  States),  and  Mr.  H.  J.  Chaney  (Great 
Britain)    were  unable  to  attend  the  present  meeting. 

During  the  past  year  the  verification  of  length 
standards  at  the  bureau  included  standards  for  the 
Board  of  Trade,  the  Education  Department,  the 
National  Physical  Laboratory,  and  other  authorities  in 
England.  On  the  application  of  the  British  Govern- 
ment, indeed,  an  important  work  was  undertaken  by 
the  committee,  that  of  the  graduation  and  verification 
of  a  new  linear  standard  of  the  metre  and  yard,  a 
standard  made  of  iridio-platinum,  X  section. 

Although  the  scientific  work  of  the  bureau  last  year 
does  not  appear  to  have  covered  a  wide  field,  it  has 
followed  important  paths,  as  in  some  investigations 
(Appendix  iii.)  as  to  the  linear  expansion  by  heat  of 
platinum,  iron,  nickel,  steel,  glass,  and  quartz,  and 
the  results  reported  by  the  committee  are  now  prob- 
ably among  the  most  authoritative  of  such  thermo- 
metric  investigations.  Dr.  C.  E.  Guillaume  also  adds 
(Appendix  i.)  an  essay  on  the  theory  of  the  alloys  of 
steel  and  nickel,  and  M.  E.  Sauvage  (Appendix  ii.)  an 
account  of  an  international  series  of  screw-threads, 
based  on  metric  measure,  as  formulated  at  a  congress 
held  at  Zurich  in  1898-1900,  a  series  which  appears 
to  be  now  adopted  for  engineering  purposes  in  France. 

Flora  of  the  Island  of  Jersey.  By  L.  V.  Lester 
Garland.  Pp.  xv  +  205.  (London:  West,  Newman 
and  Co.,  1903.) 

Although  in  most  parts  of  the  country  a  botanist  can 
generally  make  a  goodly  collection  of  plants  within  a 
day's  journey  of  his  residence,  there  is  always  a  desire 
to  visit  those  localities  in  the  British  Isles  which  have 
a  special  flora  of  their  own.  Such  are  the  Scotch 
mountain  ranges,  the  counties  of  Devon  and  Cornwall, 
and  by  no  means  the  least  interesting  to  the  southerner, 
the  Channel  Islands.  On  these  visits  it  is  a  great 
boon  to  have  a  flora  which  will  give  the  information 
where  certain  plants  may  be  sought.  For  Guernsey 
and  the  adjacent  islands  of  Aldemey  and  Sark,  Mr. 
Marquand  has  published  records,  and  no  less  welcome 
is  the  compact  little  book  which  Mr.  Lester  Garland 
has  compiled  on  the  flora  of  Jersey.  The  book  pre- 
sents one  essentially  new  feature,  since  the  system 
adopted  is  that  of  Engler.  Some  excuse  is  offered  for 
the  innovation,  but  there  can  be  no  question  that 
Engler's  system  is  bound  to  supplant  that  of  the 
"  Genera  Plantarum,"  and  considerable  credit  is  due 
to  the  author  for  acting  up  to  his  convictions.  In 
conformity  with  this  change  some  of  the  generic  names 
have  been  altered,  and  Erucastrum,  Lobularia,  and 
Parentucellia  take  the  place  of  others  more  familiar; 
for  the  same  reason  Tillaea  muscosa,  L.,  becomes 
Crassula  Tillaea,  Lester.  No  trouble  has  been  spared 
to  test  uncertain  or  critical  species  and  records,  and 
the  notes  on  these  are  sound  and  practical ;  also  dis- 
tinction is  made  between  native  plants  and  aliens. 
The  genus  Centaurea  serves  to  illustrate  the  author's 
caution  and  care;  he  declines  to  split  up  Centaurea 
nigra  into  uncertain  varieties,  queries  Centaurea 
scabiosa.,  accepts  Centaurea  scabra,  and  classes  the 
species  cyanus,  paniculata,  calcitrapa,  solstitialis 
among  the  aliens.  The  last  few  pages  are  devoted  to 
an  account  of  the  geographical  distribution  and 
affinities  of  species,  and  these  complete  a  book  which, 
in  addition  to  its  convenient  form,  is  to  be  recom- 
mended for  its  extremely  practical  and  scientific  value. 


526 


NATURE 


[October  i,  1903 


LETTERS  TO  THE  EDITOR. 
[The  Editor  does  not  hold  himself  responsible  for  opinions 
expressed  by  his  correspondents.  Neither  can  he  undertake 
to  return,  or  to  correspond  with  the  writers  of,  rejected 
manuscripts  intended  for  this  or  any  other  part  of  Nature. 
No  notice  is  taken  of  anonymous  communications.] 

Radium  and  the  Geological  Age  of  the  Earth. 

At  various  times  since  the  appearance  of  Mr.  W.  E. 
Wilson's  suggestion  (Nature,  July  9)  that  the  presence  of 
radium  in  the  sun  might  enter  as  an  important  factor  in 
contributing  to  solar  radiation,  I  had  intended  directing 
the  attention  of  geologists  to  the  direct  application  of  this 
suggestion  to  the  views  entertained  as  to  the  extent  of 
geological  time.  Absence  from  home  led  me  to  defer 
doing  so. 

Prof.  Darwin  has  in  a  large  measure  anticipated  my 
remarks  (Nature,  September  24)  by  pointing  out  that  the 
age  of  the  sun  can  no  longer  be  determined  from  dynamical 
considerations  if  supplies  of  energy  from  radio-active  bodies 
go  towards  maintaining  solar  temperature.  It  will  have 
to  be  shown,  indeed,  that  such  bodies  do  not  enter  even  as 
a  small  ingredient  into  solar  stuff  (see  Mr.  Wilson's  letter), 
or  else  that  they  do  not  retain  their  heat-generating  proper- 
ties at  high  temperatures.  So  far  as  experiments  go — 
especially  on  the  radio-active  emanations — the  latter  con- 
tention seems  improbable. 

The  gross  dynamical  supply  of  solar  heat  must  no  longer 
be  regarded  as  affording  a  major  limit  both  to  solar  age 
and  geological  time. 

But  there  was  one  other  good  argument  from  the  physical 
side  opposed  to  the  geological  estimate  of  the  earth's  age  : 
that  derived  from  the  observed  gradient  of  temperature 
from  the  earth's  surface  inwards.  Prof.  Perry  has  pointed 
out  (Nature,  Jan.  3,  1895)  that  an  increase  of  conductivity 
towards  the  interior  would  lead  to  extension  of  Lord  Kelvin's 
minor  limit  of  time  since  the  Consistentior  Status.  Quite 
equivalent  to  increased  supplies  from  the  interior  would  be 
a  source  of  supply  of  heat  in  every  element  of  the  material. 
The  establishment  of  the  existing  gradient  of  temperature 
inwards  may,  in  fact,  have  been  deferred  indefinitely  during 
the  exhaustion  of  stores  of  radium  and  similar  bodies  at 
greater  or  shallower  depths.  In  fact,  we  find  these  bodies 
here ;  the  only  question  is  as  to  how  much  of  them  exists, 
or  at  one  time  existed,  in  the  earth's  interior. 

The  remaining  physical  objection  (that  based  on  tidal 
retardation)  being  condemned  for  good  reasons,  it  would 
appear  that  the  estimates  derived  from  physical  speculations 
are  now  subject  to  modification  in  just  the  direction  which 
geological  data  required.  The  hundred  million  years  which 
the  doctrine  of  uniformity  requires  may,  in  fact,  yet  be 
gladly  accepted  by  the  physicist.  J.  Joly. 

Trinity  College,  Dublin,  September  26. 


Some  Overlooked  Zoological  Generic  Names. 

In  the  course  of  my  reading,  I  have  found  a  few  generic 
names  of  animals  which  have  been  overlooked  in  the  pre- 
paration of  the  invaluable*  "  Index  Zoologicus,"  recently 
published  by  the  Zoological  Society  of  London.  It  may  be 
as  well  to  direct  attention  to  them,  so  that  zoologists  may 
take  note  of  them,  and  avoid  duplicating  them  for  other 
animals.     They  are  : — 

Callobombus,  Dalla  Torre,  Cat.  Hymenop.,  x.  p.  503 
[nom.  emend.]. 

Cephalacanthus,  Lapworth,  tenth  Ann.  Rep.  U.S.  Geol. 
Surv.,  p.  641  [nom.  praeocc.]. 

Fiorentinia,  Dalla  Torre,  Cat.  Hymenop.,  x.  p.  334. 

Helenia,  Walcott,  Proc.  U.S.  Nat.  Mus.,  1889,  p.  39 
[not  Helena,  Hartm.,  1881]. 

Holmia,  Matthew,  1890  (subg.  of  Olenellus). 

Isoxys,  Walcott,  tenth  Ann.  Rep.  U.S.  Geol.  Surv.,  p. 
625. 

Leptomitus,  Walcott,  Bull.  U.S.  Geol.  Surv,  1886,  p.  89. 

Linnarssonia,  Walcott,  Amer.  Journ.  Sci.,  1885,  p.  114. 

Olenoides,  Meek,  cf.  Amer.  Journ.  Set.,  1888,  p.   165. 

Protopharetra,  Bornemann,  Geol.  Zeitschr.,   1883,  p.  274. 

Protocaris,  Walcott,  cf.  Bull.  U.S.  Geol.  Surv.,  1886,  p. 
148. 

NO.    1770,  VOL.  68] 


Protospongia,  Salter,  cf.  Bull.  U.S.  Geol.  Surv.,  No.  30, 
p.  90.     [I  suppose  Protospongia,  Kent,  1880,  is  different.] 

Authorities  will  differ  as  to  whether  Helenia  should  be 
changed  because  of  Helena.  I  think  it  should  not ;  the 
difference  of  a  letter  is  enough  to  constitute  it  a  distinct 
name.  T.  D.  A.  Cockerell. 

Colorado  Springs,  Colorado,  U.S.A. 


Height  of  the  Atmosphere  Determined  from  the  Time 
of  Disappearance  of  Blue  Colour  of  the  Sky  after 
Sunset. 

The  extreme  height  of  our  atmosphere  has  been  deter- 
mined heretofore  from  the  observation  of  meteors,  which 
begin  to  glow  when  the  friction  becomes  sufficiently  intense 
to  vaporise  the  materials  of  which  they  are  composed. 
This  method  is  very  satisfactory  from  most  points  of  view, 
and  will  perhaps  continue  to  be  used  by  astronomers. 
Nevertheless,  I  think  it  worth  while  to  direct  attention  to 
another  method,  which  is  more  simple,  and  which,  I  believe, 
will  be  found  equally  accurate.  It  consists  in  observing 
with  the  naked  eye  the  gradual  disappearance  of  the  blue 
colour  of  the  sky  as  darkness  comes  on.  It  is  surprising 
how  accurate  a  person  of  good  sight  can  make  this  observ- 
ation when  the  atmosphere  is  perfectly  clear.  The  time  of 
sunset  should  be  noted,  and  the  time  of  the  last  sensible 
blue  of  the  sky.  With  the  data  in  the  Nautical  Almanac 
a  simple  computation  by  spherical  trigonometry  gives  the 
depression  of  the  sun  at  the  instant  the  blue  fades  out  into 
black,  and  we  at  once  calculate  the  height  of  the  illumin- 
ated particles  overhead.  The  following  are  the  results  of 
some  observations  taken  by  the  writer  at  Arrtiapolis,  Md.  : — 

1903.  Height.  Remarks. 

August  10  ...   125  miles  ...  A  trace  of  blue  remaining. 

,,        21    ...    130       ,,      ...   Blue  just  vanishing. 

,,       22   ...    133       ,,      ...   Sky  just  black. 

,,       23   ...    135        ,,      ...   Blue  has  disappeared. 

,,       24  ...   132       ,,     ...   Blue  vanishing. 

Average  height,  131  miles. 

The  uncertainty  of  this  value  will  probably  be  between 
five  and  ten  miles. 

The  instant  the  blue  disappears  from  the  sky  is  a  little 
indefinite,  owing  to  the  gradual  thinning  out  of  particles 
in  the  upper  air  sufficiently  dense  to  reflect  blue  light  which 
can  be  seen  by  the  eye  against  a  black  night  sky,  but  I 
have  not  found  this  indefiniteness  so  great  as  might  be 
expected.  It  does  not  seem  to  lead  to  greater  uncertainty 
in  the  height  of  the  atmosphere  than  the  method  depending 
on  meteors. 

Prof.  NewGomb,  in  his  "  Popular  Astronomy,"  p.  397, 
say-i  that,  from  observations  taken  at  Richmond  and 
Washington  during  the  meteoric  shower  of  November  13, 
1867,  "  the  general  result  was  that  they  (the  meteors)  were 
first  seen  at  an  average  height  of  75  miles,  and  disappeared 
at  a  height  of  55  miles.  There  was  no  positive  evidence 
that  any  meteor  commenced  at  a  height  greater  than  100 
miles.  It  is  remarkable  that  this  corresponds  very  nearly 
to  the  greatest  height  at  which  most  of  the  brilliant  meteors 
are  ever  certainly  seen.  These  phenomena  seem  to  indicate 
that  our  atmosphere,  instead  of  terminating  at  a  height  of 
4:;  miles,  as  was  formerly  supposed,  really  extends  to  a 
height  of  between  100  and  no  miles." 

According  to  Lord  Rayleigh's  theory  the  blue  colour  of 
the  sky  is  due  to  reflection  of  sun-light  from  minute  particles 
of  oxygen  and  nitrogen  in  the  upper  layers  of  our  atmo- 
sphere. This  theory  receives  its  most  striking  confirm- 
ation from  the  long  duration  of  the  blue  colour  after  sun- 
set, showing  the  great  height  of  the  particles  which  scatter 
the  blue  light.  There  can,  I  think,  be  very  little  doubt 
that  our  atmosphere  extends  to  a  height  of  about  130  miles. 

Washington,  D.C.,  September  i.  T.  J.  J.  See. 


The  Lyrids  of  1903. 
Being  absent  I  did  not  see  the  letter  on  the  Lyrids  of 
1903  at  the  time  of  its  appearance  in  Nature  of  July  23. 
The  Lyrid  maximum  occurred  this  year,  it  would  seem,  on 
the  night  of  April  22,  or  a  day  later  than  an  important 
display  observed  by  Mr.  Denning  on  April  21,  1901.  The 
night  of  April  22  happened  to  be  overcast  here.  There 
was  a  fair  amount  of  meteoric  activity  seen  by  the  present 


October  i,  1903] 


NATURE 


527 


writer  and  other  observers  on  the  night  of  April  19,  several 
brilliant  meteors  having  been  observed.  If  the  computed 
time  of  the  maximum  for  that  night  be  correct,  viz. 
loh.  30m.,  it  would  not,  of  course,  have  been  possible  for 
observers  situated  near  the  longitude  of  Greenwich  to 
witness  the  display  in  its  entirety. 

The  Lyrid  activity  on  the  night  of  April  21,  judging  from 
Mr.  Alphonso  King's  letter,  appears  to  have  been  somewhat 
exceptional,  and  scarcely  inferior  to  that  observed  on  April 
22  It  may  be  interesting  to  note  that  the  well-known 
continental  observer,  Prof.  A.  A.  Nijland,  states  that  the 
night  of  April  19,  as  well  as  that  of  April  20,  was  almost 
constantly  and  entirely  overcast,  and  that  not  a  single  Lyrid 
was  observed  at  Utrecht  in  1903,  though  the  night  of  April 
21  was  both  clear  and  moonless.  This  negative  result 
might  have  been  anticipated  from  the  forecast  which 
appeared  in  Nature  last  April.  John  R.  Henry. 

Dublin,  September  21. 


Glow-worm  and  Thunderstorm  ;  also  Milk. 

In  the  Daily  News  of  July  14  is  printed  an  observation 
by  a  Mr.  Haswell,  of  Handsworth,  which  bears  the  marks 
of  genuineness,  that  during  a  thunderstorm  a  glow-worm 
extinguished  its  light  for  a  second  or  a  second  and  a  half 
before  each  flash,  relighting  at  an  equal  interval  after  the 
flash.     May  I  ask  if  this  has  been  noticed  by  anyone  else? 

It  may  also  be  worth  while  for  someone  to  examine 
whether  radium  can  assist  milk  to  turn  sour,  or  can  other- 
wise influence  organic  processes  of  that  kind. 

Oliver  Lodge. 


ILL-HEALTH    OF    THE    RAND    MINERS. "^ 

THE  two  official  reports  described  in  the  footnote 
are  not  pleasant  reading;  it  seems  that  the 
War  Office  is  not  the  only  culprit  with  regard  to 
South  African  affairs,  for  the  waste  of  life  among 
the  Transvaal  miners  from  disease  and  accidents  may 
fairly  be  described  as  appalling.  But  here,  as  in 
the  case  of  the  War  Commission,  the  Briton  is  not 
afraid  to  wash  his  dirty  linen  in  public,  and  for  this 
he  must  be  commended.  The  remedy  for  an  ill  will 
be  discovered  most  speedily,  if  the  symptoms  are  pro- 
claimed  widely  and  discussed   freely. 

The  first  document  tells  us  that  the  death-rate 
among  the  natives  employed  at  the  mines  on  the 
Rand  is  42  per  1000,  which  is  extremely  high.  To 
see  exactly  what  this  figure  means,  we  should  compare 
it  with  the  mortality  rate  of  males  of  like  age  and 
occupation  in  this  country;  and  no  one  can  say  that 
too  favourable  a  case  is  taken  if  we  choose,  as  a 
standard,  the  Cornish  miner,  who  notoriously  is  a 
great  sufferer  from  the  ills  which  pertain  to  work 
below  ground.  Unfortunately,  the  official  report  does 
not  state  the  mean  age  of  the  Rand  miners,  but  it 
may  be  fairly  assumed  that  the  majority  are  young, 
and  probably  no  great  error  would  be  made  if  their 
ages  were  taken  as  ranging  from  25  to  35.  In  the 
years  1890-92  the  mean  annual  death-rate  of 
Cornish  tin  miners  of  25  to  35  years  of  age  was 
8.06  per  1000,  and  for  the  men  of  35  to  45  it  rose 
to  14.32  per  1000.  In  brief,  the  death-rate  of  the 
natives  employed  at  mines  on  the  Rand  is  five  times 
as  much  as  that  of  the  Cornish  miners  for  the  life- 
period  25  to  35,  and  nearly  three  times  that  of  the 
men  in  the  life-period  35  to  45. 

The  endeavour  to  cast  some  of  the  blame  upon  the 
natives  themselves  by  saying  that  they  fail  to  take 
ordinary  common-sense  precautions  is  ungenerous  on 
the  part  of  the  author  of  the  report.     In   matters  of 

1  "  Rand  Mines  (Native  Mortality).  Return  of  the  Statistics  of  Mortality, 
Sickness  and  Desertion  among  the  Natives  employed  in  the  Rand  Mines 
during  the  Period  October.  igci-March,  1903."  Pp.  6  folio.  (London,  1903.) 

"  Report  of  the  Miners'  Phthisis  Commission,  1902-1^3,  with  Minutes  of 
Proceedings  and  Minutes  of  Evidence."  Pp.  147  foho  and  7  appendices. 
(Pretoria,  1903.) 


NO,   1770,  VOL.  68] 


hygiene,  the  natives  must  be  regarded  as  children 
and  treated  as  such.  The  blame  for  the  ill-health  of 
the  native  must  in  the  main  lie  at  the  door  of  the 
British  employer.  It  is  satisfactory,  however,  to 
learn  that  the  present  heavy  death-rate  on  the  Rand 
is  regarded  as  exceptional. 

The  second  document  is  a  Blue-book  containing  the 
report  of  a  Commission  appointed  by  Lord  Milner  to 
inquire  into  the  disease  commonly  known  as  miner's 
phthisis.  Judging  by  the  facts  and  figures  brought 
forward,  the  inquiry  has  taken  place  none  too  soon. 
The  Commissioners  report  "  that  the  disease  prevails 
to  a  very  great  extent,  and  that  a  high  mortality  is 
due  to  it."  Carefully  prepared  medical  evidence  shows 
very  plainly  that  the  malady  is  silicosis  pure  and 
simple,  a  dust  disease.  The  miner  inhales  sharp, 
angular  particles  of  quartz,  and  these  cause  such 
irritation  that  the  lung  tissue  undergoes  a  change  and 
gradually  becomes  incapable  of  carrying  on  its  re- 
spiratory functions.  At  the  end  of  a  few  years,  often 
only  six  or  seven,  so  large  a  proportion  of  the  lungs 
is  rendered  useless  that  the  man  dies.  The  age  at 
death  of  many  of  the  victims  is  only  about  35  years. 
In  the  majority  of  cases  there  is  no  tubercular 
phthisis  added  to  the  silicosis.  As  might  be  expected, 
the  rfien  working  rock  drills  are  the  greatest  sufferers, 
and  especially  in  places  where  the  holes  are  bored 
upwards    without    any    water. 

The  remedies  suggested  by  the  Commissioners  are 
sprays  and  jets  of  water  to  prevent  and  keep  down 
the  dust,  and  some  of  the  witnesses  advocate  the 
use  of  respirators,  which  are  already  being  employed 
to  a  certain  extent.  The  Commissioners  are  of 
opinion  that  experience  is  needed  before  deciding  how 
water  can  be  best  applied. 

Though  dust  is  the  worst  evil  affecting  the  miner 
on  the  Rand,  it  is  not  the  only  one.  Analyses  show 
undesirable  proportions  of  carbonic  oxide  in  what  is 
called  "  normal  mine  air  under  ordinary  working 
conditions."  This  noxious  gas  is  generated  mainly 
by  the  dynamite  and  other  explosives,  but  also  in  some 
cases  by  heat  acting  upon  the  lubricant  during  the 
compression  of  the  air  used  for  working  the  drills. 
Mine-managers  are  often  unaware  of  this  latter 
source  of  danger.  Mr.  E.  Hill,  in  a  paper  read 
before  the  American  Institute  of  Mining  Engineers, 
puts  the  matter  very  plainly  by  saying,  "  Workmen 
at  the  front,  instead  of  receiving  pure,  cool  air  from 
the  exhaust  of  the  drills  or  other  machmes,  breathe 
a  foul,   stupefying,  and  sometimes  fatal,  mixture." 

The  Transvaal  Commissioners  deserve  much  credit 
for  the  painstaking  inquiry  which  they  have  made, 
and  the  lessons  taught  by  it  should  be  taken  to  heart 
by  English  mine-owners,  for  both  Dr.  Ogle  and  Dr. 
Tatham  in  their  well-known  reports  have  pointed  out 
that  the  Cornish  tin  miner  is  a  great  sufferer  from 
his   dust-producing   occupation. 

PHOTOGRAPHY    AT    THE    NEW    GALLERY. 

THE  forty-eighth  annual  exhibition  of  the  Royal 
•  Photographic  Society  is,  in  general  arrange- 
ments, much  like  its  predecessors,  and  shows  very  little 
evidence  of  this  being  the  jubilee  year  of  the  Society. 
In  the  scientific  and  technical  division  the  only  differ 
ence  that  we  notice  is  the  reappearance  of  several 
exhibits  that  have  been  seen  before,  and  the  presence 
of  a  few  isolated  frames  of  examples  from  the  Society's 
own  collection.  We  understood  that  the  Society's  fine 
historical  collection  was  to  have  been  on  view  in  its 
entirety,  and  feel  much  regret  that  advantage  has  not 
been  taken  of  this  opportunity  for  its  display. 

The  fact  that  many  of  the  exhibits  are  old  and 
already  well  known   gives  especial  value  to  the  present 


528 


NATURE 


[October  t,  1903 


collection,  and  that  value  would  have  been  niuch  en- 
hanced if  the  scientific  section  had  been  subdivided 
into  definite  sections,  and  the  order  in  the  catalogue 
had  corresponded  to  the  order  on  the  walls,  as  we  have 
previously  advocated.  But  the  student  will  be  well 
repaid  for  the  trouble  that  is  imposed  upon  him  of 
sorting  out  the  exhibits  for  himself. 

Telephotography,  or,  as  we  prefer  to  call  it,  large- 
image  photography — for  the  only  function  of  a  tele- 
photographic  lens  is  to  enlarge  the  image  before  it 
falls  upon  the  sensitive  surface,  and  whether  the 
original  image  is  small  by  reason  of  the  distance  of 
the  object  or  because  of  its  size  makes  no  difference- 
is  better  represented  probably  than  ever  before.  The 
well  known  "  Mont  Blanc,"  by  M.  Fred.  Boissonnas, 
is  on  view  again,  also  an  early  telephotograph  by  the 
late  Prof.  W.  K.  Burton,  of  interest  because  of  its 
age.  But  the  most  striking  and  new  applications  of 
this  kind  of  work  are  shown  by  M.  Fred.  Boissonnas 
of  enlargements  of  telephotographs.  He  gives  several 
examples  in  sets  of  three  : — (i)  a  photograph  with  an 
ordinary  lens ;  (2)  with  a  telephotographic  lens ;  (3)  an 
enlargement  of  the  latter,  the  proportional  sizes  being 
approximately  as  i  :  5  :  24.  Thus  a  measurement  of 
one  inch  on  the  first  becomes  two  feet  on  the  last,  and 
the  detail,  vigour  and  general  quality  of  the  enlarge- 
ments are  surprising,  and  demonstrate  the  fine  quality 
of  the  image  given  by  the  telephotographic  lens. 

The  gradual  changes  that  take  place  during  rapid 
movement  or  slow  development  are  well  represented 
by  three  new  series.  Sixteen  radiographs  showing 
the  various  stages  in  the  incubation  of  a  pigeon's  &^^, 
by  Mr.  M.  W.  Martin,  enable  one  to  trace  the  process 
very  clearly,  the  first  appearance  of  blood  vessels  and 
of  the  beak  being  quite  marked,  and  the  final  pack- 
ing of  the  two  parts  of  the  shell  together  ready  for 
removal  from  the  nest  by  the  old  bird  fitly  completes 
the  series.  Mr.  Martin  also  exhibits  a  beautifully 
rnade  series  of  forty  radiographs  illustrating  the  evolu- 
tion of  the  common  frog,  appropriately  finishing  with 
an  old  frog  which  has  broken  its  leg.  The  life-history 
of  a  splash  is  well  shown  by  Mr.  A.  C.  Banfield  in  a 
series  of  thirty-six  photographs. 

Colour  work  is  not  so  much  in  evidence  as  it  was 
at  the  last  two  or  three  exhibitions.  We  have  no 
opportunity  of  judging  whether  any  appreciable 
advance  has  been  effected,  because  in  no  case  is  the 
original  object  shown  with  the  photograph.  For  this 
reason  many  of  these  exhibits  have  no  value,  for  we 
do  not  need  at  the  present  day  any  proof  that  photo- 
graphs in  colour  can  be  produced. 

Photomicrography  is  well  represented.  The  student 
will  probably  be  specially  interested  in  Mr.  Spitta's 
"small  garden  spider,"  x  20,  taken  with  a  50mm. 
planar,  as  a  fine  example  of  low-power  work;  the 
fourteen  photographs  of  test  objects,  ranging  up  to  a 
magnification  of  about  4300,  also  by  Mr.  Spitta,  and 
Mr.  Albert  Norman's  series  of  photographs  of  different 
bacilli. 

We  have  not  space  to  do  more  than  mention  the 
fact  that  the  exhibition  includes  astronomical  and 
spectroscopic  photographs,  as  fine  a  series  of  photo- 
graphs from  balloons  as,  probably,  has  ever  been 
brought  together,  photographs  of  many  kinds  of 
animals,  birds,  reptiles,  insects,  fishes,  flowers,  and 
plants;  photographs  in  mines  and  quarries  and  dark 
factories,  illustrations  of  waves  and  ripples  and  light- 
ning, and  many  splendid  reproductions  by  many 
different  processes.  The  science  of  photography  itself 
is  represented  by  photomicrographs  of  film  sections  by 
Mr.  Edgar  Senior,  including  multiple  films,  and  a 
Lippmann's  colour  photograph  showing  a  very  large 
number  of  layers  of  deposit  due  to  the  stationary 
waves,  and  Mr.  Watkins's  demonstrations  of  the 
validity  of  his  time  method  of  development. 

NO.    1770,  VOL.  68] 


NOTES. 

The  fund  established  by  Mrs.  Elizabeth  Thompson,  of 
Stamford,  Connecticut,  "  for  the  advancement  and  prosecu- 
tion ,  of  scientific  research  in  its  broadest  sense,"  now 
amounts  to  26,000  dollars.  As  accumulated  income  will  be 
available  in  January  next,  the  trustees  desire  to  receive  appli- 
cations for  appropriations  in  aid  of  scientific  work.  Prefer- 
ence will  be  given  to  those  investigations  which  cannot 
otherwise  be  provided  for,  which  have  for  their  object  the 
advancement  of  human  knowledge  or  the  benefit  of  man- 
kind in  general,  rather  than  to  researches  directed  to  the 
solution  of  questions  of  merely  local  importance.  Further 
particulars  can  be  obtained  from  the  secretary  of  the  Board 
of  Trustees,  Dr.  C.  S.  Minot,  Harvard  Medical  School, 
Boston,  Mass.,  U.S.A.  It  is  intended  to  make  new  grants 
in  January,  1904.  Decided  preference  will  be  given  to 
applications  for  small  amounts,  and  grants  exceeding  300 
dollars  will  be  made  only  in  very  exceptional  circumstances. 
The  following  list  of  grants  for  1902  has  not  previously 
been  recorded  : — 125  dollars  to  Dr.  F.  T.  Lewis,  Cambridge, 
Mass.,  for  investigation  of  the  development  of  the  vena 
cava  inferior ;  150  dollars  to  Prof.  Henry  E.  Crampton,  New 
York,  for  experiments  on  variation  and  selection  in  Lepi- 
doptera ;  100  dollars  to  Prof.  Frank  W.  Bancroft,  Berkeley, 
Cal.,  for  experiments  on  the  inheritance  of  acquired 
characters ;  250  dollars  to  Prof.  John  Weinzirl,  Albuquerque, 
N.M.,  for  investigation  of  the  relations  of  climate  to  the 
cure  of  tuberculosis;  300  dollars  to  Prof.  H.  S.  Grindley, 
Urbana,  111.,  for  the  investigation  of  the  proteids  of  flesh  ; 
300  dollars  to  Dr.  Herbert  H.  Field,  Zurich,  Switzerland,  to 
aid  the  work  of  the  Concilium  Bibliographicum  (an 
additional  grant  of  300  dollars  was  made  June,  1903) ;  250 
dollars  to  Dr.  T.  A.  Jaggar,  Cambridge,  Mass.,  for  experi- 
ments in  dynamical  geology ;  50  dollars  to  Prof.  E.  O. 
Jordan,  Chicago,  111.,  for  the  study  of  the  bionomics  of 
Anopheles ;  300  dollars  to  Dr.  E.  Anding,  Munich,  Bavaria, 
to  assist  the  publication  of  his  work,  "  Ueber  die  Bewegung 
der  Sonne  durch  den  Weltraum  " ;  300  dollars  to  Prof. 
W.  P.  Bradley,  Middletown,  Conn.,  for  investigations  on 
matter  in  the  critical  state;  300  dollars  to  Prof.  Hugo 
Kronecker,  Bern,  Switzerland,  for  assistance  in  preparing 
his  physiological  researches  for  publication  ;  300  dollars  to 
Prof.  W.  Valentiner,  Heidelberg,  Germany,  for  observations 
on  variable  stars. 

Prof,  von  Behring  is  reported  to  have  brought  before 
the  Medical  Congress  at  Cassel  some  new  conceptions  re- 
garding tuberculosis.  The  fundamental  idea  of  his  theory 
is  that  tuberculosis  in  animals  and  in  man  represents 
different  varieties  of  the  same  disease,  and  that  it  is  trans- 
ferable by  the  agency  of  tuberculous  milk  ;  in  these  respects 
he  is  in  direct  opposition  to  Prof.  Koch.  He  distingiiishes 
between  adults  and  infants,  maintaining  that  the  former 
may  as  a  rule  safely  partake  of  unsterilised  milk,  while 
infants  are  particularly  liable  to  infection  from  that  source, 
and  he  holds  that  infection  may  take  place  many  years 
before  the  disease  becomes  manifest.  Prof.  Behring  is 
now  engaged  in  experiments  upon  new-born  animals  with 
the  view  of  testing  the  possibility  of  rendering  them  immune 
against  tuberculosis  by  supplying  them  with  a  suitable  solu- 
tion of  tuberculous  virus  in  the  food.  He  is  further  inclined 
to  believe  that  the  milk  of  cows  which  have  been  rendered 
immune  contains  prophylactic  elements  which  it  will  be 
practicable  to  employ  in  the  treatment  of  the  disease  in 
human  beings. 

The  death  is  announced  of  M.  A.  Certes,  formerly  presi- 
dent of  the  French  Zoological  Society.  M.  Certes  carried 
out  numerous  delicate  researches  on  bacteria,  and  presented 
several  memoirs  to  the  Paris  Academy  of  Sciences. 


October  i,  1903] 


NATURE 


529 


On  the  invitation  of  the  leading  engineering  societies  of 
the  United  States,  it  has  been  decided  that  the  next  autumn 
meeting  of  the  Iron  and  Steel  Institute  shall  be  held  in 
New  York  on  October  24-26,  1904.  After  the  meeting 
there  will  be  an  excursion  to  Philadelphia,  Washington, 
Pittsburg,  Cleveland,  Niagara  Falls,  and  Buffalo,  return- 
ing to  New  York  on  November  10.  Arrangements  will 
also  be  made  for  a  visit  to  the  St.  Louis  Exhibition. 

The  death  is  announced  of  Mr.  John  Allen  Brown,  who 
was  the  author  of  numerous  papers  on  geological  and 
anthropological  subjects,  and  of  a  volume  "  Palaeolithic 
Man  in  North-west  Middlesex." 

The  trials  on  the  electric  railway  between  Zossen  and 
Marienfeld,  near  Berlin,  have  been  continued  during  the 
past  week,  and  on  September  26  a  speed  of  118  miles  an 
hour  was  attained,  as  against  114  miles  recorded  last  week. 

It  has  been  decided  to  hold  the  American  Conference  on 
Tuberculosis  at  Washington  on  April  4-6,  1905,  and  not 
at  St.  Louis  in  1904,  as  previously  arranged.  This  course 
has  been  adopted  so  that  the  American  meeting  shall  not 
clash  with  the  International  Congress  on  Tuberculosis  to 
be  held  in  Paris  next  year. 

We  learn  from  La  Nature  that  M.  Dybowski,  the  In- 
spector-Geheral  of  Colonial  Agriculture,  has  just  been 
appointed  by  the  Minister  of  French  Colonies  to  undertake 
a  mission  to  Senegal  and  French  Guinea  to  study  the  con- 
ditions existing  in  these  possessions  with  a  view  to  future 
enterprise  in  the  direction  of  agricultural  colonisation. 

The  Harben  lectures  for  1903  will  be  given  under  the 
auspices  of  the  Royal  Institution  of  Public  Health  in  King's 
College,  London,  by  Prof.  Ferdinand  Hueppe,  of  Prague, 
on  October  8,  12,  and  15.  The  subjects  for  the  respective 
days  are  : — (i)  the  etiology  of  infectious  diseases  from  the 
standpoint  of  natural  science ;  (2)  hygienic  lessons  to  be 
derived  from  the  serum  treatment ;  and  (3)  tuberculosis. 

Two  violent  shocks  of  earthquake  were  felt  on  the  night 
of  September  22  at  Blidah  at  an  interval  of  three  seconds. 
Th»  total  duration  is  estimated  at  fifteen  seconds.  The 
direction  was  from  the  south-east  to  the  north-west.  A 
slight  shock  lasting  from  four  to  five  seconds  was  felt  at 
Algiers  at  the  same  time.  Two  earthquake  shocks  also 
occurred  in  the  Canaries  on  September  22,  and  caused  cracks 
in  the  walls  of  several  houses. 

M.  De  La  Vaulx  made  a  balloon  ascent  from  St.  Cloud, 
Paris,  at  7  p.m.  on  Saturday,  September  26,  and  reached 
Hull  at  II  o'clock  on  the  following  morning.  The  balloon 
started  with  a  favourable  wind,  and  reached  the  Channel 
at  I  a.m.  on  September  27,  crossed  it  in  an  hour  and  fifty 
minutes,  and  passed  over  the  Thames  at  5  a.m.  almost 
midway  between  Greenwich  and  Chatham.  As  the  balloon 
skirted  the  Wash  four  hours  later  it  was  evident  that  the 
wind  was  changing.  From  there  the  voyage  to  the  Humber 
occupied  an  hour  and  fifty  minutes.  When  nearing  Hull 
it  was  seen  that  the  journey  could  not  be  continued  without 
danger  of  being  blown  out  to  sea,  so  a  descent  was  made  at 
11.40  six  miles  north-east  of  Hull. 

A  COMMITTEE  has  been  appointed  by  the  Cunard  Steam- 
ship Company  to  investigate  the  application  of  marine 
turbines  to  steamers,  with  special  reference  to  the  suit- 
ability of  this  class  of  engines  for  the  two  great  vessels 
which  are  to  be  built  under  the  agreement  with  His 
Majesty's  Government.  The  Admiralty  is  represented  by 
Engineer  Rear-Admiral  Oram,  Deputy-Engineer-in-Chief  of 
the  Navy,  and  he  will  be  assisted  by  Engineer  Lieutenant 
NO.    1770,  VOL.   68] 


Wood  as  secretary  of  the  committee.  Sir  William  White, 
late  Director  of  Naval  Construction,  has  also  consented  to 
give  his  assistance.  Ordinary  marine  engines  powerful 
enough  to  propel  the  projected  Cunarders  at  25  knots  would 
be  so  excessively  heavy  that  the  comparative  lightness  of 
marine  turbines  would  be  a  considerable  advantage  if  their 
trustworthiness  could  be  demonstrated.  The  questions  of 
steam  consumption  and  fuel  economy  of  the  turbines  will 
also  be  investigated. 

In  a  letter  to  the  Times  (September  15),  Mrs.  Garrett 
Anderson,  M.D.,  gives  a  valuable  analysis  of  the  data  pub- 
lished in  the  "  Report  of  the  Metropolitan  Asylums  Board  " 
respecting  the  1901-2  epidemic  of  small-pox,  in  order  to 
discuss  the  evidence  there  afforded  upon  (i)  the  protective 
influence  of  infant  vaccination  and  the  limits  of  its  dura- 
tion ;  (2)  the  necessity  for  systematic  revaccination  at  school 
age;  (3)  the  cost  to  the  ratepayers  of  the  method  now 
employed.  In  the  epidemic  of  1901-2,  9659  persons  were 
admitted  to  the  small-pox  hospitals,  of  whom  1663  died, 
equal  to  17- 1  per  cent.  Disregarding  all  doubtful  cases,  in 
1901,  264  vaccinated  persons  under  twenty  contracted  small- 
pox, of  whom  175  were  between  fifteen  and  twenty,  that  is, 
they  had  reached  an  age  when  the  protective  power  of 
infant  vaccination  is  seriously  weakened.  In  1901  there 
were  no  deaths  of  vaccinated  children,  whereas  there  were 
65  deaths  of  unvaccinated  children  under  ten.  In  1902  there 
were  no  deaths  of  vaccinated  children,  but  337  deaths  of 
unvaccinated  children  under  seven.  Among  vaccinated 
children  up  to  fifteen  years  of  age  who  contracted  the 
disease,  the  mortality  did  not  exceed  17  per  cent,  at 
different  age  periods,  while  among  the  unvaccinated  it  was 
not  less  than  32  per  cent.  From  fifteen  to  thirty  years  of  age 
the  mortality  is  48  and  304  per  cent,  respectively  among  the 
vaccinated  and  unvaccinated.  Even  up  to  thirty  years  of 
age  the  protective  power  of  infant  vaccination  is,  therefore, 
still  an  important  factor,  but  is  evidently  waning,  em- 
phasising the  need  for  revaccination.  As  regards  the  cost 
of  the  epidemic,  Mrs.  Anderson  points  out  the  great  expense 
the  ratepayers  have  been  put  to  in  order  to  provide  hospital 
accommodation  ;  she  estimates  that-  in  Battersea  every  case 
cost  71/.  -js.  id.  There  has  to  be  added  to  this,  of  course, 
the  economic  loss  to  the  community  of  the  able-bodied 
through  the  sickness  and  death  of  those  attacked. 

We  have  received  from  Mr.  H.  C.  Russell  No.  7  of  his 
interesting  current  papers.  We  are  glad  to  see  that  the 
number  of  these  papers  is  increasing  year  by  year.  Up  to 
October,  1902,  105  notices  had  been  recovered,  and  for  the 
last  seven  years  the  number  of  papers  amounted  to  703. 
One  of  the  bottles  referred  to  in  the  last  paper  had  a  drift 
of  292  miles  a  day  ;  it  was  thrown  overboard  in  the  Socotra 
Sea  on  January  28,  and  found  in  the  Gulf  of  Aden  on 
February  9,  having  travelled  350  miles  in  twelve  days. 
With  one  exception,  this  is  the  most  rapid  drift  on  record, 
so  far  as  this  series  of  observations  is  concerned.  The 
pamphlet  is  accompanied  by  charts  illustrating  the  drift  of 
the  bottles. 

Symons's  Meteorological  Magazine  for  September  con- 
tains an  interesting  summary  of  the  British  Rainfall 
Organisation  on  the  occasion  of  the  retirement  of  Mr. 
Sowerby  Wallis,  who  has  been  intimately  connected  with 
the  undertaking  for  more  than  thirty  years.  Most  of  our 
readers  are  probably  aware  that  the  system  was  commenced 
by  the  late  Mr.  G.  J.  Symons  in  1859,  by  hunting  up  old 
rainfall  records  and  the  collection  of  actual  observations. 
The  first  results  were  published  for  i860,  from  the  records 
of  168  stations.  In  ten  years  the  number  of  stations 
reached   1500,  and  in  1890  3000  stations.     Dr.  H.   R.  Mill, 


530 


NATURE 


[October  i.  1903 


VvhO  has  undertaken  the  sole  management  of  the  organisa- 
tion, which  is  now  recognised  as  of  great  national  value, 
directs  attention  to  the  power  of  initiation  possessed  by  the 
founder,  as  shown  by  the  fact  that  the  page  of  '.'  British 
Rainfall  "  in  i860  hardly  differed  in  arrangement  from  that 
at  the  present  day,  and  states  that  in  all  essentials  the  work 
will  be  continued  in  the  straight  course  which  its  founder 
impressed  upon  it. 

In  the  Physical  Review  for  August,  Mr.  Edgar  Bucking- 
ham describes  a  simple  mechanical  contrivance  for  tracing 
the  family  of  curves  which  represent  the  adiabatics  of  a 
perfect  gas. 

Vol.  iv.  part  ii.  of  the  Bibliotheca  mathematica  con- 
tains an  account  of  the  life  and  works  of  the  late  Prof. 
P.  G.  Tait  by  Mr.  Alexander  Macfarlane,  of  South 
Bethlehem. 

Mr.  Franz  Kerntler,  of  Budapest,  has  published  a 
-short  article  dealing  with  the  potentials  of  the  forces 
between  elements  carrying  electric  currents,  according  to 
Ampere's  and  allied  laws.  It  is  printed  by  the  Pester 
Lloyd  Gesellschaft. 

In  the  Physical  Review  for  July  and  August,  Messrs. 
E.  F.  Nichols  and  G.  F.  Hull  describe  experiments  for 
determining  the  pressure  due  to  radiation.  In  order  to 
obtain  results  free  from  the  effects  due  to  the  disturbing 
-action  of  gases,  (i)  use  was  made  of  the  most  perfect  re- 
flecting surfaces  to  receive  the  radiation  ;  (2)  the  action  of 
a  beam  of  constant  intensity  was  studied  in  gases  at 
different  pressures ;  (3)  the  apparatus  was  arranged  as  a 
torsion  balance,  in  such  a  way  that  the  disturbing 
actions  could  in  large  measure  be  reversed  ;  and  (4)  ballistic 
observations  were  made.  It  appears  that  the  radiation 
pressure  depends  only  on  the  intensity  of  radiation,  and  is 
independent  of  the  wave-length,  thus  confirming  the 
Maxwell-Bartoli  theory  within  '  the  probable  errors  of 
observation. 

East  African  chamgeleons  form  the  subject  of  an  illus- 
trated article  by  Mr.  J.  'L.  Monk  in  the  September  number 
of  the  Zoologist,  to  which  serial  Mr.  W.  W.  Fowler  con- 
tributes a  note  on  what  he  believes  to  be  an  unknown 
warbler  recently  observed  nesting  in  Oxfordshire. 

In  the  August  number  of  the  Victorian  Naturalist  Mr. 
W.  Hopkins  raises  the  question  whether  eels  in  Australia 
do  not  breed  in  fresh  water.  Among  other  facts,  it  is 
stated  that  in  a  swamp  which  had  been  dry  for  some  months 
swarms  of  young  eels  made  their  appearance  after  the  first 
rains. 

In  the  American  Naturalist  for  July  Dr.  C.  R.  Eastman 
records  a  lung-fish  with  a  cutting  type  of  dentition  from 
^he  Permian  strata  of  Texas.  Possibly  the  divergence  from 
the  normal  form  may  be  correlated  with  a  change  from 
marine  to  brackish  water  conditions,  of  which  there  are 
indications  in  the  Permian  ;  but  in  any  case  it  is  very  re- 
markable in  view  of  the  singularly  uniform  type  of  den- 
tition presented  by  the  lung-fishes  throughout  their  history. 
The  new  species  is  named  Sagenodus  pertenuis. 

The  Proceedings  of  the  Philadelphia  Academy  for  June 
contain  a  description  of  a  new  species  of  Pleurotomaria 
from  Japan.  The  shell  resembles  that  of  P.  beyrichi  in 
general  form  and  characters,  and  if  perfect  .would  measure 
about  3  inches  in  height.  To  the  same  issue  Mr.  J.  P. 
Moore  contributes  a  long  article  on  polychaetous  worms 
from  Japan,  Kamchatka,  and  Bering  Sea,  in  the  course 
of  which  many  new  forms  are  named  and  described  ;  while 
NO.    1770,  VOL.  68] 


in  the  section  for  July  Messrs.  Eigenmann  and  Kennedy 
have  notes  on  fishes  from  Paraguay,  accompanied  by  a 
synopsis  of  the  American  representatives  of  the  cichlid 
group. 

■  One  of  the  most  remarkable  phenomena  connected  with 
Mont  PeI6e,  in  Martinique,  is  a  gigantic  plug  of  solidified 
lava  which  has  been  thrust  up  from  the  summit  of  the 
new  cone  of  the  volcano.  This  cone  has  been  built  up  in 
the  ancient  crater-basin  (the  Etang  Sec)  to  a  height  of 
1600  feet  or  more,  and  it  is  now  dominated  by  the  ascend- 
ing obelisk  of  lava,  of  which,  through  the  courtesy  of  Prof. 
Angelo  Heilprin,  we  are  able  to  give  a  picture.  The 
appearance  of  this  mass  of  rock  (as  he  tells  us)  was  made 
known  by  Prof.  Lacroix,  and  it  calls  to  mind  some  of  the 
pyramidated  summits  among  the  South  American  volcanoes. 
When  first  observed  it  must  have  been  1000  feet  in  height, 
and  where  implanted  it  has  a  thickness  of  some  300  to  350 
feet.  The  plug  has  lost  180  feet,  but  when  the  photograph 
was  taken  (on  June  13)  it  added  800  or  900  feet  to  the 
mountain,  making  the  altitude  more  than  5000  feet.  The 
obelisk  terminates  in  a  needle  summit,  a' true  aiguille.     It  is 


Fig.    I.— Ihe  Ascending   Obelisk  of   Mont    Pelee.     Photograph   by  Prof. 
Ang=lo  Heilprin,  June  13,  i:)03,  taken  from  the  rim  of  the  crater. 

gently  curved  in  the  direction  of  St.  Pierre,  and  on  this  face 
it  is  cavernous  and  slaggy,  giving  evidence  that  explosions 
have  torn  away  portions  of  the  lava.  On  the  opposite  side, 
the  surface  is  more  solid  in  appearance,  and  there  it  is 
smoothed  and  even  polished,  with  grooves  and  striae,  like 
a  slickensided  surface — the  result,  evidently,  of  attrition 
when  the  mass  was  extruded.  No  doubt  the  lava  was  so 
rapidly  solidified  that  it  was  unable  to  flow  away,  moving 
upwards,  and  receiving  accretions  to  its  mass  from  below. 
Prof.  Heilprin  observed  that  the  growth  during  a  period 
of  four  days  measured  six  metres.  Previously  a  growth  of 
ten  metres  in  eight  days  had  been  recorded  by  M.  Giraud. 
The  volcano  was  too  active  to  permit  of  a  descent  into  the 
crater-hollow ;  steam  and  sulphur-puffs  were  issuing,  and 
avalanches  of  rock  were  disrupted  from  the  obelisk.  Pel6e. 
as  remarked  by  Prof.  Heilprin  {Science,  August  7)  was  still 
"  ugly." 

A  NEW  map  of  the  world  on  an  equal  areai  projection  has 
been  published  by  Messrs.  Darbishire  and  Stanford,  Ltd., 
Oxford,  price  6d.  net.     British  possessions  are  coloured  red, 


October  i,  1903] 


NATURE 


531. 


and   the  principal  areas   where  corn,   rice,   and   other  food 
-tuffs  are  at  present  grown  are  indicated  by  shading. 

Messrs.  Watts  and  Co.  have  published  for  the 
Rationalist  Press  Association,  Ltd.,  a  carefully  revised, 
popular  edition  of  "  Supernatural  Religion.  An  Inquiry 
into  the  Reality  of  Divine  Revelation."  The  new  edition 
runs  to  q2o  pages,  and  is  issued  at  6s.  net. 

Dr.  Adolf  Marcuse,  Privat-docent  at  the  University  of 
Berlin,,  having  taken  charge  of  the  section  of  geographical 
surveying  in  the  "  Geographischen  Jahrbuch,"  edited  by 
Prof.  Wagner,  asks  astronomers,  geographers,  and  ex- 
plorers to  send  him  papers  or  other  publications  containing 
results  of  which  notice  should  be  taken. 

At  the  request  of  teachers  of  chemistry  in  secondary 
schools,  Messrs.  J.  and  A.  Churchill  have  published 
separately,  at  as.  6d.  net,  the  chapters  on  general  chemistry 
contained  in  the  "  Elementary  Practical  Chemistry  "  of 
Dr.  Clowes  and  Mr.  J.  B.  Coleman.  In  its  present  form 
the  book  provides  a  really  good  course  of  experimental 
chemistry,  in  which  the  broad  principles  of  the  science  are 
gradually  presented  to  the  student. 

Dr.  F.  Bashworth  has  prepared  a  pamphlet  of  thirty 
pages,  published  by  the  Cambridge  University  Press,  con- 
taining "  A  Historical  Sketch  of  the  Experimental  Deter- 
mination of  the  Resistance  of  the  Air  to  the  Motion  of 
Projectiles."  The  pamphlet  gives  a  general  survey  of  the 
author's  experiments  and  results,  which  have  extended  over 
many  years,  and  for  which  he  devised  his  chronograph,  and 
shows  their  relationship  to  other  investigations. 

A  NEW  edition  of  Dr.  Alfred  Russel  Wallace's  book,  "  The 
Wonderful  Century.  The  Age  of  New  Ideas  in  Science  and 
Invention,"  has  been  published  by  Messrs.  Swan  Sonnen- 
schein  and  Co.,  Ltd.  The  book  has  been  revised  and 
largely  rewritten.  Among  the  most  important  changes 
may  be  mentioned  the  addition  of  a  chapter  on  electricity, 
of  four  chapters  on  astronomy,  and  the  omission  of  the  long 
chapter  on  the  vaccination  question  which  was  included  in 
former  editions.  In  its  new  form  the  book  provides  an 
excellent  survey  of  the  development  of  science  during  the 
nineteenth  century. 

This  year's  issue  of  "Chemical  Handicraft,"  the  illus- 
trated catalogue  of  chemical  apparatus  and  reagents  manu- 
factured and  sold  by  Messrs.  John  J.  Griffin  and  Sons, 
Ltd.,  is  attractively  arranged  and  very  complete.  Among 
new  apparatus  we  notice  vessels  of  quartz  glass  scheduled 
en  pp.  45-6.  These  vessels  may  be  treated  in  the  blow- 
pipe flame  without  previous  warming,  and,  whilst  hot,  be 
plunged  into  cold  water  without  being  fractured.  Teachers 
of  chemistry  should  find  this  catalogue  of  assistance  in 
ordering  the  apparatus  necessary  for  their  laboratories  and 
lecture-rooms. 

We  have  received  copies  of  the  first  three  publications  de 
circonstance  of  the  Conseil  Permanent  International  pour 
I'Exploration  de  la  Mer,  published  by  MM.  H0st  &  Fils,  of 
Copenhagen.  The  first  booklet  is  a  preliminary  communi- 
cation, by  Dr.  C.  G.  Joh.  Petersen,  on  how  to  distinguish 
between  mature  and  immature  plaice  throughout  the  year  ; 
the  second,  by  M.  Martin  Knudsen,  deals  with  the  standard- 
water  used  in  the  hydrographical  research  until  July,  1903. 
The  third  is  a  larger  book  of  107  pages,  and  includes  ten 
compendious  monographs  on  the  literature  of  the  ten 
principal  food  fishes  of  the  North  Sea,  illustrated  by  ten 
plates,  and  preceded  by  a  useful  index. 


NO.    1770,   VOL.   68] 


'  The  Tuesday  evening  popular  science  lectures  at  the  Royal 
Victoria  Hall,  Waterloo  Bridge  Road,  have  been  the  means 
of  creating  scientific  interest  and  activity  among  many 
people  who  have  attended  them.  Many  men  of  science  have 
given  their  services  as  lecturers  at  the  hall,  and  have 
helped  to'  make  known  the  work  that  is  being  carried  on 
thfere.  An  appeal  is  now  being  made  for  subscriptions  to 
assist  the  committee  to  meet  the  expenditure  of  3000J.  for 
alterations  which  had  to  be  undertaken  in  order  to  make 
the  building  fireproof  to  the  satisfaction  of  the  London 
Coiinty  Council.  Donations  should  be  sent  to  Miss  Emma 
Cons,  honorary  secretary,  Royal  Victoria  Hall,  London,  S.E. 

The  additions  to  the  J^oological  Society's  Gardens  during 
the  past  week  include  two  Sacred  Baboons  {Papio  hama- 
dryas),  two  Variegated  Jackals  {Canis  variegatus),  two 
Spotted  Hyaenas  {Hyaena  crocuta),  a  Striped  Hyaena 
{Hyaena  striata),  a  Lion  {Felis  leo),  a  Leopard  {Felis 
pardus),  an  Abyssinian  Duiker  {Cephalophus  abyssinicus), 
three  Somali  Ostriches  {Strufhio  molybdophdnes)  from 
Somalil.and,  presented  by  Mr.  William  Northrup  McMillan  ; 
a  Diana  Monkey  {Cercopithecus  diana)  from  West  Africa, 
presented  by  Mr.  A.  G.  Turner ;  two  Pig-tailed  Monkeys 
{Macacus  neinestrinus)  from  Java,  presented  by  Mr.  -r- 
Eussens ;  an  Otter  {Lutra  vulgaris),  British,  presented  by 
Miss  Boughey ;  two  Gold-front«d  Finches  {Metoponia 
pusilla)  from  India,  presented  by  Mr.  H.  C.  Harper ;  two 
Black  Salamanders  {Salatnandra  atra)  from  Switzerland, 
presented  by  Mr.  W.  C.  Worsdell  ;  three  Indian  Chevr9- 
tains  {Tragulus  meminna),  nine  Starred  Tortoises  {lestudo 
elegans)  from  India,  a  Mayotte  Lemur  {Lemur  mayottensis), 
a  Fringed  Gecko  {Uroplates  fimbriatus),  six  Green  Geckos 
{Phelsuma  madagascariensis),  twelve  Blackish  Sternother^s 
{Sternothoerus  nigricans),  a  Sharp-nosed  Snake  (Ltcj- 
heterodon  madagascariensis)  from  Madagascar,  fouir 
Angulated  Tortoises  {Chersina  angiilata)  from  South  Africa, 
fourteen"  Stink-pot  Terrapins  {Cinosternum  odoratum),  two 
Prickly'  Trionyx  {Trionyx  spinifer)  from  North  America,  a 
Spiny-tailed  Mastigure  {Uromastix  acanthinurus)  frorn 
North  Africa,  three  Cuban  Snakes  {Liophis  andrae)  frorfi 
Cuba,  a  Merrem's  Snake  {Rhadinoea  merremi)  from  Brazi^, 
deposited. 


OUR  ASTRONOMICAL   COLUMN. 

Astronomical  Occurrences  in  October:—  ■ 

Oct.     5.     13^.  48m.  to  I7h.  om.     Transit  of  Jupiter's  Sat.  IH. 
(Ganymede). 
6.     Partial  eclipse  of  the  moon. 

5h.  32m.     Moon  rises  obscured  by  the  penumbra. 
6h.  7m.     Last  contact  with  the  penumbra. 
ID.     8h.    i8m.    to    9h.    urn.      Moon    occults    a    Tauri 

(Aldebaran,  Mag.  I'l). 
15.     Venus.     Illuminated  portion  of  disc=o'l88,  of  Mars 

=  0-907. 
18.     9h.  41m.     Minimum  of  Algol  (3  Persei). 
,,      I5h.  om.     Mercury  at   greatest  elongation  (18°  13' 

W.). 
,,      igh.    om.     Mercury    in     conjunction    with     moon, 
Mercury  1°  57'  N. 
.  19-22.     Epoch    of    Orionid    meteoric    shower    (Radiant 
91°+ 15°)- 

21.  6h.  30m.     Minimum  of  Algol  (3  Persei). 

22.  Saturn.     Polar  diameter  =  I5"7.     Minor  axis  outer 

ring=i3"'62. 
24.     3h.       Mars    in     conjunction    with     Uranus,     Mars 

i°i3'S. 
,,      I2h.     Venus  at  greatest  brilliancy. 
31,     yh.     Jupiter    in    conjunction    with    moon,    Jupiter 

3°39'S. 


532 


NATURE 


[October  i,  1903 


Report  of  the  Paris  Observatory  for  1902. — In  his 
report  of  the  Paris  Observatory  for  1902,  M.  M.  Loevvy,  the 
director,  describes  in  detail  the  various  important  series  of 
observations  made  at  that  observatory. 

In  announcing  that  the  last  two  volumes  of  the  "Cata- 
logue de  rObservatoire  de  Paris  "  are  ready  for  publica- 
tion, M.  Loewy  gives  a  detailed  account  of  the  ci^-cum stances 
which  led  to  the  inception  and  prosecution  of  the  work 
necessary  for  the  publication  of  such  a  complete  stellar 
catalogue. 

For  the  determination  of  the  latitude  of  the  Paris  Observ- 
atory, 6530  measures  of  the  absolute  polar  distances  of 
fundamental  stars  were  made  with  the  large  meridian  circle 
during  the  year,  and,  in  accordance  with  Sir  David  Gill's 
proposals,  5063  observations  of  reference  stars  for  the 
astrographic  chart  were  made. 

The  observations  for  the  redetermination  of  the  difference 
of  longitude  between  Paris  and  Greenwich  were  completed, 
and  the  concordance  between  the  observations  of  the  Paris 
and  Greenwich  observers  in  the  first  series,  which  has  been 
completely  reduced,  is  very  striking. 

504  photographs  of  the  moon  for  the  "  Atlas  Photo- 
graphique  de  la  Lune,"  of  which  the  sixth  section  has  been 
published,  were  taken  with  the  large  equatorial  coud6.  A 
6-inch  grating,  for  use  with  the  smaller  equatorial  coud^, 
has  been  ordered  from  America,  and  when  this  is  received 
it  is  proposed  to  carry  out,  systematically,  similar  researches 


ports  for  meridian  circles.  It  will  perhaps  be  remembered 
that  in  the  last  report  of  the  superintendent  of  the  United 
States  Naval  Observatory  it  was  stated  that  since  the 
substitution  of  a  brick  pier  for  the  marble  pier  that  was 
formerly  used,  the  previously  reported  changes  in  azimuth 
of  the  6-inch  Repsold  meridian  circle  had  entirely  dis- 
appeared. The  experience  of  Prof.  Hough  is  opposed  to  the 
principle  contained  in  that  statement,  viz.  that  brick  piers 
are  superior  to  stone  for  this  purpose. 

By  a  table  of  comparative  expansions  he  shows  that  those 
of  granite,  sandstone,  &c.,  approximate  more  nearly  than 
that  of  brick  to  the  expansion  of  iron,  and  therefore,  with 
iron  fastenings,  a  stone  pier  will  ensure  a  greater  rigidity 
of  the  instrument  in  regard  to  the  pier ;  from  the  same 
table  it  is  seen  that  brass  fastenings  are  far  more  likely 
t'j  produce  lack  of  rigidity  than  those  made  of  iron. 


RECENT  PAPERS  ON  METEORITES. 
T'HROUGH    the   courtesy   of   Prof.    Henry   A.    Ward,    of 

Rochester,  New  York,  we  are  able  to  reproduce  for  our 
readers  a  photograph  which  gives  a  good  idea  of  the  form 
and  dimensions  of  the  large  mass  of  meteoric  iron  lying  at 
a  place  called  Ranchito,  near  Bacubirito,  in  the  province  of 
Sinaloa,  Mexico.  The  existence  of  the  mass  was  made 
known  to  the  scientific  world  by  Prof.  Barcena  more  than  a 


Fig.  I. — The  Meteoric  Iron  of  Bacubirito,  Sinaloa,  Mexico. 


in  solar  physics  to  those  which  are  already   prosecuted   in 
England  and  America. 

In  connection  with  the  "  International  Astrographic 
Chart  and  Catalogue  "  fifty-six  plates  for  the  chart  and 
twelve  for  the  catalogue  were  secured  ;  the  printing  of  the 
catalogue_  for  zone  +24°  was  completed,  and  it  contains 
the  positions  of  64,264  stars,  whilst  the  publication  of 
zone  +23°  was  commenced  and  the  section  oh.  4m.  to 
6h.  2om.  completed.  Altogether  the  positions  of  21,855  stars 
were  completely  measured  for  the  catalogue,  and  the  magni- 
tudes of  35,630  stars  belonging  to  zone  -1-23°  were  deter- 
mined during  1902. 

The  Rigidity  of  Piers  for  Meridian  Circles. — In 
No.  3902  of  the  Astronomische  Nachrichten,  Prof.  G.  W. 
Hough,  of  the  Dearborn  Observatory  (U.S.A.),  discusses  in 
detail  the  relative  merits  of  brick   and   stone  piers   as   sup- 

NO.    1770,  VOL.  68] 


quarter  of  a  century  ago,  and,  later,  its  dimensions  were 
recorded  by  Prof.  Castillo  ;  but  until  after  the  visit  of  Prof. 
Ward  there  had  been  no  published  information  as  to  the  par- 
ticulars of  the  occurrence.  Prof.  Ward,  who  is  greatly  in- 
terested in  meteorites,  travelled  from  the  city  of  Mexico  to 
Bacubirito,  an  extremely  long,  arduous,  and  expensive 
journey,  for  the  special  purpose  of  examining  the  meteorite 
in  situ.  It  was  found  by  him  to  be  lying  at  the  place  speci- 
fied, but  to  have  only  one  end  projecting  from  the  ground. 
Twenty-eight  labourers  were  employed  by  him  to  excavate 
round  the  mass  and  make  it  possible  to  determine  the  com- 
plete form.  After  two  days'  work  not  only  had  this  been 
done  but,  through  removal  of  the  support  from  one  side,  the 
large  mass  had  been  made  to  turn  itself  over.  It  is  13  feet 
I  inch  long,  6  feet  2  inches  wide,  and  5  feet  4  inches  thick. 
Its  irregularity  of  form  and  the  character  of  the  surface  are 
manifest   from    Fig.    i.     The   mass   is   estimated    to    weigh 


October  i,  1963] 


NATURE 


533 


50  tons  (the  specific  gravity  having  been  determined  to  be 
7.69),  and  it  is  probably  at  least  as  large  as  the  big  mass 
brought  some  years  ago  from  (Greenland  td  the  United 
States  by  Lieutenant  Peary.  After  these  two,  the  next  largest 
known  meteorite  in  the  world  is  that  of  Chupaderos,  which 
has  lately  been  removed  to  the  city  of  Mexico  and  found  to 
weigh  i5§  tons.  A  polished  face  of  the  Bacubirito  iron, 
when  etched,  shows  very  distinct  Widmanstatten  figures. 
According  to  a  chemical  analysis  made  by  Prof.  Whitfield  the 
percentage  of  nickel  (and  cobalt)  is  72.  The  time  of  fall  of 
the  mass  is  unknown.  The  meteorite  is  described  by  Prof. 
Ward  in  the  Proceeding's  of  the  Rochester  Academy  of 
Science  (vol.  iv.  p.  67,   1002). 


P 


by  the  motion  through  ihe  air  (Fig.  3) ;  part  of  the  fused 
oxide  has  accumulated  at  the  thin  end  of  the  meteorite,  and 
paft'of  it  has  doubtless  been  blown  off  at  that  part  (Fig.  2). 
A  polished  section,  when  etched,  shows  well-marked  Wid- 
manstatten figures  ;  only  one  or  two  specks  of  troilite  are 
visible  on  the  etched  face.  Chemical  analysis  of  the  metallic 
sawdust  obtained  on  cutting  the  meteorite  shows  that  the 
nickel  and  cobalt  amount  to  85  per  cent.  In  addition  to 
the  chemical  elements  normally  present  in  meteorites,  Prof. 
Liversidge  found  small  quantities  of  arsenic,  gold,  and 
either  platinum  or  some  other  member  of  the  platinum 
group. 

The  places  of  fall  of  the  meteoric  stones  were  (i)  Barratta, 
near  Deniliquin ;  (2)  Gilgoin,  near  Brewarrina ;  (3)  Eli 
Elwah,  near  Hay ;  the  falls  were  not  actually  observed. 
The  stones  are  all  remarkable  for  their  size.  In  the  case 
of   Barratta,    about   2    cwt.    had   been   found   on   a   previous 


Fig.  3.— The  Boogaldi  meteorite,  N.S.W.  Showing  waves  formed  in  the 
fluid  skin  at  the  forward  end  ;  the  right  hand  side  was  the  lower  one 
during  flight.     Enlarged  two  diameters. 


Fig.  2. — The  Boogaldi  meteorite,  N.S.W,  Showing  "drip"  from  the 
underside,  tail  end.  Length  5  inches,  width  3  inches;  weight  2057 "5 
grms.     Sp.  gr.  7-85. 

In  the  Journal  and  Proceedings  of  the  Royal  Society 
of  New  South  Wales,  vol.  xxxvi.  pp.  341-359,  Prof.  Archi- 
bald Liversidge,  F.R.S.,  of  Sydney,  gives  descriptions  of 
four  meteorites,  all  from  New  South  Wales,  one  of  them  a 
meteoric  iron,  the  other  three  meteoric  stones.  The 
meteoric  iron,  though  not  actually  observed  to  fall,  was 
found  shortly  after  that  event ;  it  was  noticed  in  January, 
1900,  that  the  ground  had  been  torn  up  on  a  hard  ridge 
near  Boogaldi  Post  Office ;  the  furrow  was  followed,  and 
a  small  pear-shaped  mass  of  iron  was  found  slightly  em- 
bedded in  the  ground  ;  it  had  come  from  the  north-west, 
and  its  path  must  have  been  inclined  at  only  a  small  angle 
to  the  horizon.  It  weighed  4^  lb.,  and  has  a  specific  gravity 
of  7-8.  The  surface  is  formed  by  a  skin  of  fused  oxide, 
which  has  been  arranged  in  waves  with  transverse  furrows 


NO.    1770,    VOL.    68] 


occasion  many  years  ago  ;  two  other  stones  have  lately  been 
found  weighing  31^  lb.  and  48  lb.  respectively.  The  Gilgoin 
stones  weigh  67^  lb.  and  74^  lb.,  and  the  Eli  Elwah  stone 
35i  lb.  All  these  stones  have  a  chondritic  structure ;  the 
specific  gravities  range  from  339  to  386.  The  paper  is 
illustrated  with  no  fewer  than  twelve  plates. 

In  the  Publications  of  the  Field  Columbian  Museum 
(Geological  Series,  vol.  i.  pp.  283-315)  Dr.  O.  C.  Farring- 
ton  gives  an  account  of  various  meteorites.  The  first  of 
them  is  froin  Long  Island,  Phillips  County,  Kansas,  of  the 
structure  of  which  Dr.  Weinschenk  gave  a  minute  descrip- 
tion several  years  ago.  The  meteorite,  which  belongs  to 
the  chondritic  kind,  was  not  observed  to  fall,  and  must  have 
been  in  the  ground  some  time  before  it  was  found.  Frag- 
ments having  a  total  weight  of  1244  'b-  *^^^'^  '^^^"  recovered  ; 
it  is  therefore  the  largest  irjeteoric  stone  which  has  yet  been 
met  with.  The  larger  fragments  can  be  closely  fitted 
together,  and  the  original  form  of  the  mass  is  thus  repro- 
duced-. Ihe  directive  (fjiaracter  of  the  pittings  and  furrows 
is  very   suggestive  of   the   exterior   of   the   Goalpara   stone. 


534 


NATURE 


[October  i,  1903 


ChemicaHy,  the  meteorite  is  remarkable  for  its  high  per- 
centage (6-3)  of  chromium  sesquioxide.  Dr.  Farrington 
suggests  that  a  small  portion  may  be  present  as  a  .con- 
stituent of  the  olivine,  and  the  rest  as  part  of  the  chromite. 
The  author  next  enters  into  a  discussion  of  the  relations  of 
the  various  meteoric  stones  which  have  been  found  in  Ness 
County  and  other  parts  of  north-western  Kansas  ;  he  infers 
that  Prairie  Dog  Creek,  Long  Island,  Oakley,  Jerome,  and 
Franklinville  belong  to  distinct  falls,  and  that  Wellmanville 
may  be  part  of  the  Franklinville  fall,  and  Kansada  part 
of  either  the  Franklinville  or  the  Jerome  meteorite.  Another 
meteorite  described  is  one  from  Los  Reyes,  forty  miles  from 
Toluca  ;  this  is  an  iron,  and  its  characters  are  similar  to 
those  of  other  masses  found  nearer  Toluca ;  there  is  no 
.reason  to  believe  that  the  mass  has  been  transported  by 
man  from  the  latter  locality.  The  Los  Reyes  mass  may 
belong  either  to  a  distinct  fall  or  indicate  a  wide  spreading 
of   the  Toluca  shower.     In   the   same  paper  an   account   is 

f:iven  of  the  structure  of  the  meteoric  iron  found  in  the 
lopewell  Mounds  of  Ohio ;  one  of  these  is  a  small,  un- 
wrought  mass  weighing  about  five  ounces,  the  others  are 
worked  specimens,  namely,  a  part  of  a  head  and  ear  orna- 
ment, some  celts,  and  a  number  of  beads ;  they  were  all 
found  associated  with  a  single  human  skeleton  near  an 
altar  of  one  of  the  mounds ;  the  iron,  when  etched,  shows 
Widmanstatten  figures,  which  have  been  bent  and  distorted 
by  hammering.  Finally,  Dr.  Farrington  states  that  the 
taenite  extracted  from  the  Kenton  County  meteorite  was 
found  on  analysis  to  consist  of  803  parts  of  iron  and  19-7 
parts  of  nickel  (and  cobalt). 


THE    BRITISH    ASSOCIATION. 
SECTION   F. 

ECONOMIC    SCIENCE    AND    STATISTICS. 

Opening  Address  by  Edward  W.  Brabrook,  C.B.,  F.S.A., 
V.P.S.S.,  President  of  the  Section. 

It  is  a  coincidence,  which  has  great  interest  for  me 
personally,  that  the  honour  of  being  President  of  this 
Section  has  fallen  to  me  in  the  last  year  of  my  engagement 
in  the  public  service.  I  am  now  in  the  sixty-fifth  year  of 
my  age  and  the  thirty-fifth  of  my  connection  with  the 
Registry  of  Friendly  Societies,  and  in  a  few  months  the 
guillotine  of  the  Order  in  Council  will  fall,  and  the  De- 
partment and  its  present  head  will  be  severed.  The  con- 
sequences are  not  so  tragic  as  they  sound,  for  the  Depart- 
ment will  at  once  find  a  new  head,  and  the  old  head  will 
contrive  to. maintain  a  separate  existence.  I  therefore  meet 
the  stroke  of  fate  with  cheerfulness  ;  for  I  am  strongly  of 
opinion  that  the  arrangements  for  retirement  from  the  Civil 
Service  of  the  country  are  as  wise  as  they  are  liberal.  It 
is  a  good  thing  that  the  place  of  a  man  whose  ideas  have 
grown  old  and  become  fixed,  and  whose  long  service  in- 
disposes him  to  entertain  new  ones,  should  be  taken  by  a 
younger  man  anxious  to  make  his  own  mark  on  the 
administration  of  his  department.  Again,  the  prospect  of 
promotion  opened  up  by  the  limited  term  of  service  of  the 
older  men  is  a  distinct  inducement  to  able  and  ambitious 
young  men  to  devote  themselves  to  their  country's  service. 
I  have  lately  had  occasion  to  give  minute  and  careful  atten- 
tion to  one  branch  of  this  important  question,  and  the  study 
of  the  whole  subject  which  has  thus  been  rendered  necessary 
has  strongly  confirmed  the  conviction  I  previously,  enter- 
tained that  the. system  of  retirement  which  now  prevails 
greatly  tends  to  promote  the  efficiency  of  the  Civil  Service 
and  the  interests  of  the  country.  I  do  not  apologise  for 
saying  this  much  on  a  subject  into  which  I  was  led  by 
an  observation  that  concerns  me  personally,  for  the  means 
of  securing  efficiency  in  the  public  service  is  an  important 
economic  question. 

The  coincidence  to  which  I  refer  tempts  me  to  choose 
as  the  principal  subject  of  the  Address  which  I  am  per- 
mitted and  enjoined  to  deliver  to  the  Section  on  this  occasion 
that  small  corner  of  the  great  field  of  Economics  in  which 
I  have  been  a  day  labourer  for  so  long,  and  I  am  not  able 
to  resist  the  temptation.  My  piece  of  allotment  ground, 
if  I  may  so  call  it,  is  that  which  is  devoted  to  the  cultiva- 
tion of  thrift,  or  of  economy  in  the  popular  rather  than  the 
scientific   sense.       The   temptation    is    strengthened    by    the 

NO.    1770,  VOL.  68] 


circumstance  that  that  subject  has  rarely  been  treated  by 
my  predecessors.  Sir  Robert  Giffen  in  his  Address  of  1887 
referred  to  it,  and  Sir  Charles  Fremantle  in  1892  treated 
it  at  somewhat  greater  length.  In  old  times,  when  the 
Chair  of  this  Section  was  more  frequently  occupied  by  the 
practical  statesman  than  by  the  professed  economist,  there 
were  passing  allusions  to  it  by  Henry  Fawcett  in  1872, 
William  Edward  Forster  in  1873,  and  Sir  Richard  Temple 
in  1884 ;  but  in  more  recent  years  the  accomplished 
economists  who  have  presided  over  this  Section,  notably  my 
immediate  predecessor,  have  delivered  luminous  and  memor- 
able Addresses  on  the  broad  principles  of  Economics,  the 
application  and  potency  of  its  doctrines,  and  their  service- 
ableness  to  mankind,  with  a  comprehensiveness  of  view  that 
is  only  attainable  as  the  result  of  deep  study,  and  a 
brilliancy  of  exposition  that  belongs  to  philosophic  insight. 
I  may  here,  in  passing,  express  the  satisfaction  we  all  feel 
that  at  Cambridge,  where  we  are  to  meet  next  year,  pro- 
ficitjncy  in  Economics  and  Political  Science  is  now  fully 
recognised  as  qualifying  for  academical  honours. 

I  have  spoken  of  the  subject  of  Thrift  as  a  small  corner 
of  the  great  field  of  Economics  ;  and  relatively  to  the  broad 
field  itself  it  is  so ;  but  it  is  a  subject  that  deals  with  large 
figures  and  intimately  affects  large  numbers  of  people.  The 
2000  Building  Societies  in  Great  Britain  and  Ireland  have 
600,000  members  and  sixty-two  millions  of  funds  ;  the  28,000 
bodies  registered  under  the  Friendly  Societies  Act  have 
12,000,000  members  and  forty-three  millions  of  funds;  the 
2000  co-operative  societies  have  2,000,000  members  and  forty 
millions  of  funds;  the  600  trade  unions  have  more  than  a 
million  and  a  half  members  and  nearly  five  millions  of 
funds  ;  in  the  13,000  Post  Office  and  other  savings  banks 
there  are  more  than  10,000,000  depositors  and  more  than 
200  millions  invested ;  so  that  upon  the  whole  in  nearly 
50,000  thrift  organisations  with  which  the  Registry  of 
Friendly  Societies  has,  in  one  form  or  other,  to  deal  there 
are  twenty-seven  millions  of  persons  interested  and  360 
millions  of  money  engaged.  These  figures,  however,  possess 
no  significance  other  than  that  they  are  very  big.  Many 
individuals  are  necessarily  counted  more  than  once,  as  be- 
longing to  more  than  one  society  in  one  class,  or  to  more 
than  one  class  of  societies.  Some  portion  of  the  funds  of 
Friendly  Societies  is  invested  in  savings  banks,  and  there- 
fore is  counted  twice  over.  Some  of  the  _  co-operative 
societies,  as,  for  example,  the  wholesale  societies,  have  for 
capital  the  contributions  of  other  societies,  which  thus  are 
also  counted  twice  over.  On  the  other  hand,  the  aggregate, 
large  as  it  is,  is  necessarily  defective.  It  includes  only 
bodies  which  are  brought  into  relation  with  the  Registry 
of  Friendly  Societies  in  one  or  other  of  the  functions 
exercised  by  that  department.  It  does  not  include,  there- 
fore, many  co-operative  and  other  bodies  which  are 
registered  under  the  Companies  Act,  nor  the  Industrial 
Assurance  Companies  which  are  regulated  by  the  Assurance 
Companies  Act,  nor  does  it  include  the  great  body  of 
Friendly  Societies  which  are  not  registered  at  all.  Among 
these  shop  clubs  hold  a  prominent  position,  and  these  are 
very  numerous.  The  Royal  Commissioners  of  thirty  years 
ago  thought  that  the  unregistered  were  then  commensurate 
with  the  registered  bodies  ;  and  as  one  result  of  the  legisla- 
tion which  the  Commissioners  recommended  has  been  to 
diminish  the  applications  for  registry  made  by  such  societies 
as  are  subjected  by  it  to  the  necessity  of  a  periodical  valu- 
ation of  assets  and  liabilities,  there  seems  no  reason  tc 
think  that  unregistered  societies  are  relatively  now  any 
fewer  than  they  were  then. 

It  would  seem,  then,  that  the  figures  we  have  cited  are 
well  within  the  mark,  and  that,  used  for  the  mere  purpose 
of  indicating  the  magnitude  of  the  interests  involved,  they 
may  be  relied  upon  as  not  over-estimating  it.  The  observ- 
ation just  made  leads  to  the  question,  why  should  there  be 
so  many  unregistered  societies?  Why,  indeed,  should  there 
be  any  unregistered  societies?  The  National  Conference 
of  Friendly  Societies,  which  consists  wholly  of  registered 
bodies,  has  just  passed  a  resolution  recommending  the  enact- 
ment of  a  law  that  all  societies  should  be  compelled  to 
register.  Why  not?  I  think  it  will  not  be  difficult  to  find 
the  real  answer  to  these  questions.  It  was  given  as  long 
ago  as  1825  by  a  Committee  of  the  House  of  Commons  in 
these  wise  words  : — "  It  is  only  in  consideration  of  advan- 
tages conferred  by  law  that  any  restrictive  interference  can 
be  justified  with  voluntary  associations  established  for  lawful 


October  i,  1903] 


NATURE 


535 


and  innocent  purposes.  It  is  for  the  individuals  themselves 
to  determine  whether  to  adopt  the  provisions  of  the  statute, 
which  offers  them  at  the  same  time  regulation  and  privilege, 
or  to  remain  perfectly  unfettered  by  anything  but  their  own 
will,  and  the  common  or  more  ancient  law  against  fraud 
or  embezzlement,"  which  common  or  more  ancient  law  was 
strengthened  in  1868  by  the  Act  known  as  Russell  Gurney's 
Act.  "  For  your  Committee  apprehend  that  although  the 
Act  of  1793  appears  to  begin  by  rendering  lawful  the  in- 
stitution of  Friendly  Societies,  there  neither  was  at  that 
time  nor  is  now  any  law  or  statute  which  deprives  the 
King's  subjects  of  the  right  of  associating  themselves  for 
mutual  support." 

Upon  this  principle  the  Legislature  has  hitherto  pro- 
ceeded. Registration  is  voluntary.  The  subscriptions  of 
the  members  are  voluntary.  The  conditions  of  membership 
are  such  as  the  rules  framed  by  the  members  themselves 
impose.  They  have  full  authority  to  alter  those  rules  from 
time  to  time.  Those  conditions  may,  if  the  members  so 
please,  imply  that  the  subscriptions  are  to  be  small  and  the 
benefits  large.  They  may  provide  for  investment  of  funds 
on  any  security  they  think  fit  so  long  as  it  is  not  personal 
security.  They  may  provide  for  the  periodical  division  of 
the  funds  so  long  as  they  make  it  clear  that  all  claims 
existing  at  the  time  of  division  are  first  to  be  met.  Up  to 
this  point  the  registered  society  and  the  unregistered  are 
hardly  distinguishable.  What,  then,  are  the  obligations 
consequent  upon  registry  ?  There  is  the  making  an 
annual  return  and  the  making  a  quinquennial  valuation  ; 
but  the  action  to  be  taken  by  the  society  upon  the  result 
of  the  valuation  is  wholly  in  the  discretion  of  the  members. 
The  valuer  may  demonstrate  beyond  doubt  that  the  society 
in  order  to  save  itself  from  disaster  must  increase  the  sub- 
scriptions of  the  members  or  diminish  their  benefits ;  but 
neither  he  nor  the  Registrar  can  enforce  the  recommend- 
ation. The  society  has  its  destinies  wholly  in  its  own 
hands.  Then,  again,  the  Act  contains  certain  provisions 
for  the  protection  of  members.  Individual  members  have 
the  right  to  inspect  the  books  of  the  society,  to  receive 
copies  of  its  balance  sheets  and  valuations,  and  so  forth. 
A  certain  number  of  the  members  have  the  right  to  apply 
to  the  Registrar  to  appoint  an  inspector  into  the  affairs  of 
the  society  or  to  call  a  special  meeting  of  the  members. 
The  inspector  can  only  report — there  is  no  action  which  the 
Registrar  can  take  upon  his  report  if  the  members  dis- 
regard it.  The  special  meeting  will  in  no  way  differ  from 
an  ordinary  meeting  called  by  the  society  itself,  except  that 
it  may  choose  its  own  chairman.  The  Registrar  cannot  in 
any  way  control  its  proceedings.  Even  these  things  he 
cannot  do  of  his  own  motion  without  being  set  in  action 
by  a  competent  number  of  the  members.  If  a  society  be- 
comes insolvent,  members  may  in  like  manner  apply  to 
him  to  wind  it  up  :  he  may  see  that  a  readjustment  of  con- 
tributions and  benefits  would  set  the  society  on  its  legs 
again,  and  may  suspend  his  award  of  dissolution  to  enable 
the  society  to  make  that  readjustment,  but  he  can  do  no 
more.  If  the  society  refuse  to  make  it,  he  has  no  option 
but  at  the  end  of  the  period  of  suspension  to  issue  the  award. 
Here  again  he  may  have  the  fullest  knowledge  that  a 
society  is  hopelessly  insolvent,  yet  he  can  do  nothing  unless 
a  competent  number  of  the  members  call  in  his  aid.  I 
confess  that  I  think  the  Legislature  might  have  gone  further 
in  this  respect  and  conferred  upon  the  Registrar,  or  at 
any  rate  upon  some  public  authority,  the  power  to  deal 
compulsorily  with  cases  of  hopeless  insolvency,  and  if 
necessary  to  appoint  a  receiver,  as  such  cases  are  not  in- 
frequently complicated  with  fraud  carried  on  in  circum- 
stances which  make  it  difficult  for  a  competent  number  of 
the  members  to  join  in  an  application  to  the  Registrar. 
However  that  may  be,  taking  the  legislation  as  it  stands, 
it  embodies  to  the  fullest  extent  the  principle  laid  down 
by  the  Committee  of  1825. 

The  surrender  of  freedom  which  a  Friendly  Society  is 
called  upon  to  make  in  order  to  obtain  the  privileges  of 
registry,  which  are  not  inconsiderable,  is  therefore  exceed- 
ingly small ;  yet  it  is  sufficient,  as  we  have  seen,  to  keep 
out  of  the  registry  office  a  large  number  of  societies.  It 
seems  not  improbable,  looking  back  on  the  history  of  legis- 
lation on  the  subject — and  the  observation  is  a  curious  one 
— that  unwillingness  to  register  has  been  closely  connected 
•  ith  actuarial  considerations.     Thus,   in  the  year   1819,  an 

t  was  passed  which  provided,  among  other  things,  that 

NO.    1770,  VOL.  68] 


the  justices  should  not  confirm  any  tables  or  rules  connected 
with  calculation  until  they  had  been  approved  by  two 
persons  at  least  known  to  be  professional  actuaries  or 
persons  skilled  in  calculation ;  but  that  was  repealed  in 
1829.  Again,  in  1846  an  Act  was  passed  which  provided, 
among  other  things,  that  every  registered  society  should 
make  a  quinquennial  valuation  ;  but  that  was  repealed  in 
1850  before  a  single  quinquennial  period  had  arrived.  It 
was  not  until  a  quarter  of  a  century  after  1850  that  this 
most  salutary  provision  again  found  a  place  in  the  statute 
book,  and  the  experience  of  the  last  twenty-eight  years  has 
shown  how  valuable  it  is,  and  how  much  it  is  to  be  re- 
gretted that  the  Act  of  1846  was  not  allowed  to  remain  in 
force.  Again,  the  Act  of  1850  provided  for  the  discrimin- 
ation of  societies  into  two  classes  :  those  which  were  simply 
registered  and  those  which  were  certified.  These  latter 
were  to  obtain  the  certificate  of  a  qualified  actuary  that 
their  tables  of  contribution  were  sufficient  for  the  benefits 
they  proposed  to  insure.  Very  few  certified  societies  were 
established,  and  that  Act  was  repealed  in  1855.  The  ex- 
perience of  the  Legislature  has  not  been  favourable  there- 
fore to  endeavours  to  impose  upon  Friendly  Societies  by  Act 
of  Parliament  conditions  of  actuarial  soundness. 

If,  however,  the  voluntary  principle  is  abandoned,  and 
all  societies  are  to  be  compelled  to  register,  it  is  obvious 
that  there  must  be  a  recurrence  to  the  policy  of  imposing 
such  conditions.  At  present  a  registered  society  may  be  as 
unsound  as  it  pleases,  and  so  may  an  unregistered  society. 
Unless  registry  is  to  imply  something  more  than  that,  there 
can  be  no  reason  for  any  compulsion  to  register.  For  what 
does  compulsion  mean?  It  means  prosecuting,  fining,  and 
sending  to  prison  all  persons  who  associate  themselves 
together  for  the  lawful  and  innocent  purpose  of  mutual 
support  in  sickness  and  adversity  without  registration  ;  and 
that,  obviously,  cannot  reasonably  be  done  unless  abstinence 
from  registration  is  shown  to  be  a  moral  offence  ;  that  is 
to  say,  unless  the  conditions  of  registration  are  such  that, 
a  registered  society  shall  be  necessarily  a  good  one,  and  an 
unregistered  society  necessarily  a  bad  one.  We  must  begin, 
at  any  rate,  by  devising  model  tables  and  insisting  that 
every  society  shall  adopt  them.  Are  they  not  ready  to 
hand?  Did  not  my  lamented  colleague,  Mr.  Sutton,  pre- 
pare a  Blue  Book  of  1350  pages  full  of  them?  That  is 
true ;  but  it  is  also  true  that  in  the  brief  introductory  re- 
marks which  he  addressed  to  me  at  the  beginning  of  that 
report  he  observed,  with  great  force,  that  the  adoption  of 
sufficient  rates  of  contribution  is  not  enough  to  secure  the 
.soundness  of  a  society.  Those  rates  are  derived  from  the 
average  experience  of  all  classes  of  societies — some  exer- 
cising careful  supervision  over  claims  for  sick  pay,  others 
lax  in  their  management — and  it  is  upon  care  in  the  manage- 
ment, rather  than  upon  sufficiency  of  rates,  that  the  success 
of  a  Friendly  Society  mainly  depends.  If  the  members 
administer  the  affairs  of  their  society  with  the  same  rigorous 
parsimony  and  watch  over  the  claims  for  sick-pay  with  the 
same  vigilance  which  a  poor  and  prudent  man  is  compelled 
to  exercise  in  the  administration  of  his  own  household 
affairs,  the  society  will  be  more  than  solvent,  even  though 
they  do  not  pay  as  high  a  contribution  as  the  model  tables 
exact.  If  they  neglect  these  precautions,  there  is  no  model 
table  which  will  rescue  them  from  ultimate  insolvency.  In 
Mr.  Sutton's  happy  phrase,  it  is  the  personal  equation  of 
the  members  and  of  their  medical  adviser  that  tells  the 
most  on  the  prosperity  or  the  failure  of  a  society.  Your 
compulsory  registration  will  impose  unfair  conditions  on 
the  well-managed  societies,  and  will  do  nothing  to  prevent 
the  inevitable  collapse  of  those  which  are  badly  managed. 
Registration  tells  for  a  great  deal  while  it  is  voluntary  and 
free ;  but  if  you  make  it  compulsory,  and  add  to  it  con- 
ditions that  you  suppose  will  tend  to  soundness,  you  will 
inevitably  do  more  harm  than  good.  It  is,  of  course,  of 
vital  importance  that  adequate  rates  of  contribution  should 
be  charged  for  the  benefits  proposed  to  be  ensured  ;  but  if 
these  are  imposed  by  authority,  the  management  of  the 
societies  must  also  be  undertaken  by  the  same  authority. 
It  is  a  curious  observation,  which  has  been  borne  out  by 
experience,  that  in  poor  societies  the  claims  for  sickness 
are  relatively  less  than  in  rich  ones.  M.  Bertillon,  the 
eminent  French  statistician,  has  shrewdly  remarked  :  "  The 
truth  is,  that  friendly  societies,  when  they  grant  sick-pay, 
attach  less  weight  to  the  text  of  their  rules  than  to  the 
state  of  their  funds.     If  the  society  is  rich,  it  grants  relief 


536 


NATURE 


[October  i,  1903 


more  freely  than  if  it  is  poor.  Thence,  and  thence  only,  it 
comes  that  the  great  English  societies,  which  are  often 
very  old  and  generally  rich,  give  more  days'  pay  than  the 
French  societies,  for  example,  which  are  bound  to  a  rigorous 
economy."  Without  necessarily  assenting  to  all  that  M. 
Bertillon  says,  it  is  easy  to  see  that  if  the  State  were  unwise 
enough  to  say  that  such-and-such  rates  would  be  sufficient, 
it  would  encourage  laxity  of  management,  and  accept  a 
responsibility  that  does  not  belong  to  it. 

I  may  now  proceed  to  show  that  the  present  voluntary 
system, "unscientific  as  it  may  be  supposed  to  be,  works  very 
well  on  the  whole.  Its  most  useful  feature  is  the  valuation, 
for  a  society  which  disregards  the  lessons  of  one  valuation 
finds  itself  pulled  up  sharply  by  the  results  of  a  second. 
A  deficiency  that  is  frankly  faced  by  an  increase  of  con- 
tributions, a  reduction  of  benefits,  or  a  levy,  or  by  all  three 
together,  will  probably  not  only  disappear,  but  be  succeeded 
by  a  surplus ;  but  a  deficiency  that  is  disregarded  not  only 
grows  at  compound  interest,  but  increases  by  the  continued 
operation  of  the  causes  which  produced  it.  It  is  to  be 
remembered  that  a  valuation  deficiency  or  surplus,  as  the 
case  may  be,  in  a  Friendly  Society  is  always  hypothetical. 
It  means  this  in  the  case  of  deficiency — if  you  go  on  as 
you  are  going  and  do  not  modify  your  contracts  you  will 
ultimately  be  in  a  deficiency  of  which  this  is  the  present 
value.  In  the  case  of  surplus  it  means — if  you  go  on  as 
you  are  going  and  do  not  allow  your  prosperity  to  tempt 
you  to  recklessness  you  will  probably  have  enough  to  meet 
all  your  engagements,  and  this  much  over  together  with 
its  improvements  at  interest. 

When  Friendly  Societies  are  considered  in  their  economic 
aspect,  they  appear  to  be  an  excellent  application  of  the 
principle  of  insurance  to  the  wants  of  the  industrial  com- 
munity. Sickness  may  come  upon  a  working  man  at  any 
time,  and  may  disable  him  from  work  for  an  indefinite 
period.  In  such  an  event,  if  he  had  nothing  to  rely  upon 
but  his  own  savings  accumulated  while  he  was  at  work, 
they  would  before  long  be  exhausted,  and  he  would  be  left 
in  distress.  By  combining  with  a  number  of  others  who 
are  exposed  to  the  same  risk,  he  can  fall  back  upon  the 
contributions  to  the  common  fund  which  have  been  made 
by  those  who  have  escaped  sickness.  It  is  an  essential  part 
of  every  contract  of  insurance  that  the  contributions  of  all 
who  are  exposed  to  an  equal  contingent  risk  are  equal ; 
but  the  benefits  are  only  derivable  by  those  of  the  number 
in  whose  experience  the  contingent  risk  becomes  actual, 
and  they  receive  more  than  they  have  paid,  the  deficiency 
being  made  up  out  of  the  contributions  of  those  who  have 
escaped  the  contingent  risk. 

This  really  seems  too  elementary  a  proposition  to  be 
worth  stating,  but  it  is  the  fact  that  the  principle  of  in- 
surance is  so  little  understood  that  many  members  of 
Friendly  Societies  look  upon  themselves  as  having  per- 
formed an  altruistic  and  charitable  act  in  joining  a  society 
when  they  have  been  fortunate  enough  not  to  make  claims 
upon  it  through  sickness.  Several  intelligent  witnesses 
before  Lord  Rothschild's  Committee  on  Old-age  Pensions, 
representing  large  and  well-managed  societies,  actually 
urged  upon  the  Committee  that  the  members  of  Friendly 
Societies  were  more  deserving  of  old-age  pensions  than 
other  people  because  they  subscribed  for  the  benefit  of  others 
and  not  of  themselves. 

Another  economic  point  of  view  in  which  Friendly 
Societies  call  for  consideration  is  that  of  their  relation  to 
the  Poor  Law.  The  old  Act  of  1793,  which  was  the  day 
of  elaborate  preambles  to  statutes,  affirmed  that  the  pro- 
tection and  encouragement  of  such  societies  would  be  likely 
to  be  attended  with  very  beneficial  effects  by  promoting  the 
happiness  of  individuals,  and  at  the  same  time  diminishing 
the  public  burthens.  The  public  burthen  at  which  this  was 
pointed  was  no  doubt  the.  Poor  Law,  which  was  then 
administered  in  a  very  different  manner  from  that  which 
has  prevailed  since  the  great  reform  of  1834,  and  one  of 
the  items  of  encouragement  which  the  Legislature  provided 
for  the  societies  was  that  their  members  should  not  be 
liable  to  removal  under  the  Poor  Law  until  they  had  actually 
become  chargeable  to  their  respective  parishes.  This  ex- 
emption was  no  doubt  of  great  value  at  that  time,  when  the 
law  of  settlement  bore  very  severely  uoon  the  poor. 

It  appears  to  me  that  the  proper  relation  of  the  Friendly 
Societies  to  the  Poor  Law  is  a  negative  one.  The  main 
object  of   the   societies   should   be,    as   indeed    it   is,    to   keep 

NO.   1770,  VOL.  68] 


their  members  independent  of  the- -Poor  Law.  They  have 
done  so  with  great  success.  The  returns  which  have  more 
than  once  been  presented  to  Parliament  of  persons  receiving 
relief  who  are  or  have  been  members  of  Friendly  Societies 
have  frequently  been  shown  to  be  untrustworthy.  The 
number  of  actual  members  of  such  societies  who  seek  relief 
is  small  absolutely,  and  still  smaller  relatively  to  the  popula- 
tion. It  was  therefore  not  without  regret  that  I  observed 
the  passing  of  an  Act  in  1894  which  empowered  Boards  of 
Guardians  to  grant  relief  out  of  the  poor  rates  to  members 
of  Friendly  Societies,  and  if  they .  thought  fit  to  exclude 
from  consideration  of  the  amount  of  relief  to  be  granted 
the  amount  received  by  the  applicant  from  his  Friendly 
Society.  That  Act  has  just  been  followed  in  the  natural 
course  of  events  by  a  bill  for  taking  away  from  the 
Guardians  their  discretion  in  the  matter,  and  requiring 
them  to  grant  full  relief  to  the  applicant  in  addition  to 
the  weekly  sum,  not  exceeding  five  shillings,  which  he 
receives  from  his  Friendly  Society.  In  other  words,  they 
are  to  provide  a  pauper  who  is  a  member  of  a  Friendly 
Society  with  a  free  income  of  five  shillings  a  week  more 
than  they  would  grant  as  adequate  relief  to  a  pauper  who 
was  not  a  member  of  a  Friendly  Society,  however  deserving 
in  other  respects  that  pauper  might  be.  Poor-law  relief, 
instead  of  being  a  painful  and  deplorable  necessity,  is 
elevated  into  a  reward  of  merit  in  the  one  case,  in  which 
that  merit  has  been  displayed  by  joining  a  society.  A  kind 
of  old-age  pension  is  provided  for  the  member,  but  instead 
of  being  an  old-age  pension  without  the  taint  of  pauperism, 
it  is  a  condition  of  obtaining  it  that  the  man  must  become 
a  pauper.  This  seems  to  me  to  be  topsy-turvy  legislation. 
The  very  bodies  the  aim  and  proud  boast  of  which  it  should 
be  that  their  members  never  are  paupers  have  been  con- 
tented to  claim  for  their  members  the  rank  of  privileged 
paupers. 

The  discussion  of  the  subject  of  old-age  pensions  which 
has  now  been  proceeding  for  the  last  twelve  or  thirteen 
years  has  had  one  good  effect  in  bringing  under  the  con- 
sideration of  the  Friendly  Societies  the  practical  methods 
by  which  they  can  obtain  these  pensions  for  themselves. 
The  impression  that  some  day  and  somehow  the  State  would 
provide  pensions  for  everybody,  or  at  least  for  everybody 
who  is  thrifty,  has  had  a  bad  effect  ;  but  the  wiser  members 
of  the  societies  have  seen  that  it  would  be  a  good  thing 
to  substitute  for  their  present  plan  of  continuing  sick-pay 
to  the  end  of  life  a  plan  of  insuring  a  certain  annuity  after 
a  given  age.  For  this  purpose  they  have  had  to  overcome 
a  natural  reluctance  on  the  part  of  the  members  to  lock  up 
their  savings  in  the  purchase  of  deferred  annuities,  and 
they  have  done  so  with  some  success,  several  thousands  of 
persons  having  agreed  to  subscribe  for  these  benefits.  It 
is  anticipated  that  the  report  of  Mr.  Alfred  Watson  on  his 
investigations  into  the  sickness  experience  cf  the  Manchester 
Unity  of  Oddfellows  will  add  force  to  this  movement  by 
showing  how  great  a  burden  old-age  sickness  at  present  is, 
and  how  slight  an  additional  sacrifice  would  secure  a  de- 
ferred annuity.  It  need  hardly  be  said  that  it  is  more 
desirable  that  the  members  generally  should  do  this  for 
themselves  than  that  they  should  get  the  State  to  do  it  for 
them. 

Registered  Friendly  Societies  are  becoming  more  popular 
and  more  wealthy  under  the  present  system.  The  number 
of  returns  from  societies  and  branches  increased  from  23,998 
on  December  31,  1891,  to  26,431  on  December  31,  1899,  and 
27,005  on  December  31,  1901  ;  the  number  of  members  from 
4,203,601  to  5,217,261  in  eight  years,  and  to  5,479,882  in 
ten  vears  ;  the  amount  of  funds  from  22.695,039?.,  or  5Z.  85. 
per  member,  to  32,751,869/.,  or  Q..  5s.  6d.  per  member,  after 
eight  years,  and  35,572,740/.,  or  6/.  9s.  9^.  per  member, 
after  ten  years.  It  is  necessary  to  observe,  however,  that 
some  of  the  numerical  increase  is  due  to  greater  complete- 
ness in  the  later  returns.  The  increase  in  ratio  is  not 
affected  by  this.  It  may  be  worth  noting  that,  on  the 
average,  the  proportion  of  members  under  fifty  years  of  age 
to  those  above  that  age  is  as  81  to  19  ;  and  that  of  the  total 
aggregate  receipts  per  annum,  73  per  cent,  goes  in  benefits, 
II  per  cent,  in  management,  and  16  per  cent,  is  added  to 
capital.  The  average  annual  contribution  per  member  is 
i/.   IS.  6d. 

Uo  to  this  point  I  have  referred  merely  to  the  Friendly 
Society  of  the  ordinary  type,  the  sick  club  and  burial  fund. 
Societies  of  the  collecting  group,  while  registered  under  the 


October  i,  1903J 


NATURE 


537 


Friendly  Societies  Act,  are  also  regulated  by  a  separate  Act, 
and  it  is  convenient  therefore  to  consider  them  apart.  They 
insure  burial  money  only.  They  are  only  46  in  number, 
having  increased  from  43  in  189 1.  They  have  as  many  as 
b, 678, 005  members,  an  increase  from  5,922,615  in  1899  and 
3,875,215  in  1891  ;  but  among  these  each  individual  above 
the  age  of  one  year  in  every  family  is  counted  separately, 
and  the  majority,  therefore,  are  young  children.  Their 
funds  are  5,973,104/.,  or  17s.  iid.  per  member,  having  in- 
creased from  5,207,680/.,  or  17s.  7^.  per  member,  since 
1899,  and  from  2,713,214/.,  or  14s.  per  member,  since  1891. 
These  societies  therefore  show  progress  like  the  others. 

The  collecting  societies  do  a  similar  business  to  that  of 
the  Industrial  Assurance  Companies,  of  which  the  Prudential 
is  the  type.  Their  ostensible  reason  for  existence  is  to 
answer  that  instinct  of  human  nature  which  makes  even  the 
poorest  desire  that  the  burial  of  the  dead  should  be  attended 
with  some  degree  of  ceremony  ;  but  strong  as  that  instinct 
may  be,  it  does  not  prompt  the  poor  to  seek  out  the  office 
of  the  society  and  pay  their  premiums  there.  They  have 
to  be  solicited  by  canvassers  and  waited  upon  by  an  army 
of  collectors  at  their  own  homes ;  and  the  maintenance  of 
this  army  and  the  general  cost  of  management  absorb  nearly 
half  the  contributions,  so  that  the  poor  insurer  pays  double 
the  net  price  for  his  insurance.  There  is  reason  to  believe, 
moreover,  that  these  societies  are  largely  used  for  specu- 
lative insurances  by  persons  who  have  no  real  insurable 
interest  in  the  lives  insured.  So  long  ago  as  1774  an  Act 
was  passed  for  the  purpose  of  checking  this  sort  of  gambling 
in  human  life  ;  but  as  it  only  makes  the  policy  void,  the 
insurer  takes  the  risk  of  the  society  repudiating  the  con- 
tract, knowing  that  its  doing  so  would  discredit  it  and  spoil 
its  business. 

A  number  of  other  classes  of  societies  are  capable  of  being 
registered  under  the  Friendly  Societies  Act,  such  as  cattle 
insurance  societies,  benevolent  societies,  working  men's 
clubs,  and  societies  for  any  purpose  the  registry  of  which 
the  Treasury  may  specially  authorise.  The  formation  of 
cattle  insurance  societies  on  a  large  scale  was  contemplated 
by  an  Act  of  1866,  when  the  cattle  plague  was  at  its  height ; 
but  in  practice  only  small  pig  clubs  and  similar  societies 
in  Lincolnshire  and  the  neighbouring  counties  have  been 
registered  under  this  head.  Benevolent  societies  are  defined 
as  societies  for  any  benevolent  or  charitable  purpose,  and 
might  therefore  comprise  all  the  charitable  institutions  of 
the  United  Kingdom,  but  in  fact  the  registered  benevolent 
societies  are  few.  Working  men's  clubs — frequently  called 
working  men's  clubs  and  institutes — were  first  brought 
under  the  operation  of  the  Friendly  Societies  Act  of  that 
day  by  Sir  George  Grey  as  Secretary  of  State  in  1864,  and 
were  then  societies  for  purposes  of  social  intercourse,  mutual 
helpfulness,  mental  and  moral  improvement,  and  rational 
recreation.  They  are  still  so  defined  by  law  ;  what  they  are 
in  fact  has  been  revealed  by  the  provisions  of  the  Licensing 
Act,  1902,  as  to  the  registration  of  clubs.  Rules  have  been 
submitted  to  the  Registry  Office,  and  we  have  been  advised 
that  we  have  no  discretion  to  refuse  to  register  them  as 
rules  for  carrying  out  the  excellent  purposes  just  defined, 
providing  for  the  supply  of  intoxicating  liquors  to  members 
and  their  friends  at  hours  when  the  ordinary  licensed  houses 
are  compulsorily  closed,  for  keeping  the  club  open  every 
night  until  midnight,  and  on  nights  when  there  are  balls 
until  six  o'clock  in  the  morning,  and  for  other  incitements 
to  intemperance.  I  hope  that  it  will  not  be  long  before 
an  enactment  is  passed  that  the  registry  of  a  club  under  the 
Licensing  Act  shall  vacate  its  registry  under  the  Friendly 
Societies  Act.  Such  clubs  have  nothing  to  do  with  thrift 
or  with  insurance ;  they  are  rather  instruments  of  extrava- 
gance, improvidence,  and  dissipation. 

Some  of  the  specially  authorised  purposes  are  also  wide 
of  the  mark,  which  upon  the  ejusdem  generis  rule  should, 
I  think,  be  pointed  with  strictness  in  the  direction  of  pro- 
vident insurance ;  but  there  has  always  been  a  desire 
liberally  to  extend  the  benefits  of  the  Friendly  Societies  Act 
with  a  view  to  the  encouragement  of  societies  having  praise- 
worthy objects  which  for  want  of  means  or  some  other 
!  reason  are  not  registered  as  companies.  The  large  majority 
of  specially  authorised  societies  are  Loan  Societies,  and 
though  these  may  in  some  cases  be  fairly  good  investments 
for  those  who  lend,  they  are  of  doubtful  benefit  to  those 
who  borrow.  An  exception  must  be  made  to  this  state- 
ment   with    respect    to    the    Agricultural    Credit    Societies, 

NO.    1770,  VOL.  68] 


many  of  which  have  been  established  in  Ireland  by  the 
exertions  of  Sir  Horace  Plunkett,  and  have  been  pecuniarily 
assisted  by  the  Congested  Districts  Board.  It  is  a  feature 
of  these  societies  that  they  not  only  lend  money  to  the 
small  farmer,  but  see  that  he  spends  it  on  improvements 
to  his  farm ;  and  also  that  there  is  no  division  of  profit 
among  the  members. 

The  returns  from  all  societies  under  the  F"riendly  Societies 
Act  other  than  Friendly  Societies  proper  increased  from  557 
in  1891  to  1308  in  1899,  and  1449  in  1901  ;  the  number  of 
members  from  241,44b  in  1891  to  610,254  '"  '899,  and 
649.:»qi  in  1901  ;  and  the  amount  of  funds  from  594,808/. 
in  1891  to  1,528,064/.  in  1899,  and  1,686,656/.  in  1901. 
Here,  again,  great  allowance  has  to  be  made  for  the  want 
of  completeness  in  the  returns  of  the  earliest  date. 

Allied  to  Friendly  Societies,  but  having  special  regula- 
tions under  other  Acts,  are  shop  clubs  and  workmen's  com- 
pensation schemes.  In  a  vast  number  of  large  industrial 
establishments  the  men  have  their  own  sick  club,  some- 
times assisted  by  the  employer  ;  and  in  a  few  the  employer 
makes  it  a  condition  of  employment  that  every  workman 
shall  join  the  club.  Where  this  is  done  it  is  now  enacted, 
not  only  that  the  club  shall  comply  with  the  requirements 
of  the  Friendly  Societies  Act  as  to  registry,  but  also  with 
other  conditions  of  more  stringency.  As  yet  only  a  few 
clubs  have  been  able  to  satisfy  all  the  requirements  of  the 
Shop  Clubs  Act,  1902.  The  workmen's  compensation 
schemes  provide  an  alternative  to  the  genferal  scheme  of 
compensation  to  injured  workmen  contained  in  the  Act  of 
1897,  and  have  enabled  the  employers  and  workmen  in 
several  large  industries  to  enter  into  mutual  arrangements 
by  which  the  workman  gains  an  equivalent  to  the  com- 
pensation which  the  Act  would  give  him,  and  enters  into 
partnership  with  the  employer  for  obtaining  other  benefits. 
According  to  the  returns,  these  schemes  have  hitherto  re- 
sulted very  favourably  to  the  workmen,  and  it  seems  a  pity 
there  are  not  more  of  them. 

The  sentiment  of  which  I  have  spoken,  that  it  is  desirable 
to  extend  the  benefits  of  the  Friendly  Societies  Acts  to 
societies  for  good  objects,  even  though  those  objects  may 
not  be  purposes  of  provident  insurance,  is  expressed  in  the 
statute  of  1834,  which  allowed  of  "  any  purpose  which  is 
not  illegal,"  and  in  that  of  1846,  in  which  the  definition  of 
a  F"riendly  Society  was  made  to  include  the  frugal  invest- 
ment of  the  savings  of  the  members  for  better  enabling 
them  to  purchase  food,  firing,  clothes,  or  other  necessaries, 
or  the  tools,  implentents,  or  materials  of  their  trade  or 
calling,  or  to  provide  for  the  education  of  thejr  children  or 
kindred.  Under  these  Acts  the  Rochdale  Equitable  Pioneers 
and  a  number  of  other  Co-operative  Societies  were 
registered,  and  in  1852  an  Act  was  passed  specially  dealing 
with  these  bodies  under  the  name  of  Industrial  and  Provi- 
dent Societies.  They  were  made  corporate  bodies  by  an  Act 
of  1862,  and  are  now  regulated  by  the  Industrial  and  Provi- 
dent Societies  Act,  1893.  The  societies  that  may  be  regis- 
tered under  that  Act  are  societies  for  carrying  on  any 
industries,  businesses,  or  trades  specified  in  or  authorised 
by  their  rules,  whether  wholesale  or  retail,  and  including 
dealings  of  any  description  with  land. 

This  definition  indicates  pretty  clearly  the  manner  in 
which  Co-operative  Societies  have  worked  out  their  own 
evolution.  The  expression  "  Industries  "  denotes  the  pro- 
ductive form  of  sofiety,  a  form  which  has  always  embodied 
the  ideal  of  co-operation  when  the  combined  labour  of  the 
members  should  be  engaged  in  the  production  of  commodi- 
ties. The  expression  "  Businesses  "  indicates  the  recogni- 
tion of  the  Legislature  that  Co-operative  Societies  ought 
to  cover  a  wider  range  than  was  allowed  by  the  words 
"  labour,  trade,  or  handicraft  "  in  the  Act  of  1876,  and 
includes  banking,  assurance,  and  the  like.  The  expression 
"  Trades  "  denotes  the  distributive  form  of  society,  a  form 
in  which  co-operation  has  gained  its  greatest  successes. 
The  permission  to  carry  on  these  functions  "  wholesale  " 
as  well  as  retail  points  to  the  system  of  super-association, 
or  co-operation  between  societies,  which  has  attained 
phenomenal  proportions  in  the  co-operative  wholesale 
societies  of  Manchester  and  of  Glasgow^  and  exists  in  a 
smaller  degree  of  development  in  other  societies.  The 
authorising  of  "  dealings  of  any  description  with  land  " 
relates  not  merely  to  a  considerable  number  of  land  societies, 
but  is  also  an  indication  of  the  great  extent  to  which 
societies  for  other  purposes  have  applie(^  their  profits  and 


538 


NA  TURE 


[October  i,  1903 


some  of  their  capital  to  the  excellent  work  of  providing 
homes  for  their  members.  It  is  also  to  be  observed  that 
many  societies  are  both  distributive  and  productive. 

What  have  these  societies  done  for  their  members?  They 
have  reduced  the  price  of  the  necessaries  of  life  and  have 
thus  enabled  persons  of  limited  means  to  enjoy  some  of  its 
luxuries ;  they  have  provided  a  remunerative  investment  for 
small  savings  ;  they  have  done  much  to  put  an  end  to  the 
practice  of  giving  and  taking  long  credit ;  they  have  done 
as  much  as  in  them  lies  to  ensure  the  purity  of  commodities  ; 
thev  have  discountenanced  (though,  perhaps,  not  with  all 
the  success  that  might  have  been  hoped  for)  the  practice 
of  taking  commissions  and  commercial  bribery  generally  ; 
they  have  raised  the  standard  of  comfort  and  have  helped 
inany  members  to  obtain  the  coveted  possession  of  a  house 
of  their  own  ;  they  have  devoted  a  share  of  their  profits  to 
educational  purposes  with  excellent  results.  Some  of  the 
productive  societies,  by  the  practice  of  giving  a  bonus  to 
labour,  have  improved  the  economic  position  of  the  work- 
man and  contributed  to  the  efficiency  of  his  work.  On 
the  other  hand,  co-operative  societies  generally  have  not 
been  so  successful  as  was  expected  in  realising  some  of  the 
aspirations  of  the  founders  of  co-operation ;  commercial 
failure  has  not  been  unknown  among  them ;  losses  have 
occurred,  though  the  simple  organisation  of  the  societies 
has  made  it  easy  to  deal  with  them  by  adjustments  of  the 
capital  account ;  they  have  not  always  had  the  best  of 
managers,  and  have  sometimes  failed  to  give  their  con- 
fidence where  it  was  deserved,  and  given  it  where  it  was 
not.  In  many  places  they  have  had  to  contend  with 
opposition  from  the  traders  to  whose  business  and  profits 
their  success  was  unfavourable.  Taking  all  things  into 
consideration,  the  progress  they  have  made  is  surprising. 

Comparing  the  returns  for  the  United  Kingdom  for  the 
years  ending  December  31,  1891,  and  December  31,  1901, 
the  increase  in  number  of  societies  was  from  1597  to  2175  ; 
in  number  of  members  from  1,136,907  to  1,929,628;  in 
amount  of  funds  from   16,545,138/.  to  40,824,660/. 

It  has  been  observed  that  the  Co-operative  Societies  are 
largely  undertaking  the  work  of  providing  houses  for  their 
members  ;  and  to  that  it  may  be  added  that  the  Friendly 
Societies  are  more  and  more  tending  to  adopt  the  practice 
of  lending  money  to  members  on  mortgage  as  one  of  the 
most  remunerative  forms  of  investment  open  to  them.  The 
Building  Societies,  which  were  established  for  that  purpose 
only,  are  still  carrying  on  the  same  work,  and  the  combined 
operation  of  all  three  ought  to  produce  a  material  effect  on 
the  prosperity  and  well-being  of  the  industrial  population. 
Building  Societies  alone  advance  as  much  as  9,000,000/.  a 
year  on  mortgage. 

Building  Societies  have  passed  through  a  crisis.  The  in- 
corporated societies  reached  their  hio-hest  point  of  prosperity 
in  1887,  when  their  capital  amounted  to  fifty-four  millions  ; 
by  1894  '*^  had  fallen  to  below  forty-three  millions.  The 
Building  Societies  Act,  1894,  required  of  societies  a  fuller 
disclosure  of  the  real  state  of  their  affairs  than  had  pre- 
viously been  called  for.  The  result  was  to  show  that,  apart 
from  the  special  scandal  caused  by  the  fraudulent  proceed- 
ings of  the  Liberator  Society,  there  were  hitherto  undis- 
closed elements  of  weakness  in  the  management  of  Build- 
ing Societies  that  .justified  the  withdrawal  of  the  public 
confidence  that  had  been  reposed  in  them.  The  properties 
in  possession  before  the  passing  of  the  Act  of  1894  were 
not  less  than  7,500,000/.  ;  they  are  now  less  than  3,000,000/. 
This  points  to  the  fact  that  the  early  prosperity  of  Building 
Societies  had  led  to  the  establishment  of  more  societies 
than  the  public  demand  called  for,  with  the  consequences 
that  societies  competed  against  each  other,  and  that  in  the 
stress  of  competition  and  the  anxiety  to  do  business  they 
accepted  unsatisfactory  securities,  which  must  lead  to  loss 
upon  realisation.  From  this  point  of  view  the  effect  of  the 
Act  of  1894  has  been  wholly  salutary.  Year  after  year  the 
societies  have  reduced  their  properties  in  possession.  The 
evils  which  they  dreaded  from  the  disclosure  of  the  facts 
have  not  arisen.  At  this  day  it  may  be  said  that  the 
societies  as  a  whole  have  regained  the  position  they  held 
in  public  confidence,  for  the  members  now  know  the  worst. 
They  know,  too,  that  where  the  blight  of  properties  in 
possession  still  infests  the  business  the  managers  are  re- 
solutely endeavouring  to  diminish  its  effect. 

I  need  hardly  repeat  what  has  so  often  been  said  of  the 
economic  value  of  a  sound  Building  Society.  The  man  who 
NO.    1770,  VOL.   68] 


by  its  means  gets  a  stake  in  the  country  mounts  many  steps 
on  the  social  ladder.  When  he  has  paid  off  the  mortgage 
on  his  own  dwelling-house,  and  so  liberated  himself  trom 
the  obligation  to  pay  principal  and  interest,  either  in  the 
form  of  repayment  annuity  or  of  rent,  what  is  to  prevent 
him  from  buying  in  the  same  manner,  as  an  investment, 
another  house  with  the  income  thus  set  free,  and  so  on? 

There  are  still  sixty-eight  Building  Societies  which  re- 
main under  the  operation  of  the  Act  of  1836,  having  been 
established  before  1856,  and  not  having  availed  themselves 
of  the  option  of  taking  upon  themselves  the  responsibilities 
and  the  privileges  of  the  Acts  of  1874  and  subsequent  years. 
One  society  (the  Birkbeck)  stands  by  itself,  as,  although 
its  business  as  a  Building  Society  is  considerable — the  new 
advances  granted,  on  mortgage  last  year  having  been  for 
120,000/. — its  main  operations  are  those  of  a  deposit  bank, 
and  it  keeps  the  far  greater  part  of  its  funds  in  investments 
on  liquid  securities.  The  other  societies  are  pursuing  the 
even  tenor  of  their  way,  just  as  they  have  done  for  the  last 
fifty  years,  and  show  on  the  average  an  increase  of  busi- 
ness from  year  to  year.  But  the  great  body  of  Building 
Societies  are  those  which  are  incorporated  under  the  Acts 
of  1874  to  1894,  exceeding  2000  in  number.  They  have  so 
far  recovered  from  the  effects  of  the  depression  that  their 
assets  are  now  forty-eight  millions,  being  midway  between 
the  low-water  mark  of  1894  and  the  high-water  mark  of 
1887.  That  and  the  fact  that  they  have  in  about  seven 
years  reduced  their  properties  in  possession  by  about  60  per 
cent,  leads  to  the  inference  that  they  are  now,  speaking 
generally,  in  a  fairly  healthy  condition,  and  that  many 
years  of  usefulness  are  still  to  be  expected  for  them. 

The  Friendly  Societies  Registry  also  registers  and  receives 
returns  from  trade  unions.  These  useful  and  necessary 
bodies  have,  I  think,  been  rather  cruelly  treated,  not  only 
in  past  days,  but  also  in  more  recent  times.  Without 
going  back  to  the  bad  old  times  when  six  poor  agricultural 
labourers  were  sentenced  to  seven  years'  transportation  for 
forming  a  trade  union,  or  even  to  the  time  when  they  were 
refused  the  protection  of  the  law  for  the  funds  they  had 
accumulated,  because,  forsooth,  they  were  for  an  illegal 
purpose,  it  will  be  sufficient  to  mark  the  unexpected  change 
that  has  been  worked  in  their  position  since  the  Act  of 
1871  purported  to  render  them  legal.  Registry  under  that 
Act  authorised  the  trustees  of  a  trade  union  to  hold  land 
not  exceeding  one  acre,  vested  the  property  of  the  union 
in  them,  authorised  them  to  sue  and  be  sued  on  behalf  of 
the  union,  limited  their  liability,  made  the  treasurers  and 
officers  accountable  to  them  or  to  the  members,  and  enabled 
them  to  take  summary  proceedings  against  any  person 
misapplying  their  funds.  But  it  did  not  create  the  unions 
corporate  bodies,  and  did  not  enable  any  Court  to  entertain 
legal  proceedings  for  enforcing  their  contracts  with  their 
members,  recovering  contributions  due  from  a  member,  or 
recovering  from  the  union  benefits  due  to  a  member  or  other 
person,  or  for  enforcing  any  agreement  between  one  trade 
union  and  another,  even  where  any  such  contracts  or  agree- 
ments were  secured  by  bond.  It  was  commonly  thought 
that  the  effect  of  all  this  would  be  that  the  unions,  having 
none  of  the  privileges  of  incorporation,  would  escape  the 
liabilities  which  affect  corporate  bodies  ;  and  so  much  was 
this  the  general  opinion  that  the  Duke  of  Devonshire  and 
other  members  of  the  Royal  Commission  on  Labour  made 
a  minority  report  in  which  they  suggested  that  the  law  in 
this  respect  should  be  altered. 

It  has  recently  been  determined  that,  although  unions  are 
not  corporate  bodies,  they  are  responsible  for  the  acts  of 
their  agents  as  much  as  if  they  were.  I  do  not  presume 
to  question  the  propriety  of  this  decision  as  a  matter  of  law, 
nor  even  to  say  that  it  is  a  decision  which  is  contrary 
to  equity  ;  but  only  to  point  out  that  its  result  upon  the 
individual  member  of  a  trade  union,  who  gave  no  mandate 
to  its  agents  to  do  any  illegal  or  injurious  act,  but  handed 
over  his  savings  to  the  trustees  of  the  union,  relying  on 
the  stringency  of  the  provisions  of  the  Act  as  to  mis- 
application of  funds,  is  very  serious  and  was  unexpected. 
The  contributions  of  workmen  to  their  trade  union  represent 
an  amount  of  self-sacrifice  and  self-denial  that  is  not  readily 
gauged  or  measured  or  understood  by  persons  in  easier 
circumstances  of  life.  Their  object,  which  is  primarily  to 
provide  the  sinews  of  war  in  any  conflict  that  may  be 
necessary  to  secure  their  material  welfare,  and  secondarily 
to   provide   sick   and   funeral   and   pension   and  out-of-work 


October  i,  1903] 


NATURE 


539 


benefits  against  the  ordinary  ills  of  life,  is  one  that  ought 
to  appeal  most  strongly  to  the  sympathies  of  the  economist. 
If  it  is  the  fact  that  trade  unions  make  mistakes,  as  most 
people  do,  those  mistakes  will  be  much  fewer  and  less 
mischievous  when  full  legislative  recognition  and  protec- 
tion are  afforded  them  than  they  were  under  the  old 
regime  of  suspicion  and  repression. 

Loan  Societies  under  the  Act  of  1840  are  societies  for 
lending  sums  of  money  not  exceeding  15/.  to  the  industrious 
classes  upon  terms  of  a  deduction  of  interest  at  the  time  of 
granting  the  loan  and  a  corresponding  weekly  repayment 
fixed  to  commence  at  such  a  time  that  the  rate  of  interest 
earned  by  the  society  shall  be  about  12  per  cent,  per  annum  ; 
another  instance  of  the  experience  which  always  faces  the 
poor  man  that  he  has  to  pay  for  any  small  accommodation 
he  wants  a  higher  relative  price  than  the  man  has  who 
wants  more.  These  societies  are  of  two  types  :  the  Friends 
of  Labour  Loan  Societies,  e.xisting  mainly  in  the  metro- 
polis, having  two  classes  of  members,  investing  and  borrow- 
ing, but  limiting  the  subscriptions  of  the  one  class  to  the 
15/.,  which  is  the  statutory  limit  of  the  loans  to  the  other 
class  ;  and  what  may  be  called  the  proprietary  loan  societies, 
existing  mainly  in  Yorkshire,  making  their  loans  to  non- 
members,  and  consisting  of  a  small  number  of  persons  who 
contribute  the  whole  of  the  capital,  the  holding  of  each 
proprietor  sometimes  amounting  to  several  hundreds  of 
pounds. 

The  Registry  of  Friendly  Societies  has  for  one  of  its 
functions  that  of  granting  to  societies  which  are  exclusively 
for  purposes  of  science,  literature,  and  the  fine  arts  certifi- 
cates exempting  them  from  local  rating.  Though  there 
can  be  no  question  that  these  certificates  are  of  great  value 
to  many  excellent  institutions,  such  as  public  libraries, 
picture  galleries,  museums,  and  scientific  and  learned 
societies,  which  would  find  the  liability  to  pay  rates,  in 
these  days  when  rates  have  increased  and  are  increasing 
so  largely,  a  serious  deduction  from  the  scanty  means  at 
their  command  for  maintaining  their  useful  operations,  yet 
I  have  very  grave  doubts  whether  on  economic  grounds  any 
such  exemption  from  rates  is  capable  of  being  defended. 
The  benevolent  people  who  subscribe  to  maintain  these 
buildings  for  the  public  good  increase  the  burden  upon  the 
small  ratepayer  to  the  extent  to  which  they  fail  to  contribute 
their  share.  The  Act  of  1843  has  more  than  once  been 
scheduled  in  Bills  for  repealing  exemptions  from  rating, 
but  those  Bills  have  not  been  passed,  and  the  Act  is  still 
in  force. 

There  only  remains  to  consider  the  case  of  Savings  Banks, 
which  are  brought  in  connection  with  the  Registry  of 
Friendly  Societies  by  the  Acts  which  confer  upon  that  office 
exclusive  and  final  jurisdiction  in  the  settlement  of  disputes, 
and  effectually  oust  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Courts  of  Law. 
Under  these  Acts  many  thousands  of  disputes  have  been 
settled  by  my  predecessors,  my  colleagues,  and  myself,  and 
at  the  present  time  an  average  of  three  appointments  every 
week  during  the  busy  time  of  the  year  has  to  be  made  to 
hear  the  parties.  We  see  much  of  the  seamy  side  of  life 
in  these  cases — many  family  and  other  quarrels  of  a  sordid 
character  are  brought  to  light — and  it  has  been  noted  as 
a  curious  fact  that  persons  guilty  of  fraud  or  embezzle- 
ment seem  frequently,  but  most  unwisely,  to  select  the 
Savings  Bank  as  the  securest  receptacle  for  their  ill-gotten 
gains.  On  the  other  hand  many  pathetic  and  touching 
instances  of  thrift  and  self-sacrifice  have  been  brought  under 
"ur  notice,  and  much  evidence  has  been  accumulated  as 
the  great  value  to  the  poor  of  these  excellent  institutions. 
\-;  compared  with  the  several  self-governing  bodies  to  which 
1  have  already  directed  attention,  the  Savings  Bank  may 
not  unfairly  be  described  as  the  elementary  form  of 
organisation  for  thrift.  The  depositor  entrusts  his  money 
to  it  for  mere  safe  custody  and  accumulation,  and  has  no 
voice  in  the  application  of  it  or  control  over  its  managers. 
All  he  asks  is  that  he  may  run  no  risk  of  losing  it.  Savings 
Banks  are  of  three  classes  :  the  230  Trustee  Savings  Banks 
of  the  old  type  which  still  remain,  and  have  to  their  credit 
nn  undiminished  amount  of  funds,  though  there  were  at 
ne  time  more  than  twice  as  many  banks;  the  Post  Office 
-  ivings  Bank,  which  is  one  of  the  many  monuments  still 
rant  to  the  financial  genius  of  Mr.  Gladstone,  and  not 
-s  to  the  administrative  skill  of  the  public  servants  who 
tiled  the  lines  upon  which  it  works,  and  which  has  in- 
roased  the  savings  of  the  people  more  than  threefold  by 


NO.    1770,  VOL 


le  peopi 

.  68] 


bringing  almost  to  every  man's  door  the  opportunity  of 
making  deposits.  I  hope  that  it  may  meet  in  its  new 
and  splendid  home  at  West  Kensington  with  a  continuance 
and  increase  of  the  marvellous  success  which  has  hitherto 
attended  it.  Thirdly,  there  are  the  Railway  Savings  Banks, 
which  have  collected  from  the  workmen  employed  and  from 
their  families  nearly  five  million  pounds.  It  is  right  to 
observe  that  they  give  a  rate  of  interest  exceeding  by  about 
I  per  cent,  that  given  by  the  Trustee  and  Post  Office 
Savings  Banks.  It  is  also  to  be  borne  in  mind  that  the 
deposits  in  Savings  Banks  are  not  drawn  wholly  from  the 
industrial  population,  but  that  many,  especially  women  and 
children,  belonging  to  other  classes  make  use  of  the  banks. 
Indeed,  the  Postmaster-General,  in  an  approximate  estimate 
made  some  years  ago,  calculated  that  women  and  children 
constituted  56  per  cent,  of  the  whole  number  of  depositors. 
School  Savings  Banks  and  Penny  Savings  Banks  are  also 
to  be  mentioned  as  feeders  of  the  ordinary  Savings  Banks, 
and  as  greatly  increasing  the  opportunities  of  saving 
afforded  to  the  young,  and  instilling  into  them  valuable 
lessons  of  thrift. 

Such  is  the  story  the  department  I  am  about  to  leave  has 
to  tell  of  the  free  and  spontaneous  efforts  of  the  industrial 
population  to  better  their  condition  by  means  of  thrift  and 
economy.  It  is,  I  venture  to  think,  one  which  speaks  well 
for  the  general  body  of  that  population  and  has  great 
promise  for  the  future  of  the  country.  In  times  of  de- 
pression, as  well  as  in  times  of  prosperity,  the  gradual 
increase  of  the  funds  of  these  various  bodies  has  been  main- 
tained ;  the  members  have  not  been  compelled  by  the  one, 
nor  tempted  by  the  other,  to  relax  their  efforts  and  their 
sacrifices. 

I  ask  forgiveness  for  having  detained  you  so  long  on 
S3  small  a  branch  of  the  great  subjects  with  which  this 
Section  has  to  deal,  and  which  will  be  well  illustrated  in 
the  important  papers  and  discussions  that  are  set  down  on 
its  programme.  The  course  of  events  has  given  to  one 
group  of  subjects,  that  has  often  been  considered  in  this 
Section,  a  new  and  unexpected  prominence  ;  and  we  await 
with  keen  interest  the  teaching  which  economic  science 
has  to  offer  on  the  questions  of  the  day. 


SECTION    H. 


ANTHROPOLOGY. 


Opening  Address  by  Prof.  Johnson  Symington,  M.D., 
F.R.S.,  F.R.S.E.,  President  of  the  Section. 

It  is  now  nearly  twenty  years  since  Anthropology  attained 
to  the  dignity  of  being  awarded  a  special  and  independent 
Section  in  this  Association,  and  I  believe  it  is  generally 
admitted  that  during  this  period  the  valuable  nature  of 
many  of  the  contributions,  the  vigour  of  the  discussions, 
and  the  large  attendance  of  members  have  amply  justified 
the  establishment  and  continued  existence  of  this  Section. 

While  the  multifarious  and  diverse  nature  of  the  subjects 
which  are  grouped  under  the  term  Anthropology  gives  a 
variety  and  a  breadth  to  our  proceedings,  which  are  very 
refreshing  in  this  age  of  minute  specialism,  I  feel  that  it 
adds  very  considerably  to  the  difficulty  of  selecting  a  subject 
for  a  Presidential  Address  which  will  prove  of  general 
interest. 

A  survey  of  the  recent  advances  in  our  knowledge  of  the 
many  important  questions  which  come  within  the  scope  of 
this  Section  would  cover  too  wide  a  field  for  the  time  at 
my  disposal,  while  a  critical  examination  of  the  various 
problems  that  still  await  solution  might  expose  me  to  the 
temptation  of  pronouncing  opinions  on  subjects  regarding 
which  I  could  not  speak  with  any  real  knowledge  or  ex- 
perience. To  avoid  such  risks  I  have  decided  to  limit  my 
remarks  to  a  subject  which  comes  within  the  range  of  my 
own  special  studies,  and  to  invite  your  attention  to  a  con- 
sideration of  some  problems  arising  from  the  variations 
in  the  development  of  the  skull  and  the  brain. 

Since  the  institution  of  this  Section  the  development, 
growth,  and  racial  peculiarities  of  both  skull  and  brain, 
and  the  relation  of  these  two  organs  to  each  other,  have 
attracted  an  ever-increasing  amount  of  attention.  The 
introduction  of  new  and  improved  methods  for  the  study 
of  the  structure  of  the  brain  and  the   activity  of  an   able 


540 


NATURE 


[October  i,  1903 


band   of  experimenters  have  revolutionised   our   knowledge 
of  the  anatomy  and  physiology  of  the  higher  nerve  centres. 

The  value  of  the  results  thus  obtained  is  greatly  enhanced 
by  the  consciousness  that  they  bear  the  promise  of  still 
greater  advances  in  the  near  future.  If  the  results  obtained 
by  the  craniologist  have  been  less  marked,  this  arises  mainly 
from  the  nature  of  the  subject,  and  is  certainly  not  due  to 
any  lack  of  energy  on  their  part.  Our  craniological  collec- 
tions are  continually  increasing,  and  the  various  prehistoric 
skull-caps  from  the  Neanderthal  to  the  Trinil  still  form 
the  basis  of  interesting  and  valuable  memoirs. 

While  the  additions  to  our  general  knowledge  of  cerebral 
anatomy  and  physiology  have  been  so  striking,  those  aspects 
of  these  subjects  which  are  of  special  anthropological 
interest  have  made  comparatively  slight  progress,  and  can- 
not compare  in  extent  and  importance  with  the  advantages 
based  upon  a  study  of  fossil  and  recent  crania.  These  facts 
admit  of  a  ready  explanation.  Brains  of  anthropological 
interest  are  usually  difficult  to  procure  and  to  keep,  and 
require  the  use  of  special  and  complicated  methods  for  their 
satisfactory  examination,  while  skulls  of  the  leading  races 
of  mankind  are  readily  collected,  preserved,  and  studied. 
Hence  it  follows  that  the  crania  in  our  anthropological 
collections  are  as  numerous,  well  preserved,  and  varied  as 
the  brains  are  few  in  number  and  defective,  both  in  their 
state  of  preservation  and  representative  character.  It  may 
reasonably  be  anticipated  that  improved  methods  of  pre- 
servation and  the  growing  recognition  on  the  part  of 
anthropologists,  museum  curators,  and  collectors  of  the 
importance  of  a  study  of  the  brain  itself  will  to  some  extent 
at  least  remedy  these  defects ;  but  so  far  as  prehistoric  man 
IS  concerned,  we  can  never  hope  to  have  any  direct  evidence 
..of  the  condition  of  his  higher  nerve  centres,  and  must  de- 
pend for  an  estimate  of  his  cerebral  development  upon  those 
'more  or  less  perfect  skulls  which  fortunately  have  resisted 
.for  so  many  ages  the  corroding  hand  of  time. 

I  presume  we  will  all  admit  that  the  main  value  of  a  good 
collection  of  human  skulls  depends  upon  the  light  which 
they  can  be  made  to  throw  upon  the  relative  development 
of  the  brains  of  different  races.  Such  collections  possess 
few,  if  any,  brains  taken  from  these  or  corresponding 
skulls,  and  we  are  thus  dependent  upon  the  study  of  the 
skulls  alone  for  an  estimate  of  brain  development. 

Vigorous  attacks  have  not  unfrequently  been  made  upon 
the  craniometric  systems  at  present  in  general  use,  and 
the  elaborate  tables,  compiled  with  so  much  trouble,  giving 
the  circumference,  diameters,  and  corresponding  indices  of 
various  parts  of  the  skull,  are  held  to  afford  but  little 
information  as  to  the  real  nature  of  skull  variations,  how- 
ever useful  they  may  be  for  purposes  of  classification. 
While  by  no  means  prepared  to  express  entire  agreement 
with  these  critics,  I  must  admit  that  craniologists  as  a 
whole  have  concentrated  their  attention  mainly  on  the  ex- 
ternal contour  of  the  skull,  and  have  paid  comparatively 
little  attention  to  the  form  of  the  cranial  cavity.  The  outer 
surface  of  the  cranium  presents  features  which  are  due 
to  other  factors  than  brain  development,  and  an  examin- 
ation of  the  cranial  cavity  not  only  gives  us  important  in- 
formation as  to  brain  form,  but  by  affording  a  comparison 
between  the  external  and  internal  surfaces  of  the  cranial 
wall  it  gives  a  valuable  clue  to  the  real  significance  of  the 
external  configuration.  Beyond  determining  its  capacity 
we  can  do  but  little  towards  an  exact  investigation  of  the 
cranial  cavity  without  making  a  section  of  the  skull. 
Forty  years  ago  Prof.  Huxley,  in  his  work  "  On  the 
Evidence  of  Man's  Place  in  Nature,"  showed  the  import- 
ance of  a  comparison  of  the  basal  with  the  vaulted  portion 
of  the  skull,  and  maintained  that  until  it  should  become 
"  an  opprobrium  to  an  ethnological  collection  to  possess  a 
single  skull  which  is  not  bisected  longitudinally  "  there 
would  be  "no  safe  basis  for  that  ethnological  craniology 
which  aspires  to  give  the  anatomical  characters  of  the 
crania  of  the  different  races  of  mankind."  Prof.  Cleland 
and  Sir  William  Turner  have  also  insisted  upon  this  method 
of  examination,  and  only  two  years  ago  Prof.  D.  J. 
Cunningham,  in  his  Presidential  Address  to  this  Section, 
quoted,  with  approval,  the  forcible  language  of  Huxley. 
The  curators  of  craniological  collections  appear,  however, 
to  possess  an  invincible  objection  to  any  such  treatment 
of  the  specimens  under  their  care.  Even  in  the  Hunterian 
Museum  in  London,  where  Huxley  himself  worked  at  this 
subject,    among   several    thousands   of   skulls,    scarcely   any 

ro.  1770,  VOL  68] 


have  been  bisected  longitudinally,  or  had  the  cranial  cavity 
exposed  by  a.  section  in  any  other  direction.  The  method 
advocated  so  strongly  by  Huxley  is  not  only  essential  to  a 
thorough  study  of  the  relations  of  basi-cranial  axis  to  the 
vault  of  the  cranium  and  to  the  facial  portion  of  the  skull, 
but  also  permits  of  casts  being  taken  of  the  cranial  cavity  ; 
a  procedure  which,  I  would  venture  to  suggest,  has  been 
too  much  neglected  by  craniologists. 

Every  student  of  anatomy  is  familiar  with  the  finger-like 
depressions  on  the  inner  surface  of  the  cranial  wall,  which 
are  described  as  the  impress  of  the  cerebral  convolutions ; 
but  their  exact  distribution  and  the  degree  to  which  they 
are  developed  according  to  age,  sex,  race,  &c.,  still  remain 
to  be  definitely  determined.  Indeed,  there  appears  to  be  a 
considerable  difference  of  opinion  as  to  the  degree  of 
approximation  of  the  outer  surface  of  the  brain  to  the  inner 
surface  of  the  cranial  wall.  Thus  the  brain  is  frequently 
described  as  lying  upon  a  water-bed,  or  as  swimming  in 
the  cerebro-spinal  fluid,  while  Hyrtle  speaks  of  this  fluid  as 
a  "  ligamentum  suspensorium  "  for  the  brain.  Such  de- 
scriptions are  misleading  when  applied  to  the  relation  of 
the  cerebral  convolutions  to  the  skull.  There  are,  it  is 
true,  certain  parts  of  the  brain  which  are  surrounded  and 
separated  from  the  skull  by  a  considerable  amount  of  fluid. 
These,  however,  are  mainly  the  lower  portions,  such  as  the 
medulla  oblongata  and  pons  Varolii,  which  may  be  regarded 
as  prolongations  of  the  spinal  cord  into  the  cranial  cavity. 
As  they  contain  the  centres  controlling  the  action  of  the 
circulatory  and  respiratory  organs,  they  are  the  most  vital 
parts  of  the  central  nervous  system,  and  hence  need  special 
protection.  They  are  not,  however,  concerned  with  the 
regulation  of  complicated  voluntary  movements,  the  recep- 
tion and  storage  of  sensory  impressions  from  lower  centres, 
and  the  activity  of  the  various  mental  processes.  These 
functions  we  must  associate  with  the  higher  parts  of  the 
brain,  and  especially  with  the  convolutions  of  the  cerebral 
hemispheres. 

If  a  cast  be  taken  of  the  cranial  cavity  and  compared 
with  the  brain  which  had  previously  been  carefully  hardened 
in  situ  before  removal,  it  will  be  found  that  the  cast  not 
only  corresponds  in  its  general  form  to  that  of  the  brain, 
but  shows  a  considerable  number  of  the  cerebral  fissures 
and  convolutions.  This  moulding  of  the  inner  surface  of 
the  skull  to  the  adjacent  portions  of  the  cerebral  hemi- 
spheres is  usually  much  more  marked  at  the  base  and  sides 
than  over  the  vault.  Since  the  specific  gravity  of  the  brain 
tissue  is  higher  than  that  of  the  cerebro-spinal  fluid,  the 
cerebrum  tends  to  sink  towards  the  base  and  the  fluid  to 
accumulate  over  the  vault ;  hence  probably  these  differences 
admit  of  a  simple  mechanical  explanation.  Except  under 
abnormal  conditions,  the  amount  of  cerebro-spinal  fluid 
between  the  skull  and  the  cerebral  convolutions  is  so  small 
that  from  a  cast  of  the  cranial  cavity  we  can  obtain  not 
only  a  good  picture  of  the  general  shape  and  size  of  the 
higher  parts  of  the  brain,  but  also  various  details  as  to 
the  convolutionary  pattern.  This  method  has  been  applied 
with  marked  success  to  the  determination  of  the  characters 
of  the  brain  in  various  fossil  lemurs  by  Dr.  Forsyth  Major 
and  Prof.  R.  Burckhardt,  and  Prof.  Gustav  Schwalbe  has 
made  a  large  series  of  such  casts  from  his  craniological 
collection  in  Strassburg.  The  interesting  observations  by 
Schwalbe'  on  the  arrangement  of  the  "  impressiones 
digitatae  "  and  "  juga  cerebralia,"  and  their  relation  to 
the  cerebral  convolutions  in  man,  the  apes,  and  various 
other  mammals,  have  directed  special  attention  to  a  very 
interesting  field  of  inquiry.  As  is  well  known,  the  marked 
prominence  at  the  base  of  the  human  skull,  separating  the 
anterior  from  the  middle  fossa,  fits  into  the  deep  cleft 
between  the  frontal  and  temporal  lobes  of  the  brain,  and 
Schwalbe  has  shown  that  this  ridge  is  continued — of  course 
in  a  much  less  marked  form — along  the  inner  surface  of 
the  lateral  wall  of  the  skull,  so  that  a  cast  of  the  cranial 
cavity  presents  a  shallow  but  easily  recognised  groove  corre- 
sponding to  the  portion  of  the  Sylvian  fissure  of  the  brain 
separating  the  frontal  and  parietal  lobes  from  the  temporal 
lobe.  Further,  there  is  a  distinct  depression  for  the  lodg- 
ment of  the  inferior  frontal  convolution,  and  a  cast  of  the 
middle  cranial  fossa  shows  the  three  external  temporal 
convolutions. 

We  must  now  turn  to  the  consideration  of  the  relations 
1  "  Ueber  die  Beziehungen   zwischen    Innenform    und   Aussenform   des 
Schadels,"  Deutsches  Archiv  fur  klinische  Medicin,  1902. 


October  i.  1903] 


NATURE 


541 


of  the  outer  surface  of  the  cranium  to  its  inner  surface 
and  to  the  brain.  This  question  has  engaged  the  attention 
of  experts  as  well  as  the  "  man  in  the  street  "  since  the 
time  of  Gall  and  Spurzheim,  and  one  might  naturally  sup- 
pose that  the  last  word  had  been  said  on  the  subject.  This, 
however,  is  far  from  being  the  case.  All  anatomists  are 
agreed  that  the  essential  function  of  the  cranium  is  to  form 
a  box  for  the  support  and  protection  of  the  brain,  and  it  is 
generally  conceded  that  during  the  processes  of  development 
and  growth  the  form  of  the  cranium  is  modified  in  response 
to  the  stimulus  transmitted  to  it  by  the  brain.  In  fact  it 
is  brain  growth  that  determines  the  form  of  the  cranium, 
and  not  the  skull  that  moulds  the  brain  into  shape.  This 
belief,  however,  need  not  be  accepted  without  some  reserv- 
ations. Even  the  brain  may  be  conceived  as  being  in- 
fluenced by  its  immediate  environment.  There  are  probably 
periods  of  development  when  the  form  of  the  brain  is 
modified  by  the  resistance  offered  by  its  coverings,  and  there 
are  certainly  stages  when  the  brain  does  not  fully  occupy 
th"  cranial  cavity. 

At  an  early  period  in  the  phylogeny  of  the  vertebrate  skull 
the  structure  of  the  greater  part  of  the  cranial  wall  changes 
from  membranous  tissue  into  cartilage,  the  portion  persist- 
ing as  membrane  being  situated  near  the  median  dorsal 
line.  In  the  higher  vertebrates  the  rapid  and  early  ex- 
pansion of  the  dorsal  part  of  the  fore-brain  is  so  marked 
that  the  cartilaginous  growth  fails  to  keep  pace  with  it, 
and  more  and  more  of  the  dorsal  wall  of  the  cranium  re- 
mains membranous,  and  subsequently  ossifies  to  form 
membrane  bones.  Cartilage,  though  constituting  a  firmer 
support  to  the  brain  than  membrane,  does  not  possess  the 
same  capacity  of  rapid  growth  and  expansion.  The  head 
of  a  young  child  is  relatively  large,  and  its  skull  is  dis- 
tinguished from  that  of  an  adult  by  the  small  size  of  the 
cartilaginous  base  of  the  cranium  as  compared  with  the 
membranous  vault.  The  appearance  of  top-heaviness  in  the 
young  skull  is  gradually  obliterated  as  age  advances  by  the 
cartilage  continuing  slowly  to  grow  after  the  vault  has 
practically  ceased  to  enlarge.  These  changes  in  the  shape 
of  the  cranium  are  associated  with  corresponding  alter- 
ations in  that  of  the  brain,  and  it  appears  to  me  that  we 
have  here  an  illustration  of  how  the  conditions  of  skull 
growth  may  modify  the  general  form  of  the  brain. 

Whatever  may  be  the  precise  influences  that  determine 
skull  and  brain  growth,  there  can  be  no  doubt  but  that 
within  certain  limits  the  external  form  of  the  cranium  serves 
as  a  trustworthy  guide  to  the  shape  of  the  brain.  State- 
ments such  as  those  by  Dr.  J.  Deniker  ("  The  Races  of 
Man,"  p.  53)  "  that  the  inequalities  of  the  external  table 
of  the  cranial  walls  have  no  relation  whatever  with  the 
irregularities  of  the  inner  table,  and  still  less  have  any- 
thing in  common  with  the  configuration  of  the  various  parts 
of  the  brain,"  are  of  too  general  and  sweeping  a  character. 
Indeed,  various  observers  have  drawn  attention  to  the  fact 
that  in  certain  regions  the  outer  surface  of  the  skull 
possesses  elevations  and  depressions  which  closely  corre- 
spond to  definite  fissures  and  convolutions  of  the  brain. 
Many  years  ago  Sir  William  Turner,  who  was  a  pioneer 
in  cranio-cerebral  topography,  found  that  the  prominence 
on  the  outer  surface  of  the  parietal  bone,  known  to 
anatomists  as  the  parietal  eminence,  was  situated  directly 
superficial  to  a  convolution  of  the  parietal  lobe  of  the  brain, 
which  he  consequently  very  appropriately  named  "  the  con- 
volution of  the  parietal  eminence."  Quite  recently  Prof. 
G.  Schwalbe  has  shown  that  the  position  of  the  third  or 
inferior  frontal  convolution  is  indicated  by  a  prominence 
on  the  surface  of  the  cranium  in  the  anterior  part  of  the 
temple.  This  area  of  the  brain  is  of  special  interest  to  all 
students  of  cerebral  anatomy  and  physiology,  since  it  was 
the  discovery  by  the  illustrious  French  anthropologist  and 
physician,  M.  Broca,  that  the  left  inferior  frontal  convolu- 
tion was  the  centre  for  speech,  that  laid  the  scientific 
foundation  of  our  present  knowledge  of  localisation  of  func- 
tion in  the  cerebral  cortex.  This  convolution  is  well  known 
to  be  much  more  highly  developed  in  man  than  in  the 
anthropoid  apes,  and  the  presence  of  a  human  cranial 
speech-bump  is  usually  easily  demonstrated.  The  faculty 
of  speech,  however,  is  such  a  complicated  cerebral  function 
that  I  would  warn  the  "  new  "  phrenologist  to  be  cautious 
in  estimating  the  loquacity  of  his  friends  by  the  degree  of 
prominence  of  this  part  of  the  skull,   more  particularly  as 


NO.    1770,  VOL.  68] 


there  are  other  and   more   trustworthy   methods  of  observ- 
ation by  which  he  can  estimate  this  capacity. 

In  addition  to  the  prominences  on  the  outer  surface  of 
th^  cranium,  corresponding  to  the  convolutions  of  the 
parietal  eminence  and  the  left  inferior  frontal  convolution, 
the  majority  of  skulls  possess  a  shallow  groove  marking  the 
position  of  the  Sylvian  point  and  the  course  of  the  hori- 
zontal limb  of  the  Sylvian  fissure.  Below  these  two  other 
shallow  oblique  grooves  indicate  the  line  of  the  cerebral 
fissures  which  divide  the  outer  surface  of  the  temporal  lobe 
into  its  three  convolutions,  termed  superior,  middle,  and 
inferior.  Most  of  these  cranial  surface  markings  are 
partially  obscured  in  the  living  body  by  the  temporal  muscle, 
but  they  are  of  interest  as  showing  that  in  certain  places 
there  is  a  close  correspondence  in  form  between  the  external 
surface  of  the  brain  and  that .  of  the  skull.  There  are, 
however,  distinct  limitations  in  the  degree  to  which  the 
various  cerebral  fissures  and  convolutions  impress  the  inner 
surface  of  the  cranial  wall,  or  are  represented  by  inequalities 
on  its  outer  aspect.  Thus  over  the  vault  of  the  cranium 
the  position  of  the  fissure  of  Rolando  and  the  shape  of  the 
cerebral  convolutions  in  the  so-called  motor  area,  which 
lie  in  relation  to  this  fissure,  cannot  usually  be  detected 
from  a  cast  of  the  cranial  cavity,  and  are  not  indicated  by 
depressions  or  elevations  on  the  surface  of  the  skull,  so 
that  the  surgeons  in  planning  the  seats  of  operations  neces- 
sary to  expose  the  various  motor  centres  have  to  rely  mainly 
upon  certain  linear  and  angular  measurements  made  from 
points  frequently  remote  from  these  centres. 

The  cranium  is  not  merely  a  box  developed  for  the  support 
and  protection  of  the  brain,  and  more  or  less  accurately 
moulded  in  conformity  with  the  growth  of  this  organ.  Its 
antero-lateral  portions  afford  attachments  to  the  muscles 
of  mastication  and  support  the  jaws  and  teeth,  while  its 
posterior  part  is  liable  to  vary  according  to  the  degree  of 
development  of  the  muscles  of  the  nape  of  the  neck.  Next 
to  the  brain  the  most  important  factor  in  determining 
cranial  form  is  the  condition  of  the  organs  of  mastication 
— muscles,  jaws,  and  teeth.  There  is  strong  evidence  in 
favour  of  the  view  that  the  evolution  of  man  from  micro- 
cephaly to  macrocephaly  has  been  associated  with  the 
passage  from  a  macrodontic  to  a  microdontic  condition. 
The  modifications  in  the  form  of  the  cranium  due  to  the 
influence  of  the  organs  of  mastication  have  been  exerted 
almost  entirely  upon  its  external  table ;  hence  external 
measurements  of  the  cranium,  as  guides  to  the  shape  of 
the  cranial  cavity  and  indications  of  brain  development, 
while  fairly  trustworthy  in  the  higher  races,  become  less 
and  less  so  as  we  examine  the  skulls  of  the  lower  races,  of 
prehistoric  man,  and  of  the  anthropoid  apes. 

One  of  the  most  important  measurements  of  the  cranium 
is  that  which  determines  the  relation  between  its  length 
and  breadth  and  thus  divides  skulls  into  long  or  short, 
together  with  an  intermediate  group  neither  distinctly 
dolichocephalic  nor  brachycephalic.  These  measurements 
are  expressed  by  an  index  in  which  the  length  is  taken  as 
100.  If  the  proportion  of  breadth  to  length  is  eighty  or' 
upwards,  the  skull  is  brachycephalic ;  if  between  seventy- 
five  and  eighty,  mesaticephalic ;  and  below  seventy-five, 
dolichocephalic.  Such  a  measurement  is  not  so  simple  a. 
matter  as  it  might  appear  at  first  sight,  and  craniologists 
may  themselves  be  classified  into  groups  according  as  they 
have  selected  the  nasion,  or  depression  at  the  root  of  the 
nose,  the  glabella,  or  prominence  above  this  depression, . 
and  the  ophryon,  a  spot  just  above  this  prominence,  as  the 
anterior  point  from  which  to  measure  the  length.  In  a 
young  child  this  measurement  would  practically  be  the  same 
whichever  of  these  three  points  was  chosen,  and  each  point 
would  be  about  the  same  distance  from  the  brain.  With 
the  appearance  of  the  teeth  of  the  second  dentition  and  the 
enlargement  of  the  jaws  the  frontal  bone  in  the  region  of 
the  eyebrows  and  just  above  the  root  of  the  nose  thickens, 
and  its  outer  table  bulges  forwards  so  that  it  is  now  no 
longer  parallel  with  the  inner  table.  Between  these  tables 
air  cavities  gradually  extend  from  the  nose,  forming  the 
frontal  sinuses.  Although  the  existence  and  significance 
of  these  spaces  and  their  influence  on  the  prominence  of 
the  eyebrows  were  the  subject  of  a  fierce  controversy  more 
than  half  a  century  ago  between  the  phrenologists  and  their 
opponents,  it  is  only  recently  that  their  variations  have  been 
carefully  investigated. 


542 


NA  TURE 


[October  i,  1903 


The  frontal  sinuses  are  usually  supposed  to  vary  accord- 
ing to  the  degree  of  prominence  of  the  glabella  and  the 
supra-orbital  arches.,  This,  however,  is  not  the  case. 
Thus  Schwalbe  '  has  figured  a  skull  in  which  the  sinuses 
dp  not  project  as  high  as  the  top  of  the  glabella  and  supra- 
orbital prominences,  and  another  in  which  they  extend  con- 
siderably above  these  projections.  Further,  Dr.  Logan 
Turner  ("  The  Accessory  Sinuses  of  the  Nose,"  1901),  who 
haj  made  an  extensive  investigation  into  these  cavities,  has 
shown  that  in  the  aboriginal  Australian,  in  which  this 
region  of  the  skull  is  unusually  prominent,  the  frontal 
sinuses  are  frequently  either  absent  or  rudimentary..  The 
ophryon  has  been  selected  by  some  craniologists  as  the 
anterior  point  from  which  to  measure  the  length  of  the 
skull,  under  the  impression  that  the  frontal  sinuses  do  not 
usually  reach  above  the  glabella.  Dr.  Logan  Turner,  how- 
ever, found  that  out  of  174  skulls  in  which  the  frontal 
sinuses  were  present  in  130  the  sinuses  extended  above  the 
ophryon.  In  seventy-one  skulls  the  depth  of  the  sinus  at 
the  level  of  the  ophryon  varied  from  2  mm.  to  16  mm., 
the  average  being  52  mm.,  while  in  the  same  series  of 
skulls  the  depth  at  the  glabella  varied  from  3  mm.  to 
18  mm.,  with  an  average  depth  of  85  mm.  It  thus  appears 
that  the  selection  of  the  ophryon  in  preference  to  the 
glabella,  as  giving  a  more  accurate  clue  to  the  length  of 
the  brain,  is  based  upon  erroneous  assumptions,  and  that 
neither  point  can  be  relied  upon  in  the  determination  of 
the  anterior  limit  of  the  cranial  cavity. 

The  difficulties  of  estimating  the  extent  of  the  cranial 
cavity  by  external  measurements  and  the  fallacies  that  may 
result  from  a  reliance  upon  this  method  are  especially 
marked  in  the  case  of  the  study  of  the  prehistoric  human 
calvaria,  such  as  the  Neanderthal  and  the  Trinil  and  the 
skulls  of  the  anthropoid  apes. 

Statistics  are  popularly  supposed  to  be  capable  of  proving 
almost  anything,  and  certainly  if  you  allow  craniologists 
to  select  their  own  points  from  which  to  measure  the  length 
and  breadth  of  the  cranium,  they  will  furnish  you  with 
tables  of  measurements  showing  that  one  and  the  same 
skull  is  dolichocephalic,  mesaticephalic,  and  brachycephalic. 
Let  us  take  as  an  illustration  an  extreme  case,  such  as  the 
skull  of  an  adult  male  gorilla.  Its  glabella  and  supra- 
orbital arches  will  be  found  to  project  forwards,  its  zygo- 
matic arches  outwards,  and  its  transverse  occipital  crests 
backwards,  far  beyond  the  anterior,  lateral,  and  posterior 
limits  of  the  cranial  cavity.  These  outgrowths  are 
obviously  correlated  with  the  enormous  development  of  the 
muscles  of  mastication  and  those  of  the  back  of  the  neck. 
In  a  specimen  in  my  possession  the  greatest  length  of  the 
cranium,  i.e.  from  glabella  to  external  occipital  protuber- 
ance, is  195  mm.,  and  the  greatest  breadth,  taken  between 
the  outer  surfaces  of  the  zygomatic  processes  of  the  tem- 
poral bone,  is  172  mm.,  giving  the  marked  brachycephalic 
index  of  88-21.  The  zygomatic  processes,  however,  may 
reasonably  be  objected  to  as  indicating  the  true  breadth, 
and  the  side  wall  of  the  cranium  just  above  the  line  where 
the  root  of  this  process  springs  from  the  squamous  portion 
of  the  temporal  bone  will  certainly  be  much  nearer  the 
cranial  cavity.  Measured  in  this  situation  the  breadth  of 
the  cranium  is  118  mm.,  which  gives  a  length-breadth 
index  60-51,  and  thus  represents  the  skull  as  decidedly 
dolichocephalic.  The  transverse  occipital  crests  and  the 
point  where  these  meet  in  the  middle  line  to  form  the 
external  occipital  protuberance  are  much  more  prominent 
in  the  male  than  in  the  female  gorilla,  and  the  estimate 
of  the  length  of  the  cranium  in  this  male  gorilla  may  be 
reduced  to  160  mm.  by  selecting  the  base  of  the  protuber- 
ance in  place  of  its  posterior  extremity  as  the  posterior  end 
measurement.  This  raises  the  index  to  7375,  and  places 
the  skull  near  the  mesaticephalic  group.  At  the  anterior 
part  of  the  skull  the  prominent  glabella  is  separated  from 
the  inner  table  of  the  skull  by  large  air  sinuses,  so  that 
on  a  median  section  of  the  skull  the  distance  from  the 
glabella  to  the  nearest  part  of  the  cranial  cavity  is  36  mm. 
We  have  here,  therefore,  another  outgrowth  of  the  cranial 
wall  which  in  an  examination  of  the  external  surface  of 
the  skull  obscures  the  extent  of  the  cranial  cavity.  Accord- 
ingly the  glabella  cannot  be  selected  as  the  anterior  point 
from    which    to   measure   the   length    of   the   cranium,    and 

1  "  Studien  fiber  Pithecanthropus  erectus"  Zeitschrift  fiir  Morphologic 
vnd  Anthropologie,  Ed.  i.  1899. 


NO.   1770,  VOL.  68] 


must,  like  the  zygomatic  arches  and  occipital  protuberance, 
be  excluded  from  our  calculations  if  we  desire  to  determine 
a  true  length-breadth  index.  The  difficulty,  however,  is 
to  select  a  definite  point  on  the.  surface  of  the  cranium  to 
represent  its  anterior,  end,  which  will  be  free  from  the 
objections  justly  urged  against  the  glabella.  Schwalbe 
suggests  the  hinder  end  of  the  supra-glabellar  fossa,  which 
he  states  often  corresponds  to  the  beginning  of  a  more  or , 
less  distinctly  marked  frontal  crest.  I  have  found  this 
point  either  difficult  to  determine  or  too  far  back.  Thus 
•in  my  male  gorilla  the  posterior  end  of  this -fossa  formed 
by  the  meeting  of  the  two  temporal  ridges  was  56  mm. 
behind  the  glabella,  and  only  24  mm.  from  the  bregma, 
while  in  the  female  gorilla  the  temporal  ridges  do  not 
meet,  but  there  is  a  low  median  frontal  ridge,  which  may 
be  considered  as  bounding  posteriorly  the  supra-glabellar 
fossa.  This  point  is  22  mm.  from  the  glabella,  and 
between  50  mm.  and  60  mm.  in  front  of  the  bregma. 

I  would  suggest  a  spot  in  the  median  line  of  the  supra- 
glabellar  fossa  which  is  crossed  by  a  transverse  line  uniting 
the  posterior  borders  of  the  external  angular  processes  of 
the  frontal  bone.  I  admit  this  plan  is  not  free  from  objec- 
tions, but  it  possesses  the  advantages  of  being  available 
for  both  male  and  female  skulls.  In  my  male  skull  the 
selection  of  this  point  diminishes  the  length  of  the  cranium 
by  25  mm.,  thus  reducing  it  to  137  mm.  The  breadth  being 
calculated  at  114  mm.,  the  index  is  8321,  and  hence  dis- 
tinctly brachycephalic.  The  length  of  the  cranial  cavity 
is  118  mm.  and  the  breadth  96  mm.,  and  the  length-breadth 
index  is  thus  the  brachycephalic  one  of  81-36. 

I  have  given  these  somewhat  detailed  references  to  the 
measurements  of  this  gorilla's  skull  because  they  show  in 
a  very  clear  and  obvious  manner  that  from  an  external 
examination  of  the  skull  one  might  easily  be  misled  as  to 
the  size  and  form  of  the  cranial  cavity,  and  that,  in  order 
to  determine  from  external  measurements  the  proportions 
of  the  cranial  cavity,  skull  outgrowths  due  to  other  factors 
than  brain  growth  must  be  rigorously  excluded.  Further, 
these  details  will  serve  to  emphasise  the  interesting  fact 
that  the  gorilla's  skull  is  decidedly  brachycephalic.  This 
character  is  by  no  means  restricted  to  the  gorilla,  for  it 
has  been  clearly  proved  by  Virchow,  Schwalbe,  and  others 
that  all  the  anthropoid  apes  are  markedly  rcund-headed. 
F-ver  since  the  introduction  by  the  illustrious  Swedish 
anthropologist  Anders  Retzius  of  a  classification  of  skulls 
according  to  the  proportions  between  their  length  and 
breadth  great  attention  has  been  paid  to  this  peculiarity 
in  different  races  of  mankind.  It  has  been  generally  held 
that  brachycephaly  indicates  a  higher  type  of  skull  than 
dolichocephaly,  and  that  the  increase  in  the  size  of  the 
brain  in  the  higher  races  has  tended  to  produce  a  brachy- 
cephalic skull.  When  the  cranial  walls  are  subject  to 
excessive  internal  pressure,  as  in  hydrocephalus,  the  skull 
tends  to  become  distinctly  brachycephalic,  as  a  given  ex- 
tent of  wall  gives  a  greater  internal  cavity  in  a  spherical 
than  an  oval  form.  In  estimating  the  value  of  this  theory 
as  to  the  evolutionary  line  upon  which  the  skull  has 
travelled,  it  is  obvious  that  the  brachycephalic  character  of 
the  skulls  of  all  the  anthropoid  apes  is  a  fact  which  requires 
consideration. 

Although  an  adult  male  gorilla  such  as  I  have  selected 
presents  in  an  extreme  degree  outgrowths  from  the  cranial 
wall  masking  the  true  form  of  the  cranial  cavity,  the  same 
condition,  though  to  a  less  marked  extent,  is  met  with  in 
the  human  subject.  Further,  it  is  interesting  to  note  that 
the  length  of  the  skull  is  more  liable  to  be  increased  by 
such  growths  than  the  breadth,  since  they  occur  especially 
over  the  lower  part  of  the  forehead  and  to  a  less  degree  at 
the  back  of  the  skull,  while  the  side  walls  of  the  cranium 
in  the  region  of  its  greatest  breadth  generally  remain  thin. 

Few  if  any  fossils  have  attracted  an  equal  amount  of 
attention  or  given  rise  to  such  keen  controversies  as  the 
"  Neanderthal  "  and  the  "  Trinil  "  skull-caps.  According 
to  some  authorities  both  these  skull-caps  are  undoubtedly 
human,  while  others  hold  that  the  "  Neanderthal  "  belongs 
to  an  extinct  species  of  the  genus  Homo,  and  the  "  Trinil  " 
is  the  remains  of  an  extinct  genus — Pithecanthropus  erectus 
of  Duboi  — intermediate  between  man  and  the  anthropoids. 
One  of  ,.e  most  obvious  and  easily  recognised  peculiarities 
of  thest  skull-caps  is  the  very  marked  prominence  of  the 
supra-orbital   arches.     The   glabella-occipital    length   of  the 


October  i,  1903] 


NATURE 


543 


Neanderthal  is  204  mm.,  and  the  greatest  transverse 
diameter,  which  is  over  the  parietal  region,  is  152  mm. — 
an  inde.\  of  7451 — while  the  much  smaller  Trinil  calvaria, 
with  a  length  of  181  mm.  and  a  breadth  of  130  mm.,  has 
an  index  of  71-8.  Both  these  skulls  are  therefore  slightly 
dolichocephalic.  Schwalbe  has  corrected  these  figures  by 
making  reductions  in  their  lengths  on  account  of  the  frontal 
"outworks,"  so  that  he  estimates  the  true  length-breadth 
index  of  the  Neanderthal  as  80  and  that  of  the  Trinil  as 
75-5.  These  indices,  thus  raised  about  5  per  cent.,  are 
considered  to  represent  approximately  the  length-breadth 
index  of  the  cranial  cavity.  A  comparison  of  the  external 
and  internal  measurements  of  many  recent  skulls  with 
prominent  glabellae  would,  I  suspect,  show  a  greater  differ- 
ence than  that  calculated  by  Schwalbe  for  the  Neanderthal 
and  Trinil  specimens.  In  a  male  skull,  probably  an 
aboriginal  Australian,  with  a  cranial  capacity  of  1227  c.cm. 
I  found  that  the  glabella-occipital  length  was  189  mm.,  and 
the  transverse  diameter  at  the  parieto-squamous  suture 
127  mm.,  which  gives  an  index  of  6720  and  makes  the 
skull  decidedly  dolichocephalic.  The  length  of  the  cranial 
cavity,  however,  was  157  mm.  and  the  breadth  121  mm. 
(an  index  of  77  07  and  a  difference  of  nearly  10  per  cent.), 
so  that  while  from  external  measurements  the  skull  is 
distinctly  dolichocephalic,  the  proportions  of  its  cavity  are 
such  that  it  is  mesaticephalic.  It  is  probable  that  many 
.skulls  owe  their  dolichocephalic  reputation  simply  to  the 
prominence  of  the  glabella  and  supra-orbital  ridges.  An 
excessive  development  of  these  structures  is  also  liable  to 
give  the  erroneous  impression  of  a  retreating  forehead.  In 
the  Australian  skull  just  mentioned  the  thickness  of  the 
cranial  wall  at  the  glabella  was  22  mm.  ;  from  this  level 
upwards  it  gradually  thinned  until  41;  mm.  above  the 
glabella  it  was  only  6  mm.  thick.  When  the  bisected  skull 
was  placed  in  the  horizontal  position  the  anterior  surface 
of  the  frontal  bone  sloped  from  the  glabella  upwards  and 
distinctly  backwards,  while  the  posterior  or  cerebral  surface 
was  inclined  upwards  and  forwards.  In  fact,  the  cranial 
cavity  in  this  region  was  separated  from  the  lower  part 
of  the  forehead  by  a  wedge-shaped  area  having  its  apex 
upwards  and  its  base  below  at  the  glabella. 

The  cranial  wall  opposite  the  glabella  is  not  appreciably 
thicker  in  the  Neanderthal  calvaria  than  in  the  Australian 
skull  to  which  I  have  already  referred,  and  the  form  of 
the  cranial  cavity  is  not  mere  masked  by  this  prominence 
in  the  Neanderthal  than  in  many  of  the  existing  races. 

.Although  the  Neanderthal  skull  is  by  no  means  complete, 
the  base  of  the  cranium  and  the  face  bones  being  absent, 
still  those  parts  of  the  cranial  wall  are  preserved  that  are 
specially  related  to  the  portion  of  the  brain  which  subserves 
all  the  higher  mental  processes.  It  includes  the  frontal, 
parietal,  and  upper  part  of  the  occipital  bones,  with  parts 
of  the  roof  of  the  orbits  in  front,  and  of  the  squamous 
division  of  the  temporal  bones  at  the  sides.  On  its  inner 
or  cranial  aspect  there  are  markings  by  which  the  bound- 
aries between  the  cerebrum  and  the  cerebellum  can  be 
determined.  In  a  profile  view  of  siich  a  specimen  an  inio- 
glabellar  line  can  be  drawn  which  will  correspond  very 
closely  to  the  lower  boundary  of  the  cerebrum,  and  indicate 
a  horizontal  plane  above  which  the  vaulted  portion  of  the 
skull  must  have  contained  nearly  the  whole  of  the  cerebrum. 

Schwalbe  '  has  devised  a  series  of  measurements  to  illus- 
trate what  he  regards  as  essential  differences  between  the 
Neanderthal  skull-cap  and  the  corresponding  portion  of  the 
human  skull.  From  the  inio-glabellar  line  another  is  drawn 
at  right  angles  to  the  highest  part  of  the  vault,  and  by 
comparing  the  length  of  these  two  }ines  we  can  determine 
the  length-height  index.  .According  to  Schwalbe  this  is 
404  in  the  Neanderthal,  while  the  minimum  in  the  human 
skull  is  52.  He  further  shows  that  the  frontal  portion  of 
the  vault,  as  represented  by  a  glabella-bregmatic  line, 
fornis  a  srnaller  angle  with  the  base  or  inio-glabellar  line, 
and  that  a  vertical  line  from  the  posterior  end  of  the  frontal 
bone  (bregma)  cuts  the  inio-glabellar  further  back  than  in 
the  human  subject.  Prof.  King,  of  Gal  way,  attached 
special  importance  to  thej  shape  and  proportions  of  the 
parietal  bones,  and  more  particularly  to  the  fact  that  their 
mesial  borders  are  shorter  than  the  lower  o*-  temporal, 
wheieas  the  reverse  is' the  case  in  recent  man.  '*:his  feature 
is    obviously    related    to    the    defective    expansfmi    of    the 

1  "Ueber  die  specifischen  Merkmale  des  Neanderthalschf.dels,"  Vtr^ 
handl.  dcr  anatomischen  Cesellschaft  in  Bonn,  tgot 

NO.    1770,  VOL.  68] 


Neanderthal  vault,  and  Prof.  Schwalbe  also  attributes  con- 
siderable significance  to  this  peculiarity. 

Another  distinctive  feature  of  the  Neanderthal  skull  is  the 
relation  of  the  orbits  to  the  cranial  wall.  Schwalbe  shows 
that  its  brain-case  takes  a  much  smaller  share  in  the  form- 
ation of  the  roof  of  the  orbit  than  it  does  in  recent  man, 
and  King  pointed  out  that  a  line  from  the  anterior  inferior 
angle  of  the  external  orbital  process  of  the  frontal  bone, 
drawn  at  right  angles  to  the  inio-glabellar  line,  passed  in 
the  Neanderthal  in  front  of  the  cranial  cavity,  whereas  in 
man  such  a  line  would  have  a  considerable  portion  of  the 
frontal  part  of  the  brain-case  anterior  to  it. 

From  the  combined  results  of  these  and  other  measure- 
ments Schwalbe  arrives  at  the  very  important  and  interest- 
ing conclusion  that  the  Neanderthal  skull  possesses  a 
number  of  important  peculiarities  which  differentiate  it 
from  the  skulls  of  existing  man,  and  show  an  approximation 
towards  those  of  the  anthropoid  apes.  He  maintains  that 
in  recognising  with  King  '  and  Cope  ^  the  Neanderthal  skull 
as  belonging  to  a  distinct  species,  Homo  Neanderthalensis, 
he  is  only  following  the  usual  practice  of  zoologists  and 
palaeontologists  by  whom  specific  characters  are  frequently 
founded  upon  much  less  marked  differences.  He  maintains 
that  as  the  Neanderthal  skull  stands  in  many  of  its 
characters  nearer  to  the  higher  anthropoids  than  to  recent 
man,  if  the  Neanderthal  type  is  to  be  included  under  the 
term  Homo  sapiens,  then  this  species  ought  to  be  still  more 
extended,  so  as  to  embrace  the  anthropoids. 

It  is  interesting  to  turn  from  a  perusal  of  these  opinions 
recently  advanced  by  Schwalbe  to  consider  the  grounds 
on  which  Huxley  and  Turner,  about  forty  years  ago, 
opposed  the  view,  which  was  then  being  advocated,  that 
the  characters  of  the  Neanderthal  skull  were  so  distinct 
from  those  of  any  of  the  existing  races  as  to  justify  the 
recognition  of  a  new  species  of  the  genus  Homo.  Huxley, 
while  admitting  that  it  was  "  the  most  pithecoid  of  human 
skulls,"  yet  holds  that  it  "  is  by  no  means  so  isolated  as 
it  appears  to  be  at  first,  but  forms  in  reality  the  extreme 
term  of  a  series  leading  gradually  from  it  to  the  highest 
and  best  developed  of  human  crania."  He  states  that  "  it 
is  closely  approached  by  certain  Australian  skulls,  and  even 
more  nearly  by  the  skulls  of  certain  ancient  people  who 
inhabited  Denmark  during  the  stone  period."  Turner's* 
observations  led  him  to  adopt  a  similar  view  to  that 
advanced  by  Huxley.  He  compared  the  Neanderthal 
calvaria  with  savage  and  British  crania  in  the  Anatomical 
Museum  of  the  University  of  Edinburgh,  and  found  amongst 
them  specimens  closely  corresponding  to  the  Neanderthal 
type. 

While  yielding  to  no  one  in  my  admiration  for  the 
thoroughness  and  ability  with  which  Schwalbe  has  con- 
ducted his  elaborate  and  extensive  investigations  on  this 
question,  I  must  confess  that  in  my  opinion  he  has  not 
sufficiently  recognised  the  significance  of  the  large  cranial 
capacity  of  the  Neanderthal  skull  in  determining  the  zoo- 
logical position  of  its  owner,  or  made  sufficient  allowance 
for  the  great  variations  in  form  which  skulls  undoubtedly 
human  may  present. 

The  length  and  breadth  of  the  Neanderthal  calvaria  are 
distinctlv  greater  than  in  many  living  races,  and  compen- 
sate for  its  defect  in  height,  so  that  it  was  capable  of 
lodging  a  brain  fully  equal  in  volume  to  that  of  many 
existing  savage  races  and  at  least  double  that  of  any  anthro- 
poid ape. 

A  number  of  the  characters  upon  which  Schwalbe  relies 
in  differentiating  the  Neanderthal  skull-cap  are  due  to  an 
appreciable  extent  to  the  great  development  of  the  glabella 
and  supra-orbital  arches.  Now  these  processes  are  well 
known  to  present  very  striking  variations  in  existing  human 
races.  They  are  usually  supposed  to  be  developed  as 
buttresses  for  the  purpose  of  affording  support  to  the  large 
upper  jaw  and  enable  it  to  resist  the  pressure  of  the  lower 
jaw  due  to  the  contraction  of  the  powerful  muscles  cf 
mastication.  These  processes,  however,  are  usually  feebly 
marked  in  the  microcephalic,  prognathous,  and  macrodont 
negro  skull,  and  may  be  well  developed  in  the  macrocephalic 
and  orthognathous  skulls  of  some  of  the  higher  races. 
Indeed,  their  variations  are  too  great  and  their  significance 
1  "The  Reputed  Fossil  Man  of  the  Neanderthal,"  Journal  of  Science, 

*  2  "The  Genealogy, of  Man,"  The  American  Naturalist,\vo\.  xxvii.  1893. 
»  "The  Fossil  Skull  Coauoi/my,"  Journal 0/ Science,  1864. 


544 


NATURE 


[October  i,  1903 


too  obscure  for  them  to  form  a  basis  for  the  creation  of  a 
new  species  of  man.  Both  Huxley  and  Turner  have  shown 
that  the  low  vault  of  the  Neanderthal  calvaria  can  be  closely 
paralleled  by  specimens  of  existing  races. 

If  the  characters  of  the  Neanderthal  calvaria  are  so  dis- 
.tinctive  as  to  justify  the  recognition  of  a  new  species,  a 
new  genus  ought  to  be  made  for  the  Trinil  skull-cap.  In 
nearly  every  respect  it  is  distinctly  lower  in  type  than  tfie 
Neanderthal,  and  yet  many  of  the  anatomists  who  have 
expressed  their  opinion  on  the  subject  maintain  that  the 
Trinil  specimen  is  distinctly  human. 

Important  and  interesting  as  are  the  facts  which  may  be 
ascertained  from  a  study  of  a  series  of  skulls  regarding  the 
size  and  form  of  the  brain,  it  is  evident  that  there  are 
distinct  limits  to  the  knowledge  to  be  obtained  from  this 
source.  Much  additional  information  as  to  racial  characters 
would  undoubtedly  be  gained  had  we  collections  of  brains 
at  all  corresponding  in  number  and  variety  with  the  skulls 
in  our  museums.  We  know  that  as  a  rule  the  brains  of 
the  less  civilised  races  are  smaller,  and  the  convolutions 
and  fissures  simpler,  than  those  of  the  more  cultured  nations, 
beyond  this  but  little  more  than  that  definitely  determined. 

As  the  results  of  investigations  in  human  and  compara- 
tive anatomy,  physiology,  and  pathology,  we  know  that 
definite  areas  of  the  cerebral  cortex  are  connected  with  the 
action  of  definite  groups  of  muscles,  and  that  the  nervous 
impulses  starting  from,  the  organs  of  smell,  sight,  hearing, 
and  common  sensibility  reach  defined  cortical  fields.  All 
these,  however,  do  not  cover  more  than  a  third  of  the  con- 
voluted surface  of  the  brain,  and  the  remaining  two-thirds 
are  still  to  a  large  extent  a  terra  incognita  so  far  as  their 
precise  function  is  concerned.  Is  there  a  definite  localisa- 
tion of  special  mental  qualities  or  moral  tendencies,  and  if 
so  where  are  they  situated?  These  are  problems  of 
extreme  difficulty,  but  their  interest  and  importance  are 
difficult  to  exaggerate.  In  the  solution  of  this  problem 
anthropologists  are  bound  to  take  an  active  and  important 
part.  When  they  have  collected  information  as  to  the 
relative  development  of  the  various  parts  of  the  higher  brain 
in  all  classes  of  mankind  with  the  same  thoroughness  with 
which  they  have  investigated  the  racial  peculiarities  of  the 
skull,  the  question  will  be  within  a  measurable  distance  of 
solution. 


UNIVERSITY    AND    EDUCATIONAL 
INTELLIGENCE. 

Dr.  David  Hepburn  has  been  appointed  professor  of 
anatomy  at  the  University  College  of  South  Wales  and 
Monmouthshire,  and  Dr.  T.  J.  Jehu  professor  of  geology 
in  the  University  of  St.  Andrews. 

The  distribution  of  medals  and  prizes  to  the  students  of 
the  Royal  College  of  Science  will  take  place  in  the  lecture 
theatre  of  the  Victoria  and  Albert  Museum,  South  Kensing- 
ton, at  2.30  p.m.  on  October  8,  when  an  address  will  be 
delivered  by  Prof.  Farmer,  F.R.S. 

Eighteen  lectures,  open  to  the  public  without  payment 
or  ticket,  will  be  given  at  University  College,  London, 
during  October  by  professors  in  the  faculties  of  arts  and 
laws  and  of  science.  On  October  7  a  lecture  on  "  Archi- 
tectural Evolution,"  introductory  to  the  work  of  the  School 
of  Architecture,  will  be  given  by  Prof.  F.  M.  Simpson.  Sir 
William  Ramsay  will  lecture  on  the  gases  of  the  atmo- 
sphere, and  their  connection  with  radium  and  its  eman- 
ations, on  October  6. 

The  "  Education  Directory,"  just  published  by  the 
Education  Committee  of  the  Oxfordshire  County  Council, 
shows  that  the  committee  has  ordered  a  special  survey  of 
the  educational  conditions  of  the  area  over  which  it  has 
control.  Until  this  inquiry  has  been  held  the  committee 
has  decided  that  the  higher  education  of  the  county  shall 
be  carried  forward  on  the  lines  previously  laid. down  by  the 
Technical  Instruction  Committee,  only  modified  in  so  far 
as  last  year's  Act  gives  wider  powers  to  the  Education 
Committee. 

The  research,  statistical  and  biometric  laboratory  of 
University  College,  London,  under  Prof.  Karl  Pearson, 
offers  good  opportunities  for  post-graduate  students  and  re- 
search workers  in  many  fields  of  inquiry.     The  aim  of  the 

NO,    1770,  VOL.  68] 


department  is  to  give  exact  training  in  both  observation 
and  computation.  Lectures  are  provided  in  both  elemental, 
and  advanced  statistics,  and  the  general  theory  of  statistic 
is  so  developed  as  to  be  of  service  not  only  to  "  bii 
metricians,"  but  to  those  who  propose  in  the  future  to  deal 
with  social,  economic  or  vital  statistics.  The  training  thus 
gained  is  far  more  profitable  than  any  mere  examination 
curriculum  for  those  professions  which  require  powers  of 
careful  observation,  of  original  thought,  or  of  accuratf 
computation. 


SOCIETIES  AND  ACADEMIES. 

Paris. 
Academy  of  Sciences,  September  21. — M.  Albert  Gaudry 
in  the  chair. — Parthenogenesis  by  carbonic  acid  obtain' 
with  eggs  after  the  emission  of  the  polar  globules,  1 
M.  Yves  Delagre.  It  has  been  shown  in  previous  work  I 
the  author  that  the  eggs  of  the  sea  urchin  are  absolutely 
refractory  to  the  action  of  carbonic  acid.  The  effect  of  heat 
alone,  or  of  shaking  alone,  gave  also  negative  results,  but 
moderate  shaking  at  30°  C.  in  presence  of  carbonic  acid 
was  successful  in  producing  the  desired  result,  segmentation 
taking  place  in  about  60  per  cent,  of  the  eggs. — On  the 
production  of  sugar  in  the  blood  during  the  passage  of  tlv 
latter  through  the  lungs,  by  MM.  R.  Lupine  and  Boulud. 
From  the  experiments  described  the  authors  conclude  that, 
during  the  passage  of  the  blood  through  the  lungs,  ther< 
is  not  only  a  glycolytic,  but  also  a  glycogenic  proces>, 
hitherto  unnoticed. — On  monodrome  functions  and  differ- 
ential equations,  by  M.  Edm.  Maillet. — On  the  properties 
and  constitution  of  the  manganese  steels,  by  M.  L6on 
Guillet.  The  metallographic  and  mechanical  tests  are  in 
perfect  agreement  with  each  other,  and  show  that  there  i- 
great  similarity  between  nickel  and  manganese  steels. — 
The  diagnosis  of  biliary  calculi  by  preliminary  radiography, 
by  MM.  Mauclaire  and  Infroit. — The  germination  of 
orchids,  by  M.  Noel  Bernard. 


CONTENTS.  PAGE 

Mrs.  Marcet  Rediviva.     By  W.  R 521 

Experimental  Embryology 523 

The  Study  of  Economics.     By  T.  J 524 

Our  Book  Shelf:— 

Lyons  :  "  A  Treatise  on  Electromagnetic  Phenomena 
and  on  the  Compass    and  its   Deviations   Aboard 

Ship."— E.  W.  C 524 

"  Comite  international  des  Poids  et  Mesures.     Proces- 

Verbaux  des  Sciences  " '.    .    525 

Garland:  "  Flora  of  the  Island  of  Jersey "  .        .    .    .    525 
Letters  to  the  Editor  :— 

Radium  and  the  Geological  Age  of  the  Earth.— Prof. 

J.  Joly,  F.R.S 526 

Some  Overlooked  Zoological' Generic  Names. — Prof. 

T.  D.  A.  Cockerell    . 526 

Height  of  the  Atmosphere  Determined  from  the  Time 
of  Disappearance  of  Blue  Colour  of  the  Sky  after 

Sunset.  — Dr.  T.  J.  J.  See 526 

The  Lyrids  of  1903.— John  R.  Henry 526 

Glow-worm    and    Thunderstorm  ;    also    Milk. — Sir 

Oliver  Lodge,  F.R.S 527 

Ill-health  of  the  Rand  Miners  .        .........    527 

Photography  at  the  New  Gallery 527 

Notes.    {Illustrated.) 528 

Our  Astronomical  Column  : — 

Astronomical  Occurrences  in  October 531 

Report  of  the  Paris  Observatory  for  1902  ......    532 

The  Rigidity  of  Piers  for  Meridian  Circles 532 

Recent  Papers  on  Meteorites.     {Illustrated.)    ....    532 

The  British  Association 534 

Section  F.— Economic  Science  and  Statistics.— 
Opening  Address  by  Mr.  E.  W.  Brabrook,  C.B,, 
F.  S.  A. ,  V.  P.  S.S,,  President  of  the  Section  ...  .  534 
Section  H.— Anthropology.— Opening  Address  by 
Prof.  Johnson  Symington,  M.D.,  F.R.S., 
F.R.S.E.,  President  of  the  Section  .    ......    539 

University  and  Educational  Intelligence 544 

Societies  and  Academies 544 


NATURE 


545 


THURSDAY,     OCTOBER     8,     1903. 


MILITARY   TOPOGRAPHY. 
Recherches   sur   les   Instruments,    les   Methodes   et   le 
Dessin  Topographiques.     By  le  Colonel  A.  Lausse- 
dat.     Tome  ii.,  part  ii.     Pp.  287.     (Paris  :  Gauthier- 
Villars,  1903.) 

THE  second  volume  of  Col.  Laussedat's  exhaustive 
work  on  topography,  which  has  just  been  pub- 
lished, deals  with  the  art  of  metrophotography  as 
developed  in  Europe  generally  and  in  France  in  par- 
ticular; condensing  the  opinions  and  experiments  of 
leading  men  of  science,  and  epitomising  their  results. 
Attempts  to  adapt  the  principles  of  natural  perspective 
to  topography  in  France  date  from  the  middle  of  the  last 
century.  French  methods  were  adopted  by  Germany 
in  1865;  Italy  followed  suit  in  1875;  ^"<^  ^"  Austria, 
Maurer  executed  a  military  reconnaissance  of  some 
importance  (which  could  have  been  attained  in  no 
other  way)  in  1887.  There  has  gradually  accumulated 
,1  large  amount  of  scientific  literature  in  .Austria  deal- 
ing with  this  subject;  and  in  1889  the  Swiss  engineer 
S.  Simon  had  made  a  photographic  survey  of  Jung- 
frau.  Russia  has  been  busy  for  many  years  in  the 
Trans-Caucasus  and  in  Persia,  working  on  similar 
methods  to  those  of  Switzerland,  whilst  Greece,  Brazil 
and  Madagascar  have  all  contributed  results  of 
^ -ientifiic  value  towards  the  development  of  the  art. 
Spain  has  been  interested  since  1863,  and  in  1899  an 
"  excellent  ouvrage  "  was  produced  in  Madrid  by  two 
( ngineers,  Iriarte  and  Navarro,  which  seems  to  have 
been  the  most  complete  work  on  the  subject  up  to 
the  date  of  Laussedat. 

New  Zealand  and  Australia  have  not  been  idle ; 
l)ut  amongst  our  colonies  it  is  to  Canada  chiefly  that 
we  look  for  the  most  practical  experiments  leading  to 
the  most  noteworthy  results  in  this  as  in  every  other 
branch  of  topographic  art.  In  the  United  States  as 
early  as  1886,  photographic  methods  for  rapid  recon- 
naissance were  taught  at  West  Point;  but  it  is  to  the 
Canadian  experts,  Deville  and  Fleurer,  that  we  owe 
most  of  our  practical  knowledge.  A  general  summary 
of  Canadian  results  will  be  found  in  Wilson's  useful 
work  on  topographic  art. 

England  and  English  surveyors  alone  contribute 
nothing  to  the  world's  knowledge  ot  this  branch  of 
surveying,  although  of  all  countries  in  the  world 
England  is  probably  most  interested  in  its  develop- 
ment. Colonel  Laussedat,  noting  that  as  early  as 
1869  Colonel  J.  Baillie  proposed  that  photography 
should  be  utilised  as  an  aid  to  reconnaissance,  suggests 
that  the  absence  of  all  result  may  be  due  to  the  fact 
that  its  military  application  precluded  it  from  public- 
ation— "  il  est  probable  que  des  r^sultats  d  la  fois 
curieux  et  utiles  ont  pu  etre  obtenus  dans  un  ordre 
d'id^es  qui  ne  se  prete  pas  k  la  publicity."  Biit  he  is 
probably  unaware  that  the  preliminary  art  of  topo- 
graphy is  as  yet  undeveloped  in  England ;  and  that  we 
are  still  a  long  way  from  the  scientific  consideration 
of  any  of  its  more  subtle  branches.  It  is  true  that 
in  India  (where  the  knowledge  of  topography  is  an 
every  day  practical  necessity)  some  experiments  have 
NO.   1771,  VOL.  68] 


been  made  with  the  Bridges-Lee  instrument  (the 
phototheodolite),  but  there  are  good  reasons  why 
photography  as  an  aid  to  surveying  should  only  be 
applicable  in  exceptional  cases  and  under  exceptional 
conditions  in  that  country.  The  ultimate  practical 
value  of  metrophotography  lies  in  the  power  which 
it  places  in  the  hands  of  one  accomplished  topo- 
grapher to  do  the  work  of  many.  It  is  a  financial 
question  in  the  long  run,  but,  as  Col.  Laussedat  does 
not  fail  to  point  out,  it  is  useless  in  the  hands  of  an 
amateur.  It  requires  a  surveyor  (or  an  artist)  of  ex- 
ceptional ability  and  experience  as  a  topographer  to 
render  it  effective.  Workmen  of  this  stamp  are  rare 
anywhere  and  command  good  value  for  their  work. 
In  India  the  simpler  form  of  topography  attained  by 
the  use  of  the  plane  table  (which  is  invariably  superior 
in  its  final  results  to  those  of  metrophotography  when 
applied  to  ordinary  country  by  ordinary  workmen)  is 
attained  cheaply  and  satisfactorily ;  for  the  native 
labour  of  India  is  cheap,  abundant,  and  specially 
adapted  by  nature  to  this  form  of  art.  Metrophoto- 
graphy, therefore,  would  probably  not  pay. 

The  practical  application  of  metrophotography  has 
been  well  exemplified  by  Le  Bon  in  India,  in  aid 
of  archaeological  research ;  by  Legros  as  an  explorer ; 
by  Vallot  as  a  mountaineer  (in  which  direction  it  is 
specially  useful),  and  by  many  other  Frenchmen  in 
various  ways  in  different  parts  of  the  world,  leaving 
no  room  for  doubt  as  to  its  value  in  exceptional 
circumstances,  and  the  necessity  tor  its  continued 
development.  But  Laussedat  is  at  some  pains  to 
quote  the  opinion  of  the  Canadian  expert  Deville,  who 
proves  clearly  the  limitations  of  the  art,  and  shows 
that  photographic  topography  is  just  as  much  de- 
pendent on  accurate  preliminary  triangulation  as  any 
other  form  of  topography.  He  enters  fully  into  the 
difficulties  which  beset  the  method,  both  as  to  the 
determination  of  scale  and  the  representation  of 
orographic  features  by  contours. 

A  variety  of  new  instruments  designed  to  aid  in 
the  reduction  of  photographs  to  plan  are  described, 
and  the  scientific  principles  involved  in  their  con- 
struction are  discussed  at  length — such  as  the  trir^gle 
of  Nicholson,  the  perspectograph  of  Hermann  Ritter, 
Hanck's  apparatus,  and  the  perspecteur  panoramique 
of  Ch.  von  Ziegler.  Some  of  the  problems  offered  for 
the  consideration  of  his  readers  are  of  considerable 
mathematical  complexity.  A  good  deal  has  been 
added  to  that  which  has  already  appeared  in  vol.  i. 
on  the  subject  of  telephotography  (which  was  em- 
ployed with  so  much  success  by  engineers  during  the 
siege  of  Paris),  and  forms  a  particularly  fascinating 
chapter   in    this   work. 

A  chapter  on  balloon  and  kite  flying  reconnaissance, 
with  an  inquiry  into  the  nature  of  the  instruments 
used  and  of  their  attachments,  as  well  as  into  the 
principles  involved  in  determining  the  scale  of  the 
resulting  photograph  and  in  the  reduction  of  observ- 
ations, is  interesting;  although  it  is  difficult  to  believe 
that  automatic  observations  taken  from  flying  kites 
or  balloons  can  be  made  valuable  for  military  purposes 
unless  applied  to  the  illustration  of  positions  within 
which  two  or  three  points  have  been  accurately  fixed 

A  A 


546 


NATURE 


[October  8    1903 


by  one  of  the  ordinary  methods  of  terrestrial  survey. 
The  results  of  the  first  trial  in  the  kite  flying  for  plan 
photographic  purposes  were  published  in  ha  Nature 
by  M.  Batut  in  1888,  so  that  the  experiment  is  by  no 
means  new;  but  we  doubt  if  this  system  has  ever 
really  added  any  valuable  results  to  the  reconnaissance 
information  obtained  by  more  usual  methods  in  time 
of  war;  and  it  is  conceivable  that  only  for  military 
purposes  under  stringent  conditions  would  such 
methods  be  applicable.  Stereophotography  is  the  sub- 
ject which  concludes  Col.  Laussedat's  review  of  instru- 
ments and  methods.  This,  indeed,  forms  a  most 
useful  variation  on  ordinary  metrophotographic  ob- 
servations, for  it  Is  obvious  that  the  representation  of 
orographic  features  as  effected  by  this  well  known 
process  conveys  a  far  more  readable  impression  to 
the  eye  of  the  nature  of  the  country  photographed,  the 
rise  and  fall  of  undulations,  the  gradation  of  slopes, 
&c.,  than  any  flat  photograph  can  possibly  convey. 
It  is  a  branch  of  photography  applied  to  topography 
which  has  received  very  considerable  attention  in 
France,  and  it  promises  to  become  a  very  valuable 
aid  in  the  process  of  reducing  landscape  photographs 
to  topographical  maps  In  future. 

Colonel  Laussedat  has  undoubtedly  written  a  most 
valuable  book — one  which  will  be  a  standard  authority 
for  years  on  the  subjects  which  he  treats  so  ably. 
Men  of  science  and  experts  may  not  agree  as  to  the 
practical  utility  of  some  of  the  methods  discussed; 
but  they  are  discussed  Impartially,  carefully,  and  in 
almost  exhaustive  detail,  and  the  reader  Is  left  to 
form  his  own  conclusions.  There  are  yet  many 
countries  In  the  world  which  are  greatly  In  need  of 
good  topographical  illustration  of  the  natural  features 
contained  in  them.  There  are  still  vast  areas  un- 
mapped. If  not  unexplored.  Thus  Col.  Laussedat's 
book  appears  at  a  most  appropriate  time,  when  the 
demand  for  topography  is  the  first  demand  of  the 
administrator,  and  the  necessity  for  utilising  every 
method  which  promises  to  effect  a  saving  of  time 
and  expense  is  paramount.  It  should  find  a  place 
In  every  scientific  library  with  any  pretension  to  com- 
pleteness. T.  H.  H. 


NATURE  STUDY  AS  A  SCHOOL  SUBJECT. 
An  Introduction  to  Nature  Study.     By  E.   Stenhouse. 
Pp.  X  +  422.     (London  :  Macmillan  and  Co.,  Ltd., 
1903.)     Price  35.  6d. 

SINCE  the  attempt  was  made  a  year  or  two  ago  to 
Introduce  into  our  rural  elementary  schools  the 
subject  called  "  nature-study,"  really  such  a  general 
Introduction  to  the  science  of  living  things  as  will  give 
the  pupil  a  means  of  taking  an  Interest  In  his  environ- 
ment, there  has  been  a  great  lack  of  adequate  books  for 
the  teacher.  Several  men.  Dr.  Armstrong,  Prof. 
Mlall,  and  Prof.  Lloyd  Morgan,  for  Instance,  have 
spoken  about  the  spirit  in  which  the  work  should  be 
undertaken,  nor  are  there  wanting  books  which  in- 
dicate the  method  to  be  followed,  that  of  experiment 
and  observation.  But  the  ordinary  teacher  without 
any  particular  training  in  the  subject  has  wanted  more 

NO.  1 77 1,  VOL.  68] 


systematic  guidance,  his  previous  training  has  been 
in  the  wrong  direction,  and  the  many  text-books 
that  have  been  hurried  on  to  the  market  have  only 
tended  to  confirm  his  probable  original  error  that 
nature-study  consisted  in  reading  about  natural 
objects  or  anything  bearing  on  country  life. 

At  last,  however,  we  have  a  text-book  of  the  right 
kind,  something  that  we  can  unreservedly  recommend 
to  the  teacher,  both  as  a  guide  to  the  method  he  should 
follow  and  as  a  storehouse  of  instructions  concerning 
the  details  of  experiments  within  his  reach.  The  book 
Is  avowedly  written  to  cover  section  i.  of  the  Board 
of  Education  course  in  general  biology;  it  is  equally 
well  suited  to  the  more  recent  syllabuses  In  nature- 
study  or  the  elementary  stage  in  agriculture  and  rural 
economy  issued  by  the  same  department. 

The  book  opens  with  a  study  of  the  growth  of  the 
plant,  first  describing  the  elementary  experiments 
Illustrating  the  structure  and  development  of  the 
seedling,  then  the  function  of  leaf,  stem  and  flower. 

A  little  more  might  have  been  done  to  show  how 
many  of  the  experiments  can  be  rendered  quantitative, 
so  as  to  yield  exercises  in  measurement  and  continuous 
record  keeping;  indications  also  might  have  been 
given  of  how  the  teaching  could  be  brought  home  to 
the  country  child  by  illustrations  from  farm  or  garden 
practice.  For  example,  It  is  easy  to  carry  out  experi- 
ments In  the  garden  on  the  best  depths  at  which  seeds 
of  various  sizes  should  be  sown,  on  the  necessity  of  a 
good  seed  bed,  or  the  harm  wrought  by  plastering  seeds 
into  wet  sticky  soil,  all  of  which  give  practical  point 
to  the  lessons  derived  from  the  experiments  in  class. 
Again,  the  structure  of  the  stem  finds  many  appro- 
priate illustrations  In  the  various  methods  of  propa- 
gation by  cuttings  or  layers,  buds  or  grafts,  the  healing 
of  wounds  on  a  tree,  knots  and  other  common  features 
in  timber. 

The  discussion  of  plant  families  and  orders  is  re- 
freshingly free  from  technicalities,  though  here  again 
more  might  be  made  of  systematic  observations  from 
month  to  month  of  the  development  of  characteristic 
structures  like  tubers,  bulbs,  corms,  &c. 

The  animal  life  section  gives  first  of  all  some  elemen- 
tary Instruction  about  physiology  and  structure,  taking 
the  rabbit  as  a  text,  and  then  discusses  briefly  the  char- 
acteristics of  our  commoner  mammals.  The  section 
on  birds  contains  a  good  chapter  on  the  development 
of  the  hen's  egg  during  incubation,  followed  by  an 
account,  brief  but  suggestive,  of  a  few  familiar  birds. 
A  chapter  on  the  frog  and  its  development  from  the 
egg  is  followed  by  one  on  Insects,  dealing  with  the 
structure  and  life-history  of  one  or  two  common  forms. 

The  scope  of  the  book  is  obviously  considerable,  and 
it  is  by  no  means  desirable  to  use  it  wholesale,  but 
in  the  hands  of  an  intelligent  teacher  who  will  select 
the  sections  most  suitable  to  his  conditions,  practise 
himself  in  the  experiments,  and  then  get  his  pupils 
to  help  him  to  carry  out  numerous  repetitions,  who 
finally  will  add  local  illustrations  and  practical  appli- 
cations, the  book  will  be  of  the  utmost  service  in 
systematising  his  instruction  and  guiding  It  along  the 
fruitful  lines  of  experiment  and  research, 

A.  D.  H. 


October  S,  1903J 


NATURE 


547 


OVR   BOOK  SHELF. 

Krgcbnisse  der  Physiologie.  Edited  by  L.  Asher 
(Bern)  and  K.  Spiro  (Strassburg).  Erster  Jahrgang. 
I  Abtheilung.  Biochemie.  Pp.  xix  +  929.  (Wies- 
baden :  J.  F.  Bergmann,  1902.)  Price  17  marks. 
The  German  physiological  school  is  engaged  just  now 
in  producing  a  monumental  work.  Under  the  able 
editorship  of  Drs.  Asher  and  Spiro,  two  of  the  most 
energetic  of  the  younger  physiologists  of  the  Father- 
land, the  most  eminent  workers  in  different  branches 
of  the  science  have  been  persuaded  to  contribute  of 
their  best.  We  notice  also  that  among  the  collabor- 
ators are  several  from  other  countries  in  addition. 
The  editors  do  not  aim  at  producing  a  text-book  even 
for  the  advanced  student,  but  a  series  of  essays,  each 
written  by  a  master  of  his  craft  on  some  subject 
to  which  he  has  paid  particular  attention,  and 
has  himself  made  a  subject  of  investigation.  Giving, 
as  each  article  does,  not  only  the  history  of  the 
subject  with  full  biographical  references,  but  also 
an  account  of  the  latest  discoveries,  and  discussions 
of  conflicting  views  on  the  many  vexed  questions 
treated,  it  will  prove  a  veritable  mine  of  facts  to  the 
investigator,  and  will,  indeed,  be  indispensable 
to  all  who  are  attempting  real  and  serious  work  in  the 
future. 

The  volume  before  us  treats  of  what  it  is  now  the 
fashion  to  call  biochemistry,  and  we  notice  with 
pleasure  that  some  of  the  articles  deal  with  the  com- 
parative and  also  with  the  botanical  aspects  of  this 
rapidly  growing  branch  of  physiology.  We  shall  not 
attempt  to  give  a  resume  of  the  book,  or  even  a  list 
of  the  articles  and  their  authors.  This  is  a  sort  of 
book  which  must  be  read,  and  not  merely  talked  about. 
Suffice  it  to  say  that  among  the  authors  are  those  of 
the  standing  of  I.  Munk,  Hammarsten,  F.  Voit, 
Pawlow,  Hugo  Wiener,  and  Hofmeister. 

In  any  work  in  which  many  participate,  there  is 
always  a  certain  amount  of  inequality.  In  the  present 
volume  this  is  not  so  noticeable  as  in  most  books  of  a 
similar  nature,  for  each  author  seems  to  have  made  a 
si)ecial  effort  to  produce  an  article  or  articles  of  the 
highest  possible  standard. 

We  do  not  pretend  that  the  book  is  light  or  attractive 
reading,  and  we  imagine  that  the  authors  themselves 
would  be  the  first  to  repudiate  any  suggestion  that 
they  intended  it  to  be  so.  The  German  language,  for 
one  thing,  does  not  lend  itself  to  such  a  frivolous  pur- 
pose. It  is  solid,  hard  reading,  written  with  the 
German  ideal  of  thoroughness  for  the  student  and 
the  worker  by  those  who  are  themselves  workers  and 
students. 

Thermodynamik.  By  Prof.  Dr.  W.  Voigt.  Band  i. 
(.Sammlung  Schubert,  vol.  xxxix.)  Pp.  xvi  +  360; 
with  43  figures.  (Leipzig  :  G.  J.  Goschen,  1903.) 
Price  10  marks. 
The  subject  of  thermodynamics  can  be  treated  either 
as  a  deductive  or  as  an  experimental  science.  Accord- 
ing to  the  former  method,  the  second  law  affords  a 
definition  of  absolute  temperature,  and  a  perfect  gas 
is  a  hypothetical  substance,  defined  by  certain  con- 
ditions, which  is  proved  to  possess  the  property  of 
acting  as  a  thermometer  for  the  measurement  of 
absolute  temperature.  In  the  present  case  the  opposite 
treatment  is  followed.  The  book  opens  with  an  in- 
troduction dealing  with  thermometry  and  calorimetry, 
followed  up  by  a  section  on  the  equivalence  of  work 
and  heat  in  which  the  specific  heat  of  water  finds  its 
old  traditional  title  of  mechanical  equivalent  of  heat, 
and  the  methods  of  determining  it  are  severally  and 
separately  discussed.  The  next  chapter  deals  with  the 
thermodynamics  of  perfect  gases,  and  includes  sections 
on  Carnot's  cycle  as  applied  to  such  gases.  It  is  not 
until  the  third  chapter  that  the  second  law  is  applied 

NO.    1 771,  VOL.  68] 


generally  to  bodies  defined  by  two  variables,  while  in 
the  fourth  or  last  chapter  the  principles  of  thermo- 
dynamics are  extended  to  systems  defined  by  any 
number  of  variables.  The  book  thus  has  its  parallel, 
to  a  certain  extent,  in  those  treatises  on  applied 
mechanics  which  deal  with  the  equilibrium  of  levers 
or  motion  of  pulleys  before  introducing  the  parallel- 
ogram of  forces  or  the  laws  of  motion.  At  the  present 
time  many  students  working  in  physical  laboratories 
acquire  an  experimental  knowledge  of  principles  which 
their  lack  of  mathematical  ability  prevents  them  from 
approaching  from  the  deductive  side.  No  doubt  this 
is  a  pity,  but  vihile  such  students  continue  to  exist  and 
to  require  teaching,  it  is  difficult  to  see  how  a  subject 
like  thermodynamics  could  better  be  presented  to  them 
than  is  done  in  Prof.  Voigt 's  treatise. 

Arithmetic  for  Schools  and  Colleges.     By  John  Alison, 

M.A.,  F.R.S.E.,  and  John  B.  Clark,  M.A.,  F.R.S.E. 

Pp.  xliii  +  304.     (Edinburgh  :  Oliver  and  Boyd,  1903.) 

Price  25.  6rf. 
No  better  exposition  of  the  nature  of  arithmetical  oper- 
ations and  of  proofs  of  the  various  rules  of  arithmetic 
than  that  which  these  two  Scottish  authors  here  pre- 
sent to  us  can  be  found.  The  first  twelve  chapters 
treat  of  the  more  theoretical  branch  of  the  subject,  and 
explain  with  great  exactness  the  laws  of  arithmetical 
processes  and  the  manipulation  of  vulgar  and  decimal 
fractions.  The  authors  never  miss  an  opportunity  of 
pointing  out  the  means  of  shortening  a  calculation 
and,  at  the  same  time,  of  explaining  and  justifying 
the  process.  In  these  first  twelve  chapters  we  would 
specially  signalise  those  on  "  laws  of  operations  "  and 
"  decimal  approximations  "  as  interesting  to  the 
philosophically  minded  student;  but,  indeed,  the  whole 
of  the  work  is  marked  by  great  thoroughness.  In  the 
chapter  on  evolution,  Horner's  method  is  e.xplained 
and  amply  illustrated.  There  is  a  very  good  chapter 
on  the  metric  system,  including  its  employment  in 
dynamics,  heat,  and  electricity,  illustrated  by  a  large 
collection  of  examples.  The  nature  of  ratio  and  pro- 
portion is  also  very  well  explained  and  exemplified  in 
three  special  chapters.  The  practical  subjects  (per- 
centages, profit  and  loss,  interest,  &c.)  are  treated  as 
mere  examples  of  the  theory  of  proportion. 

Once  only  in  the  book  do  we  meet  with  a  vicious 
Saxon  expression  :  "If  the  first  term  of  a  proportion 
be  greater  than  the  second,  the  third  shall  he  [instead 
of  is]  greater  than  the  fourth  "  (p.  202);  but  this  is 
not  repeated  in  subsequent  similar  propositions. 

Except  by  the  introduction  of  the  diagrammatical 
relations  between  variable  quantities,  as  exhibited  by 
curves  on  squared  paper,  it  is  difficult  to  see  how  this 
very  excellent  treatise  could  be  improved. 

G.  M.  M. 
Les  Materiaux  artificiels.     By  Marie-Auguste   Morel. 

Pp.     178.       (Paris  :     Gauthier-Villars    and    Masson 

et  Cie.) 
This  volume  belongs  to  the  "  Encyclop^die  Scientifique 
des  Aide-M^moire,"  published  under  the  general 
editorship  of  M.  L^aut^.  It  contains  information  of 
an  interesting  kind  about  numerous  materials  used  in 
building  and  other  constructive  arts.  The  first 
chapter,  on  semi-artificial  substances,  includes  a  treat- 
ment of  lime,  cements,  bricks,  tiles,  and  other 
materials.  This  is  followed  by  successive  chapters 
giving  accounts  of  those  artificial  materials  dependent 
for  their  manufacture  on  technical  chemistry ;  those 
used  in  association  with  metal  armatures ;  those — such 
as  mortar,  artificial  stone — formed  when  artificial 
materials  are  mixed  with  other  non-metallic  sub- 
stances. The  concluding  sections  include  a  mis- 
cellany of  subjects,  such  as  the  preservation  of  wood, 
the  use  of  soluble  glass,  and  a  description  of  Lincrusta- 
Walton.  •  ■    • 


548 


NATURE 


[October  8,  1903 


LETTERS  TO  THE  EDITOR. 
[The  Editor  does  not  hold  himself  responsible  for  opinions 
expressed  by  his  correspondents.  Neither  can  he  undertake 
to  return,  or  to  correspond  with  the  writers  of,  rejected 
manuscripts  intended  for  this  or  any  other  part  of  Nature. 
No  notice  is  taken  of  anonymous  communications.] 

Expansion  Curves. 
Every  man  who  has  studied  steam  or  gas  or  oil  engines 
knows  that  if  there  is  one  construction  more  important  than 
another  it  is  to  draw  a  curve  representing  the  law 

/)7>»=  constant 

through  any  given  point.  Here  is  an  exceedingly  simple, 
ingenious  method  of  doing  this  which  I  have  just  found 
in  a  pamphlet  by  Mr.  E.  J.  Stoddard,  of  Detroit.  Let  A 
be  the  given  point  so  that  AB  represents  a  given  volume. 


and  AG  a  given  pressure.  Set  off  any  convenient  angle, 
VOJ=o    say.     Compute  an  angle  ^  such  that 

I  +  tan  )3  =  (i  +  tan  a)", 

and  set  off  BOC  =  3.  Produce  AG  to  J.  Now  make  OBC  = 
JHO=45°,  and  project  from  C  and  H  to  find  E  a  point  in 
the  curve.     The  proof  is  obvious. 

It  is  evident  that  OC  may  be  drawn  to  the  right  of  OB, 
and  OJ  above  OV,  to  save  paper  if  necessary. 

J.   Perry. 

Royal  College  of  Science,  S.W.,  September  23. 


Botany  in  Boys'  Schools. 

Prof.  W.  W.  Watts  said  in  his  address  to  the  Geology 
Section  of  the  British  Association,  "  there  is  no  science  in 
which  materials  for  elementary  teaching  are  so  common,  so 
cheap,  and  everywhere  so  accessible." 

In  the  light  of  this  statement  I  sought  material  for  the 
teaching  of  another  science — botany — in  a  north  London 
playground  last  week. 

The  Angiosperms  were  represented  by  thirteen  natural 
orders.  With  a  single  representative  each  of  the  algae  and 
fungi,  thirty-eight  species  in  all  were  found  growing  in 
or  on  a  soil  which  is  almost  entirely  ballast ! 

It  seems  a  pity  that  botany  should  be  so  rarely  taught 
in  boys'  schools  when  a  single  playground  yields  materials 
"  so  cheap  and  so  accessible."  H.  J.  Glover. 

Stationers'  School,  Hornsey,  N.,  September  23. 


NO.  17 7 1,  VOL.  68] 


Radium  and  the  Cosmical  Time  Scale. 

Certain  letters  have  appeared  in  Nature  upon  the  bear- 
ing of  the  properties  of  radium  upon  the  cosmical  time 
scale.  These  letters  are  based  on  the  assumption  that 
radium,  or  some  equally  active  body,  exists  in  the  sun  and 
contributes  materially  to  the  output  of  solar  energy.  If 
this  assumption  were  true,  we  ought,  I  think,  to  be  ablr 
to  detect  the  rays  peculiar  to  radio-active  bodies  on  tlv 
surface  of  the  earth — they  should  bear  some  proportion  ti- 
the great  stream  of  light  and  heat  waves  which  reaches  us. 

Now  a  solution  of  iodoform  in  chloroform  is  very  sensitive 
to  the  )3  and  7  rays.  A  purple  coloration  is  produced  by 
the  rays  from  5mg.  of  radium  bromide  even  after  filter- 
ing through  icm.  of  lead.  On  the  other  hand,  I  find  that 
direct  sunlight  (if  heating  be  obviated)  has  no  action  when 
the  thinnest  opaque  screen  is  interposed  even  after  many 
days.  Some  of  my  solutions  are  now  nearly  two  months  old, 
and  they  have  been  exposed  in  light-tight  cardboard  boxes 
to  such  sunshine  as  has  reached  us  during  that  period. 
They  are  quite  unchanged. 

It  is,  of  course,  possible  that  the  stream  of  rays  needs 
to  be  above  a  certain  critical  density  in  order  to  decompose 
the  iodoform,  but  in  any  case  my  experiments  prove  that 
the  0  and  y  rays  reach  us  at  most  only  in  faint  quantities 
from  the  sun.  W.  B.  Hardy. 

Gonville  and  Caius  College,   Cambridge. 


Loss  of  Weight  of  Musk  by  Volatilisation. 

I  SHOULD  like  to  direct  the  attention  of  your  correspon- 
dent "  S.  W."  (p.  496)  to  N.  Cimento  for  May,  1902  (or 
abstract  1986,  Science  Abstracts,  1902),  in  which 
E.  Salvioni  says  that  he  has  shown  the  loss  of  weight  of 
musk  by  volatilisation. 

The  measurements  were  made  by  a  special  form  of 
balance.  p.  R.  Sexton. 

Park  Lodge,  Kingston-on-Thames,  September  5. 


CONDENSATION    NUCLEIC 

T  N  a  previous  paper  under  the  not  very  appropriate 
-^  title  "  Experiments  with  Ionised  Air,"  Prof.  Barus 
has  described  observations,  made  by  means  of  his 
modified  steam-jet  methods,  upon  the  nuclei  found  in 
air  which  has  passed  over  phosphorus,  together  with 
measurements  of  the  electrical  lealcage  through  air 
thus  treated.  The  first  chapter  of  the  present  volume 
is  taken  up  with  a  continuation  of  the  work  by  the 
methods  there  described. 

There  is  no  reason  to  expect  the  properties  of  air 
v^-hich  has  been  exposed  to  phosphorus  to  be  character- 
istic of  ionised  air  generally;  the  recent  experiments 
of  Harms,  and  of  Elster  and  Geitel,  have,  it  is  true, 
shown  that  ions  are  probably  present,  but  the  con- 
ditions are  much  more  complicated  than  in  cases  of 
simple  ionisation,  such  as  that  due  to  X-rays,  owing 
to  the  presence  of  the  products  of  the  oxidation  of  the 
phosphorus.  It  is  probably  to  the  presence  of  the  pro- 
ducts of  the  oxidation  of  phosphorus  vapour,  as  was 
pointed  out  In  1866  by  Schmid,  that  the  formation  of 
the  phosphorus  cloud  is  due.  The  cloud  nuclei  are 
not  free  ions;  in  the  "  experiments  with  ionised  air  " 
it  was  found  that  the  number  of  nuclei  was  un- 
diminished by  even  a  strong  electric  field ;  additional 
evidence  is  brought  forward  In  the  first  chapter  of  the 
present  paper,  where  experiments  are  described  show- 
ing different  temperatures  for  the  maxima  of  nucle- 
ation  and  of  ionisation.  But  such  evidence  was  not 
required  to  show  that  these  nuclei  are  not  ordinary 
free  ions,  for  in  dust-free  air  ionised  by  X-rays  or  the 
rays  from  radio-active  substances  (in  all  cases,  in- 
deed, in  which  the  ions  have  the  normal  velocity  under 

1  "  The  Structure  of  the  Nucleus,  a  continuation  of  _' Experiments  with 
Ionised  Air.' "  By  Carl  Barus.  (Smithsonian  Contributions  to  Knowledge, 
Hodgkins  Fund,  1903.) 


October  8,  1903] 


NATURE 


549 


potential  gradient  of  a  volt  per  cm.)  the  same  definite 
legree  of  supersaturation,  approximately  fourfold,  is 
}uired  to  produce  a  cloud ;  the  phosphorus  cloud,  on 
le  other  hand,  does  not  require  any  sensible  degree 
F  supersaturation  for  its  production.' 
There  is  evidence  in  these  papers  of  strange  mis- 
)nceptions  on  the  subject  of  ionisation.  One  is 
arprised  in  a  paper  dealing  with  "  ionised  air  " 
>  find  such  a  statement  as  that  on  p.  53, 
n„  =  3.6xio*,  agreeing  very  well  with  J.  J.  Thom- 
)n's  4x  10'  as  the  number  of  ions  in  air  ionised  to 
ituration  by  the  X-rays." 

In     measurements     of     the     leakage     of     electricity 

irough   air   which   has   passed   over   phosphorus   one 

rould  expect  the  apparatus  to  be  designed  in  such  a 

/ay  that   there  should  be  no  danger  of  the  leakage 

bserved  being  mainly  due  to  the  surface  of  the  in- 

'sulating    supports    becoming    conducting    by    contact 

with  the  phosphorus  fumes.     The  failure  to  take  such 

precautions    detracts    greatly    from    the    value    of    the 

electrical  observation  described  in  these  papers. 

Chapter  ii.  and  the  remaining  chapters  of  the 
volume  on  the  structure  of  the  nucleus  contain  an 
account  of  experiments  upon  the  clouds  produced  by 
rapid  expansion.  There  can  be  no  doubt  that  such 
experiments  are  easier  of  interpretation  than  those 
made  by  steam-jet  methods.  Prof.  Barus  begins  with 
experiments  on  the  colour  phenomena  attending  the 
rapid  expansion  of  moist  air  containing  nuclei,  gener- 
ally phosphorus  and  "  punk  "  nuclei.  It  is  only  when 
few  nuclei  are  present,  and  the  drops  formed  on  ex- 
pansion thus  comparatively  large,  that  normal  coronas, 
as  Barus  calls  them,  are  seen  surrounding  a 
luminous  source  viewed  through  the  cloud.  It  is  only 
to  such  coronas  that  the  ordinary  theory  of  the  corona 
applies ;  the  gorgeous  colour  phenomena  observed 
when  the  drops  are  very  small,  numerous  and  uniform 
in  size  are  much  more  difficult  to  interpret.  If  it 
were  possible  to  deduce  the  size  of  the  cloud  particles 
from  the  colour  phenomena  observed  with  a  given  ex- 
pansion, a  most  convenient  method  of  determining  the 
number  of  nuclei  present  would  be  available,  for  the 
quantity  of  water  separating  out  as  a  consequence  of 
a  given  expansion  can  be  calculated,  and  hence  the 
number  of  drops  could  be  determined  if  the  size  of 
each  were  known.  With  this  end  in  view  Prof.  Barus, 
in  the  absence  of  an  exact  theon,'  of  the  colours, 
attempted  to  determine  the  size  of  the  drops  corre- 
sponding to  a  given  arrangement  of  colours  by  an 
experimental  method.  On  certain  assumptions'  the 
relative  numbers  of  the  drops  in  a  whole  series  of 
successive  expansions,  giving  a  corresponding  series 
of  colour  phenomena,  were  known,  the  drops  in  the 
final  expansions  being  large  enough  to  give  normal 
coronas,  from  which  by  comparison  with  Ivcopodium 
coronas  the  radii  of  the  drops,  and  hence  their  number, 
could  be  determined ;  thence  could  be  deduced  the 
number  and  size  of  the  drops  in  each  of  the  previous 
fwpansions.  It  is  very  doubtful  if  the  method  can  be 
made  a  trustworthy  one. 

Expansion  experiments  made  with  other  vapours 
than  that  of  water  are  next  described,  benzol,  carbon 
bisulphide,  ethyl  and  methyl  alcohol  and  other  vapours 
being  used.  Water  vapour  obviously  differs  from 
most  other  vapours  in  one  very  important  respect,  i.e. 
it  is  lighter  than  air.  In  the  experiments  made  by 
Prof.  Barus  the  air  was  contained  in  a  large  vessel 
with  a  pool  of  liquid  at  the  bottom ;  when  the  liquid 
was  water  the  moist  air  would  rise  to  the  top,  and  mix- 
ing would  thus  take  place  automatically  by  convection 
until  the  whole  volume  was  saturated ;  in  the  case  of 
liquids  like  benzol  the  heavy  vapour-charged  air  would 
lie  at  the  bottom,  the  vapour  only  gradually  diffusing 
upwards.  Uniform  distribution  of  vapour,  and  hence 
the  production  of  circular  coronas  on  expansion,  are 
NO.    I  77  I,  VOL.  68] 


to  be  expected  with  water,  while  with  benzol,  unless 
artificial  stirring  has  been  employed  or  a  long  interval 
has  been  allowed  for  diffusion,  only  the  lowest  strata 
will  be  saturated  with  vapour,  and  the  amount  of 
liquid  available  for  each  drop  formed  on  expansion 
will,  if  the  nuclei  are  uniformly  distributed,  diminish 
from  below  upwards ;  distorted  coronas,  or  in  extreme 
cases  an  arrangement  of  the  colours  in  horizontal 
strata,  are  to  be  expected.  The  upper  part  of  the 
vessel  may  remain  free  from  cloud,  the  upper  boundary 
of  the  cloud  marking  the  level  at  which  just  enough 
vapour  is  present  to  give  drops  with  the  degree  of 
expansion  used.  Even  when  uniform  distribution  of 
the  vapour  has  been  obtained,  it  will  be  destroyed  by 
the  first  expansion  made  and  the  subsequent  entrance 
of  the  dry  air  introduced  to  bring  the  pressure  back 
to  that  of  the  atmosphere. 

The  phenomena  observed  by  Prof.  Barus  are  exactly 
what  one  would  expect  from  these  considerations,  but 
he  makes  no  reference  to  the  above  mentioned  im- 
portant difference  in  the  conditions  attending  experi- 
ments with  water  vapour  and  with  other  vapours.  His 
interpretation  of  the  observed  phenomena  is,  in  fact, 
quite  different.  "  When  sulphur  or  other  nuclei  are 
put  into  the  globe  containing  benzol  vapour  the  result 
is  peculiar.  Instead  of  distributing  themselves  homo- 
geneously throughout  the  receiver  they  usually  collect 
in  a  heavy  band  near  the  bottom.  This  is  invisible  until 
revealed  by  the  first  exhaustion,  when  a  heavy  sluggish 
fog  bank  is  seen,  only  a  few  centimetres  high." 
Again,  "  The  most  curious  feature  in  connection  with 
benzol  as  well  as  the  preceding  liquids  is  the  subsi- 
dence of  the  invisible  nucleated  air  immediately  after 
influx  and  without  exhaustion."  The  "graded  con- 
densation "  is  interpreted  as  showing  the  nature  of  the 
distribution  in  the  vessel,  not  of  the  vapour,  but  of  the 
nuclei,  and  an  elaborate  series  of  experiments  to  deter- 
mine the  rates  at  which  the  nuclei  travel  in  different 
vapours  is  described ;  that  rate  of  diffusion  of  the 
vapour  rather  than  of  the  nuclei  is  involved  is  by  far 
the  more  natural  interpretation.  (In  a  short  para- 
graph, inserted  apparently  subsequently  to  the  writing 
of  the  paper,  the  possibility  of  this  interpretation  is 
admitted.) 

The  fifth  chapter  treats  of  the  nuclei  produced  by 
shaking  liquids,  particularly  aqueous  solutions.  The 
production  of  nuclei  by  shaking,  bubbling  and  spray- 
ing has  been  noticed  by  several  observers,  and  the 
effect  of  dissolved  substances  in  the  water  upon  the 
persistence  of  the  nuclei  has  been  studied  by  Mr.  H.  A. 
Wilson.  Prof.  Barus  here  gives  an  interesting  series 
of  observations  on  a  large  number  of  solutions  of  vary- 
ing degrees  of  concentration.  These  nuclei  are  re- 
garded as  minute  drops  of  the  solution  employed, 
which  have  evaporated  until  the  concentration  of  the 
dissolved  substance  becomes  great  enough  to  counter- 
balance the  effect  of  the  curvature  upon  the  vapour 
pressure.  The  conditions  of  equilibrium  of  small 
drops  containing  substances  in  solution  are  made  clear 
by  a  diagram.  There  can  be  little  doubt  that  the 
nuclei  obtained  by  shaking  solutions,  and  probably 
also  those  produced  from  phosphorus  and  from  mo.st 
of  the  other  sources  used  by  Prof.  Barus,  are  of  this 
nature.  There  is,  indeed,  nothing  novel  in  the  view 
that  nuclei  of  this  kind  exist.  Barus,  however,  seems 
to  imply  that  all  nuclei,  including  what  other  experi- 
menters have  taken  to  be  the  ions  produced  by  X-rays 
and  similar  agents,  are  of  this  type. 

An  extraordinary  interpretation  is  given  (on  p.  161) 
of  the  experiments  by  which  it  was  sought  to 
determine  the  difference  in  the  action  as  condensation 
nuclei  of  the  positive  and  negative  ions.-  "  If  one 
introduces  nuclei  or  makes  nuclei  by  aid  of  the  X-rays, 
in  what  is  virtually  the  acid  and  alkaline  side  of  a 
battery,  even  if  the  ionised  moist  air  is  the  electrolyte, 


550 


NATURE 


[October  8,  1903 


one  is  conveying  nuclei  into  or  making  nuclei  out  of 
different  media."  How  it  comes  about  that  a  perfectly 
definite  degree  of  supersaturation  is  required  to  cause 
condensation  on  such  nuclei,  whether  an  electric  field 
is  applied  or  not,  and  whether  they  have  been  pro- 
duced by  strong  or  weak  radiation  or  by  other  means, 
he  does 'not  attempt  to  explain.  He  brings  forward  in 
support  of  his  view  the  further  consideration  that,  "  if 
a  marked  difference  in  efficiency  of  positive  and  nega- 
tive ions  is  granted,  then  any  ionised  emanation 
neutral  as  a  whole,  like  that  of  phosphorus,  should 
produce  two  groups  of  nuclei.  On  condensation  there 
should  be  two  groups  of  coronal  particles  inter- 
penetrating and  subsiding  through  each  other  in  the 
wav  I  have  frequently  instanced  in  other  experiments. 
No  such  effect  has  been .  observed. "  The  answer  to 
this  is  simply  that  the  nuclei  causing  the  phosphorus 
clouds  are  not  free  ions,  like  those  produced  by  X-rays. 
Prof.  Barus  concludes  with  a  suggestion  as  to  the 
origin  of  atmospheric  electricity,  according  to  which 
nuclei  become  negatively  charged  as  the  solution  which 
they  contain  becomes  diluted  by  absorption  of  water. 
C.  T.  R.  Wilson. 


THE    GEOLOGY    OF    AUSTRIA-HUNGARY. 

TO  know,  even  in  a  general  fashion,  the  provinces 
of  Austria-Hungary,  with  their  immense  range 
of  scenic  types  and  their  picturesque  variety  of  nation- 
alities, goes  far  in  itself  towards  a  liberal  education. 
The  lover  of  landscape,  as  well  as  the  geologist,  will 
find  much  of  interest  in  the  new  "  Fiihrer  fiir  die 
geologischen  Exkursionen  in  Oesterreich,"  issued  in 
connection  with  the  ninth  International  Geological 
Congress  in  Vienna.  This  bulky  work  is  divided,  like 
that  of  the  Russian  congress,  into  numerous  separate 
brochures,  but  forms,  none  the  less,  a  permanent  work 
of  reference  for  our  libraries.  To  obtain  the  guide 
and  other  publications  before  they  become  scarce,  a 
subscription  to  the  secretariat  of  the  congress  of 
twenty-seven  shillings  or  so  every  three  years  seems 
not  a  heavy  price  to  pay. 

In  the  Austrian  guide  we  have  the  work  of  some 
forty-five  authors,  describing  in  a  compact  and  lucid 
form  the  districts  that  they  have  made  their  own. 
In  this  respect,  though  covering  a  far  wider  field,  it 
resembles  that  handbook  of  English  geology,  the 
"Geological  Excursions,"  issued  by  our  Geologists' 
Association.  The  names  of  the  writers  imply  in  them- 
selves the  spirit  of  a  scientific  congress.  We  do  not 
see  the  groups  and  cliques  seated  in  the  parliamentary 
Chamber  in  Vienna,  and  threatening  one  another  with 
the  literal  outpouring  of  ink;  but  we  find  instead  a 
body  devoted  in  common  to  the  reception  of  the 
stranger,  and  anxious  that  in  each  province  he  shall 
find  something  memorable  and  distinctive. 

Dr.  Jahn  opens  with  the  Older  Palaeozoic  area  of 
Bohemia,  which  includes  the  Moldau  sections  above 
Prag  and  the  ravine  at  Karlstein,  one  of  the  noblest 
scenes  of  mediaeval  Europe.  Prof.  A.  Hofmann  de- 
scribes the  silver-mines  of  Pribram,  and  Prof.  Slavi'k 
and  others  deal  with  the  Cretaceous  of  northern 
Bohemia.  _  In  this  latter  paper  it  is  pleasant  to  note 
the  insertion  of  the  euphonious  Tchech  names  of 
villages  after  the  German  forms,  a  practice  already  to 
some  extent  imitated  in  Ireland.  August  Rosiwal 
conducts  us  through  the  more  severely  German  district 
of  Karlsbad  and  other  health-resorts  upon  the  frontier. 
Prof.  Suess's  important  theory  of  the  distinction 
between  nascent  and  "  vadose  ""  waters  appearing  at 
the  earth's  surface  is  duly  referred  to.  If  this  series 
of  papers  leads  to  a  better  appreciation  of  the  rural 
districts  of  Bohemia,  the  writers  will  have  done  good 
service.  Few  visitors  have  seen  what  lies  upon  the 
NO.   1 77  I,  VOL.  68] 


plateau  and  outside  the  towns — the  hamlets  with 
bulbous  church-towers,  set  of  necessity  beside  the 
lakes,  which  gather  in  the  hollows  of  the  granite ; 
the  broad  undulations  of  a  purely  agricultural  land- 
scape, broken  here  and  there  by  some  magnificent 
group  of  castle-towers ;  the  crumpled  rim  of  the 
country  on  the  south-west,  where  one  plunges  down 
through  the  forest  to  Bavaria;  or  the  sheer  phonolite 
necks  of  the  north,  rising  like  islands  above  a  haze 
formed  by  the  smoke  of  Cainozoic  coal.  Here,  how- 
ever, we  reach  the  holiday-region  of  the  Elbe,  known 
to  dwellers  in  Dresden,  and  pleasantly  described  and 
illustrated  by  J.  E.  Hibsch  in  a  brochure  of  seventy 
pages. 

Another  important  series  of  papers  deals  with 
Galicia,  the  Miocene  salt-beds  of  Wieliczka  being,  of 
course,  included.  Less  visited  are  the  petroleum-beds 
of  Borysiaw,  now  one  of  the  active  fields  of  enter- 
prise, where  the  folding  of  the  Miocene  strata  assigns 
a  maximum  age  to  the  uplift  of  the  Karpathians. 
Oberbergrat  Johann  Holobek  connects  the  various 
deposits  of  hydrocarbons  with  the  extreme  Assuring  of 
the  sandstones  along  the  region  of  overfolding. 
Nearer  the  great  chain,  Oligocene  menilite-shales  are 
brought  up  over  the  Miocene  on  the  south-west  limb 
of  the  synclinal,  and  the  oil,  though  flowing  in  fissures, 
appears  generally  accumulated  in  the  bend. 

What  novelty  lies  before  those  who  visit  Drohobycz, 
Zaleszczyki,  Kasperowce,  and  Worochta,  following 
Drs.  Grzybowski  and  Szajnocha,  can  only  be  known 
to  those  who  have  had  glimpses  of  remote  Galicia. 
Not  the  least  interesting  feature  of  Austrian  Poland 
is  the  view  of  the  drift-covered  Russian  plateau 
across  the  frontier,  and  the  ever-present  sensation  of 
that  mysterious  and  arbitrary  cordon,  along  which  the 
white-capped  cavalry  ride  night  and  day  and  keep  the 
verge  of  Europe. 

From  a  geological  point  of  view,  the  country  of  the 
famous  limestone  Klippen  is  of  the  first  importance. 
Similar  tectonic  problems  arise  wherever  beds  of  vary- 
ing powers  of  resistance  become  crushed  together. 
In  a  neat  section  V.  Uhlig  shows  the  relation  of  the 
northern  "  Klippenzone  "  to  the  overfolds  and  thrusts 
on  the  flank  of  the  Tatra  range.  The  fertile  basin  of 
Lipto  is  included  on  the  south  of  the  granite  mass, 
and  one  can  picture  again  the  streams  leaping  into 
it  from  the  forest-slopes  of  the  Karpathians,  and  the 
grey  crags  towering  up  beyond,  and  the  descent  north- 
ward on  the  rain-swept  levels  of  the  Magura.  This 
last  region  of  little  disturbed  Eocene  and  Oligocene 
strata  leads  on  to  the  highly  faulted  and  upturned 
"Klippenzone."  North  of  this  the  Older  Cainozoic 
is  strongly  folded,  whence  Herr  Uhlig  concludes  that 
the  massive  Klippen  protected  the  corresponding  beds 
on  their  south  flank  from  the  pre-Miocene  earth- 
pressures.  These  same  pressures  had,  however,  con- 
siderable effect  among  the  Klippen  themselves,  and 
have  so  far  squeezed  the  masses  of  various  ages 
together  as  to  tend  to  obliterate  unconformities.  The 
author,  however,  urges  that  the  band  of  Klippen  re- 
presents a  series  of  true  islands  of  Jurassic  strata  in 
an  Upper  Cretaceous  and  Eocene  sea,  the  deposits  of 
which  at  one  time  practically  overwhelmed  them. 
They  are  thus  not  detached  fault-blocks  without  roots, 
although  the  pre-Miocene  movements  have  influenced 
their  present  prominence  and  position.  Fig.  14  shows 
the  bold  character  of  the  resulting  scenery.  The 
memoir  then  describes  the  structure  of  the  Tatra 
chain,  with  a  series  of  sections  which  will  be  welcomed 
by  all  who  aspire  to  look  further  than  the  classic  ex- 
ample of  the  Alps. 

Perhaps  one  regretfully  swings  back  to  Salzburg 
and  the  Salzkammergut,  though  the  detailed  paper 
by  E.  Kittl  on  the  stratigraphy  of  the  latter  area  is 
accompanied  by  an  admirable  bibliography  and  a  map 


I 


OcfOBER  8,    1903] 


NATURE 


55' 


colours.  Yet  why  should  one  regret  that  a  region 
f   such   preeminent   scenery   lies   comparatively   near 

,  and  is  at  times  unconformably  overstepped  by  the 
on-geological  tourist?  The  next  series  of  papers 
carries  us  away  to  Styria  and  the  valley  of  the  Mur, 
where  miles  of  torrent  and  ravine,  of  grey  limestone 
crag  above  and  sunny  maize  below,  await  the  un- 
conventional traveller,  and  lure  him  ever  eastward, 
until  he  emerges  on  the  plain  of  Hungary.  Then 
follows  a  number  of  papers  on  the  environs  of  Vienna, 
a  city  set  so  happily  in  a  land  of  geological  contrasts. 
Until  we  have  seen  and  touched  it,  we  scarcely  realise 
that,  a  few  miles  south  of  Laxenburg,  the  dusty  rise 
over  a  castle-crowned  projection  represents  the  passage 
of  the  Alps.  South-west  lies  the  true  mountain- 
episode  of  the  Semmering,  fully  expounded,  with  a 
fine  map,  by  Franz  Toula.  Westward,  we  have  the 
narrows  of  the  Danube,  and  the  variety  of  cliff  and 
alluvial  meadow  so  charmingly  described  by  Prof. 
Penck.  The  river  runs  between  Melk  and  Krems  in 
:t  pre-Glacial  valley,  much  of  which  was  actually  ex- 
cavated before  Oligocene  times.  The  surface-features 
must  originally  have  been  very  different,  to  allow  of 
the  formation' of  this  deep  cut  across  the  southern 
projection  of  crystalline  rocks,  which  almost  connects 
Bohemia  with  the  Alpine  system. 

The  Dolomites,  the  Adige  valley,  and  Predazzo  still 
offer  problems  for  many  a  friendly  battle.  The  Carnic 
Alps  present  a  newer  field,  and  include  the  superb 
ravine  of  Pontebba,  with  a  side-excursion  to  the  lime- 
stone-fastness of  the  Predil.  This  comparatively  low 
pass,  with  its  fine  angle  on  the  south  side,  amid  a 
veritable  world  of  rocks,  would  in  itself  show  how 
much  awaits  the  tourist  who  will  venture  east  of 
\enice. 

Hungary  will  probably  be  dealt  with  in  a  special 
treatise  for  those  who  made  the  long  excursion  on 
the  Danube.  Bosnia  and  the  Hercegovina  are  very 
briefly  touched  on,  since  the  local  government  has 
prepared  a  separate  "  souvenir  "  for  visitors.  What 
this  attention  means  will  be  appreciated  by  those  who 
have  experienced  the  hospitality  of  the  "  occupied 
provinces."  From  a  congress  down  to  the  humble 
bicvclist,  all  receive  a  welcome  in  this  old  Slavonic 
highland,  all  visitors  alike  are  considered  of  interest 
to  the  State.  When  one  sits  by  the  stream-side  in  some 
level  poV\c,  a  lake-basin  of  Miocene  tiines,  and  hears 
the  muezzin  call  from  the  little  wooden  mosque  among 
the  trees,  or  when  one  chips  the  gabbros  in  the  grim 
ravine  of  the  Narenta,  while  sun-browned  hill-men, 
like  stage-bandits,  stride  gravely  past  upon  the  road, 
then  one  can  realise,  with  a  'grateful  heart,  what 
Austria-Hungary  means,  not  only  to  the  geologist,  but 
10  Europe.  Grenville  A.  J.  Cole. 


NOTES. 

A  COMMISSION  has  been  appointed  by  the  French  Navy 
Board  to  inquire  into  the  migrations  of  the  sardine  and 
the  causes  of  the  disappearance  of  this  fish.  The  com- 
mission includes  Prof.  V'aillant,  of  the  Paris  Natural  History 
Museum ;  M.  Fabre  Domergue,  Inspector-General  of  Sea 
Fisheries  ;  and  M.  Canu,  director  of  the  agricultural  station 
1    Boulogne-sur-Mer. 

Owing  to  the  appointment  of  Dr.  Martin  to  the  director- 
hip  of  the  Lister  Institute,  the  chair  of  physiology  is 
vacant  at  the  University  of  Melbourne.  Particulars  as  to 
duties,  emoluments,  &c.,  will  be  in  the  hands  of  the  Agent- 
General  for  Victoria  after  October  8.  The  new  professor 
will  be  required  to  commence  his  duties  on  March  i,  1904. 


An  international  exhibition  of  the  manufacture  and  in- 
dustrial applications  of  alcohol  will  be  held  in  Vienna  in 
April  and  May,   1904. 

A  Press  despatch  from  Berlin  states  that  the  Imperial 
budget  for  1904,  now  in  preparation,  allots  7500Z.  for  com- 
bating typhus,  which  is  specially  virulent  in  Bavaria. 
Prussia  and  Alsace-Lorraine. 

An  international  congress  on  school  hygiene  is  to  be  held 
at  Nuremberg  from  April  4-9,  1904,  under  the  presidency 
of  Prof.  Griesbach,  of  the  University  of  Strassburg.  The 
general  secretary  is  Dr.  Paul  Schubert,  to  whom  all  com- 
munications relative  to  the  congress  should  be  addressed. 

A  Reuter  telegram  from  Rio  de  Janeiro  of  October  1 
states  that  the  Brazilian  Chamber  has  adopted  the  third 
reading  of  the  Bill  to  establish  an  international  steerable 
balloon  competition  to  be  held  at  Rio  in  1904.  The  scheme 
has  been  submitted  to  the  Senate. 

Mr.  H.  Maxwell  Lefroy,  who  has  been  appointed 
entomologist  to  the  Government  of  India,  is  to  be  stationed 
at  Surat,  in  the  Bombay  Presidency,  pending  the  establish- 
ment of  the  permanent  headquarters  of  the  Imperial  Agri- 
cultural Department  now  being  organised  under  the  orders 
of  Lord  Curzon. 

The  necessary  legal  formalities  in  connection  with  the 
change  of  name  of  the  Jenner  Institute  have  now  been 
completed,  the  Board  of  Trade  having  sanctioned  the  new 
name.  The  Institute  will,  therefore,  now  be  known  as 
the  "  Lister  Institute  of  Preventive  Medicine."  The 
address,   Chelsea  Gardens,   S.W.,   remains  the  same. 

Sir  Thomas  Hanbury  has  promised  the  Pharmaceutical 
Society  of  Gre^t  Britain  securities  of  the  annual  value  of 
2$l.  for  presentation  with  the  Hanbury  gold  medal  awarded 
biennially  for  research  in  the  natural  history  of  drugs.  The 
medal,  founded  in  memory  of  Daniel  Hanbury,  brother  of 
Sir  Thomas,  was  awarded  this  year  to  M.  Eugene  Collin, 
of  Paris.  As  the  result  of  Sir  Thomas  Hanbury 's  gift  future 
recipients  of  the  medal  will  also  receive  the  sum  of  50/. 

A  PROVISIONAL  programme  of  the  ordinary  meetings  of 
the  Royal  Geographical  Society  for  the  session  1903-4  has 
been  published.  Among  the  subjects  to  be  dealt  with  in 
the  meetings  of  this  year  we  notice  north  polar  exploration, 
1898-1902,  by  Commander  R.  E.  Peary,  and  the  Patagonian 
Andes,  by  Colonel  Sir  T.  H.  Holdich.  The  arrangements 
made  for  meetings  after  Christmas  include,  among  others, 
the  Gulf  Stream,  by  Mr.  H.  N.  Dickson ;  the  regime  of 
the  Nile,  by  Sir  William  E.  Garstin,  G.C.M.G.  ;  the  lakes  of 
New  Zealand,  by  Mr.  Keith  Lucas  ;  and  some  adventures  in 
Antarctic  lands  and  seas,  by  Lieutenant  E.  H.  Shackleton 
(Christmas  lecture  to  young  people). 

A  KITE-FLYING  Competition  was  held  at  the  Alexandra 
Palace  on  Saturday  last  under  the  auspices  of  the  Aero- 
nautical Institute.  The  length  of  wire  or  string  to  be  used 
was  limited  to  one  mile,  and  marks  were  awarded  on  the 
following  points  : — (a)  The  manner  in  which  the  kite  leaves 
the  ground ;  (h)  the  manner  in  which  it  ascends ;  (c)  the 
steadiness  of  the  kite  ;  {d)  the  length  of  time  required  to 
let  out  the  whole  mile  of  wire  or  string ;  («?)  the  greatest 
average  of  the  altitude  as  taken  by  a  series  of  observations 
during  the  course  of  one  hour ;  and  (/)  the  rapidity  and 
manner  of  descent.  Only  three  competitors  put  their  kites 
to  the  test,  and  the  contest  was  easily  won  by  Mr.  S.  F. 
Cody,  whose  kite  quickly  reached  the  limit  distance  and 
remained  steady  at  that  altitude  in  a  strong  wind.  The 
kite  used  was  one  of  a  number  which  is  being  prepared  for 
consignment  to  Portsmouth  Dockyard. 


NO.    177 1,  VOL    68] 


552 


NATURE 


[October  8,  1903 


An  influentially  signed  memorial  on  the  subject  of  the 
improvement  of  agriculture  was  recently  sent  to  the  Govern- 
ment of  Bombay,  and  is  summarised  in  the  Pioneer  Mail. 
The  memorialists  propose  that  two  botanic  gardens  should 
be  established,  one  at  Poona  and  one  near  Bombay,  the 
former  as  the  centre  of  investigation  for  the  Deccan,  and 
the  latter  for  the  Konkan  and  Gujarat.  Each  garden  should 
be  provided  with  a  herbarium  and  with  chemical  and 
botanical  laboratories,  and  to  each  should  be  attached  a 
farm  for  agricultural  and  horticultural  experiments.  It  is 
suggested  that  the  scientific  staff  might  be  one  chief 
botanist,  one  assistant  botanist  for  Poona,  one  assistant 
botanist  for  Bombay,  one  chemist,  one  entomologist,  and 
one  mycologist.  It  is  also  suggested  that  the  number  of 
the  experiment  stations  should  be  increased  and  the  scope  of 
the  experiments  extended ;  that  local  bodies  should  be 
encouraged  by  grants  in  aid  to  conduct  experiments  on  lines 
prescribed  by  the  department ;  that  publicity  should  be  given 
to  the  work  of  the  department,  and  results  of  practical 
interest  should  be  communicated  through  leaflets  printed 
in  the  vernacular ;  that  further  measures  for  the  improve- 
ment of  agricultural  stock  should  be  taken  by  the  State ; 
and  that  the  Forest  Department  should  be  invited  to  co- 
operate with  the  Agricultural  Department  in  the  work  of 
experimenting  with  products  likely  to  succeed  in  forest 
areas. 

The  method  of  scientific  investigation  by  observation  and 
experiment  was  touched  upon  by  Mr.  Sidney  Lee  at  the 
Working  Men's  College  on  Saturday  last,  in  the  course  of  a 
lecture  on  Bacon,  who  advocated  and  inaugurated  the 
revival  of  experimental  philosophy.  Bacon's  main  anxiety, 
said  Mr.  Lee,  was  to  see  research  in  every  branch  of  science 
adequately  endowed  and  equipped,  and  in  his  "  New 
Atlantis  "  he  planned  in  somewhat  fanciful  language  a 
great  palace  of  invention,  a  great  temple  of  science,  where 
the  pursuit  of  knowledge  in  all  its  phases  was  to  be 
organised  on  principles  of  the  highest  efficiency.  Whether 
a  temple  of  science  on  the  scale  that  Bacon  imagined  it 
would  ever  come  into  existence  remained  to  be  seen.  At 
present  the  portents  were  not  favourable  for  its  emergence 
in  this  country.  It  seemed  more  likely  to  come  first  to 
birth  in  Germany  or  in  America,  where  things  of  the  mind 
received  from  the  general  public  a  consideration  which  was 
denied  them  here.  The  experience  of  a  recent  visit  to  America 
showed  Mr.  Lee  that  there  was  nothing  here  to  compare 
with  the  widespread  eagerness  arhong  the  youth  of  the 
United  States  to  enjoy  academic  scientific  training. 
England's  prestige  owed  very  much  to  the  triumphs  won 
by  men  who  were  Bacon's  disciples  in  methods  of  scientific 
research,  many  of  whom  stood  indebted  to  ancient 
educational  benefactors.  Bacon  was  well  alive  to  the  means 
whereby  a  nation's  intellectual  prestige  could  best  be 
sustained.  He  argued  that  for  a  nation  to  apply  a  sub- 
stantial part  of  its  material  resources  to  the  equipment  of 
scientific   work   and    exploration,    a    share   of    its    resources 


which  should 


grow  greater  with  the  growth  of  population 


and  the  increasing  complexity  of  knowledge,  was  the  surest 
guarantee  of  national  glory  and  prosperity. 

In  tke  report  of  observations  made  at  the  Bombay 
Government  Observatory  in  the  years  1900  and  1901,  a 
feature  which  differentiates  it  from  the  reports  of  previous 
years  is  the  prominence  given  to  records  obtained  from 
seismographs.  In  the  previous  report  a  series  of  seismo- 
grams  and  a  register  of  disturbances  obtained  from  a  Milne 
seismograph  were  given.  These  are  now  supplemented  by 
similar  information  derived  from  a  pair  of  heavy  horizontal 
pendulums,  which  record  with  ink  on  a  metal  cylinder,  and 
NO.    I  77  I,  VOL.  68] 


which  have  a  sensibility  for  tilting  three  or  four  times  that 
of  the  Milne  apparatus.  The  chief  differences  in  the  records 
obtained  from  these  two  types  of  instruments  are  the  ratios 
of  the  recorded  amplitudes.  These  differ  so  widely  that  il 
may  be  inferred  that  "  the  dominant  feature  of  the  move- 
ments in  the  majority  of  disturbances  does  not  indicate 
tilt."  We  are  not  told,  however,  whether  the  free  periods 
of  the  three  horizontal  pendulums  are  identical  or  different. 

M.  E.  EsTANAVE  contributes  to  the  Journal  de  Physique 
a  list  of  the  theses  in  mathematical  and  experimental 
physics  presented  for  the  doctorate  of  science  in  French 
universities  during  the  nineteenth  century. 

Mr.  p.  E.  Jourdain  contributes  a  note  on  Gauss's  prin- 
ciple of  least  constraint  to  the  Mathematical  Gazette,  and 
a  general  theorem  on  the  transfinite  cardinal  numbers  of 
aggregates  of  functions  to  the  Philosophical  Magazine  for 
September. 

A  COMPARISON  of  Maxwell's  theory  with  the  older  and 
newer  theories  of  electromagnetism  is  given  by  Mr.  Emil 
Cohn  in  the  Physikalische  Zeitschrift  for  September.  It  is 
pointed  out  among  other  conclusions  that  Maxwell's  theory 
accounts  in  the  simplest  way  for  those  phenomena  which 
it  is  competent  to  explain. 

In  a  note  contributed  to  the  Lombardy  Rendiconti,  Prof. 
M.  Cantone  discusses  the  question  whether  the  elastic  con- 
stants of  a  substance  are  affected  by  the  surrounding 
medium.  The  results  obtained  negative  the  idea  of  any 
such  connection.  In  determining  the  torsional  rigidity  of 
platinum  and  caoutchouc  filaments,  the  immersion  of  the 
filament  in  water  produced  no  deviation  in  the  torsion 
balance. 

In  the  Proceedings  of  the  Physical  Society,  Dr.  G.  J. 
Parks  describes  some  experiments  on  the  thickness  of  the 
liquid  film  formed  by  condensation  on  the  surface  of  the 
solid.  In  the  case  of  cotton  silicate,  it  was  found  by  weigh- 
ing the  material  before  and  after  condensation  that  the 
thickness  of  the  film  came  out  to  be  about  13-4  X  10- °  of  a 
centimetre,  and  when  the  film  had  reached  this  thickness 
no  heating  was  produced  on  immersing  the  silicate  in 
water. 

The  Journal  of  the  Western  Society  of  Engineers  con- 
tains a  description  of  the  latest  experiments  in  aerial  gliding 
by  Mr.  Wilbur  Wright.  A  noticeable  feature  of  these 
"experiments  is  that  the  machine  sustained  as  much  as  165  lb. 
to  the  horse-power  as  contrasted  with  28  in  Mr.  Maxim's 
machine  and  31  in  Prof.  Langley's  model  of  1896.  Further- 
more, while  Mr.  Chanute's  best  experiments  in  1896  gave 
angles  of  descent<  of  7^  to  11  degrees,  Mr.  Wright  has 
succeeded  in  gliding  at  angles  of  6  to  7  degrees,  and  even, 
in  one  case,  at  as  low  an  angle  as  5  degrees. 

In  the  Rivista  d'ltalia,  Mr.  Italo  Giglioli,  director  of 
the  agricultural  station  at  Rome,  deals  with  certain  agri- 
cultural questions  affecting  the  south  of  Italy.  After  re- 
viewing the  principal  vegetable  products  now  produced  by 
Italy  the  author  suggests,  as  possible  outlets  for  fresh 
enterprise,  the  cultivation  of  (i)  the  camphor  plant  (Laurus 
camphora) ;  (2)  the  insecticide  Pyrethrum  cinerariaefolium  ; 
and  (3)  the  india-rubber  plant  (Ficus  elastica).  The  author 
sees  no  reason  why  the  production  of  india-rubber  in  Italy 
should  not  be  a  success. 

Prof.  Alessandro  Volta,  in  a  note  appended  to  a  paper 
in  the  Lombardy  Rendiconti,  directs  attention  to  an  un- 
published manuscript  of  Volta  in  which  it  is  stated  that 
negative  electricity  is  dissipated  with  three  times  the  facility 
of  positive  electricity.     It  thus  appears  that  the  difference 


October  8,  1903] 


NATURE 


553 


the  two  electricities  in  their  behaviour  in  electric  dis- 
tiarges  was  known  to  Volta.  Attention  is  also  directed  to 
smarks  by  Volta  on  flame  discharges,  in  which  it  is 
iserted  that  such  discharges  are  not  affected  by  the  smoke 

luced.  Prof.  A.  Volta 's  own  researches  show  that 
imes  of  oil,  petroleum,  gas,  and  alcohol  have  approxi- 
lately  the  same  resistance,  but  for  alcohol  flames  contain- 

copper  chloride  the  resistance  is  lower. 

The  August  number  of  the  Journal  of  the  Royal  Micro- 
copical  Society  is  mainly  devoted  to  optical  theories  of  the 
'microscope.  This  subject  is  introduced  by  a  paper  on  Helm- 
holtz's  theory  by  Mr.  J.  W.  Gordon,  in  addition  to  which 
Lord  Rayleigh's  paper  from  the  Philosophical  Magazine  of 
1896  is  reprinted,  together  with  a  further  communication 
from  the  same  writer,  and  remarks  by  Dr.  Johnstone 
Stoney,  Dr.  Siedentopf  and  others  are  reported  in  the 
Society's  Proceedings.  Among  important  points  under  dis- 
cussion is  the  property  that  there  is  no  theoretical  limit  to 
the  smallness  of  an  isolated  luminous  object  which  can  be 
visible  through  the  microscope.  The  limitations  imposed  by 
the  undulatory  theory  affect  only  the  distance  apart  of  two 
objects  or  the  fineness  of  structures  in  order  that  they  may 
b*^  capable  of  resolution. 

We  have  received  a  circular  issued  under  the  auspices 
of  the  German  Ornithological  Society,  and  signed  by 
-Mr.  J.  Thienemann,  of  Rossitten,  Keer,  Nehrung,  East 
Prussia,  directing  attention  to  an  experiment  about  to  be 
made  with  the  view  of  increasing  our  knowledge  of  the 
seasonal  wanderings  of  birds.  During  the  present  autumn 
and  next  spring  it  is  proposed  to  capture  at  Rossitten  some 
hundreds,  or  perhaps  thousands,  of  rooks  (or  crows?),  upon 
the  foot  of  each  of  which  is  to  be  fastened  a  metal  ring 
bearing  a  number  and  the  date  of  capture,  after  which  the 
birds  are  to  be  set  at  liberty.  Whenever  such  marked  birds 
are  killed,  it  is  requested  that  the  leg  bearing  the  ring 
may  be  cut  off  and  forwarded  to  Rossitten,  with  a  label 
recording  the  date  and  place  of  capture. 

The  latest  issue  (vol.  xxxi.  parts  ii.  and  iii.)  of  Gegen- 
baur's  Morphologisches  Jahrbuch  appears  in  mourning  on 
account  of  the  death,  in  June  last,  of  its  learned  founder, 
who  superintended  the  journal  nearly  to  the  completion  of 
the  twenty-ninth  volume.  A  full  biography  is  promised 
in  the  next  number,  .'\mong  the  contents  of  the  present 
issue  is  an  article  on  the  comparative  anatomy  and  develop- 
ment of  the  heart  and  aorta  in  vertebrates,  by  Mr.  A.  Greil, 
and  a  second,  by  Dr.  K.  Fiirbringer,  on  the  visceral  skeleton 
of  sharks  and  rays.  In  a  third,  Mr.  K.  Gehry  demonstrates 
that  the  bunch  of  axillary  muscles  ("  Achselbogen  ")  in 
man  really  represents  the  panniculus  carnosus  of  lower 
rtiammals. 

The  first  part  of  the  "  Aarbog  "  of  the  Bergen  Museum 
is  devoted  entirely  to  descriptions  of  the  invertebrate  fauna 
of  Norway  and  its  seas.  Miss  E.  Arnesen  contributes  the 
second  instalment  of  her  account  of  the  sponges,  dealing 
in  this  section  with  the  halichondrine  group  of  the 
Monaxonida.  The  nemertean  worms  are  described  at  con- 
siderable length  by  Mr.  R.  C.  Punnett,  of  Cambridge,  who 
records  a  number  of  new  species  collected  by  himself  and 
Dr.  Nordgaard  in  the  fjords  round  Bergen  in  the  summers 
of  1901  and  1902.  Another  article,  by  Mr.  E.  T.  Browne, 
of  University  College,  London,  deals  with  medusas  from 
Norway  and  Spitsbergen,  among  which  are  several 
novelties. 

We  have  received  vol.   xxxiii.   part  ii,  of  Travaux  de  la 
SociiU  Impiriale  des  Naturalistes  de  St.  Pdtersbourg.     Its 
contents  include  an  article  on  biological  method  in  "  zoo- 
NO.    1771,  VOL.  68] 


psychology,"  by  Mr.  W.  Wagner,  a  second,  by  Mr.  H. 
Goebel,  on  the  birds  of  Lapland  and  the  Solovetski  Islands, 
and  a  third,  by  Mr.  K.  St.  Hilaire,  on  the  change  of  sub- 
stance in  cells  and  connective  tissue.  The  latter  article  is 
largely  based  on  the  acid-secreting  glands  of  molluscs. 
Ai  regards  the  birds  of  Lapland,  the  author  finds  that  out 
of  a  total  of  198  species,  133  are  certainly  known  to  breed 
in  that  country,  while  another  34  probably  do  so.  Of  the 
remainder,  17  are  stragglers  and  6  winter  visitors,  while  i 
is  a  pelagic  species,  and  the  other  7  are  found  only  in  the 
Solovetski  Islands. 

The  September  number  of  Animal  Life  contains  an 
article  by  Mr.  Lydekker  on  local  variation  in  the  giraffe, 
illustrated  by  one  coloured  plate  and  a  number  of  photo- 
graphic reproductions  from  paintings.  After  referring  to 
the  marked  differences  between  the  Somali  giraffe  {Giraffa 
reticularis)  and  the  typical  G.  catnelopardalis,  the  author 
points  out  that  evidence  is  gradually  accumulating  as  to 
the  existence  of  a  number  of  local  races  of  the  latter.  The 
article  is  chiefly  based  upon  specimens  now,  or  recently, 
living  in  the  Duke  of  Bedford's  collection  at  Woburn  and 
in  the  Zoological  Society's  Gardens,  and  on  two  mounted 
examples  in  the  Natural  History  Museum.  The  Woburn 
and  Regent's  Park  forms  are  definitely  identified,  but, 
owing  to  the  unsatisfactory  nature  of  the  description  of 
two  subspecies  founded  by  a  German  writer,  the  author  has 
refrained  from  giving  names  to  the  British  Museum  speci- 
mens, which  clearly  indicate  distinct  races.  A  name  is, 
however,  assigned  to  the  Congo  giraffe. 

An  official  report  has  been  issued  in  Simla  on  the  mortality 
caused  by  wild  beasts  and  snakes  in  India.  In  1902  the 
total  mortality  caused  by  wild  animals  was  2836,  of  which 
1046  are  reported  as  being  due  to  tigers,  and  deaths  re- 
ported from  snake-bite  numbered  23,166.  In  addition 
80,796  cattle  were  destroyed  by  wild  animals,  and  9019  by 
snakes.  The  number  of  wild  animals  for  the  destruction 
of  which  rewards  were  paid  in  1902  was  14,983,  of  which 
1331  were  tigers;  the  number  of  snakes  killed  was  72,595. 
The  amount  paid  in  rewards  for  the  destruction  of  wild 
animals  was  Rs.  1,00,987,  and  for  the  destruction  of  snakes 
Rs.  3529. 

A  notable  contribution  to  the  subject  of  proteid  meta- 
bolism is  made  by  Mr.  E.  Godlewski  in  a  paper  which 
appears  in  the  Bulletin  international  de  I'Academie  des 
Sciences  de  Cracovie.  The  general  conclusions  arrived  at 
are  that  flowering  plants,  i.e.  germinating  seedlings  as  well 
as  fungi,  can,  in  the  dark  and  in  an  atmosphere  devoid  of 
COj,  absorb  and  work  up  nitrogen  from  nitrates  even  to 
th-  e.xtent  of  building  up  proteid  substances ;  but  for  the 
continued  formation  of  proteids  to  any  considerable  extent 
a  supplv  of  plastic  carbohydrate  must  be  present  in  order  to 
furnish  the  energy  required,  such,  for  instance,  as  the  sugar 
or  starch  present  in  germinating  tubers  or  bulbs.  Also, 
according  to  the  author,  light  has  a  direct  as  well  as  an 
indirect  action  in  increasing  the  amount  of  proteid  sub- 
stances formed. 

A  SMALL  brochure  on  "  Propagating  Plants,"  written  by 
Mr.  D.  S.  Fish,  of  the  Royal  Botanic  Garden,  Edinburgh, 
will  be  found  useful  by  amateur  gardeners  who  wish  to 
obtain  practical  information  on  the  methods  of  raising  seed- 
lings, striking  cuttings,  and  similar  matters.  It  is  pub- 
lished by  Messrs.  Dawbarn  and  Ward,  London. 

The  "  Guide  to  the  Sydney  Botanic  Gardens,"  which  has 
been  prepared  by  the  director,  Mr.  J.  H.  Maiden,  with 
assistance  from  other  members  of  the  staff,  bears  witness 
to  the  wealth  of  vegetation  which  has  been  planted  round 


554 


NATURE 


[October  8,  1903 


Farm  Cove,  a  bay  in  the  famous  harbour  of  Port  Jackson. 
The  collections  of  cycads  and  conifers,  including  nearly  a 
dozen  species  of  both  Macrozamia  and  Podocarpus,  are  par- 
ticularly noteworthy.  The  plan  adopted  in  the  "  Guide  "  is 
to  give  a  list  of  the  important  plants  to  be  found  in  each 
bed,  with  brief  notes  on  native  and  the  more  interesting 
foreign,  species. 

Two  handy  little  publications  have  been  issued  by 
Messrs.  James  Woolley,  Sons,  and  Co.,  Ltd.,  of  Man- 
chester. One,  known  as  the  "  Science  Teacher's  Pocket 
Book  and  Diary,  1903-4,"  costs  a  shilling,  and  the  other, 
the  "  Science  Student's  Note  Book,  1903-4,"  costs  6d. 
Both  books  contain  about  forty  pages  of  useful  constants 
in  physical  and  chemical  science,  together  with  other 
numbers  in  constant  use  in  the  laboratory. 

Messrs.  Aston  and  Mander  are  now  manufacturing  for 
the  use  of  technical  and  other  schools  drawing  instruments 
provided  with  several  useful  improvements.  The  adjusting 
screws  cannot  be  detached  from  the  instruments,  and  so  be 
lost,  the  inking-in  pens  are  easily  cleaned,  and  a  patent 
hook-and-nut  method  of  holding  the  needles  effectually  pre- 
vents breakages  when  clamping,  and  renders  it  easy  to 
change  the  needles. 

Several  volumes  of  the  first  annual  issue  of  the  "  Inter- 
national Catalogue  of  Scientific  Literature  "  have  recently 
been  received.  The  volume  on  chemistry  (part  ii.)  contains 
671  pages,  referring  to  papers  published  since  the  end  of 
1900.  The  literature  published  in  1901,  together  with  a 
portion  of  that  published  in  1902,  is  catalogued  in  the 
volumes  on  palaeontology,  general  biology,  human  anatomy, 
physical  anthropology,  and  physiology  (part  ii.) ;  the  last 
volume  includes  papers  on  experimental  psychology,  phar- 
macology, and  experimental  pathology,  and  occupies  664 
pages. 

Copies  have  been  received  of  the  last  two  half-yearly 
volumes — xxxii.  and  xxxiii. — of  the  Journal  of  the  Anthropo- 
logical Institute  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland.  Among 
numerous  other  important  contributions,  the  earlier  volume 
contains  the  Huxley  lecture  for  1902,  on  right-handedness 
and  left-brainedness,  by  Prof.  D.  J.  Cunningham,  F.R.S. 
The  more  recent  volume  includes  the  address  by  the  presi- 
dent. Dr.  A.  C.  Haddon,  F.R.S.,  delivered  at  the  annual 
general  meeting  of  the  Institute  in  January  last.  The 
volumes  are  profusely  illustrated  with  beautifully  repro- 
duced plates,  and  serve  to  show  the  excellent  work  the 
Institute  is  doing.  Similar  researches  are,  in  the  United 
States  and  elsewhere,  liberally  subsidised  by  the  State,  but 
the  Anthropological  Institute,  working  without  such  sup- 
port, is  enriching  the  Empire  by  collecting  and  publishing 
a  mass  of  well-arranged  information  of  which  any  scientific 
department  might  legitimately  be  proud. 

The  additions  to  the  Zoological  Society's  Gardens  during 
the  past  week  include  a  Chimpanzee  (Anthropopithecus 
troglodytes)  from  the  Albert  Nyanza,  a  Patas  Monkey 
(Cercopithecus  patas)  from  Gondolioro,  presented  by  Colonel 
Bruce;  two  Geoffroy's  Cats  (Felis  geoffroii)  from  Chaco, 
Argentina,  presented  by  Mr.  A.  C.  Crewe;  a  Puma  {Felis 
concolor),  two  Vicunas  {Lama  vicugna),  a  Condor 
(Sarcorhamphus  gryphus)  from  Puna  de  Jujuy,  presented 
by  Baron  Ott ;  a  Rosy-faced  Love-bird  {Agapornis  rosei- 
collis)  from'  South  Africa,  presented  by  Mrs.  Healey ;  a 
Mandarin  Duck  (/Ex  ^aZertcuia/a)  from  China,  presented 
by  Mrs.  Balston ;  two  Wagler's  Pit  Vipers  {Lachesis 
■wagleri)  from  Singapore,  presented  by  Mr.  A.  Herbert ;  a 
Back-marked  Snake  {Coluber  scalaris),  European,  presented 

NO.  1 77 1,  VOL.  68] 


by  Mr.  W.  A.  Harding;  four  Horned  Lizards  {Phrynosorria 
cornutum)  from  Colorado,  presented  by  Mr.  Edwin  Webb  ; 
two  Carinated  Lizards  {Liocephalus  carinatus)  from  the 
West  Indies,  five  Hispid  Lizards  {Agama  hispida)  from 
South  Africa,  five  Round-spotted  Lizards  {Stenodactylus 
guttatus)  from  North  Africa,  five  Black-spotted  Lizards 
{Algiroides  nigropunctatus)  from  the  Borders  ;  of  the 
Adriatic,  two  Wall  Lizards  {Lacerta  muralis,  var.  genii), 
two  Wall  Lizards  {Lacerta  muralis,  var.  badriagoe)  from 
Corsica,  two  Alaska  Geese  {Bernicla  minima)  from  the 
Pacific  Coast,  deposited. 


OUR  ASTRONOMICAL  COLUMN. 

The  Rotation  of  Saturn. — Writing  to  the  October 
number  of  the  Observatory,  Herr  Leo  Brenner  states  that 
the  rotation  pieriod  of  Barnard's  large  white  spot  on 
Saturn,  as  deduced  from  his  observations,  is  exactly 
loh.  38m.,  and  that  this  value  is  rigidly  confirmed  by  the 
observations  of  other  German  observers. 

This  period  exactly  agrees  with  that  obtained  by  Mr. 
Denning  as  a  mean  of  all  the  published  observations,  and, 
as  that  observer  points  out  in  a  communication  to  the  above- 
named  journal,  it  indicates  that  the  various  belts  and  zones 
on  Saturn  have  different  rotation  periods  in  a  manner  similar 
to  those  of  Jupiter. 

The  recent  disturbances  on  Saturn  have  now  practically 
subsided,  and  can  only  be  seen  with  the  larger  instruments. 

The  Broadening  of  Spectral  Lines. — In  a  paper  com- 
municated to  No.  34  vol.  vi.  of  the  Philosophical  Magazine 
Mr.  G.  W.  Walker  discusses  the  causes  which  lead  to  the 
asymmetrical  widening  of  spectral  lines. 

Taking  it  for  granted  that  near  to  a  luminous  source, 
whether  the  luminosity  be  produced  by  electricity  or  by 
flame  at  high  temperature,  there  must  be  a  number  of  free 
negatively  charged  particles,  he  proceeds  to  show  how  these 
particles  may  modify  the  light  which  they  receive,  and 
again  scatter  -it  in  a  manner  quite  different  to  that  obtain- 
ing in  the  "  Doppler  "  or  in  any  "  damping  "  effect. 
These  charged  particles,  under  the  influence  of  the  plane 
waves,  will  then  vibrate  with  a  period  different  from  that  of 
the  incident  waves ;  thus,  instead  of  homogeneous  light, 
there  will  be  a  portion  of  the  light  scattered  by  the  charged 
particles,  and  this  portion  will  have  a  longer  wave-length 
than  the  original  light,  its  intensity  varying  in  proportion 
to  the  number  of  freely  charged  particles  present.  This, 
however,  does  not  account  for  those  rare  cases  where  the 
broadening  takes  place  on  the  violet  side  of  the  normal 
line.  To  explain  these  cases  Mr.  Walker  suggests  that  the 
continuous  streams  of  charged  particles  will  set  up  a  mag- 
netic field  which  may  produce  the  Zeeman  effect,  in  which 
Zeeman  has  frequently  noted  asymmetrical  broadening  to- 
wards the  violet.  Where  this  latter  effect  is  greater  than 
the  former,  then  the  broadening  takes  place  on  the  violet 
edge  of  the  original  line. 

The  Spectrum  of  Hydrogen. — With  the  purpose  of 
elucidating  the  connection  between  the  "  four-line  "  spec- 
trum and  the  "  many-line  "  spectrum  of  hydrogen,  Mr. 
Louis  A.  Parsons,  of  the  Johns  Hopkins  University,  has 
made  a  series  of  experiments  dealing  with  the  spectrum  of 
hydrogen  obtained  under  many  various  conditions,  and  has 
embodied  his  results  in  a  paper  communicated  to  No.  2 
vol.  xviii.  of  the  Astrophysical  journal. 

After  discussing  the  various  theories  which  have  previously 
been  put  forward  in  explanation  of  the  phenomena,  and 
dealing  especially  with  that  of  Prof.  Trowbridge,  who 
supposes  that  the  line  spectrum  is  due  to  water  vapour,  and 
not  to  hydrogen  pure  and  simple,  Mr.  Parsons  describes  the 
various  pieces  of  apparatus  he  used  and  the  experiments  he 
performed,  and  then  summarises  his  results  in  the  follow- 
ing conclusions  : — (i)  The  compound  spectrum  never  occurs 
without  the  line  spectrum,  although  the  latter  may  occur 
alone  at  high  pressures  ;  (2)  the  line  spectrum  is  character- 
istic of  an  abruptly  oscillatory  discharge,  whilst  the  com- 
pound spectrum  is  produced  by  the  continuous  discharge ; 
(3)  the  line  spectrum  may  be  produced  by  high  tempera- 
tures occufring  locally  at  points  where  the  disruptive  dis- 


October  8,  1903] 


NATURE 


555 


charge  occurs,  but  it  is  not  due  to  the  high  temperature 
of  the  gas  considered  as  a  whole. 

In  regard  to  the  fourth  point,  viz.  the  action  of  water 
vapour  in  producing  the  line  spectrum,  the  e.xperiments 
showed  that  the  presence  of  moisture  is  an  important  factor 
in  the  production  of  this  type  of  spectrum,  but  they  do  not 
lead  to  Prof.  Trowbridge's  conclusion  that  it  is  the  spectrum 
of  water  vapour.  Mr.  Parsons  is  inclined  to  believe  that 
fh;>  ionisation  of  the  atoms,  as  they  enter  or  leave  the  water 
molecule,  may  set  up  a  distinct  local  oscillatory  discharge, 
which  he  previously  shows  to  be  necessary  for  the  produc- 
tion of  the  line  spectrum. 

The  Orbit  of  {  Bootis. — In  a  previous  computation  of 
the  orbit  of  f  Bootis,  by  Prof.  W.  Doberck,  the  elements 
obtained  represented  the  observed  angles  up  to  the  year 
1888,  but  did  not  faithfully  represent  the  observed  distances 
for  some  rime  prior  to  that  {Xstronomische  Nachrichten,  No. 
2129).  It  now  appears  that  the  angles  might  be  represented 
by  orbits  having  widely  differing  periods,  so  the  same 
observer  has  recomputed  the  elements,  mainly  using  the 
measured  distances  as  is  done  in  the  case  of  it  Cassiopeia. 
I' sing  Thiele's  method,  which  he  recommends  especially  in 
the  case  of  very  eccentric  orbits,  he  obtained  the  following 
elements,  referred  to  the  equinox  of  iqooo,  from  normal 
places  for  1836-5,  1876.5,  and  1896-5  {Astr.  Nach.,  No. 
3000) : — 


a  =183  8 
A  =314  6 
>=  46  8 
e  —  o"6i63 


P=   14084  )-eais. 
T=i907-io 
a=5"-ii5 
Retrograde. 


In  the  Memoric  of  the  Italian  Spectroscopists'  Society 
Mr.  G.  Boccardi  gives  a  list  of  errata  in  various  star  cata- 
logues and  trigonometric  tables  which  he  discovered  in 
the  course  of  compiling  the  catalogue  of  stars  of  reference 
:n  the  zone  40°  to  55°,  published  by  the  Observatory  of 
atania.  In  addition,  the  same  writer  gives  corrections 
r  the  ephemerides  of  the  asteroid  292  Ludovica.  An 
Italian  translation,  by  Mr.  A.  Mascari,  of  Dr.  W.  J.  S. 
Lockyers  paper  on  a  probable  relation  between  the  solar 
protuberances  and  the  corona  is  also  published  in  the 
VtmorJe  of  the  Societv. 


\ 


OPENING    OF  THE  MEDICAL   SCHOOLS. 
A  .S  usual  at  this  time  of  the  year,  introductory  addresses 
•^"^     have  been  delivered  during  the  past  week  at  the  open- 
ing of  the  various  medical  schools  in  different  parts  of  the 
country.     Some  of  these  addresses  are  summarised  below. 

\\.  the  opening  of  the  medical  session  at  University 
College,  London,  on  Monday,  Prof.  E.  H.  Starling,  F.R.S., 
pleaded  for  the  establishment  of  a  post-graduate  school  of 
medicine.  He  remarked  that  the  crying  need  at  the  pre- 
sent time  was  clinical  research,  which  must  be  carried  out 
in  hospitals  by  men  trained  in  scientific  methods  and  willing 
to  spend  laborious  days  in  their  application  to  the  problems 
of  disease.  The  absence  of  workers  who  might  utilise  to 
the  full  the  great  mass  of  material  presented  by  our 
hospitals  was  due  to  two  factors,  namely,  the  absence  of 
academic  ideals  in  London,  and  the  lack  of  any  adequate 
provision  which  might  enable  our  best  men  to  devote  their 
f  cirly  years  to  the  advance  of  their  profession  by  conscien- 
lii  us  study  and  research.  Prof.  Starling  advocated  the 
t(  undation,  in  the  University  of  London,  of  a  school  specially 
devoted  to  the  advancement  of  medicine.  Such  post- 
graduate school  must  be  in  connection  with  a  hospital,  and 
might  be  founded  by  a  modification  of  one  of  the  existing 
medical  schools,  or  be  created  de  novo  in  connection  with 
some  general  hospital.  Forming  part  of  the  school  should 
be  laboratories  for  experimental  physiology  and  pathology, 
for  bacteriology,  for  medical  chemistry,  and  for  normal  and 
morbid  histology.  In  addition  to  the  experimental  depart- 
ment, there  should  be,  preferably  in  the  hospital  building 
itself,  a  series  of  observational  laboratories,  where  the  con- 
ditions of  the  patients  could  be  investigated  with  a  scientific 
precision.  Such  a  school  could  detract  in  no  way  from  the 
present  advantages  of  our  medical  schools,  but  would  rather 
add  to  their  efficiency. 

Sir  Victor  Horsley  delivered  an  address  on  the  subject 
«f  university  education  at  the  University  of  Birmingham  on 

NO.    1 77  I,  VOL.  68] 


Monday.  In  the  course  of  his  remarks  he  urged  the 
necessity  for  a  multiplication  of  universities,  and' deprecated 
Sir  W.  Anson's  dictum  that  what  was  wanted  before  uni- 
versities was  "an  intelligent  population."  Under  the 
present  Government  the  whole  direction  of  the  Education 
Department  had  been  placed  in  the  hands  of  those  whose 
ideas  were  regulated  by  the  sterile  training  in  dead 
languages  and  somewhat  moribund  systems  of  philosophy, 
unfortunately  characteristic  of  an  old  university  like  Oxford. 
It  did  not  seem  to  have  occurred  to  the  Parliamentary 
.Secretary  to  the  Board  of  Education  that  to  the  ordinary 
person  the  more  obvious  way  of  obtaining  an  intelligent 
population  was  to  provide  them  with  the  highest  and  best 
means  of  educating  themselves,  and  to  increase  and  multiply 
those  means  in  the  midst  of  each  populous  district.  It 
seemed  to  him  shocking  that  the  leading  expert  of  the 
Education  Department  should  hostilely  attack  not  merely 
the  present  evolution  of  universities,  but  also  the  very 
earnest  and  carefully  thought  out  propositions  which  the 
president  of  the  British  Association  recently  put  forward 
with  fresh  force  and  interest.  It  had  been  reserved  for  Sir 
William  Anson  to  raise  the  barren  and  worn-out  strife 
between  classical  and  scientific  education.  How  could  the 
physical  science  laboratories  of  our  universities  be  considered 
to  be  too  favoured  by  public  opinion,  as  Sir  William 
asserted,  when  their  equipment  and  buildings  left  so  much 
to  be  desired,  and  their  endowments  were  so  meagre  that 
some  24  millions,  it  was  estimated,  must  be  expended  to 
bring  them  into  line  with  the  universities  of  America?  It 
was  most  unfortunate  for  the  nation  that  the  educational 
policy  of  the  present  Government  was  directed  by  officials 
holdine:  such  reactionary  views.  Let  them,  hope  that  when 
the  greatest  statesman  of  our  generation  was  placed  by  the 
country  in  his  proper,  position  as  Prime  Minister  and  leader 
of  the' nation  a  change  would  come  over  the  spirit  of  the 
Education  Department.  The  nation  was  under  the  delusion 
that  universities  flourished,  first,  on  private  endowments 
and  benevolence ;  and,  secondly,  on  the  fees  of  students. 
Legislation  to  provide  State  aid  for  the  universities  was  a 
duty  which  pressed  heavily  on  a  Government  which  did 
nothing  to  protect  the  people  from  the  injury  of  drink  and 
the  wa-ste  of  money  which  the  drinking  habit  entailed.  He 
suggested  that  the  universities  should  cooperate  in  pressing 
a  definite  programme  of  State  aid. 

The  first  autumn  term  of  the  faculty  of  medicine  at 
the  University  of  Liverpool  was  inaugurated  by  Sir  Dyce 
Duckworth,  who,  during  an  address  on  reverence  and  hope- 
fulness in  medicine,  told  the  students  that  to  equip  them- 
selves fittingly  for  the  profession  of  medicine  would  demand 
some  knowledge  of  the  several  sciences  on  which  the  science 
and  art  of  medicine  are  based.  Those  who  have  had  ex- 
perience as  examiners  know  well  the  difference,  said  Sir 
Dyce  Duckworth,  between  candidates  who  have  had  the 
benefit  of  a  liberal  education  before  they  entered  upon 
medical  study,  and  those  who,  although  showing  aptitude, 
have  not  had  that  advantage.  It  is  the  difference  between 
efficiencv  and  expertness,  between  width  and  narrowness. 

Dr.  J.'  W.  Swan,  F.R.S.,  gave  the  introductory  address  to 
the  school  of  pharmacy  of  the  Pharmaceutical  Society. 
The  events  of  the  last  sixty  years,  he  said,  showed  con- 
clusively that  our  want  of  thoroughness  in  education  and 
the  consequent  want  of  imagination  and  capacity  to 
appreciate  the  value  of  scientific  research  had  caused  us 
immense  national  loss.  Dr.  Elizabeth  M.  Pace,  in  address- 
ing the  students  of  the  London  School  of  .Medicine  for 
Women  in  connection  with  the  Royal  Free  Hospital,  gave 
an  interesting  historical  sketch  of  the  growth  of  facilities 
for  the  medical  education  of  women  during  the  last  sixty 
years.  At  the  Middlesex  Hospital  Mr.  Justice  Wills  pre- 
sided at  the  opening  of  the  session,  and  Mr.  William  Hern, 
in  welcoming  the  new  students,  pointed  out  that  one  of 
the  great  differences  between  the  medical  methods  of  past 
and  present  tirnes  was  the  substitution  for  the  old 
empiricism,  of  treatment  based  upon  an  inquiry  into  the 
causes  of  disease.  Mr.  J.  A.  Bloxam,  in  the  inaugural 
address  at  the  Royal  Veterinary  College,  told  the  students 
that  if  veterinary  education  was  to  march  with  the  times, 
and  if  this  country  was  to  bear  its  part  in  the  advancement 
of  veterinary  knowledge  in  the  future,  the  State  must  follow 
the  example  set  by  other  countries  and  contribute  hand- 
somely to  the  equipment  and  upkeep  of  the  veterinary 
schools. 


556 


NATURE 


[October  8,  1903 


HUE    BRITISH    ASSOCIATION. 
SECTION    K. 


Opening  Address  by  A.  C.  Seward,  F.R.S.,  Fellow  and 
Tutor  of  Emmanuel  College,  late  Fellow  of  St. 
John's  College,  Cambridge;  Lecturer  on  Botany  in 
THE  University,  President  of  the  Section. 

In  1883,  the  date  of  the  last  meeting  held  by  the  British 
Association  at  Southport,  the  late  Prof.  Williamson,  of  Man- 
chester, delivered  a  Presidential  Address  before  the  Geological 
Section,  in  which  he  reviewed  recent  progress  in  palaeo- 
botanical  research,  with  special  reference  to  the  vegetation  of 
the  Coal  period.  It  would  have  been  an  interesting  task  to 
traverse  the  same  ground  to-day,  in  order  to  show  what  a 
vast  superstructure  has  been  built  on  the  foundations  which 
Williamson  laid.  In  alluding  to  the  controversies  in  which 
he  bore  so  vigorous  a  part,  Williamson  spoke  of  the  conflict 
as  virtually  over,  though  still  reflected,  "  in  the  ground- 
swell  of  a  stormy  past."  Now  that  twenty  years  have 
elapsed  we  are  able  to  recognise  with  no  little  satisfaction 
that  his  views  are  firmly  established,  and  that  the  debt  which 
we  owe  to  his  able  interpretation  of  the  relics  of  Palaeozoic 
plant-life  is  universally  acknowledged.  Williamson's  labours 
demonstrated  the  possibilities  of  microscopical  methods  in 
the  investigation  of  Carboniferous  plants  ;  but  at  the  time 
of  publication  his  results  did  not  receive  that  attention  which 
their  importance  merited,  and  it  is  only  in  recent  years  that 
botanists  have  been  induced  to  admit  the  necessity  of  extend- 
ing their  observations  to  the  buried  treasures  of  bygone  ages. 
We  have  been  slow  to  realise  the  truth  of  the  following 
statement,  which  I  quote  from  an  able  article  on  Darwinism 
in  the  Edinburgh  Review  for  October  of  last  year  :  "  The 
recognition  of  the  fact  that  in  every  detail  the  present  is 
built  on  the  past  has  invested  the  latter  with  a  new  title  to 
respect,  and  given  a  fresh  impulse  to  the  study  of  its  his- 
tory." The  anatomical  investigation  of  extinct  types  of 
vegetation  has  done  more  than  any  other  branch  of  botanical 
science  in  guiding  us  along  the  paths  of  plant-evolution  dur- 
ing the  earlier  periods  of  the  earth's  history. 

I  cannot  conclude  this  brief  reference  to  Williamson's  work 
without  an  expression  of  gratitude  for  the  help  and 
encouragement  with  which  he  initiated  me  into  the  methods 
of  palaeobotanical  research. 

Floras  of  the  Past  :  their  Composition  and  Distribution. 
Introduction, 

It  is  by  no  means  easy  to  make  choice  of  a  subject  for  a 
presidential  address.  There  is  the  possibility — theoretical 
rather  than  actual — of  a  retrospective  survey  of  modern  de- 
velopments in  the  botanical  world,  and  the  opportunity  is  a 
favourable  one  for  passing  in  review  recent  progress  in  that 
department  of  the  science  which  appeals  more  especially  to 
oneself.  In  place  of  adopting  either  of  these  alternatives,  I 
decided  to  deal  in  some  detail  with  a  subject  which,  it  must 
be  frankly  admitted,  is  too  extensive  to  be  presented  ade- 
quately in  a  single  address.  My  aim  is  to  put  before  you  one 
aspect  of  palseobotany  which  has  not  received  its  due  share 
of  attention  :  I  mean  the  geographical  distribution  of  the 
floras  of  the  past.  In  grappling  with  this  subject  one  lays 
oneself  open  to  the  charge  of  attempting  the  impossible — a 
not  unusual  characteristic  of  British  Association  addresses. 
I  recognise  the  futility  of  expecting  conclusions  of  funda- 
mental importance  from  such  an  incomplete  examination  of 
the  available  evidence  as  I  have  been  able  to  undertake ;  but 
a  hasty  sketch  may  serve  to  indicate  the  impressions  likely 
to  be  conveyed  by  a  more  elaborate  picture. 

One  difificulty  that  meets  us  at  the  outset  in  approaching 
the  study  of  plant  distribution  is  that  of  synonymy.  "  The 
naturalist,"  as  Sir  Joseph  Hooker  wrote  in  his  "  Introduc- 
tory Essay  to  the  Flora  of  New  Zealand,"  "  has  to  seek 
truth  amid  errors  of  observation  and  judgment  and  the  re- 
sulting chaos  of  synonymy  which  has  been  accumulated  by 
thoughtless  aspirants  to  the  questionable  honour  of  being  the 
first  to  name  a  species."  Endless  confusion  is  caused  by  the 
use  of  different  generic  and  specific  names  for  plants  that  are 
in  all  probability  identical,  or  at  least  very  closely  allied. 
Worthless  fossils  are  frequently  designated  by  a  generic  and 
specific  title  :   an  author  lightly  selects  a  new  name  for  a 


miserable  fragment  of  a  fossil  fern-frond  without  pausing  to 
consider  whether  his  record  is  worthy  of  acceptance  at  the 
hands  of  the  botanical  palaeographer. 

An  enthusiastic  specialist  is  apt  to  exaggerate  the  value  of 
his  material,  and  to  forget  that  lists  of  plants  should  be 
based  on  evidence  that  can  be  used  with  confidence  in  inves- 
tigations involving  a  comparative  treatment  of  the  floras  of 
the  world.  As  Darwin  said  in  the  "  Origin  of  Species  "'  : 
"  It  is  notorious  on  what  excessively  slight  differences  many 
palaeontologists  have  founded  their  species  ;  and  they  do  this 
the  more  readily  if  the  specimens  come  from  different  sub- 
stages  of  the  same  formation."  It  would  occupy  too  much 
time  to  refer  to  the  various  dangers  that  beset  the  path  of 
the  trustful  student,  who  makes  use  of  published  lists  of  local 
floras  in  generalising  on  questions  of  geographical  distribu- 
tion during  the  different  eras  of  the  past.  Such  practices  as 
the  naming  of  undeterminable  fragments  of  leaves  or  twigs, 
the  frequent  use  of  recent  generic  names  for  fossil  specimens 
that  afford  no  trustworthy  clue  as  to  affinity,  belong  to  the 
class  of  offences  that  might  be  easily  guarded  against ;  there 
are,  however,  other  obstacles  that  we  cannot  expect  to  re- 
move, but  which  we  can  take  pains  to  avoid.  An  author  in 
naming  a  fossil  plant  may  select  one  of  several  generic 
names,  any  of  which  might  be  used  with  equal  propriety  ;  in- 
dividual preferences  assert  themselves  above  considerations 
as  to  the  importance  of  a  uniform  nomenclature.  The  per- 
sonal element  often  plays  too  prominent  a  part.  To  quote  a 
sentence  from  a  non-scientific  writer :  "  The  child  looks 
straight  upon  Nature  as  she  is,  while  a  man  sees  her  re- 
flected in  a  mirror,  and  his  own  figure  can  hardly  help  com- 
ing into  the  foreground." 

In  endeavouring  to  take  a  comprehensive  survey  of  the 
records  of  plant-life,  we  should  aim  at  a  wider  view  of  the 
limits  of  species  and  look  for  evidence  of  close  relationship 
rather  than  for  slight  differences,  which  might  justify  the 
adoption  of  a  distinctive  name.  Our  object,  in  short,  is  not 
only  to  reduce  to  a  common  language  the  diverse  designa- 
tions founded  on  personal  idiosyncrasies,  but  to  group  closely 
allied  forms  under  one  central  type.  We  must  boldly  class 
together  plants  that  we  believe  to  be  nearly  allied,  and  resist 
the  undue  influence  of  considerations  based  on  supposed 
specific  distinctions. 

The  imperfection  of  the  Geological  record  was  spoken  of 
by  one  of  England's  greatest  geologists,  in  a  criticism  of  the 
"  Origin  of  Species,"  as  "  the  inflated  cushion  on  which  you 
try  to  bolster  up  the  defects  of  your  hypothesis."  On  the 
other  hand,  Darwin  wrote,  in  1861  :  "  I  find,  to  my  astonish- 
ment and  joy,  that  such  good  men  as  Ramsay,  Jukes,  Geikie, 
and  one  older  worker,  Lyell,  do  not  think  that  I  have  in  the 
least  exaggerated  the  imperfection  of  the  record."  No  one 
in  the  least  familiar  with  the  conditions  under  which  relics 
of  vegetation  are  likely  to  have  been  preserved  can  for  a 
moment  doubt  the  truth  of  Darwin's  words  :  "  The  crust  of 
the  earth,  with  its  embedded  remains,  must  not  be  looked  at 
as  a  well-filled  museum,  but  as  a  poor  collection  made  at 
hazard  and  at  rare  intervals." 

As  a  preliminary  consideration,  we  must  decide  upon  the 
most  convenient  means  of  expressing  the  facts  of  geo- 
graphical distribution  in  a  concise  form.  The  recognised 
botanical  regions  of  the  world  do  not  serve  our  purpose  ;  we 
are  not  concerned  with  the  present  position  of  mountain- 
chains  or  wide-stretching  plains  that  constitute  natural 
boundaries  between  one  existing  flora  and  another,  but 
simply  with  the  relative  geographical  position  of  localities 
from  which  records  of  ancient  floras  have  been  obtained.  In 
the  accompanying  map  I  have  divided  the  surface  of  the 
earth  into  six  belts,  from  west  to  east.  The  most  northerly 
or  Arctic  Belt  includes  the  existing  land-areas  as  far  south  as 
latitude  60°,  comprising — i,  Northern  Canada;  2,  Greenland 
and  Iceland  ;  3,  Northern  Europe ;  4,  Bear  Island  and  Spitz- 
bergen ;  5,  Franz  Josef's  Land ;  6,  Northern  Asia.  The 
North  Temperate  Belt,  extending  from  latitude  60°  to  40°, 
includes — 7,  South  Canada  and  the  northern  United  States ; 
8,  Central  and  Southern  Europe ;  9,  Central  Asia.  The 
North  Subtropical  Belt  comprises  the  land  between  latitude 
40°  and  the  Tropic  of  Cancer,  including — 10,  the  Southern 
States  of  North  America  ;  11,  Northern  Africa,  part  of  Arabia 
and  Persia;  12,  Thibet  and  part  of  China;  13,  Japan.  The 
Tropical  Belt,  embracing  the  land-areas  between  the  Tropics 
of  Cancer  and  Capricorn,  includes — 14,  Central  America  and 
the  northern  part  of  South  America ;  15,  Central  Africa  and 


NO.  1 77 1,  VOL.  68] 


October  8,   1903] 


NATURE 


557 


Madagascar ;  i6,  India,  the  Malay  Archipelago,  and 
Northern  Australia.  The  South  Subtropical  Belt,  extending 
from  the  Tropic  of  Capricorn  to  latitude  40°  south,  includes 
— 17,  Central  South  America  ;  18,  South  Africa  ;  19,  Central 
and  Southern  Australia.  The  South  Temperate  Belt  in- 
cludes— 20,  the  extreme  south  of  South  America;  21,  Tas- 
mania ;  22,  New  Zealand. 

Pre-Devonian  Floras. 
The  scanty  records  from  pre-Devonian  rocks  afford  but 
little  information  as  to  the  nature  of  the  vegetation  that 
existed  during  the  period  in  which  were  deposited  the  Cam- 
brian, Ordovician,  and  Silurian  strata  that  now  form  the 
greater  portion  of  the  Welsh  and  Cumberland  hills.  We 
must  wait  for  further  discoveries  before  attempting  to  give 
more  than  the  barest  outline  of  the  plant-life  of  these  remote 
epochs.  Our  knowledge  of  the  plant-world  which  existed 
during  the  Silurian  period  is  far  too  meagre  to  justify  any 
statement  as  to  geographical  distribution.     Of  the  few  re- 


found  in  Silurian  strata  in  Wales,  Shropshire,  and  New 
Brunswick  ;  also  in  Devonian  rocks  of  Eastern  Canada,  New 
York,  Ohio,  and  North-West  Germany,  The  tubular  ele- 
ments composing  the  stems  of  some  species  of  Nematophycus 
— which  reached  a  diameter  of  2  or  3  feet — exhibit  a  regular 
variation  in  width,  giving  the  appearance  of  concentric  rings 
of  growth,  as  in  the  stems  of  the  tree-like  Lessonia,  an  ex- 
isting genus  of  Antarctic  seaweeds.  This  structural  feature 
presents  an  impressive  image  in  stone  of  a  plant's  rhythmical 
response  to  some  periodically  recurring  conditions  of  growth 
in  the  waters  of  Palaeozoic  seas. 

Devonian  and  Lower  Carboniferous  Floras. 
The  earliest  plants  that  have  been  found  in  sufficient  num- 
ber, and  in  a  state  of  preservation  which  renders  their  iden- 
tification possible,  are  those  from  Devonian  rocks.  From 
Bear  Island,  a  small  remnant  of  land  situated  within  the 
Arctic  circle,  the  late  Prof.  Heer  described  several  Devonian 
plants  ;  and  more  recently  Prof.  Nathorst,  of  Stockholm,  has 


Map  I. — The  Earth's  Surface  divided  into  Areas  (1-22)  for  convenience  in  recording  the 
Geographical  Distribution  of  Fossil  Plants. 


Sub-tropical 


Tropical 


Sub- tropical 


Temperat* 


cords  of  supposed  Silurian  plants,  several  have  been  shown 
to  be  unsatisfactory,  and  the  nature  of  others  is  too  uncer- 
tain to  admit  of  accurate  identification.  The  Lepidodendron- 
like  fossil  from  the  Clinton  limestone  of  Silurian  age  in 
Ohio,  described  by  Claypole  in  1878  as  Glyptodendron,  has 
been  referred  by  a  later  writer  to  a  Cephalopod.  Stur's 
Bohemian  plants,  described  in  1881,  are  too  imperfect  to 
afford  any  information  of  botanical  value  ;  while  the  ferns 
and  lepidodendroid  plants  recently  recorded  by  Potoni^  from 
the  Hartz  Mountains  are  more  likely  to  be  of  Devonian  than 
Silurian  age. 

The  genus  Nematophycus,  originally  described  by 
Dawson  as  Prototaxites,  and  afterwards  referred  by  Car- 
ruthers  to  the  Algae,  constitutes  the  most  satisfactory 
example  of  a  Silurian  plant.  This  genus,  which  has  for- 
tunately been  preserved  in  such  a  manner  as  to  admit  of 
minute  microscopical  examination,  represents  a  widely  spread 
algal   type   in   Silurian   and    Devonian   seas.        It   has   been 


given  a  full  account  of  this  interesting  and  comparatively 
rich  flora.  The  relics  of  plant-life  preserved  in  this  Arctic 
island  carry  us  back  through  countless  ages  to  a  time  when 
a  luxuriant  vegetation  flourished  in  a  region  now  occupied 
by  ice-bound  land  and  polar  seas.  As  Edward  Fitzgerald 
said,  in  speaking  of  his  enjoyment  of  some  geological  book  : 
"  This  vision  of  time  is  in  itself  more  wonderful  than  all  the 
conceptions  of  Dante  and  Milton."  Devonian  plants  have 
been  described  by  Feistmantel,  Etheridge,  and  others  from 
Australia  ;  and  the  well-known  Kiltorkan  grits  of  Ireland 
have  supplied  a  few  well-preserved  impressions  of  the  oldest 
land-plants  disinterred  from  British  rocks. 

As  my  aim  is  to  sketch  in  broad  outline  the  general  facies 
of  the  vegetation  which  flourished  at  different  stages  in  the 
earth's  history,  rather  than  to  undertake  a  critical  examin- 
ation of  the  evidence  as  to  the  precise  geological  age  of  the 
plant-bearing  beds,  I  propose  to  treat  of  Devonian  and  Lower 
Carboniferous  floras  as  constituting  one  phase  in  the  evolu- 


No.  1 77 1,  VOL.  68] 


558 


NATURE 


[October  8,  1903 


tion  of  the  plant-world.  In  speaking  of  the  plants  of  the 
Devonian  and  Lower  Carboniferous  or  Culm  phase,  it  is  not 
assumed  that  the  specimens  entombed  in  the  snow-covered 
cliffs  of  Bear  Island  were  actually  contemporaneous  with 
those  found  in  rocks  of  the  same  geological  period  in  the 
Southern  hemisphere.  The  Bear  Island  rocks  are,  in  the 
language  which  Huxley  taught  us  to  use,  homotaxial  with 
certain  Devonian  plant-bearing  strata  in  other  parts  of  the 
world  ;  they  occupy  the  same  relative  position  in  the  geo- 
logical series. 

Homotaxy  by  no  means  implies  contemporaneity  ;  indeed, 
the  late  Edward  Forbes  maintained  that  similarity  of  organic 
contents  of  distant  formations  should  be  accepted  as  prima 
facie  evidence  of  a  difference  in  age. 

What  do  we  know  as  to  the  composition  of  the  floras  that 
flourished  in  the  later  stages  of  the  Devonian  and  in  the  latter 
part  of  the  Carboniferous  era?  The  following  list,  which  is 
by  no  means  exhaustive,  represents  some  of  the  more  impor- 
tant generic  types  which  may  be  very  briefly  described  : — 


1.  Equisetales. 

Archaeocalamites. 

2.  Sphenophyllales. 

Sphenophyllum. 
Cheirostrobus. 
IPseudobornia  ?^ 

3.  Lycopodiales. 

Lepidodendron. 
Bothrodendron. 

4.  FiLlCALES. 

Archaeopteris. 
Adiantites. 


Rhodea. 

Cardiopteris. 

Todeopsis. 

Cephalotheca. 

Rhacopteris. 

5.  Cycadofilices. 

Calamopitys. 

Heterangium. 

Lyginodendron. 

6.  Gymnosperm-^. 

(Cordaitales). 

Cordaites. 
Pitys. 


In  Archaeocalamites  we  have  the  oldest  example  of  an  un- 
doubted Equisetaceous  genus.  The  structure  of  its  com- 
paratively thick  and  woody  stem  is  practically  identical  with 
that  of  our  common  British  type  of  Calamites,  one  of  the 
most  abundant  of  the  Coal  period  genera,  while  the  strobilus 
differed  in  no  essential  feature  from  that  of  a  modern  Horse- 
tail. The  genus  Cheirostrobus,  founded  in  1897  by  Dr. 
D.  H.  Scott  on  a  single  specimen  of  a  petrified  cone  dis- 
covered in  the  rich  volcanic  beds  of  Lower  Carboniferous  age 
at  Pettycur  on  the  shores  of  the  Firth  of  Forth,  affords  a 
striking  illustration  of  a  Palreozoic  plant  exhibiting  a  struc- 
ture far  more  complex  than  that  of  any  known  type  among 
existing  Vascular  Cryptogams.  As  Scott  clearly  shows  in 
his  admirable  memoir,  Cheirostrobus  is  a  synthetic  or  com- 
pound genus,  one  of  the  numerous  extinct  types  brought  to 
light  by  the  anatomical  investigation  of  fossil  plants,  from 
which  we  have  learnt  more  about  the  inter-relations  of  exist- 
ing classes  than  we  could  ever  hope  to  discover  from  the 
examination  of  recent  species. 

In  this  Scotch  cone,  about  3-5  cm.  in  diameter,  we  recog- 
nise Equisetaceous  and  Lycopodinous  characters  combined 
with  morphological  features  typical  of  the  extinct  genus 
Sphenophyllum.  Some  specimens  of  vegetative  stems  de- 
scribed by  Nathorst  from  Bear  Island  under  the  name 
Pseudobornia — characterised  by  their  whorled  leaves  with 
fimbriate  blades  borne  on  nodal  regions  separated  by  long 
internodes — may,  as  Scott  has  suggested,  represent  the 
branches  of  the  tree  of  which  Cheirostrobus  was  the  cone. 
Both  Devonian  and  Culm  rocks  have  furnished  many  ex- 
amples of  Lycopodinous  plants.  The  genus  Bothrodendron, 
closely  allied  in  habit  to  Lepidodendron,  has  been  recorded 
from  Bear  Island,  Ireland,  and  Australia,  and  the  cuticles  of 
a  Lower  Carboniferous  species  form  the  greater  portion  of 
the  so-called  paper-coal  of  Tula  in  Russia.  Lepidodendron 
itself  had  already  attained  to  the  size  of  a  forest  tree,  with 
anatomical  features  precisely  similar  to  those  of  the  succeed- 
ing Coal  period  species. 

Our  knowledge  of  the  ferns  is  not  very  extensive.  The 
genus  Archjeopteris  from  Ireland,  Belgium,  Bear  Island,  and 
North  America  has  always  been  regarded  as  a  fern,  but  we 
must  admit  the  impossibility  of  accurately  determining  its 
systematic  position  until  we  possess  a  fuller  knowledge  of 
the   reproductive   organs   and    of    its    anatomical    structure. 


NO.    1771,  VOL.   68] 


Similarly  the  genera  Rhacopteris,  Adiantites,  and  Rhodea, 
with  other  characteristic  members  of  the  Lower  Carbon- 
iferous vegetation,  may  be  provisionally  retained  among  the 
oldest  known  ferns.  The  genus  Cardiopteris — a  plant  with 
large  oblong  or  orbicular  pinnules  borne  in  two  rows  on  a 
stout  rachis — is  known  only  in  a  sterile  condition,  and  it  is 
quite  as  likely  that  its  reproductive  organs  may  have  been  of 
the  Gymnospermous  as  of  the  Filicinean  type. 

Renault  has  described  under  the  name  Todeopsis  some 
petrified  sporangia  which  appear  to  be  practically  identical 
with  those  of  existing  Osniundaceee,  and  a  new  Devonian 
genus  Cephalotheca  has  been  instituted  by  Nathorst  for  fer- 
tile specimens  of  a  strange  type  of  plant  which  he  refers  to 
the  Marattiacea;.  Of  much  greater  importance  than  the 
sterile  fern-like  fronds,  which  cannot  be  assigned  with  con- 
fidence to  a  definite  position,  are  the  petrified  remains  of 
stems  and  leaves  of  such  plants  as  Heterangium,  Lyginoden- 
dron, Calamopitys,  and  others  which  demonstrate  the  ex- 
istence of  a  class  of  synthetic  genera  combining  Filicinean 
and  Cycadean  characters.  These  plants  are  of  exceptional 
interest  as  showing  beyond  doubt  that  Ferns  and  Cycads 
trace  their  descent  from  a  common  ancestry.  Some  of  the 
supposed  ferns  from  Lower  Carboniferous  rocks  are  known 
to  have  been  fronds  borne  on  stems  with  the  structure  of 
cycads,  and  we  have  good  reason  for  believing  that  some  at 
least  of  the  gymnospermous  seeds  of  Palaeozoic  age  are  those 
of  plants  of  which  the  outward  form  was  more  fern-like  than 
cycadean.  The  announcement  made  a  few  months  ago  by 
Prof.  Oliver  and  Dr.  Scott  that  they  had  obtained  good  evi- 
dence as  to  the  connection  of  the  gymnospermous  seed  known 
a-5  Lagenostoma  with  the  genus  Lyginodendron  is  one  of  the 
most  important  contributions  to  botarry  published  in  recent 
years  ;  if,  as  I  firmly  believe,  the  evidence  adduced  is  con- 
vincing, it  gives  satisfactory  confirmation  to  suspicions  that 
previous  discoveries  led  us  to  entertain.  The  fact  demon- 
strated is  this  :  the  genus  Lyginodendron,  a  plant  known  to 
have  existed  during  the  greater  part  of  the  Carboniferous 
epoch,  possessed  a  stem  of  which  the  primary  structure  was 
almost  identical  with  that  which  characterises  some  recent 
species  of  Osmundaceae,  while  the  secondary  wood  produced 
by  the  activity  of  a  cambium  is  hardly  distinguishable  from 
the  corresponding  tissue  in  the  stem  of  a  recent  cycad.  The 
fronds  were  those  of  a  fern,  both  in  the  anatomy  of  their 
vascular  tissue  and  in  their  external  form  ;  so  far,  therefore, 
as  the  vegetative  characters  are  concerned,  we  have  a  com- 
bination of  ferns  and  cycads.  We  still  lack  complete  know- 
ledge of  the  nature  of  the  reproductive  organs,  but  it  seems 
clear  that  Lyginodendron  bore  seeds  constructed  on  the  Gym- 
nospermous plan,  but  characterised  by  an  architectural  com- 
plexity far  beyond  that  represented  in  the  seeds  of  any 
modern  Conifer  or  Cycad. 

In  such  genera  of  Gymnosperms  as  Cordaites,  Pitys,  and 
others,  we  have  examples  of  forest  trees  possessing  wood 
almost  identical  with  that  of  existing  species  of  Araucaria, 
but  distinguished  by  certain  peculiarities  which  point  to  a 
relationship  with  members  of  the  Cycadofilices,  and  suggest 
that  Conifers  as  well  as  Cycads  may  have  sprung  from  a 
filicinean  stock. 

These  waifs  and  strays  from  the  vegetation  of  an  era  in- 
credibly remote,  when  strange  amphibians  were  lords  of  the 
animal  world,  afford,  as  Newberry  expresses  it,  "  fascinating 
glimpses  of  the  head  of  the  column  of  terrestrial  vegetation 
that  has  marched  across  the  earth's  stage  during  the  dif- 
ferent geological  ages." 

Two  facts  stand  out  prominently  as  the  result  of  a  general 
survey  of  what  are  practically  the  oldest  records  of  plant-life. 
One  is  the  abundance  of  types  which  cannot  be  accommo- 
dated in  our  existing  classification  founded  solely  on  living 
plants. 

The  Devonian  and  Lower  Carboniferous  plants  lead  us 
away  from  the  present  along  converging  lines  of  evolution  to 
a  remote  stage  in  the  history  of  life ;  they  bring  us  face  to 
face  with  proofs  of  common  origins,  which  enable  us  to  re- 
cognise community  of  descent  in  existing  groups  between 
which  a  direct  alliance  is  either  dimly  suggested  or  absolutely 
unsuspected  if  we  confine  our  investigations  to  modern  forms. 
We  recognise,  moreover,  in  such  a  plant  as  Archaeocalamites 
an  ancestor  from  which  we  may  derive  in  a  direct  line  the 
existing  members  of  the  Equisetales.  In  other  types,  by  far 
the  greater  number,  we  see  striking  examples  of  Nature's 
many  failures,  which,  after  reaching  an  extraordinary  com- 


October  8,  1903] 


NA  TURE 


plexity  of  organisation,  gave  place  to  other  products  of  evo- 
lution and  left  no  direct  descendants. 

Another  fact  that  seems  to  stand  out  clearly  is  the  almost 
world-wide  distribution  of  several  characteristic  Lower  Car- 

niferous  plants.    The  accompanying  table  (Table  I.),  based 


559 


area  of  land  on  the  site  of  the  present  United  States  of 
North  America,  stretching  across  Europe  into  Eastern 
Asia;  under  the  shade  of  their  trees  lived  "the  stupid, 
salamander-like  Labyrinthodonts,  which  pottered  with  much 
belly   and   little   leg,    like   Falstaff   in   his  old   age."       The 


I.   Devonian  end  Leaver  Carboniferous  Floras.- 

-Table  c 

halving  the  Geographical  Distribution 

9/a 

few 

Characteristic  Genera. 

Characteristx  Types 

Arctic 

N.  Temperate 

N.  Sub-tropjcal 

Tropical 

S.  Sub- 
tropical 

S.  Temperate 

1 

a 

3       4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

II 

la      13 

14 

'S 

16 

17 

18 

19 

ao 

31 

aa 

Equisetales 

Arehaeocalamites  radiatus... 
Calamites 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

SrHENOPHYLLALES 
Sphenophyllum 
Cheirostrobtts 

X 

X 
X 

Lycopodiales 
Lepidodeudran 
Bothrodendron 

X 
X 

X 

X 
X 

X 

X 

X 

FiLICALES  (?) 

Arehaeopteris            

Adiantites                  

Rhacopteris 

Khodea           

Cardiopteris 

X 

X 

X 
X 

X 
X 

X 

X 
X 
X 
X 

X 

X 
X 

Cyc.\dofilices 

Lyginodendron         

Heterangiitm            

X 

CORDAITALES 
Cordaites 

X 

X 

^ 

on  the  artificial  divisions  marked  out  on  the  map,  to  which 
reference  has  already  been  made,  shows  how  widely  some  of 
the  plants  had  migrated  from  an  unknown  centre  far  back 
in  a  still  more  remote  age.  We  are,  as  yet,  unable  to  follow 
these  Devonian  plants  to  an  earlier  stage  in  their  evolution. 
We  are  left  in  amazement  at  their  specialised  structure  and 
extended  geographical  distribution,  without  the  means  of 
perusing  the  opening  chapters  of  their  history. 

Upper  Carboniferous  (Coal-measures)  and  Permian  Floras. 

From  the  Lower  Carboniferous  formation  we  pass  on  to 
the  wealth  of  material  afforded  by  the  Upper  Carboniferous 
and  Permian  rocks.  From  the  point  of  view  of  both 
botanists  and  geologists,  the  fossil  plants  obtained  from  the 
beds  associated  with  the  coal  are  of  greater  interest  and 
importance  than  those  of  any  other  geological  period.  By 
a  fortunate  accident  our  investigations  are  not  restricted  to 
the  examination  of  carbonaceous  impressions  and  sandstone 
casts  left  by  the  stems  and  leaves  of  the  Coal-period  plants. 
By  means  of  thin  sections  cut  from  the  calcareous  nodules 
of  the  coal-seams  of  Yorkshire  and  Lancashire,  and  from 
the  silicified  pebbles  of  France  and  Saxony,  it  is  possible 
to  make  anatomical  investigations  of  the  coal-forest  trees 
with  as  much  accuracy  as  that  with  which  we  can  examine 
sections  of  recent  plants.  The  differences  between  the 
vegetation  that  witnessed  the  close  of  the  Carboniferous 
era  and  that  which  flourished  during  the  opening  stages 
of  the  succeeding  Permian  epoch  are  comparatively  slight. 
It  has  been  demonstrated  by  Grand'Eury,  Kidston,  Zeiller, 
Potoni6,  and  others,  that  it  is  possible  both  to  separate  the 
floras  of  the  Coal-measures  from  those  of  Lower  Permian 
age,  and  to  use  the  plant  species  as  trustworthy  guides  to 
the  smaller  subdivisions  of  the  Coal-measures ;  but  apart 
from  these  minor  differences,  the  general  facies  of  the 
vegetation  remained  fairly  constant  during  the  Upper 
Carboniferous  and  Lower  Permian  periods. 

The  vast  forests  of  the  Coal  age  occupied  an   extensive 

NU.    1771,  VOL.  68] 


plants  of  these  Palaeozoic  forests  seem  to  be  revivified,  as 
we  subject  their  petrified  fragments  to  microscopical  ex- 
amination. Robert  Louis  Stevenson  has  referred  to  a 
venerable  oak,  which  has  been  growing  since  the  Reform- 
ation and  is  yet  a  living  thing  liable  to  sickness  and  death, 
as  a  speaking  lesson  in  history.  How  much  more  im- 
pressive is  the  conception  of  age  suggested  by  the  con- 
templation of  a  group  of  Palaeozoic  tree-stumps  exposed  in 
a  Carboniferous  quarry  and  rooted  where  they  grew  !  An 
examination  of  their  minute  anatomy  carries  us  beyond 
the  mere  knowledge  of  the  internal  architecture  of  their 
stems,  leaves,  and  seeds  ;  it  brings  us  into  contact  with  the 
actual  working  of  their  complex  machinery.  As  we  look 
at  the  stomata  on  the  lamina  of  a  leaf  of  one  of  those 
strange  trees,  and  recognise  a  type  of  structure  in  the 
mesophyll-tissues  which  has  been  rendered  familiar  by  its 
occurrence  in  modern  leaves,  it  requires  but  little  imagin- 
ation to  see  the  green  blade  spreading  its  surface  to  the 
light  to  obtain  a  supply  of  solar  energy  with  which  to 
extract  carbon  from  the  air.  We  can  almost  hear  the 
murmur  of  plant-life  and  the  sighing  of  the  branches  in 
the  wind  as  the  sap  courses  through  the  wood,  and  the 
leaves  build  up  material  from  the  products  of  earth  and  air  ; 
products  that  are  to  be  sealed  up  by  subsequent  geological 
changes,  until  after  the  lapse  of  countless  ages  the  store 
of  energy  accumulated  in  coal  is  dissipated  through  the 
agency  of  man. 

The  minute  structure  of  the  wood  of  the  Calamites, 
Lycopods,  and  other  trees,  agrees  so  closely  with  that  of 
existing  types  that  we  are  forced  to  conclude  that  these 
Palaeozoic  plants  had  already  solved  the  problem  of  raising 
a  column  of  water  more  than  loo  feet  in  height.  The 
arrangement  of  the  strengthening  or  mechanical  tissues  in 
the  long  flat  leaves  of  Cordaites  is  an  exact  counterpart 
of  that  which  we  find  in  modern  leaves  of  similar  form. 
The  method  of  disposition  of  supporting  strands  in  such 
manner  as  to  secure  the  maximum  effect  with  the  least 
expenditure  of  material     was  as  much   an  axiom  in  plant 


56o 


NATURE 


[October  8,  1903 


architecture  in  the  days  of  the  coal-forests  as  it  is  now  one 
of  the  recognised  rules  in  the  engineer's  craft. 

We  need  not  pause  to  discuss  the  various  opinions  that 
have  been  expressed  as  to  the  conditions  under  which  the 
forests  grew ;  we  may  adopt  Neumayr's  view,  and  recognise 
a  modern  parallel  in  the  moors  of  the  sub-arctic  zone,  or 
find  a  close  resemblance  in  the  dismal  swamp  of  North 
America.  There  is  also  the  view  expressed  many  years 
ago  by  Binney  and  warmly  advocated  by  Darwin,  that  some 
at  least  of  the  Coal-period  trees  grew  in  salt-marshes,  an 
opinion  which  receives  support  from  several  structural 
features  suggestive  of  xerophytic  characters  recognised  in 
the  tissues  of  Palajozoic  plants. 

Tirhe  does  not  admit  of  more  than  the  most  cursory 
glance  at  the  leading  types  of  the  Permo-Carboniferous 
floras.  The  general  character  of  the  preceding  vegetation 
is  retained  with  numerous  additions.  Archasocalamites  is 
replaced  by  a  host  of  representatives  of  the  genus  Calamites, 
an  Equisetaceous  type  with  stout  woody  stems  and  several 
forins  of  cones  of  greater  complexity  than  those  of  modern 
Horsetails.  Side  by  side  with  the  Calamites  there  appear 
to  have  existed  plants  which,  from  their  still  closer  agree- 
ment with  Equisetum,  have  been  described  by  Zeiller, 
Kidston,  and  others  as  species  of  Equisetites.  The  genus 
Sphenophyllum,  a  solitary  type  of  an  extinct  family,  was 
represented  by  several  forms  which,  like  the  Galium  of  our 
hedgerows,  may  have  supported  their  slender  branches 
against  the  stems  of  stronger  plants.  Lycopods,  with 
trunks  as  thick  and  tall  as  forest  trees,  were  among  the 
most  vigorous  members  of  the  later  Palaeozoic  forests. 
Although  recent  research  has  shown  that  several  of  the 
supposed  ferns  must  be  assigned  to  the  Cycad-fern  alliance, 
there  can  be  no  doubt  that  true  ferns  had  reached  an 
advanced  state  of  evolution  during  the  Permo-Carboniferous 
epoch.  The  abundance  of  petrified  stems  of  the  genus 
Psaronius,  of  which  the  nearest  living  representatives  are 
probably  to  be  found  among  the  tropical  Marattiaceae, 
demonstrates  the  existence  of  true  f'^rns.  Others  had  more 
slender  stems  which  clambered  over  the  trunks  of  stouter 
trees,  while  some  grew  in  the  shade  of  Lepidodendron  and 
Cordaites.  The  most  striking  fact  as  regards  the  Permo- 
Carboniferous  ferns  is  the  abundance  of  fertile  fronds  bear- 
ing sporangia  which  exhibit  a  more  or  less  close  agreement 
with  those  of  the  few  surviving  genera  of  Marattiaceae. 
The  more  familiar  type  of  sporangium  met  with  in  our 
existing  fern-vegetation  is  also  represented,  and  we  have 
recently  become  familiar  with  several  genera  bearing 
sporangia  exhibiting  a  close  resemblance  to  those  of  modern 
Gleicheniaceae,  Schizaeaceae,  and  Osmundaceae.  The 
sporangial  characteristics  of  the  different  families  of  living 
ferns  are  many  of  them  to  be  found  among  Palaeozoic  types, 
but  there  is  a  frequent  commingling  of  structural  features 
showing  that  the  ferns  had  not  as  yet  become  differentiated 
into  so  many  or  such  distinct  families  as  have  since  been 
evolved. 

Prominent  among  the  Gymnosperms  of  the  Palaeozoic 
forests  rnust  have  been  the  genus  Cordaites  :  tall  handsome 
trees,  with  long  strap-shaped  leaves,  recalling  on  a  large 
scale  those  of  the  kauri  pine  of  New  Zealand.  This  genus, 
which  has  been  made  the  type  of  a  distinct  group  of  Gymno- 
sperms, combined  the  anatomy  of  an  Araucaria  with  re- 
productive organs  more  nearly  allied  to  the  flowers  of 
Cycads,  and  exhibiting  points  of  resemblance  with  those 
of  the  Maidenhair-tree.  It  is  not  untir  the  later  stages  of 
the  Permo-Carboniferous  epoch  that  more  definite  coni- 
ferous types  make  their  appearance.  The  genus  Walchia, 
in  habit  almost  identical  with  Araucaria  excelsa,  the 
Norfolk  Island  pine,  with  Ulmannia  and  Voltzia,  are 
characteristic  members  of  the  vegetation  belonging  to  the 
later  phase  of  the  Permo-Carboniferous  era.  The  Maiden- 
hair-tree of  the  far  East,  one  of  the  most  venerable 
survivors  in  our  modern  vegetation,  is  foreshadowed  in 
certain  features  exhibited  by  Cordaites  and,  as  regards  the 
form  of  its  leaves,  by  Psygmophyllum,  Wittleseya,  and 
other  genera.  Psygmophyllum  is  known  to  have  existed  in 
Spitzbergen  in  the  preceding  Culm  epoch,  and  Wittleseya 
occurs  in  Canadian  strata  correlated  with  our  Millstone 
Grit.  _  Leaves  have  been  found  in  Permian  rocks  of  Russia, 
Siberia,  Western  and  Central  Europe,  referred  to  the  genus 
Baiera,  a  typical  Mesozoic  type  closely  allied  to  Ginkgo. 
In  the  upper  Coal-measures  and  lower  Permian  rocks  a  few 


NO.    177  I,  VOL.  68] 


pinnate  fronds  have  been  discovered,  such  as  Sphenozamites, 
from  the  Permian  of  France,  Pterophyllum  from  France 
and  Russia,  and  Plagiozamites  from  the  Permian  of  Alsace, 
which  bear  a  striking  likeness  to  modern  Cycadean  leaves. 
Throughout  the  Permo-Carboniferous  era  the  Cycadofilices 
formed  a  dominant  group ;  Lyginodendron,  Medullosa, 
Poroxylon,  and  many  other  genera  flourished  in  abundance 
as  vigorous  members  of  an  ancient  class  which  belongs 
exclusively  to  the  past. 

One  distinctive  characteristic  of  the  vegetation  of  later 
Permo-Carboniferous  days  is  the  occurrence  of  the  Cycad- 
like  fronds  already  referred  to ;  also  the  appearance  of 
Voltzia  and  other  conifers  with  species  of  Equisetites, 
pioneer  genera  of  a  succeeding  era  that  constitute  connect- 
ing links  between  the  Palaeozoic  and  Mesozoic  floras. 

What  we  may  call  the  typical  vegetation  of  the  Coal- 
measures,  which  continued,  with  comparatively  minor 
changes,  into  the  succeeding  era,  flourished  over  a  wide 
area  in  the  northern  hemisphere,  suggesting,  as  White 
points  out,  an  almost  incredible  uniformity  of  climate.  The 
same  type  of  vegetation  extended  as  far  south  as  the 
Zambesi  in  Africa,  and  to  the  vast  coal-fields  of  China  ;  it 
possibly  existed  also  in  high  northern  latitudes,  but,  since 
Heer's  record  of  Cordaites  in  Novaya  Zemlya  in  1878,  no 
further  traces  of  arctic  Permo-Carboniferous  plants  have 
been  found.  Calamites,  Lepidodendron  (with  its  near 
relative  Sigillaria),  Ferns,  Cycadofilices,  Cordaites,  and 
other  Gymnosperms,  constitute  the  most  familiar  types. 
We  have  already  noticed  the  existence  in  the  southern  hemi- 
sphere of  Lower  Carboniferous  and  Devonian  genera 
identical  with  plants  found  in  rocks  of  corresponding  age 
within  the  Arctic  circle.  This  agreement  between  the 
northern  and  southern  floras  was,  however,  not  maintained 
in  the  later  stages  of  the  Palaeozoic  epoch.  Australian 
plant-bearing  strata  homotaxial  with  Permo-Carboniferous 
rocks  of  Europe,  have  so  far  afforded  no  examples  of 
Sigillaria,  Lepidodendron,  or  of  several  other  characteristic 
northern  forms  ;  in  place  of  these  genera  we  find  an  enor- 
mous abundance  of  a  fern  known  as  Glossopteris,  a  type 
which  must  have  monopolised  wide  areas,  suggesting  a 
comparison  with  the  green  carpet  of  bracken  that  stretches 
as  a  continuous  sheet  over  an  English  moor.  With  Glosso- 
pteris was  associated  a  fern  bearing  similar  leaves,  known 
as  Gangamopteris,  and  with  these  grew  Schizoneura  and 
Phyllotheca,  members  of  the  Equisetales.  In  addition  to 
these  genera  there  are  others  which  bear  a  close  resem- 
blance to  northern  hemisphere  types,  such  as  Noegger- 
athiopsis,  a  member  of  the  Cordaitales,  and  several  species 
ot  Sphenopteris.  Similarly,  in  many  parts  of  India,  Glosso- 
pteris has  been  found  in  extraordinary  abundance  in  the 
same  company  with  which  it  occurs  in  Australia.  In  South 
Africa  an  identical  flora  is  met  with  which  extends  to  the 
Argentine  and  to  other  regions  of  South  America.  A  few 
members  of  this  southern  flora  have  been  recorded  from 
Borneo,  and  the  genus  Glossopteris  is  said  to  occur  in 
New  Zealand,  but  the  latter  statement  has  been  called  in 
question  and  requires  confirmation.  It  is  clear  that  from 
South  America,  through  South  Africa  and  India  to 
Australia,  there  existed  a  vegetation  of  uniform  character 
which  flourished  over  a  vast  southern  continent  at  approxi- 
mately the  same  period  as  that  which,  in  the  northern 
hemisphere  and  in  China,  witnessed  the  growth  of  the 
forests  the  trees  of  which  formed  the  source  of  our  coal- 
supply. 

Since  attention  was  drawn  by  Dr.  Blanford  and  other 
writers  to  the  facts  of  plant-distribution  revealed  by  a  study 
of  the  later  Palaeozoic  floras,  it  has  been  generally  admitted 
that  during  the  Permo-Carboniferous  era  there  existed  two 
fairly  well-marked  botanical  provinces.  The  more  familiar 
and  far  richer  flora  occupied  a  province  stretching  from  the 
western  States  of  North  America  across  Europe  into  China 
and  reaching  as  far  as  the  Zambesi ;  the  other  province  was 
occupied  by  a  less  varied  assemblage  of  plants,  character-^ 
ised  by  the  abundance  of  Glossopteris,  Gangamopteris, 
Neuropteridium,  Noeggerathiopsis,  Schizoneura,  and  other 
genera,  stretching  from  South  America  through  India  to 
Australia. 

Two  questions  at  once  suggest  themselves  :  first,  were 
these  two  botanical  provinces  defined  by  well-marked 
boundaries,  or  did  they  dovetail  into  one  another  at  certain 
points?     Secondly,  is  there  any  probable  explanation  of  this 


October  8,  1903] 


NATURE 


561 


difference  between  northern  and  southern  floras,  a  feature 
not  shown  either  by  the  preceding  Devonian  and  Lower 
Carboniferous  or  by  the  succeeding  Lower  Mesozoic  floras? 
In  Brazil,  Prof.  Zeiller  has  recorded  the  occurrence  of  a 
flora  including  Lepidophloios,  a  well-known  European 
member  of  the  Lycopods,  associated  with  such  characteristic 
southern  types  as  Gangamopteris  and  Noeggerathiopsis. 
Similarly  from  the  Transvaal  a  European  species  of 
Sigillaria,  with  a  Lepidodendroid  plant,  and  another 
northern  genus,  Psygmophyllum,  have  been  found  in  beds 
containing  Glossopteris,  Gangamopteris,  Noeggerathiopsis, 
Neuropteridium,  and  other  members  of  the  so-called  Glosso- 
pteris flora.  In  India,  the  Glossopteris  flora  exhibits  an 
entire  absence  of  Lepidodendron,  Calamites,  Sigillaria,  and 
other  common  northern  genera,  while  Sphenophyllum  is  re- 
presented by  a  single  species.  The  Australian  Permo- 
Carboniferous  flora  is  also  characterised  by  the  absence  of 
the  great  majority  of  the  northern  types.  Until  a  few  years 
_:o    the    genus    Glossopteris    had    not    been    discovered    in 


between  the  two  provinces  into  which  the  Permo-Carbon- 
iferous  vegetation  was  divided.  As  regards  an  explanation 
of  this  fact,  we  can  only  hazard  a  guess ;  as  Dr.  Blanford 
and  others  have  pointed  out,  there  is  a  probable  solution 
to  hand.  Briefly  stated,  the  Upper  Palaeozoic  plant-bearing 
strata  of  India,  South  America,  Australia,  and  South  Africa 
are  in  close  association  with  boulder-beds  of  consider- 
ably extent.  In  some  places,  as  for  example  in  India  and 
Australia,  the  boulder-beds  rest  on  rocks  bearing  un- 
mistakable signs  of  the  grinding  action  of  ice.  There  can 
be  no  reasonable  doubt  that  the  huge  continental  area  of 
which  India,  South  Africa,  parts  of  South  America,  and 
Australia  remain  as  comparatively  insignificant  remnants, 
was  exposed  to  climatal  conditions  favourable  to  the 
accumulation  of  snow  and  to  the  formation  of  glaciers. 
One  possible  explanation,  therefore,  of  the  existence  of  a 
distinct  vegetation  in  the  southern  area  is  that  the  climate 
was  such  as  to  render  impossible  the  existence  of  those 
coal-forest  plants  that  exhibited  so  vigorous  a  development 


Map  II. — Permo-CarboniferoQs  Floras. 


r.::.-"-y.a     =■   aiossoptens  (Southern  Flora). 
^■■1    =   Northern  Flora. 


Europe,  but  in  1897  Prof.  Amalitzky  recorded  the  occurrence 
of  this  genus  in  association  with  Gangamopteris  in  Permian 
rata  in  northern  Russia. 

We  see,  then,  that  in  Brazil  and  South  Africa  the  Glosso- 
yi'us  flora  and  the  northern  flora  overlapped,  but  the 
former  was  the  dominant  partner.  On  the  other  hand,  in 
rocks  belonging  to  a  somewhat  higher  horizon  in  Russia, 
we  meet  with  a  northern  extension  of  the  Glossopteris  flora. 
Map  II.  serves  better  than  a  detailed  description  to  illustrate 
the  geographical  distribution  of  these  two  types  of  vegeta- 
tion in  the  Permo-Carboniferous  era. 

There  is  little  doubt  that  the  differences  between  the  flora 

of  the  southern  continent,  that  existed  towards  the  close  of 

»hp    Carboniferous    and    during    the    succeeding    Permian 

t  iod,  and  that  which  flourished  farther  north  have  in  some 

-pects    been    exaggerated ;    geographical    separation    has 

ived    too    conspicuous    a    part    in    influencing    botanical 

menclature.     Granting  the  existence  of  identical   genera 

,    representative  types,  there  remains  a  striking  difference 

NO.  1 77 1,  VOL.  68] 


in  northern  latitudes.  There  is,  moreover,  another  consider- 
ation, and  that  is  the  effect  on  the  vegetation  of  an  enormous 
continental  mass  ;  in  North  America  and  Europe  it  is  prob- 
able that  the  forests  grew  on  low-lying  land  penetrated  by 
lagoons  and  in  part  submerged  under  shallow  brackish 
water,  a  disposition  of  land  and  sea  very  different  from  that 
in  the  so-called  Gondwana  Land  of  the  South.  Possibly 
the  apparently  uniform  vegetation  of  the  Devonian  and 
Lower  Carboniferous  period  was  unable,  through  stress  of 
climatal  conditions,  to  prolong  its  existence  in  the  southern 
area,  while  in  the  north  it  continued  to  flourish,  and  as  the 
evolution  of  new  types  proceeded  in  rapid  succession  it  was 
not  slow  to  colonise  new  areas  stretching  in  South  America 
and  South  Africa  to  the  confines  of  the  Glossopteris  flora. 

There  seems  good  reason  for  assuming  that  the  Glosso- 
pteris flora  originated  in  the  South  and  before  the  close 
of  the  Permian  period,  as  well  as  in  the  succeeding  Triassic 
era,  pushed  northward  over  a  portion  of  the  area  previously 
occupied  by  the  northern  flora.     This  northward  extension 


562 


NATURE 


[October  8,  1903 


is  shown  by  the  existence  of  Glossopteris  in  Upper  Permian 
rocks  of  Russia,  bv  the  occurrence  of  several  southern  types 
in  plant-bearing  beds  of  the  Altai  mountains,  and  by  the 
existence  in  Western  Europe  during  the  early  stages  of  the 
Triassic  era  of  such  southern  genera  as  Neuroptendium  and 
Schizoneura. 

Triassic,  Jurassic,  and  Wealden  Floras. 
It  is  unfortunate  that  the  records  of  plant-life  towards  the 
close  of  the  Palaeozoic  and  during  the  succeeding  Triassic 
period  are  very  fragmentary ;  the  documents  are  few  in 
number  and  instead  of  the  fairly  continuous  chapters  in 
which  the  records  of  the  Coal  age  have  been  preserved, 
wo  have  to  be  content  with  a  few  blurred  pages.  During 
the  Triassic  period  the  vegetation  of  the  world  gradually 
changed  its  character;  the  balance  of  power  was  shifted 
from  the  Vascular  Cryptogams,  the  dominant  group  of  the 
Pala;ozoic  era,  to  the  Gymnosperms.  It  is  not  until  we  pass 
up  the  geologic  series  as  far  as  the  Rhaetic  formation,  that 
wi  come  to  palaeobotanical  records  at  all  comparable  in 
their  completeness  with  those  of  the  Permo-Carboniferous 
era ;  but  before  considering  the  Rhaetic  vegetation  we  must 
glance  at  such  scattered  relics  as  remain  of  the  vegetation 
belonging  to  the  period  of  transition  between  the  Palaeozoic 
and  Mesozoic  facies.  It  is  regrettable  that  this  transitional 
period  is  unusually  poor  in  documentary  evidence  that 
might  throw  light  on  the  gradual  change  in  the  facies  of 
Palceozoic  vegetation.  The  new  order,  when  once  estab- 
lished, persisted  for  many  succeeding  ages  without  under- 
going any  essential  alteration. 

One  of  the  few  floras  of  early  Triassic  age  of  which 
satisfactory  relics  have  been  preserved  is  that  described  in 
1844  by  Schimper  and  Mougeot  from  the  Bunter  Sandstones 
of  the  Vosges.  The  genus  Neuropteridium,  a  plant  which 
may  be  a  true  fern,  or  possibly  a  surviving  member  of  the 
Cycadofilices,  is  represented  by  a  species  which  can  hardly 
be  distinguished  from  that  which  flourished  in  South 
America,  South  Africa,  and  India  in  the  Permo-Carbon- 
iferous period.  This  genus  and  another  southern  type, 
Schizoneura,  both  of  which  are  met  with  in  the  Triassic 
rocks  of  the  Vosges,  would  seem  to  point  to  a  northern 
migration  of  certain  members  of  the  Glossopteris  flora, 
which  took  place  at  the  close  of  the  Palaeozoic  era.  In  the 
Lower  Triassic  flora  Conifers  are  relatively  more  abundant 
than  in  the  earlier  periods ;  such  genera  as  Albertia  (re- 
sembling in  its  vegetative  features  some  recent  species  of 
Araucaria),  Voltzia  (with  cones  that  cannot  be  closely 
matched  with  those  of  any  existing  members  of  the  Coni- 
ferae),  and  other  representatives  of  this  class  are  common 
fossils.  Lepidodendra  have  apparently  ceased  to  exist ; 
Sigillaria  may  be  said  to  survive  in  one  somewhat  doubtful 
form,  Sigillaria  oculina.  The  genus  Pleuromeia,  which 
makes  its  appearance  in  Triassic  rocks,  is  known  only  in 
the  form  of  casts  exhibiting  a  strong  likeness  to  some 
Palaeozoic  Lycopods,  and  is  perhaps  more  akin  to  Isoetes 
than  to  any  other  existing  plant.  The  Calamites  are  now 
replaced  by  large  Equisetaceous  plants,  which  are  best  de- 
scribed as  Horsetails  with  much  thicker  stems  than  those 
of  their  modern  descendants. 

From  Recoaro  in  Northern  Italy  some  of  the  Vosges 
genera  have  been  recorded,  and  a  few  other  European 
localities  have  furnished  similar  relics  of  a  Triassic  vegeta- 
tion. Passing  to  the  peninsula  of  India,  we  find  the  genus 
Glossopteris  abundantly  represented  in  strata  which  there 
is  good  reason  for  regarding  as  homotaxial  with  the 
European  Trias,  and  the  occurrence  in  the  same  beds  of 
some  other  genera  of  Permo-Carboniferous  age  shows  that 
the  change  in  the  character  of  the  southern  vegetation  at 
the  close  of  the  Palaeozoic  era  was  much  more  gradual  than 
in  the  north. 

The  comparative  abundance  of  plant  remains  in  the 
northern  hemisphere  in  rocks  belonging  to  the  Rhaetic  form- 
ation, a  series  of  sediments  so  named  from  their  development 
in  the  Rhastian  Alps,  is  in  welcome  contrast  to  the  paucity 
of  the  records  from  the  underlying  Triassic  strata.  From 
Virginia  and  adjacent  districts  in  the  United  States  a  rich 
flora  has  been  described,  which  by  some  authors  is  assigned 
to  the  Keuper  or  Upper  Triassic  series,  while  others  class 
it  as  Rhaetic.  A  similar  assemblage  of  plants  is  known  also 
from  the  Lettenkohle  beds  of  Austria  which,  as  Stur  has 
shown,  clearly  belong  to  the  same  period  of  vegetation  as 
the  American  flora.     We  need  not,   however,   concern  our- 

NO.    177 1,   VOL.  68] 


selves  with  discussions  as  to  the  precise  stratigraphical 
position  of  these  American  and  European  plant-beds,  but 
may  conveniently  group  together  floras  of  Upper  Triassic 
and  Rhjetic  age  since  they  exhibit  but  minor  differences 
from  one  another.  Plants  of  Upper  Triassic  or  Rhajtic  age 
are  known  from  Scania  and  Franconia  in  Europe,  Virginia 
and  elsewhere  in  North  America,  Honduras,  Tonkin, 
Australia,  South  Africa,  Chili,  and  other  parts  of  the  world. 
The  geographical  distribution  of  plants  of  approximately 
Rhaetic  age  is  shown  in  the  following  table,  No.  II.,  on  p. 
563,  which  demonstrates  an  almost  world-wide  range  of  a 
vegetation  of  uniform  character.  The  character  of  the  plant- 
world  is  entirely  different  from  that  which  we  have  described 
in  speaking  of  the  Palaeozoic  floras.  Gymnosperms  have 
ousted  Vascular  Cryptogams  from  their  position  of 
superiority  ;  ferns,  indeed,  are  still  very  abundant,  but  they 
have  undergone  many  and  striking  changes,  notably  in  the 
much  smaller  representation  of  the  Marattiaceae.  The 
Paleeozoic  Lycopods  and  Calamites  have  gone,  and  in  their 
place  we  have  a  wealth  of  Cycadean  and  Coniferous  types. 
As  we  ascend  to  the  Jurassic  plant-beds  the  change  in  the 
vegetation  is  comparatively  slight,  and  the  same  persistence 
of  a  well-marked  type  of  vegetation  extends  into  the 
Wealden  period.  It  is  a  remarkable  fact  that  after  the 
Paleeozoic  floras  had  been  replaced  by  those  of  the  Mesozoic 
era,  the  vegetation  maintained  a  striking  uniformity  of 
character,  from  the  close  of  the  Triassic  up  to  the  dawn  of 
the  Cretaceous  era.  This  statement  is  open  to  misconcep- 
tion ;  I  do  not  wish  to  convey  the  idea  that  a  palaeobotanist 
would  be  unable  to  discriminate  between  floras  from  Rhaetic 
and  Wealden  rocks  ;  but  I  wish  to  emphasise  the  fact  that 
in  spite  of  specific,  and  to  a  less  extent  of  generic,  peculi- 
arities, which  enable  us  to  determine,  within  narrow  limits, 
the  age  of  a  Mesozoic  flora,  the  main  features  of  the  vegeta- 
tion remained  the  same  through  a  long  succession  of  ages. 
The  accompanying  tables  (Nos.  III.  and  IV.)  illustrate  the 
geographical  distribution  of  some  of  the  leading  types  of 
Mesozoic  plants  during  the  Jurassic  and  Wealden  periods, 
and  demonstrate  not  only  the  striking  differences  between 
the  Mesozoic  and  Palaeozoic  floras,  but  also  the  much  greater 
uniformity  in  the  vegetation  of  the  world  during  the 
Secondary  era  than  in  the  preceding  Permo-Carboniferous 
epoch. 

Mesozoic  Floras. 
It  may  be  of  interest  to  glance  at  some  of  the  leading 
types  of' Mesozoic  floras  with  the  view  of  comparing  them 
with  their  modern  representatives.  We  are  so  familiar  with 
the  present  position  of  the  flowering  plants  in  the  vegeta- 
tion of  the  world,  that  it  is  difficult  for  us  to  form  a  con- 
ception of  a  state  of  things  in  the  history  of  the  plant- 
kingdom  in  which  Angiosperms  had  no  part. 

a.     Conifers. 

How  may  we  describe  the  characteristic  features  of  Rhaetic 
and  Jurassic  floras?  Gymnosperms,  so  far  as  we  know, 
marked  the  highest  level  of  plant-evolution.  Conifers  were 
abundant,  but  the  majority  were  not  members  of  that  group 
to  which  the  best  known  and  most  widely  distributed 
modern  forms  belong. 

A  comparison  of  fossil  and  recent  conifers  is  rendered 
difficult  by  the  lack  of  satisfactory  evidence  as  to  the  system- 
atic position  of  many  of  the  commoner  types  met  with  in 
Mesozoic  rocks.  There  are,  however,  certain  broad 
generalisations  which  we  are  justified  in  making ;  such 
genera  as  the  Pines,  Firs,  Larches,  and  other  members  of 
the  Abietineae  appear  to  have  occupied  a  subordinate  posi- 
tion during  the  Triassic  and  Jurassic  eras  ;  it  is  among  the 
relics  of  Wealden  and  Lower  Cretaceous  floras  that  cones 
and  vegetative  shoots  like  those  of  recent  Pines  occur  for 
the  first  time  in  a  position  of  importance.  There  are  several 
Mesozoic  Conifers  to  which  such  artificial  designations  as 
Pagiophyllum,  Brachyphyllum,  and  others  have  been 
assigned,  which  cannot  be  referred  with  certainty  to  a 
particular  section  of  the  Coniferae  ;  these  forms,  however, 
exhibit  distinct  indications  of  a  close  relationship  with  the 
Araucarieee,  represented  in  modern  floras  by  Araucaria  and 
Agathis.  The  abundance  of  cones  in  Jurassic  strata  show- 
ing the  characteristic  features  of  those  of  recent  species  of 
Araucaria  affords  trustworthy  evidence  as  to  the  antiquity 
of  the  Araucarieaj  and  demonstrates  their  wide  geographical 
distribution  during  the  Mesozoic  era.  At  the  present  day 
the    Araucarieae    comprise    the    two    genera   Araucaria    and 


October  8,  1903] 


NATURE 


563 


II.  Rhaetic  Floras. — Geographical  Distribution  of  a  few  Characteristic  Types 


Characteristic  Types 

Arctic 

N.  Temperate 

N.  Sub-tropical 

Tropical 

S  Sub- 
tropical 

S.  Temperate 

I 

2        3 

' 

s 

6 

7 

9 

10 

11 

la 

13 

14 

15 

i6 

17 

18 

19 

ao 

31 

aa 

Ei^UISETALES 

i 

,          1 

Equisetites  Muensteri 
Equisetites  arenaceus 

1 

X      !               1 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

Schtzonetira 

i 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

Phyllotheca 

i 
1 

X 

- 

X 

X 

FiLICALES 

1 

Clathropteris             

DictyophyUiiin          

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

Laccopteris 

X 

X 

Todites           

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

Taeniopteris              

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

Thinnfeldia 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

Sagenopteris  ... 

X 

X 

X 

X 

Cycadophyta 

Cycadites 

X 

X 

X 

Podozamites  ... 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

Otozamites     ... 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

Anomoza/nites 

X 

X 

X 

X 

Pterophylluni            

X 

X 

^ 

X 

X 

X 

X 

- 

GiNKGOALES 

Baiera 

Ginkgo           

X 

^ 

X 

1 

X 

X 

X 

- 

>; 

\ 


III.  Jurassic  Floras.  —  Geographical  Distribution  of  Characteristic  Types. 


Characteristic  Types 

Arctic                     IN.  Temperate 

N.  Sub-tropical 

Tropical 

S.  Sub- 
tropical 

S.  Temperate 

I        a 

3 

^ 

5 

6 

7 

8 

' 

10 

" 

12 

13 

14 

15 

16 

17 

18     19 

20 

21 

22 

Equisetales 

1 

1   • 

i 

Equisetites 

X 

^ 

X 

X 

!  X 

Lycopodiales 

Lycopodites 

X 

X 

X 

i  ^ 

1 

FiLICALES 

Cladophlebis  denticulata      

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

Coniopferis 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

Dictyophylluju           

X 

X 

X 

Klukia           

X 

X 

X 

Laccopteris 

X 

X 

Matonidium ...          ...          ...          ... 

X 

X 

Taeniopteris 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

Todites           

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

Cycadophyta 

Nilssonia 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

Otozamites    ... 

X 

X 

X 

Podozamites 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

Williavisonia            

X 

X 

l'^ 

X 

GiNKGOALES 

Baiera ' 

Ginkgo]        

"" 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

^ 

CONIFERALES 

1 
1 

Araitcarites  ... 

X 

X 

X 

1 

Pagiophyllum 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

Brachyphyllum 

X 

X 

X 

X 

>< 

i 

NO.   1 77 1,  VOL.  68] 


5^4 


NA  TURE 


[October  8,  1903 


IV.    Wealden  Floras, — Geographical  Distribution  of  Characteristic  Types. 


Characteristic  Types 


Equisetales 
Equisetites  ... 

FiLICALES 
•  Ouychiopsis 
Matonidium 
Cladophlebis 
Sphenopteris 
Weichselia  ... 
Taeniopteris 
Laccopleris . . . 
Gleichenites 

GlNKGOAI.ES 
Baiera    \ 
Ginkgo  J 

^ONIFERALES 
Sphenoleptdiu  m 
Araucarites 
Pinites 

Oycadophyta 

Nilssonia     ... 
Otozatnites  ... 
Zamites 
Bennetfiites . . . 


'n.  Temperate     N.  Sub-tropical 


«        2        3        4        5        ^    i    7 


10      II      12      13 


Tropical 


S.  Sub-        ~    „, 
tropical       i^    lemperate 


9    I    20        2X        22 


Agathis,  the  former  including  ten  species  occurring  in 
South  America  and  Australia,  and  the  latter  comprising 
four  species  which  flourish  in  the  Malay  Archipelago,  New 
Zealand,  the  Philippines,  North-East  Australia,  and  else- 
where. Sir  William  Thiselton-Dyer  pointed  out,  in  a 
lecture  on  plant-distribution,  delivered  in  1878,  that  the 
genus  Araucaria  appears  to  have  been  extinct  in  a  wild 
statr  north  of  the  Equator  since  the  Jurassic  epoch. 
Additional  confirmation  of  the  important  status  of  this 
section  of  the  Coniferae  is  afforded  by  the  abundance  of 
petrified  wood  exhibiting  Araucarian  features,  in  both 
Jurassic  and  Wealden  rocks.  There  is  good  reason  to 
believe  that  the  well-known  Whitby  jet  was  formed  by'  the 
alteration  of  blocks  of  Araucarian  wood  drifted  from  forest- 
clad  slopes  overlooking  a  Jurassic  estuary  that  occupied  the 
site  of  the  moors  and  headlands  of  North-East  Yorkshire. 
Among  familiar  Jurassic  genera,  mention  must  be  made  of 
the  genus  Brachyphyllum,  including  species  referred  by 
some  authors  to  Athrotaxites,  represented  by  fragments  of 
leafy  twigs  and  branches  bearing  a  striking  resemblance 
to  those  of  the  isolated  Tasmanian  genus  Athrotaxis. 
Omitting  further  reference  to  the  various  indications 
afforded  by  a  study  of  Mesozoic  Conifers  as  to  the  former 
extension  of  many  of  the  more  isolated  recent  types,  we 
may  present  in  a  tabular  form  an  epitome  of  the  past  and 
present  range  of  the  Araucariese  : — 


b.  Cycads. 
One  of  the  most  striking  features  of  the  Mesozoic  vegeta- 
tion is  the  abundance  and  wide  distribution  of  Cycadean 
plants.  To-day  the  Cycads  or  Sago-Palms  are  represented 
by  ten  genera  and  about  eighty  species ;  they  are  plants 
which  occupy  a  subordinate  position  in  modern  floras,  and 
occur  for  the  most  part  as  solitary  types  in  tropical  lati- 
tudes, never  growing  together  in  sufficiently  large  numbers 
to  constitute  a  dominant  feature  in  the  vegetation.  Cycads 
have  long  attracted  attention  as  exhibiting  morphological 
features  of  considerable  interest.  During  the  last  few  years 
the  work  of  Ikeno,  Webber,  and  Lang  has  shown  us  that 
the  pollen  of  Cycas,  Zamia,  Stangeria,  and  probably  of  the 
other  recent  genera,  produce  spirally  ciliated  motile  sperm- 
atozoids,  the  type  of  male  cell  previously  regarded  as  con- 
stituting one  of  the  well-defined  distinctions  between  the 
Vascular  Cryptogams  and  the  Seed-bearing  plants.  The 
study  of  Palaeozoic  plants  has  done  even  more  to  break 
down  the  artificial  barrier  between  Cycads  and  Vascular 
Cryptogams,  by  demonstrating  beyond  all  reasonable  doubt 
that  our  modern  Cycads  represent  a  small  group  of  survivals 
descended  from  ancestors  common  to  themselves  and  the 
ferns.  Cycadean  plants  must  have  been  among  the 
commonest  meiribers  of  Mesozoic  floras.  Before  the  end 
of  the  Palaeozoic  era  there  existed  plants  bearing  pinnate 
fronds  similar  to  those  of  recent  species  of  Cycadacese,  and 


''  Geographical  Distribution  of  Past  and  Present  Araucarie^. 


Arauearieae 

Arctic 

N.  Temperate 

N.  Sub-tropical 

Tropical 

S.  Sub- 
tropical 

S.  Temperate 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

" 

12 

13 

14 

'5 

16 

17 

18 

19 

20 

21 

22 

Araucarites 

[Rhaetic  ^Cretaceous]      

Araucaria 

10  species 

Agathis 

4  species 

X 

X 

X 
X 

X 
X 

X 

X 
X 

■ 

X 

NO.    1 77 1,  VOL.  68] 


October  8,  1903] 


NATURE 


56; 


in  succeeding  ages  the  group  rapidly  increased  in  number 
and  variety  until,  in  the  Jurassic  and  the  early  Cretaceous 
periods,  the  Cycads  asserted  their  superiority  as  the  leading 
type  of  vegetation.  The  majority  of  Mesozoic  Cycadean 
fronds  are  assigned  to  artificial  or  form-genera  as  an  in- 
dication of  our  ignorance  of  their  reproductive  organs,  or 
of  the  anatomical  structure  of  their  stems.  As  Prof. 
Nathorst  has  recently  suggested,  it  is  convenient  to  speak 
of  these  Cycadean  remains  as  belonging  to  the  group 
Cycadophyta.  On  the  other  hand,  we  find  numerous 
petrified  stems  bearing  well-preserved  reproductive  organs 
■Arhich  enable  us  to  compare  the  extinct  with  the  existing 
jpecies.  We  are  in  possession  of  enough  facts  to  justify 
the  statement  that  the  majority  of  Mesozoic  Cycads  bore 
reproductive  organs  which  differed  in  important  morpho- 
logical characters  from  those  of  existing  forms.  The  re- 
searches of  Williamson,  Carruthers,  Solms-Laubach, 
Lignier,  and  others,  have  revealed  the  existence  of  a  large 
group  of  Cycadean  plants — known  as  the  Bennettiteae — 
almost  identical  in  habit  with  modern  sago-palms,  but  dis- 
tinguished by  the  complexity  of  their  reproductive  shoots. 
The  Bennettiteae,  originally  founded  on  a  petrified  stem  dis- 
covered more  than  fifty  years  ago  in  the  Isle  of  Wight, 
and  represented  by  another  fossil  which  Carruthers  made 
the  type  of  a  new  genus,  Williamsonia,  in  1870,  possessed 
a  thick  stem,  clothed  with  an  armour  of  persistent  leaf-bases 
and  bearing  a  crown  of  pinnate  fronds,  as  in  most  modern 
Cvcads  ;  but  their  flowers,  which  were  borne  on  lateral  shoots, 


Maidenhair-tree  of  China  and  Japan.  Ginkgo  (or  Salis- 
buria)  biloba  has  almost,  if  not  quite,  ceased  to  exist  in  an 
absolutely  wild  state,  but  as  a  cultivated  tree  it  has  now 
become  familiar  both  in  America  and  Europe.  The  living 
Maidenhair-tree  is  in  truth  an  anachronism,  a  solitary 
remnant  that  brings  us  into  touch  with  a  vanished  world 
and  appears  as  an  alien  among  its  modern  associates.  The 
abundance  of  fossil  leaves,  like  those  of  Ginkgo  biloba,  and 
of  other  slightly  different  forms  referred  to  the  genus  Baiera, 
associated  not  infrequently  with  remains  of  male  and  female 
flowers,  demonstrates  the  ubiquitous  character  of  the  Gink- 
goales  during  the  Rhaetic,  Jurassic,  and  Wealden  periods. 
In  the  Jurassic  shales  of  the  Yorkshire  Coast,  Ginkgo  and 
Baiera  leaves  occur  in  plenty,  some  of  them  practically 
identical  with  those  of  the  existing  species.  The  abundance 
of  fossil  Ginkgoales  in  other  parts  of  the  world — in 
Australia,  South  Africa,  South  America,  China,  Japan, 
North  America,  Greenland,  Franz  Josef's  Land,  Siberia, 
and  throughout  Europe — demonstrates  the  former  vigour  of 
this  class  of  plants  of  which  but  one  member  survives. 
I'his  type  of  Gymnosperm  is  distinctly  foreshadowed  in  the 
Palaeozoic  vegetation,  and  as  recently  as  the  Eocene  period 
a  species  of  Ginkgo,  indistinguishable  in  the  form  of  its 
leaves  from  the  living  Maidenhair-tree,  flourished  in 
Western  Scotland. 

The  accompanying  table  of  distribution  shows  how  ex- 
tensive was  the  range  of  the  Ginkgoales  in  the  Mesozoic 
era — both   geographically   and   stratigraphically. 


Geographical  Distrioutioii  of  the  Ginkgoales. 


Ginkgoales 

Arctic 

N.  Temperate 

N.  Sub-tropical 

Tropical 

S.  Sub- 
tropical 

S.  Temperate 

- 

3 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

II 

12 

13 

14 

15 

16 

17 

18 

19 

20 

21 

32 

Ginkgo  \ 
Baiera  \ 

[Rhaetic  -»  Cretaceous]      

Ginkgo  biloba    ... 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 
X 

X 
X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

were  more  highly  specialised  than  those  of  the  true  Cycads. 
W  hile  most  of  the  Mesozoic  Cycads  were  no  doubt  members 
of  the  Bennettiteae,  others  appear  to  have  possessed  re- 
productive organs  like  those  of  recent  species.  The 
Bennettiteae  belong  to  that  vast  army  of  plants  that 
succumbed  in  the  struggle  for  existence  aeons  before  the 
dawn  of  the  Recent  period.  The  other  section  of  the 
Cycadophyta,  the  Cycadaceae,  still  lingers  on  as  one  of  the 
select  band  the  present  insignificance  of  which  constitutes  a 
badge  of  ancient  lineage,  and  a  faint  reflection  of  past 
supremacy. 

The  wealth  of  Cycadean  vegetation  during  the  latter  part 
of  the  Jurassic  and  the  earlier  stages  of  the  Cretaceous 
periods  is  admirably  illustrated  by  the  discovery  in  the  Black 
Hills  of  North  America,  and  in  other  districts  of  the  United 
States  of  hundreds  of  silicified  trunks  of  Cycadean  plants. 
The  first  discovery  of  petrified  Cycadean  stems  in  America 
was  made  by  Tyson  in  1859,  who  found  two  specimens  in 
the  Potomac  beds  of  Maryland  ;  since  then  more  than  700 
trunks,  remnants  of  a  vast  Cycadean  forest,  have  been 
obtained  from  the  Black  Hills  alone.  The  investigations 
•^'f  Mr.  Wieland,  of  Yale,  who  has  been  engaged  for  some 
•  '  on  the  examination  of  this  rich  material,  have  already 
>  aled  the  fact  that  in  some  of  the  Bennettiteae  the  male 
...I  I  female  organs  were  borne  in  a  single  flower,  the  female 
portion  having  a  structure  identical  with  that  previously 
described  from  European  stems,  while  the  male  flowers  bear 
a  close  resemblance  to  the  fertile  fronds  of  a  Marattiaceous 
fern.  We  have  watched  the  progress  of  Mr.  Wieland 's 
researches  with  keen  interest  and  look  forward  to  further 
important  developments.  With  some  of  us,  indeed,  the 
feelings  of  the  ideal  student  of  science  are  in  danger  of 
bein?'  overshadowed  by  a  sensation  akin  to  envy  and  a 
desire  to  invade  American  territory. 

c.     Ginkgoales. 
Before  leaving  the   Gymnosperms   a   word   must  be  said 
about  another  section — the  Ginkgoales — represented  by  the 

NO.    1 77 1,  VOL.  68] 


d.     Ferns. 

Although  many  of  the  Mesozoic  ferns  are  preserved  only 
in  the  form  of  sterile  fronds  and  are  of  little  botanical 
interest,  several  examples  of  fertile  leaves  are  known  which 
it  is  possible  to  compare  with  modern  types.  The  Poly- 
podiaceae,  representing  the  dominant  family  of  recent  ferns, 
are  met  with  in  nearly  all  parts  of  the  world  and  possess 
the  attributes  of  a  group  of  plants  at  the  zenith  of  its  pros- 
perity. We  may  confidently  state  that  so  far  as  the  some- 
what meagre  evidence  allows  us  to  form  an  opinion,  this 
family  occupied  a  subordinate  position  in  the  composition 
of  Mesozoic  floras.  Polypodiaceous  sporangia  have  been 
met  with  in  Paljeozoic  rocks,  and  their  existence  during  the 
Mesozoic  period  is  not  merely  a  justifiable  assumption,  but 
is  demonstrated  by  the  occurrence  of  undoubted  species  of 
Polypodiaceae.  It  seems  clear,  however,  that  this  family 
did  not  attain  to  a  position  of  importance  until  the  Mesozoic 
vegetation  gave  place  to  that  which  characterises  the  pre- 
sent period.  The  Osmundaceae  are  now  represented  by  five 
species  of  Todea  and  four  of  Osmunda ;  Todea  barbara 
occurs  in  South  Africa,  Austral'  ,.  Tasmania,  and  New 
Zealand,  the  other  species  are  al.  Imy  ferns  and  occur  in 
New  Zealand,  New  South  Wales,  i"Jew  Caledonia,  Samoa, 
and  in  a  few  other  southern  regions.  The  genus  Osmunda 
has  a  wider  range,  occurring  in  Europe,  Asia,  North 
America,  India,  Japan,  Southern  China,  Java,  South  Africa, 
and  other  parts  of  the  world.  During  the  Rhaetic  and 
Jurassic  periods  the  Osmundaceae  flourished  over  the  greater 
part  of  Europe ;  their  remains  have  been  recorded  from 
England,  Germany,  Scandinavia,  Russia,  Poland,  Siberia, 
and  Greenland,  also  from  North  America,  Persia,  and 
China. 

Similarly  the  Schizaeaceae,  a  family  now  represented  by  a 
few  genera  in  India,  North  America,  South  America,  Africa, 
Australia,  Japan,  China,  and  elsewhere,  were  among  the 
more  abundant  ferns  in  the  Jurassic  vegetation.  The 
Cyatheaceae,  a  family  that  is  now  for  the  most  part  con- 
fined to  the  tropics,  constituted  another  vigorous  and  widely 


566 


NATURE 


[October  8,  1903 


spread  section  in  the  Jurassic  period ;  we  find  them  in 
Jurassic  rocks  of  Victoria,  as  well  as  in  several  regions  in 
Europe,  North  America,  and  the  Arctic  regions. 

The  fertile  fronds  of  many  of  the  fossil  Cyatheaceae  bear 
a  striking  resemblance  to  that  isolated  survivor  of  the 
family  in  Juan  Fernandez — Thyrsopteris  elegans.  It  is  true 
that  a  considerable  number  of  ferns  of  Jurassic  and  Wealden 
age  have  been  described  by  the  generic  name  Thyrsopteris 
without  any  adequate  reason  ;  but,  neglecting  all  doubtful 
forms,  there  remain  several  types  represented  in  the  Jurassic 
flora  of  Siberia,  England,  and  other  parts  of  the  world, 
which  enable  us  to  refer  them  with  confidence  to  the 
Cyatheaceae  and  to  compare  them  more  particularly  with 
the  sole  existing  species  of  Thyrsopteris.  The  Gleicheni- 
aceae,  at  present  characteristic  of  tropical  and  southern 
countries,  were  undoubtedly  abundant  in  the  northern  hemi- 
sphere in  early  Cretaceous  days ;  abundant  traces  of  this 
family  are  recorded  from  Greenland  as  well  as  from  more 
southern  European  latitudes. 

One  of  the  most  striking  facts  afforded  by  a  study  of 
the  Mesozoic  fern  vegetation  is  the  former  extension  and 
vigorous  development  of  two  families,  the  DipteridinJE  and 
Matonineae,  which  are  now  confined  to  a  few  tropical 
regions  and  represented  by  six  species.  The  tall  graceful 
fronds  of  Matonia  pectinata,  forming  miniature  forests  on 
the  slopes  of  Mount  Ophir  and  other  districts  in  the  Malay 
Peninsula  in  association  with  Dipteris  conjugata  and 
Dipteris  Lobbiana,  represent  a  phase  of  Mesozoic  life  which 
survives — 

"  Like  a  dim  picture  of  the  drowned  past." 

The  fertile  fragment  of  a  frond  of  Matonidium  exposed 
by  a  stroke  of  the  hammer  in  a  piece  of  iron-stained  lime- 
stone picked  up  on  the  beach  at  Haiburn  Wyke  (a  few  miles 
north  of  Scarborough),  is  hardly  distinguishable  from  a 
pinna  of  the  Malayan  Matonia  pectinata.  Rhaetic  and 
Jurassic  ferns  referred  to  the  genus  Laccopteris  afford  other 
examples  of  the  abundance  of  the  Matonineae  in  the  northern 
hemisphere  during  the  earlier  part  of  the  Mesozoic  era. 

The  modern  genus  Dipteris,  with  its  four  species  occur- 
ring in  India,  the  Malayan  region,  Formosa,  Fiji,  and  New 
Caledonia,  stands  apart  from  the  great  majority  of  Poly- 
podiaceous  ferns,  and  is  now  placed  in  a  separate  family — 
the  Dipteridinae.  Like  Matonia  it  is  essentially  an  ancient 
and  moribund  type  with  hosts  of  ancestors  included  in  such 
Rhsetic  and  Jurassic  genera  as  Dictyophyllum,  Campto- 
pteris,  and  others  which  must  have  been  among  the  most 
conspicuous  and  vigorous  members  of  the  Mesozoic  vegeta- 
tion. The  appended  table  illustrates  in  a  concise  form  the 
former  extension  of  the  Matonineas  and  Dipteridinae  : — 


geological  history  written  in  the  rocks  that  constitute  the 
Wealden  series  of  Britain  exposed  in  the  Sussex  cliffs  and 
in  the  Weald  district  of  south-east  England.  According  to 
the  geologist's  reckoning,  the  Cretaceous  period  is  of  com- 
paratively modern  date ;  it  occupies  a  position  near  the 
summit  of  a  long  succession  of  ages  representing  an  amount 
of  time  beyond  the  power  of  imagination  to  conceive.  On 
the  other  hand,  to  quote  from  Huxley's  lecture  on  a  piece 
of  chalk,  "  not  one  of  the  present  great  physical  features 
of  the  globe  was  in  existence.  .  .  .Our  great  mountain- 
ranges,  Pyrenees,  Alps,  Himalayas,  Andes,  have  all  been 
upheaved  since  the  chalk  was  deposited,  and  the  Cretaceous 
sea  flowed  over  the  sites  of  Sinai  and  Ararat."  This  Cre- 
taceous epoch,  so  recent  geologically  if  measured  by  the 
standard  of  the  antiquity  of  the  everlasting  hills,  has  a 
remoteness  beyond  our  power  to  appreciate. 

One  interesting  fact  as  regards  the  composition  of  the 
Jurassic  Flora  is  the  absence  of  any  plants  that  can  reason 
ably  be  identified  as  Angiosperms.  In  the  Wealden  flora  of 
England  no  vestige  of  an  Angiosperm  has  been  found  ;  this 
statement  holds  good  also  as  regards  Wealden  floras  in 
most  other  regions  of  the  world.  On  the  other  hand,  as 
soon  as  we  ascend  to  strata  of  slightly  more  recent  age  we 
are  confronted  with  a  new  element  in  the  vegetation,  which 
with  amazing  rapidity  assumes  the  leading  rSle.  It  is 
impossible  to  say  with  confidence  at  what  precise  period 
of  geological  history  the  Angiosperms  appeared.  When  the 
rocks  that  now  form  the  undulating  country  of  the  Weald 
were  being  accumulated  as  river-borne  sediments  on  the 
floor  of  an  estuary,  this  crowning  act  in  the  drama  of  plant 
evolution  was  probably  being  enacted. 

"  Nothing,"  wrote  Darwin  to  Sir  Joseph  Hooker  in  1881, 
"  is  more  extraordinary  in  the  history  of  the  vegetable 
kingdom,  as  it  seems  to  me,  than  the  apparently  very 
sudden  or  abrupt  development  of  the  higher  plants.  I 
have  sometimes  speculated  whether  there  did  not  exist  some- 
where during  long  ages  an  extremely  isolated  continent, 
pel  haps  near  the  South  Pole."  We  date  the  appearance  of 
a  new  product  of  evolution  from  the  age  of  the  strata  in 
which  it  first  occurs ;  but  this  may  well  be  a  misleading 
criterion  :  all  that  we  can  say  is  that  at  a  particular  period 
certain  new  types  of  organisms  are  brought  within  our  ken. 

To  quote  Darwin  again  :  "  We  continually  forget  how- 
large  the  world  is,  compared  with  the  area  over  which  our 
geological  formations  have  been  carefully  examined  ;  we 
forget  that  groups  of  species  may  somewhere  have  long 
existed,  and  have  slowly  multiplied,  before  they  invaded  the 
ancient  archipelagoes  of  Europe  and  the  United  States. 
We  do  not  make  due  allowance  for  the   intervals  of  time 


Geographical  Distribution  of  the  Matonineae  and  Dipteridinae. 


Matonineae  and  Dipteridina 

Arctic 

N.  Temperate 

N.  Sub-tropical 

Tropical 

IS^       JS.  Temperate 

' 

2 

3 

4 

S 

6 

7 

8 

9 

xo 

" 

I. 

13 

14 

IS 

16 

X 
X 

17 
X 

18 

19       20 

21 

22 

Matonineae 

Matonidium ...         ...         ...          \ 

Laccopteris 

[Rhaetic  ->  Cretaceous] 

Matonia 

2  species       

DiPTERIDIN/K 

Dictyophyllmn 

Camptopteris,  &c.    ... 
[Rhsetic  -»  Wealdtn] 
Dipteris 

4  species       

X 

X 

X 
X 

• 

X 
X 

X 

X 
X 

. 

Could  we  but  question  these  survivors  from  the  past,  we 
should  hear  a  tragic  story  of  hopeless  struggle  against 
stronger  competitors,  and  learn  the  history  of  their  gradual 
migration  from  an  ancient  northern  home  to  regions  at 
th3  other  end  of  the  world. 

e.     Flowering  Plants. 
Our  retrospect  of  the  march  of  plant-life  has  so  far  ex- 
tended to  the  dawn  of  the  Cretaceous  period,  a  chapter  in 

NO.  1 77 1,  VOL.  68] 


which  have  elapsed  between  our  consecutive  formations, 
longer,  perhaps,  in  many  cases  than  the  time  required  for 
the  accumulation  of  each  formation." 

On  another  occasion  Darwin  wrote  to  his  friend  Hooker  : 
"  The  rapid  development,  as  far  as  we  can  judge,  of  aH 
the  higher  plants  within  recent  geological  times  is  an 
abominable  mystery."  Such  evidence  as  we  possess,  meagre 
as  it  admittedly  is,  shows  that  "  this  overshadowing  type 
of   plant-life  "    no   sooner    appeared    than    it   asserted    itself 


October  8,  1903] 


NATURE 


567 


ith  extraordinary  vigour  and  created  a  revolution  in  the 
^lant-world.  Let  us  glance  for  a  moment  at  the  facts  to 
be  gleaned  from  an  examination  of  the  records  of  this 
critical  period  in  the  history  of  vegetation. 

I  have  already  pointed  out  that  we  have  as  yet  recog- 
nised no  Angiosperms  in  the  Wealden  floras  of  England, 
Spitzbergen,  Germany,  France,  Austria,  Belgium,  Russia, 
and  Japan  ;  but  from  plant-bearing  rocks  of  Portugal,  re- 
garded as  homotaxial  with  those  which  British  geologists 
speak  of  as  Wealden,  the  late  Marquis  of  Saporta  named  a 
fragment  of  a  leaf  Alismacites  primaevus,  a  determination 
that,  while  possibly  correct,  cannot  be  accepted  as  con- 
clusive testimony.  In  Virginia  and  Maryland  there  occurs 
a  thick  series  of  strata  known  as  the  Potomac  formation 
from  which  a  rich  harvest  of  plant-remains  has  been 
obtained.  Prof.  Lester  Ward  has  recently  shown  that  under 
this  title  are  included  several  floras,  some  of  which  are 
undoubtedly  homotaxial  with  the  Wealden  of  Europe,  while 
others  represent  the  vegetation  of  a  later  phase  of  the 
Cretaceous  era.  From  the  older  Potomac  beds  a  few  leaves 
have  been  assigned  to  Dicotyledons  and  referred  to  such 
genera  as  Ficophyllum,  Myrica,  Proteaephyllum,  and  others. 
Some  of  these  may  well  be  small  fronds  of  ferns  with 
venation  characters  like  those  of  the  Elk's  Horn  fern 
(Platycerium),  while  others,  though  presenting  a  close  re- 
semblance to  Dicotyledonous  leaves,  afford  insufficient  data 
fo'  accurate  generic  identification.  In  dealing  with  fossil 
leaves  of  the  dicotyledonous  type,  we  must  not  forget  that 
the  recent  genus  Gnetum — a  gymnosperm  of  the  section 
Gnetales — possesses  leaves  that  may  be  said  to  be  in- 
distinguishable in  form  and  venation  from  those  of  certain 
Dicotyledons.  Before  the  close  of  the  Potomac  period  these 
few  fragmentary  relics  of  possible  Dicotyledons  are  replaced 
by  a  comparative  abundance  of  specimens  which  must  be 
accepted  as  undoubted  Angiosperms.  Previous  to  the  dis- 
covery of  the  supposed  Angiosperms  in  Wealden  strata  of 
Portugal  and  North  America,  the  earliest  record  of  an 
Angiosperm  was  represented  by  Heer's  Populus  primaeva 
from  Northern  Greenland.  This  name  was  applied  to  a 
fragmentary  specimen  which  may  be  a  true  dicotyledonous 
leaf.  In  1897  Dr.  White,  of  the  Geological  Survey  of  the 
United  States,  stated  that  additional  examples  of  dicoty- 
ledonous leaves  had  been  obtained  during  the  visit  of  the 
Peary  Arctic  expedition  to  the  well-known  locality  in  Green- 
land where  Heer's  Populus  primaeva  was  discovered  in  the 
so-called  Kome  series.  From  strata  known  as  the  Atane 
beds,  which  rest  on  the  Kome  series,  unmistakable  Angio- 
sperms have  been  collected  in  abundance. 

Another  indication  of  the  sudden  increase  in  the  number 
of  dicotyledons  is  furnished  by  the  Dakota  flora  of  the 
United  States — in  age  somewhat  more  recent  than  the  older 
Potomac  beds.  In  these  plant-beds  it  is  stated  that  Angio- 
sperms constitute  two-thirds  of  the  vegetation. 

We  may  sum  up  the  whole  matter  in  a  iew  words.  There 
is  some  evidence  of  the  existence  of  Angiosperms  before  the 
close  of  the  Wealden  period.  It  may  be  added  that  the 
Stonesfield  Slate  of  England  (a  formation  of  approximately 
the  same  age  as  the  Inferior  Oolite  plant-beds  of  Yorkshire) 
has  afforded  a  single  specimen  of  a  leaf  which  in  form  and 
venation  has-  as  much  claim  to  be  referred  to  the  dicoty- 
ledons as  many  of  the  leaves  from  Wealden  rocks.  These 
earliest  records  are,  however,  unsatisfactory,  and  the  names 
assigned  to  them  are  often  misleading.  As  soon  as  we 
ascend  a  stage  higher  in  the  geological  series,  not  only  do 
the  Angiosperms  at  once  become  abundant,  but  the  whole 
facies  of  the  vegetation  undergoes  a  striking  change.  The 
Gymnosperms,  especially  the  Cycads,  are  ousted  from  a 
supremacy  maintained  through  countless  ages,  and  the 
vegetation  becomes  essentially  modern.  Many  of  the  earlier 
angiospermous  plants  may  be  referred  to  existing  genera 
and  present  no  features  of  special  interest  from  a  phylo- 
genetic  standpoint. 

One  of  our  most  pressing  needs  is  a  thoroughly  critical 
revision  of  the  late  Cretaceous  and  earlier  Tertiary  floras, 
with  the  object  both  of  determining  the  systematic  position 
of  the  older  .Angiosperms  and  of  mapping  out  with  greater 
accuracy  the  geographical  distribution  of  the  floras  of  the 
world  in  post-Wealden  periods.  This  is  a  task  which  is 
sometimes  said  to  be  impossible  or  hardly  worth  the 
attempt ;  the  available  evidence  is  indeed  meagre,  and  much 
of  it  has  been  treated  with  more  respect  than  it  deserves. 


NO.  1 77 1,  VOL.  68] 


but  it  is  at  least  a  praiseworthy  aim,  not  to  say  a  duty,  to 
take  stock  of  our  material  and  to  compile  lists  of  plants 
that  may  bear  the  scrutiny  of  experienced  systematists.  We 
are  profoundly  ignorant  of  the  means  by  which  Nature  pro- 
duced this  new  creation  ;  we  can  only  emphasise  the  fact 
that  in  the  early  days  of  the  Cretaceous  era  a  new  type  was 
evolved  which  no  sooner  appeared  than  it  swept  all  before 
it  and  by  its  overmastering  superiority  converted  the  past 
into  the  present. 

Conclusion. 

In  conclusion,  I  would  urge  the  importance  of  taking 
stock  of  our  accumulated  facts,  and  of  so  recording  our 
observations  that  they  may  be  safely  laid  under  contribution 
as  aids  to  broad  generalisations.  Detailed  descriptions  and 
the  enumeration  of  small  collections  are  a  necessity,  but 
there  is  danger  of  the  student  neglecting  the  application 
of  his  results  to  problems  of  far-reaching  import.  We 
may  borrow  a  saying  of  a  great  artist  in  regard  to  atten- 
tion to  detail — "  I  see  it,  but  I  prefer  to  construct  the 
synthesis." 

There  is  no  more  fascinating  task  than  to  follow  the 
onward  march  of  the  plant-world  from  one  stage  to  another 
and  to  watch  the  fortunes  of  the  advancing  army.  We  see 
from  time  to  time  war-worn  veterans  dropping  from  the 
ranks  and  note  the  constant  addition  of  recruits,  some  of 
whom  march  but  a  short  distance  and  fall  by  the  way ; 
while  others,  better  equipped,  rise  to  a  position  of  im- 
portance. 

At  long  intervals  the  formation  is  altered  and  the  con- 
stitution of  the  advancing  and  increasing  host  is  suddenly 
changed ;  familiar  leaders  are  superseded  by  new-comers 
who  mark  their  advent  by  drastic  reorganisation.  To 
change  the  metaphor,  we  may  compare  the  stages  of  plant- 
evolution  to  the  records  of  changing  architectural  styles  re- 
presented in  Gothic  buildings.  The  simple  Norman  arch 
and  massive  pier  are  replaced,  with  apparent  suddenness, 
by  the  pointed  arch  and  detached  shafts  of  the  thirteenth 
century ;  the  latter  style,  which  marked  an  architectural 
phase  characterised  by  local  variations  subordinated  to  a 
uniformity  in  essential  features,  was  replaced  by  one  in 
which  simplicity  was  superseded  by  elaboration,  and  new 
elements  were  added  leading  to  greater  complexity  and  a 
modification  of  plan.  Similarly  the  Palaeozoic  faCies  of 
vegetation  passes  with  almost  startling  suddenness  into  that 
which  monopolised  the  world  in  the  Mesozoic  era,  and  was 
in  turn  superseded  by  the  more  highly  elaborated  and  less 
hornogeneous  vegetation  of  the  Cretaceous  and  Tertiary 
periods.  In  taking  a  superficial  view  of  architectural  styles 
we  are  apt  to  lose  sight  of  the  signs  of  gradual  transition 
bv  which  one  period  passes  into  the  next ;  so,  too,  in  our 
retrospect  of  the  changing  scenes  which  mark  the  progress 
of  plant-evolution,  we  easily  overlook  the  introduction  of 
new  types  and  the  gradual  substitution  of  new  for  old.  The 
invention  of  a  new  principle  in  the  construction  of  build- 
ings is  soon  followed  by  its  wide  adoption  ;  new  conceptions 
become  stereotyped,  and  in  a  comparatively  few  years  the 
whole  style  is  altered.  As  a  new  and  successful  type  of 
plant-architecture  is  produced  it  rapidly  comes  into 
prominence  and  acts  as  the  most  potent  factor  in  changing 
the  facies  of  a  flora.  Making  due  allowances  for  the  im- 
perfection of  the  Geological  record,  we  cannot  escape  from 
the  conclusion,  which  is  by  no  means  opposed  to  our  ideas 
of  the  operation  of  the  laws  governing  evolutionary  forces, 
that  the  state  of  equilibrium  in  the  vegetable  kingdom  was 
rudely  shaken  during  two  revolutionary  periods.  The 
earlier  transitional  period  occurred  when  Conifers  and 
Cycads  became  firmly  established,  while  for  the  second  re- 
volution the  introduction  of  the  Angiospermous  type  was 
mainly  responsible.  As  in  the  half-effaced  documents 
accessible  to  the  student  of  architecture  "  the  pedigrees  of 
English  Gothic  can  still  be  recovered,"  so  also  we  are  able 
to  trace  in  the  registers  imprinted  on  the  rocks  the 
genealogies  of  existing  botanical  types. 

In  the  course  of  this  address  I  have  given  but  scant 
attention  to  the  lessons  we  have  learnt  and  are  still  to  learn 
as  to  the  family-history  of  plants.  As  Prof.  Coulter  says  : 
"  The  most  difficult  as  well  as  the  most  fascinating  problem 
in  connection  with  any  group  is  its  phylogeny.  The  data 
upon  which  we  base  opinions  concerning  phylogeny  are 
never  sufficient,  but  such  opinions  usually  stimulate  research 
and  are  necessary  to  progress." 


568 


NATURE 


[October  8,  1903 


We  who  attempt  to  read  the  records  of  the  rocks  may 
be  tempted  to  magnify  the  importance  of  the  work,  but  I 
do  not  hesitate  to  add  that  botanists  as  a  whole  have  but 
half  realised  the  fact  that  the  study  of  living  plants  alone 
supplies  but  a  portion  of  the  evidence  bearing  on  problems 
of  plant-evolution.  To  ignore  the  facts  that  may  be  gleaned 
from  the  investigation  of  extinct  types  is  like  attempting 
to  draw  up  a  genealogy  by  merely  questioning  an  individual 
without  consulting  the  documentary  evidence  of  registers 
and  other  chronicles. 

Each  successive  stage  through  which  the  organic  world 
has  passed  contains  some  relics  of  a  preceding  age ;  in 
comparing  the  chalk  with  the  calcareous  ooze  now  accumu- 
lating on  the  bed  of  the  Atlantic,  Carpenter  expressed  the 
partial  agreement  between  the  two  deposits  by  saying  that 
we  are  still  living  in  the  Cretaceous  period.  Dr.  Moore's 
recent  researches,  demonstrating  a  striking  resemblance 
between  many  of  the  molluscs  of  Lake  Tanganyika  and 
fossils  preserved  in  the  sediments  of  Jurassic  seas,  led  him 
to  describe  some  constituents  of  the  fauna  of  this  inland 
lake  as  so  many  "lingering  shadows  of  the  past,"  while 
Tanganyika  itself  is  a  dwindled  remnant  of  a  Mesozoic  sea. 
Similarly  our  modern  vegetation  differs  enormously  from 
that  of  the  Mesozoic  era,  yet  in  the  sago-palms  of  the 
Tropics  and  in  species  of  Malayan  ferns  we  recognise  proofs 
of  the  continuity  of  plant-types  through  successive  ages. 
One  stage  is  superseded  by  another,  but  some  characteristic 
elements  of  each  period  persist  into  the  next,  carrying  on 
the  traditions  of  the  past  and  demonstrating  the  futility  of 
our  system  of  classification,  a  system  in  which  we  express 
the  limitations  of  our  knowledge,  as  we  suit  our  con- 
venience, by  dividing  into  periods  the  history  of  geological 
and  organic  evolution. 

"  It  is  only  our  ignorance  that  fixes  a  limit,  as  the  mist 
gathered  round  the  mountain's  brow  makes  us  fancy  we  are 
treading  the  edge  of  the  universe." 


UNIVERSITY    AND    EDUCATIONAL 
INTELLIGENCE. 

In  connection  with  the  Technical  Education  Board  of 
the  London  County  Council,  a  course  of  ten  free  lectures 
to  teachers  on  "  Animal  Life  in  a  Freshwater  Aquarium  " 
will  be  given  by  Dr.  A.  C.  Haddon,  F.R.S.,  at  the  Horni- 
man  Museum  on  Saturday  mornings,  at  11.30,  from 
October  10  to  December  12.  Tickets  of  admission  may  be 
obtained  from  the  Clerk  of  the  London  County  Council, 
County  Hall,  Spring  Gardens,  S.W. 

A  COURSE  of  eight  lectures  on  "  The  Relation  of  the 
Composition  of  the  Plant  to  the  Soil  in  which  it  Grows  " 
will  be  given  at  the  Chelsea  Physic  Garden  by  Mr.  A.  D. 
Hall  (director  of  the  Rothamsted  Experimental  Station)  on 
Tuesdays  from  October  13  to  December  8,  in  connection 
with  the  University  of  London.  The  lectures  are  addressed 
to  advanced  students.  Two  courses  of  lectures  on  advanced 
physiology  will  be  given  at  the  university  during  the 
present  session.  Commencing  on  October  i6.  Dr.  F.  W. 
Mott,  F.R.S.,  will  lecture  on  "  The  Structure  and  Function 
of  the  Cerebral  Cortex,"  and  on  October  20  Dr.  Buck- 
master  will  lecture  on  "The  Blood."  On  October  13  Dr. 
A.  D.  Waller  will  lecture  on  "  The  Anaesthetic  Action  of 
Chloroform  and  Ether."  Admission  to  the  lectures  is  by 
ticket,  to  be  obtained  from  the  Academic  Registrar. 

The  Act  of  Parliament  under  which  the  University 
College  of  Liverpool,  hitherto  associated  with  Owens 
College,  Manchester,  and  Yorkshire  College,  Leeds,  in 
Victoria  University,  begins  its  independent  existence  as  the 
University  of  Liverpool,  came  into  operation  on  October  i. 
This  charter,  which  was  obtained  last  July,  provides  that 
all  the  courses  shall  be  open  to  women.  Lord  Derby  is 
the  first  Chancellor  and  Principal  Dale  the  Vice-Chancellor, 
and  the  university  possesses  a  strong  staff.  Chairs 
have  recently  been  endowed  in  tropical  medicine,  bio- 
chemistry, and  electrotechnics,  besides  additions  to  other 
teaching  resources.  It  is  anticipated  that  the  existence  of 
the  new  university  will  greatly  stimulate  the  work  in  the 
secondary  a  well  as  other  schools. 


NO.  17  7 1,  VOL.  68] 


SOCIETIES  AND  ACADEMIES. 
Paris. 
Academy  of  Sciences,  September  28. — M.  Albert  Gaudry 
in  the  chair. — The  myelocytes  of  the  olfactory  bulb,  by 
M.  Johannes  Chatin.— Remarks  by  M.  Alfred  Picard  on 
the  "  Rapport  g6n^ral  administratif  et  technique  sur 
1 'Exposition  universelle  Internationale  de  1900." — On  a 
combination  of  aluminium  sulphate  with  sulphuric  acid, 
by  M.  E.  Baud.  By  the  action  of  sulphuric  acid  upon 
bauxite,  aluminium  hydrate,  or  aluminium  sulphate,  a  com- 
pound possessing  the  composition  AL03.4SO,.4H20  is 
formed,  which  dissolves  very  slowly  in  cold  water.  It  is 
analogous  to  the  ferrisulphuric  acid  of  M.  Recoura. — On 
the  nitrosite  of  pulegone,  by  M.  P.  Genvresse.  Pulegone, 
dissolved  in  petroleum  ether,  and  saturated  with  either 
nitrogen  peroxide  or  nitrous  fumes  from  starch  and  nitric 
acid,  gives  a  nitrosite,  CioHj^.N^O,,  the  properties  of  which 
are  described. — On  the  production  of  sulphuretted  hydrogen 
by  extracts  of  organs  and  albumenoid  materials  in  general, 
by  M.  Emm.  Pozzi-Escot.  Yeast  extract,  treated  with 
sulphur,  gives  rise  to  a  considerable  quantity  of  sulphuretted 
hydrogen  ;  if  the  extract  is  boiled  for  a  short  time  before 
adding  sulphur,  no  sulphuretted  hydrogen  is  evolved.  From 
this  it  is  concluded  that  the  reaction  is  of  a  diastatic  nature. 
— On  the  phagocytic  resorption  of  unutilised  genital  pro- 
ducts in  Echinocardium  cordatum,  by  MM.  Maurice 
Caullery  and  Michel  Siedlecki. — On  the  formation  of  the 
eg^  and  the 'multiplication  of  an  antipode  in  Juncus  and 
Luzula,  by  M.  Marcellin  Laurent. — The  morphological 
variation  in  the  leaves  of  the  vine  following  grafting,  by 
M.  A.  Jurie.  The  experiments  described  show  the  great 
variability  of  certain  morphological  characters  in  the  leaf 
of  the  vine  under  the  influence  of  grafting. — On  the  re- 
lations between  the  structure  of  the  French  and  Swiss  Alps, 
bv  M.  Kilian. 


CONTENTS.  PAGE 

Military  Topography.     By  T.   H.   H 545 

Nature  Study  as  a  School  Subject.     By  A.  D.  H.     .    546 
Our  Book    Shelf:— 

"  Ergebnisse  der  Physiologic" 547 

Voigt  :  "  Thermodynamik  " • 547 

Alison    and  Clark:    "Arithmetic    for   Schools    and 

Colleges."— G.   M.  M 547 

Morel:  "  Les  Materiaux  artificiels" 547 

Letters  to  the  Editor  :— 

Expansion    Curves.       {With    Diagram.) — Prof.     J. 

Perry,  F.R.S 548 

Botany  in  Boy's'  Schools. — H.  J.   Glover 548 

Radium    and    the   Cosmical    Time    Scale. — W.    B. 

Hardy 548 

Loss  of  Weight  of  Musk  by  Volatilisation.— F.   R. 

Sexton 548 

Condensation  Nuclei.     By  C.  T.  R,  Wilson,  F.R.S.    548 
The  Geology  of  Austria-Hungary.    By  Prof.   Gren- 

ville  A.  J.  Cole 550 

Notes 551 

Our  Astronomical  Column  : — 

The  Rotation  of  Saturn 554 

The  Broadening  of  Spectral  Lines 554 

The  Spectrum  of  Hydrogen 554 

The  Orbit  of  I  Bootis 555 

Opening  of  the  Medical  Schools 555 

The  British  Association 556 

Section  K.— Botany. — Opening  Address  by  A.  C. 
Seward,  F.R.S.,  Fellow  and  Tutor  of  Emmanuel 
College,  late  Fellow  of  St.  John's  College, 
Cambridge  ;  Lecturer  on  Botany  in  the  University, 

President  of  the  Section.     {With  Maps.) 556 

University  and  Educational  Intelligence 568 

Societies  and  Academies 568 


NATURE 


569 


THURSDAY.    OCTOBER    ic. 


1903. 


EGYPTIAN  GEOLOGY. 
Topography  and  Geology  of  the  Eastern  Desert  of 
Egypt  {Central  Portion).  By  T.  Barron,  A.R.C.S., 
F.G.S.,  and  W.  F.  Hume,  D.Sc,  A.R.S.M., 
F.G.S.  Geological  Survey  Report.  Pp.  viii  +  331. 
(Cairo :  National  Printing  Department,   1902.) 

THE  work  before  us  is  the  largest  instalment  yet 
published  of  the  results  of  the  explorations 
which  have  been  carried  on  with  such  success  by 
the  Egyptian  Geological  Survey,  under  the  able  and 
energetic  direction  of  Captain  Lyons.  The  district 
now  described  was  actually  surveyed  in  the  years 
1897  and  1898,  but  there  appear  to  have  been  many 
delays  in  arranging  for  the  publication — the  time  of 
the  authors  being  taken  up  by  fresh  work  undertaken 
in  widely  distant  regions.  At  the  geological  congress 
held  in  Paris  in  1900,  however,  the  two  authors  of  the 
memoir  were  permitted  to  lay  some  of  the  chief  results 
obtained  from  the  study  of  this  region  before  the 
geologists  who  had  assembled  there,  and  abstracts  of 
their  papers  have  appeared  in  the  Geological 
Magazine  for  190 1 ;  but  the  publication  of  this  large 
and  well-illustrated  memoir  has  long  been  eagerly 
anticipated,  and  its  appearance  will  be  everywhere 
welcomed  as  a  most  valuable  addition  to  the  scientific 
literature  of  the  district. 

The  authors  must  be  congratulated  upon  the  excel- 
lent use  they  have  made  of  the  vast  mass  of  literature 
dealing  with  the  geology  of  the  area.  In  an 
appendix  they  have  given  an  admirable  abstract  of 
the  results  obtained  by  De  Rosi^re,  Wilkinson, 
Schweinfurth,  Klunzinger,  Walther,  and  many  other 
travellers,  who  have  by  their  writings  added  to  our 
knowledge  of  this  very  interesting  region.  The  work 
of  the  geological  surveyors — a  very  important  one — 
has  been  that  of  correlating  and  correcting  these 
various  sources  of  information  and  of  supplying,  by 
actual  observations  in'  the  field,  the  links  necessary 
to  combine  the  whole  into  a  connected  monograph 
dealing  both  with  the  topography  and  geology  of  the 
district. 

Like  the  work  carried  on  in  the  western  territories 
of  North  America  by  the  United  States  Geological 
Survey,  the  work  in  the  Egyptian  deserts  has  to  be  a 
combination  of  a  geological  and  a  topographical 
survey.  Each  working  party  had  to  consist  of  a 
geologist  and  a  topographer,  with  a  small  caravan 
consisting  of  eleven  Arabs  and  fifteen  camels.  The 
topographical  work  was  done  by  using  a  measuring 
wheel  Tor  determining  a  base  line,  and  working  from 
this  with  plane-table  and  theodolite,  frequent  observ- 
ations for  latitude  being  made  to  correct  the  results ; 
the  heights  were  determined  by  the  aneroid  in  most 
instances,  but  in  important  cases  hypsometer  and 
theodolite  determinations  were  made  also.  The  chief 
difficulties  experienced  in  the  topographical  work — 
apart  from  those  arising  from  traversing  waterless 
districts — were  caused  by  the  mirage  and  by  the 
frequent  presence  of  great  masses  of  magnetic  rock. 
NO.   1772,  VOL.  68] 


While  the  topographers  were  engaged  in  making 
the  map  as  complete  as  possible,  tht^  geologists  were 
busy  examining  and  recording  the  interesting  features 
exhibited  by  the  various  rock-masses. encountered  in 
the  different  traverses.  The  district  described  includes 
tho  famous  porphyry,  quarries  of  Djebel  Dokhan,  and 
the  ancient  upraised  coral  reefs  and  their  modern 
representatives  on  the  shores  of  the  Red  Sea — some 
of  these  reefs  being  of  especial  interest,  owing  to  the 
partial   dolomitisation   which   they  have   undergone. 

The  first  115  pages  of  the  volume  (which  extends 
to  331  pages)  are  occupied  by  an  account  of  the 
topography  of  the  Red-Sea  Hills,  and  in  this  part 
of  the  work  there  is  much  matter  of  archaeological 
interest  in  the  account  of  the  numerous  remains  of 
Roman  buildings,  and  of  ancient  quarrying  and 
mining  works.  A  very  excellent  account  is  also  given 
of  the  meteorology  and  of  the  botany  and  zoology  of 
the  district. 

The  description  of  the  geology  which  occupies  the 
second  and  larger  half  of  the  volume  deals  with  the 
Pleistocene  gravels,  old  beaches,  and  raised  coral  reefs, 
the  Pliocene  gravels,  conglomerates  and  limestones, 
the  Miocene  and  Eocene  limestones,  marls,  &c.,  the 
Cretaceous  limestones,  and  the  "  Nubian  Sandstone," 
which  in  this  particular  district  appears  to  be  in  no 
part  older  than  the  Cretaceous.  The  sedimentary 
rocks  of  the  district  are  about  2000  feet  in  thickness, 
and  cover  unconformably  the  metamorphic  and  asso- 
ciated igneous  rocks.  The  latter  consist  of  quartz- 
diorites  or  grey  granites  which  are  younger  than 
and  invade  the  metamorphic  rocks,  and  are  themselves 
intruded  into  by  masses  of  red  granite,  with,  probably 
associated,  dykes  of  quartz-felsite  and  dolerite.  These 
rocks  with  veins  of  diabase  which  intersect  them 
have  all  been  planed  down  by  denudation  before  the 
deposition  of  the  sedimentaries.  The  only  later 
igneous  rocks  are  the  andesites  which  have  been 
intruded  into  the  Eocene  limestones,  and  have  pro- 
duced contact  metamorphism  in  them,  and  certain 
igneous  gravels  and  conglomerates  which  unconform- 
ably overlie  the  sandy  limestones  of  Pliocene  age. 

The  volume  is  admirably  illustrated.  Besides  the 
general  topographical  map  of  the  district  and  the  same 
geologically  coloured,  there  are  five  geological  maps 
of  areas  of  special  interest.  There  are  also  four  plates 
containing  coloured  panoramas,  which  give  an  excel- 
lent idea  of  the  relations  of  the  various  igneous  and 
other  rock  masses  in  this  region ;  and  the  geological 
structure  of  the  district  is  further  illustrated  by  eleven 
plates  of  longitudinal  sections.  The  general  aspects 
of  this,  it  must  be  confessed,  rather  uninviting  region 
are  shown  by  nine  beautiful  photogravures  by  Dr.  E. 
Albert  and  Co.,  of  Munich,  from  photographs  taken 
by  the  authors,  while  three  plates  and  six  photographs 
are  devoted  to  objects  of  archaeological  and  general 
interest. 

The  important  palaeontological  researches  of  Bead- 
nell  and  Andrews  have  attracted  the  attention  of  all 
geologists  to  the  important  work  which  is  being  ac- 
complished by  the  Geological  Survey  of  the  Egyptian 
Government,  and  the  present  work  will  serve  to  show 
that  every  branch  of  geological  science  is   receiving 

B  B 


570 


NATURE 


[October  15,  1903 


due  attention  from  the  officers  of  that  survey.  It  is 
well  known  that  important  explorations  have  been 
carried  on  in  other  portions  of  the  vast  territories 
now  under  the  rule  of  the  Khedive,  and  it  may  be 
hoped,  in  the  interests  of  science,  that  these  results 
may  be  published  with  less  delay  than  those  we  have 
now  been  noticing.  !•  W.  J. 


EXPERIMENTS    ON    HUMAN    MONSTERS. 
Essai     sur     la     Psycho-physiologie      des      Monstres 
Humain^.       By  N.  Vaschide  and  CI.  Vurpas.       Pp. 
294.       (Paris:    F.    R.    de   Rudeval,   n.d.)       Price   5 
francs. 

THE    substance    of    two-thirds    of    this    book    has 
already  appeared  in  various  scientific  and  medical 
journals.     The  last  ninety-four  pages  are  devoted  to 
the  researches  of  other  workers  m  the  same  field.     The 
first  of  the  two  monsters  examined  by  the  authors  was 
an  anencephalous  male  child,  which  was  continuously 
under  observation  during  the  thirty-nine  hours  of  its 
extra-uterine  life.       An  examination  post  mortem  re- 
vealed the  complete,  absence  of  cerebral  hemispheres, 
cerebellum,      pons,     restiform     body,      inferior     and 
accessory  olives,  and  pyramidal  tract.     The  monster's 
apparent  lack  of  taste  and  smell  is  devoid  of  theoretical 
interest,  as  the  authors  omit  to  mention  whether  the 
trigeminal     and     olfactory     nerves     were     developed. 
Certainly  they  failed  to  find  traces  of  the  third  and 
fourth  cranial  nerves,  coincident  with  the  lack  of  which 
the   infant   presented   exophthalmos,    external    squint, 
•dilatation  of  the  pupil,  absence  of  the  pupil-reflex,  and 
ptosis.     The  cerebral  hemispheres  were  replaced  by  a 
protruding  cystic  tumour;   throughout  the  brain  and 
cord    the    ependyma,    neuroglia    and   ventricles    were 
much  hyper trophied,  and  atrophied  degenerated  nerve- 
cells  were  met  with,  especially  in  the  cranial  region, 
together  with  much  vascular  engorgement  and  dia- 
pedesis.     In  order  to  explain  the  yet  healthy  state  of 
the  retinae  and  optic  nerves,  the  authors  conclude  that 
the  cerebral  hemispheres  at  first  developed  normally, 
and   were   only   later   affected   by    "  an   inflammatory 
process  of  an  infectious  nature,"  which  produced  the 
anencephaly     and     other     abnormalities.       But     the 
authors'    interpretation    of    their    histological    investi- 
gations is  far  from  convincing.     It  is  hardly  a  matter 
for    surprise    to    find    haemorrhages    and    wandering 
leucocytes  in  the  profoundly  disturbed  nervous  system 
of  a  cold,  moribund,  cyanotic  creature  that  breathed 
only  about  eight  times  a  minute,  and  then  with  a  well- 
marked     Cheyne-Stokes     rhythm.       Moreover,     some 
secondary  degeneration  may  have  followed  from  the 
•complete  absence  of  the  pyramidal  tract.     The  authors 
allude  to  an  insufficiency  of  myelinisation  and  to  the 
abnormal  proportions  between  white  and  grey  matter. 
But  these  statements,  and  the  rather  indifferent  plates 
and  illustrations  upon  which  they  are  founded,  would 
have  carried  greater  conviction,   were  it  certain  that 
the  authors  (of  whom  one  is  an  experimental  psycho- 
logist and  the  other  a  hospital  resident  physician)  are 
perfectly  familiar  with  the  corresponding  appearances 
in  a  healthy  newly-born  babe. 
NO.   1772,  VOL.  68] 


On  pp.  47  and  48  we  read  : — 

"  It  seems  that  a  class  of  psychic  phenomena,  which 
hitherto  have  been  attributed  exclusively  to  the  cerebral 
hemispheres,  such  as  the  special  sensibility  to  touch, 
pain,  and  warmth  .  .  .  existed  in  our  anencephalous 
subject  independently  of  the  action  of  the  brain." 

In  point  of  fact,  the  reflex  movements  experimentally 
obtained  by  tactual,  painful,  and  thermal  stimuli,  like- 
wise the  abortive  attempts  of  the  subject  to  swallow, 
its  cries  and  convulsive  seizures,  one  and  all  are  just 
what  might  have  been  expected  from  a  "  decerebrate  " 
vertebrate;  they  are  quite  void  of  "psychic"  signifi- 
cance in  the  ordinary  meaning  of  the  term,  and  throw 
no  fresh  light  on  the  subject  whatever.  Surely  the 
presence  of  these  reflex  actions,  and  the  integrity  of 
the  nerve-trunks,  might  have  led  the  authors  to  suspect 
that  nerve-cell  degeneration  had  been  neither  as 
extensive  nor  as  intense  as  they  had  imagined.  But, 
on  the  contrary,  they  incline  (p.  76)  "  to  the  opinion 
of  certain  authors  who  see  in  the  cell  a  centre  having 
a  function  purely  trophic  and  in  no  way  motor,"  and 
further  urge  (p.  75)  the  impossible  view  that  the 
infant's  (very  doubtful)  manifestations  of  spontaneous 
activity  "  seem  to  show  that  the  pyramidal  tract  has 
a  rdle  essentially  inhibitory  instead  of  dynamogenic. " 
The  authors  might  to  their  advantage  have  kept  in 
mind  the  words  of  their  own  preface  (p.  16)  : — 

"  Nous  avons  laiss^  k  dessein  de  c6td  dans  nos 
travaux  et  recherches  les  hypotheses,  ...  en  nous 
imposant  de  ne  pas  sortir  du  cadre  de  I'exp^rience  et 
des  donn^es  precises." 

The  subject  of  the  second  far  more  satisfactory  study 
was  a  "xiphopage,"  as  the  authors  call  it,  in  other 
words,  an  example  of  Siamese  twins.  It  was  com- 
posed of  two  perfectly  formed  Chinese  boys,  fifteen 
years  old,  of  whom  the  right  was  called  Liao  Toun 
Chen  and  the  left  Liao  Sienne  Chen.  They  were 
united  in  the  region  of  the  xiphoid  part  of  the  sternum 
by  a  somewhat  extensible  bridge  of  tissue  which  con- 
tained cartilage,  blood  vessels,  and  very  probably  a 
remnant  of  hepatic  substance.  This  bridge  revealed 
a  narrow  median  anaesthetic  zone,  surrounded  on 
either  side  by  a  hypoaesthetic  zone,  cutaneous  stimu- 
lation of  which  affected  only  that  individual  to  whom 
the  stimulated  area  was  nearest,  but  never  both  in- 
dividuals. It  is,  however,  difficult  to  reconcile  this 
interesting  observation  with  another,  viz.  that  if  the 
points  of  Weber's  compasses  were  separated  by 
15mm.,  and  the  compasses  placed  astride  the  median 
anaesthetic  zone,  so  that  one  point  rested  on  an  area 
felt  by  one  subject,  and  the  other  on  an  area  felt  by 
the  other  subject,  then  each  child  perceived  that  he 
was  touched  in  two  points.  The  characteristics  of  the 
two  children  were  very  different.  Liao  Toun  Chen 
was  mentally  and  physically  more  vigorous  than  his 
brother.  He  was  more  curious  and  roguish,  while 
Liao  Sienne  Chen  was  more  attentive  and  serious. 
The  latter,  as  we  should  expect,  gave  shorter  and 
more  trustworthy  reaction-times.  His  sensibility  to 
stimuli  was  also  keener.  His  body-temperature  and 
his  arterial  pressure  were  higher  than  those  of  his 
stronger  brother,  who  in  turn  breathed  with  greater 
rapidity,   and  had  a  more  frequent  pulse.       Save  in 


October  15,  1903] 


NATURE 


571 


violent  emotion,  the  respirations  of  the  two  brothers 
were  never  isochronous,  but  in  opposite  phases. 
Owing  to  congenital  association,  these  differences  of 
character  were  found  to  be  harmonised,  as  might  be 
anticipated,  in  action.  Quarrels  were  rare;  Liao 
Sienne  Chen  meekly  followed  his  better  half.  They 
had  from  their  birth  eaten  and  performed  other  func- 
tions simultaneously.  In  waking,  however,  one  re- 
covered consciousness  before  the  other,  and  roused 
him.  It  was  found  possible  for  one  of  the  brothers 
to  sleep  while  the  other  kept  awake.  But  does  this 
in  reality,  as  the  authors  affirm  (p.  175),  "  speak 
singularly  against  a  chemical  theory  of  sleep  which 
makes  it  appear  under  the  influence  of  toxic 
products  "?  C.  S.  Myers. 


OUR   BOOK  SHELF. 

Electrolytic  Preparations.   By  Dr.  Karl  Elbs,  translated 

by  R.  S.  Hutton,  M.Sc.     Pp.  xi  +   100.     (London  : 

Edward  Arnold,  1903.)  Price  45.  6d.  net. 
Electrochemical  methods  are  now  becoming  of  such 
importance,  and  are  being  so  largely  employed  both 
in  the  laboratory  and  in  technical  processes,  that  the 
translation  of  Dr.  Elbs's  little  work  on  electrolytic 
preparations — "  Exercises  for  use  in  the  laboratory 
by  chemists  and  electrochemists  " — will  be  sure  to  be 
welcomed    by    English-speaking    students. 

The  book  is  divided  into  two  parts.  Part  i.,  which 
is  general,  deals  with  sources  of  current  and  con- 
nections, resistances,  apparatus  for  electrolysis,  &'C. 
Dr.  Elbs  considers  that  accumulators  can  alone  be 
looked  upon  as  a  source  of  current  for  laboratory 
purposes,  and  he  gives  some  uselul  hints  as  to 
coupling  up  and  how  to  use  the  cells. 

Several  pages  are  devoted  to  apparatus  for  electro- 
lysis. As  kathode  material  almost  any  metal  may 
be  employed,  unless  the  electrolyte  fs  very  strongly 
acid.  But  for  anodes,  nearly  all  metals,  with  the 
exception  of  platinum,  are  attacked.  Lead  may  often 
be  used  owing  to  its  becoming  coated  with  a  super- 
ficial layer  of  peroxide  which  prevents  further  action 
taking  place. 

Part  ii.  is  devoted  to  the  experimental  portion  of 
the  work.  The  examples  from  inorganic  chemistry 
which  come  first  are  divided  into  two  parts.  The  first 
deals  with  experiments  with  unattackable  anodes,  the 
second  portion  with  soluble  anodes.  Under  the  first 
heading  are  given  the  methods  of  preparation  of  such 
substances  as  chlorates,  bromates  and  iodates,  and 
persulphates,  under  the  second  heading  the  prepar- 
ation of  white  lead,   cuprous  and  cupric  oxide. 

On  p.  47  the  student  is  introduced  to  the  electrolysis 
of  organic  acids.  This  part  is  well  arranged,  and 
the  theoretical  principles  are  carefully  and  clearly 
gone  into.  A  detailed  explanation  is  given  of  the 
various  reactions  which  may  occur  in  the  electrolysis 
of  organic  acids.  Here  there  seems  to  be  a  field  for 
further  research,  because  although  many  of  the  ex- 
planations given  probably  approximately  explain  what 
actually  does  occur,  others  seem  hardly  conclusive, 
so  that  at  any  rate  further  light  upon  the  subject 
would  be  welcome. 

No  less  than  eighteen  examples  of  electrolytic  re- 
duction are  given,  while  there  are  only  two  on 
electrolytic  oxidation.  This  is  mainly  due  to  the 
fact  that  reduction  work,  generally  speaking,  is  much 
easier  to  carry  out  than  work  on  oxidation.  This 
applies  both  to  pure  chemistry  and  to  electrochemistry. 
Further,    electrochemical   methods   of   oxidation    have 


NO.   1772,  VOL.  68] 


not  been  tried  by  chemists  to  anything  like  the  same 
extent  as  have  reduction  methods. 

The  book  is  very  well  printed  and  got  up,  and  Mr. 
Hutton  has  done  his  part — the  translation  of  the  work 
— very   satisfactorily.  F.    M.    P. 

A  Concise  Handbook  of  Garden  Flowers.     By  H.  M. 

Batson.       Pp.  vii  4-  256.       (London  :   Methuen  and 

Co.,  1903.)  Price  35.  6d. 
This  is  an  alphabetical  list  of  a  large  number  of 
ordinary  garden  plants,  together  with  brief  indications 
of  height,  colour  of  flowers,  native  country,  natural 
order,  season  of  flowering,  mode  of  propagation,  and 
purpose  for  which  they  may  be  used  in  the  garden. 
Within  its  rather  restricted  limitations  the  book  seems 
carefully  compiled,  and  the  proofs  have  evidently  been 
read  with  attention,  for  abundant  as  are  the  opportuni- 
ties for  falling  into  error,  misprints  are  hardly  to  be 
found.  The  word  "  family  "  is,  however,  used  in  many 
cases  where  "genus"  should  be  employed;  thus  the 
Galegas  are  styled  a  hardy  family.  Of  course,  Galega 
is  a  genus  of  the  family  Leguminosse.  An  even  more 
misleading  statement  is  that  in  which  Narcissus 
Barrii  is  spoken  of  as  '*  a  family  of  star-narcissus," 
whatever  that  may  be. 

The  cultural  details,  though  very  concise,  are 
apparently  trustworthy,  but  there  is  ample  room  for 
difference  of  opinion  about  these  matters.  Thus  the 
author  says  of  Gentiana  acaulis  that  "it  is  easy  of 
culture."  It  may  be  so  in  places,  but  after  a  long  ex- 
perience with  it  under  varying  conditions,  but  in  one 
particular  garden,  we  have  never  been  successful  in 
getting  it  to  flower,  whilst  in  another  we  have  experi- 
enced no  difficulty.  The  author  has  succeeded  in  find- 
ing English  names  for  most,  if  not  all,  of  the  plants  he 
mentions.  If  such  names  are  to  be  given,  they  should 
be  employed  with  as  much  precision  as  the  technical 
appellations.  To  call  Narcissus  poeticus  the  "  poet's 
daffodil,"  or  Narcissus  Tazetta  "the  polyanthus 
flowered  daffodil,"  is  surely  to  introduce  confusion 
where  none  need  be  experienced.  A  full  index  is 
added,  which  adds  greatly  to  the  convenience  of  the 
reader.  We  should  like  to  suggest  to  the  author  that, 
in  a  future  edition,  he  should  enumerate  the  names 
of  the  genera  in  alphabetical  order  under  the  heading 
of  the  natural  order  to  which  they  belong.  Search  for 
the  name  of  a  plant  would  by  such  means  be  much 
facilitated,  as  most  lovers  of  plants  are  familiar  at 
least  with  the  principal  natural  orders. 
Lavori   marittimi    ed   Impianti   portuali.       By    Flavio 

Bastiani.      Pp.  xxiv4-424.      (Milan  :   Ulrico  Hoepli, 

1903.)  Price  6.50  lire. 
This  is  one  of  the  "  Manueli  Hoepli,"  a  series  of 
pocket  books  in  which  the  Italian  "  man  in  the  street  " 
can,  at  a  small  cost,  obtain  information  on  such  diverse 
subjects  as  elliptic  functions, 'Volapiik,  botany,  oils  and 
olives,  Greek  mythology,  and  English  weights  and 
measures.  The  present  volume  deals  with  the  con- 
struction and  working  of  docks,  harbours,  wharves, 
canals,  lighthouses,  in  short  all  fixed  structures 
connected  with  navigation.  It  is  illustrated  by  209 
woodcuts,  and  the  last  part  contains  a  summary  of 
Italian  laws  relating  to  harbours,  harbour  dues,  and 
such  matters. 
II    Moto    degli    loni    nelle    Scariche    elettriche.     By 

Augusto  Righi.     Pp.  66;  with  3  plates  and  several 

woodcuts.  (Bologna :  Nicola  Zanichelli,  1903.) 
This  book  contains,  with  some  amplifications,  an 
almost  verbatim  report  of  a  lecture  delivered  by  Prof. 
Righi  to  a  branch  of  the  Italian  Electrotechnical 
Society  at  Bologna.  It  deals  with  the  theory  of 
electrons,  considered  with  special  reference  to  kathodic 
rays,  ionisation  of  gases,  Lorentz's  theory,  and  the 
production  of  electric  shadows. 


572 


NA  TURE 


[October  15,  1903 


LETTERS    TO    THE    EDITOR. 

[The  Editor  does  not  hold  himself  responsible  for  opinions 
expressed  by  his  correspondents.  Neither  can  he  undertake 
to  return,  or  to  correspond  with  the  writers  of,  rejected 
manuscripts  intended  for  this  or  any  other  part  of  Nature. 
No  notice  is  taken  of  anonymous  communications.] 

Radium  and  the  Sun's  Heat. 

In  your  last  week's  issue  Mr.   Hardy  directs  attention  to 

the  fact  that  no   Becquerel  rays  can  be  detected  from  the 

sun,  and  regards  this  as  an  objection  to  the  view  that  the 

solar  heat  may  be  accounted  for  by  the  presence  of  radium. 

Let  us  attempt  to  calculate  the  effect  to  be  expected  if 
the  sun's  heat  were  due  to  this  cause. 

In  doing  this,  we  may  assume  that  the  sun  contains  36 
grams  of  radium  per  cubic  metre.  This  was  the  amount 
which  Mr.  W.  E.  Wilson  gave  in  Nature  of  July  9  as 
required  to  emit  the  observed  amount  of  heat.  Experiment 
shows  that  when  the  Becquerel  radiation  has  to  pass 
through  lead  screens  of  thickness  i  cm.  or  more,  the  radi- 
ation transmitted  is  practically  all  of  the  7  variety.  This 
is  cut  down  to  half  its  value  by  8  cm.  of  aluminium,  and 
in  the  case  of  other  substances  by  strata  of  equal  mass  per 
unit  area.  Now  the  earth's  atmosphere  constitutes  a 
stratum  far  more  absorbent  than  i  cm.  of  lead.  We  need, 
therefore,  only  consider  the  7  rays,  for  if  these  cannot  be 
detected,  it  is  certain  that  the  a  and  fi  rays  cannot. 

For  the  sake  of  simplicity  of  calculation,  we  shall  treat 
the  sun  as  a  cube,  with  its  side  equal  to  the  diameter  of 
the  real  sun,  and  so  placed  that  the  normal  to  one  face, 
which  passes  through  the  centre,  shall  also  pass  through 
the  earth.  This  will  be  for  all  practical  purposes  near 
enough  to  the  truth. 

Let  a  be  the  side  of  the  cube,  q  the  quantity  of  radium 
pe*-  c.c,  and  X  the  coefficient  of  absorption  of  the  radiation. 
Then,  from  an  elementary  slice,  thickness  dx,  and  distance 
X  from  the  face,  the  intensity  of  radiation  at  a  distant  point 
will  be 

if  the  radiation  due  to  i  gram  of  pure  radium  at  the  same 
(great)  distance  be  taken  as  unity. 

The  radiation  due  to  the  entire  mass  will  be 

0  n 

Now  a=i-4Xio^'  cm.;  q,  from  Mr.  Wilson's  estimate  = 
3.6X  I0-^ 

Assuming  that  the  coefficient  of  absorption  is  proportional 
to  the  density,  and  taking  the  sun's  density  as  1/7,  and 
the  value  of  X  for  aluminium  as  0086,  the  value  of  X  for 
the  sun  comes  out  00046.  Substituting  these  values,  we 
find  that  the  effect  of  the  sun  is  equivalent  to  that  of 
1-53x10^'  grs.  of  radium  at  the  same  distance,  assuming 
this  radium  to  be  spread  out  into  a  thin  layer,  so  that  all 
the  radiation  can  escape  without  undergoing  absorption  in 
the  mass. 

Now  I  have  found  that  the  7  radiation  from  10  milligrams 
of  radium  bromide  can  barely  be  detected  by  the  electrical 
method,  where  10  cm.  of  lead  intervene  between  it  and  the 
testing  vessel.  To  decide  whether  the  solar  rays  would  be 
detectable,  we  must  compare  their  expected  effect  after 
enfeeblement  by  distance,  and  by  the  absorption  of  the  atmo- 
sphere, with  this. 

The  distance  of  the  sun  is  1.5X10'^  times  greater  than 
the  distance  of  the  radium  from  the  testing  apparatus,  so 
that,   apart  from  the  atmospheric  absorption,   the  effect  of 

J, ex  10" 
the    sun    would    be    equivalent    to    that    of  .-   '  .g gi'  ^"^ 

6-7x10-'  grams  of  radium,  10  cm.  from  the  apparatus. 
This  is  less  than  one-thousandth  part  of  the  radium  used 
in  the  experiment  cited,  and  the  solar  radiation,  instead  of 
passing  through  only  10  cm.  of  lead,  would  have  to  pass 
through  the  atmosphere,  equal  in  mass  to  32  feet  of  water, 
or  about  89  cm.  of  lead.  This  would,  of  course,  reduce  it 
many  million  times  further.  So  that,  even  if  all  the  sun's 
heat  were  due  to  radium,  there  does  not  appear  to  be  the 
smallest  possibility  that  the  Becquerel  radiation  from  it 
could  ever  be  detected  at  the  earth's  surface. 

R.  J.  Strutt. 
NO.    1772,  VOL.  68] 


Referring  to  Mr.  Hardy's  experiment  described  in  his 
letter  in  Nature,  October  8,  it  is  easy  to  show  that  what- 
ever the  intensity  of  radio-activity  might  be  at  the  surface 
of  the  sun,  by  mere  surface  ratios  and  assuming  no  absorp- 
tion its  activity  per  unit  area  at  the  distance  of  the  earth 
must  fall  to  about  one  forty-thousandth  part.  Now,  if  the 
sun  were  composed  of  solid  radium  bromide,  the  radiation 
reaching  Mr.  Hardy's  indicator  from  the  sun  will  be  only 
about  one-thousandth  part  of  that  derived  from  a  sphere 
of  radium  bromide  three  millimetres  in  diameter  and  twenty 
millimetres  distant  from  the  indicator  :  the  probable  con- 
ditions of  Mr.  Hardy's  experiment. 

In  the  e.xperiment  one  centimetre  thickness  of  lead  is 
interposed.  The  earth's  atmosphere  is  equivalent  in  mass 
to  76  cm,  of  mercury.  This  supposes  no  absorption  from, 
possibly,  some  thousands  of  miles  of  solar  atmosphere. 
Moreover,  we  assume  in  the  comparison  a  sun  of  solid 
radium  bromide.  It  would  appear,  however,  that  a  very 
small  percentage  of  this  body  in  the  materials  of  the  sun 
would  suffice  to  account  for  many  millions  of  years  of  solar 
heat. 

The  absence  of  /3  and  7  radiations  at  the  earth's  surface 
is,  therefore,  not  a  weighty  argument  against  the  presence 
of  radium  in  the  sun. 

The  arguments  in  favour  of  supposing  that  this  element 
exists  in  the  sun  are: — (i)  The  presence  of  radium  on  the 
earth ;  (2)  the  high  atomic  weight  of  radium  ;  (3)  the 
presence  of  helium  in  the  sun  ;  (4)  Arrhenius's  theory  of  the 
Aurora  Borealis  ;  (5)  the  fact  that  the  estimate  of  the  dura- 
tion of  solar  heat  from  the  dynamical  source  appears  to  run 
counter  to  geological  data.  J.  Joly. 

Trinity  College,  Dublin,  October  10. 


Cambridge  in  the  Olfl  World  and  in  the  New,        j 

One  of  the  most  striking  features  of  the  universities  of 
the  United  States  is  the  wealth  of  their  endowment. 
During  the  writer's  visit  to  Cambridge,  Massachusetts,  for 
example.  Harvard  University  was  successfully  collecting 
large  sums  towards  a  new  buildinj;  for  philosophy  in 
memory  of  Emerson,  and  within  the  last  few  months  has 
been  promised  two  million  dollars  by  two  millionaires  to- 
wards her  new  medical  school.  • 

Reasons  for  such  well-known  munificence  of  Americans 
towards  their  universities  are  not  hard  to  find.  Pauperism 
is  an  almost  negligible  quantity  in  America,  so  that  the 
money,  which  drains  away  on  this  side  in  charity,  finds 
ai  outlet  there  in  the  advancement  of  education  and  re- 
search. Primogeniture,  again,  is  contrary  to  American 
ideals.  While  the  newly-made  English  millionaire  thinks 
it  his  duty  to  sink  a  considerable  part  of  his  fortune  in 
buying  and  maintaining  a  family  estate  for  his  son  and 
heir,  the  American  more  often  divides  his  property  equally 
between  his  children,  and  feels  at  greater  liberty  to  dispose 
of  much  of  it  in  his  lifetime  as  he  pleases,  for  he  is  willing 
that  the  uphill  life  he  has  lived  himself  shall  be  lived  again 
by  his  descendants.  The  absence  of  inherited  titles  in 
America  tends,  of  course,  towards  the  same  end.  Many  of 
the  younger  universities,  too,  are  in  districts  where  huge 
fortunes  have  been  rapidly  made  and  civic  pride  runs  high, 
producing  numerous  benefactions  in  the  cause  of  local  in- 
stitutions. But  although  all  these  are  reasons,  none  of 
them  is  sufficient  to  explain  the  situation  satisfactorily.  To 
find  the  true  cause,  we  must  enter  into  the  differences  in 
life  and  education  between  the  older  English  and  American 
universities. 

The  average  English  youth,  passing  from  public  school 
to  Oxford  or  Cambridge,  intends  to  make  his  living  by 
some  profession,  perhaps  as  minister,  teacher,  barrister,  or 
physician  ;  relatively  seldom  has  he  sufficient  to  live  upon 
without  further  exertion.  He  spends  his  three  or  four 
years  in  one  of  the  seventeen  or  more  colleges  from  which 
he  has  to  choose,  and  his  college  becomes  the  centre  of 
his  social  life.  Probably  there  he  makes  his  greatest  friend- 
ships ;  certainly  the  number  of  men  he  knows  outside  his 
own  college  is  comparatively  small.  In  eights,  elevens,  or 
fifteens,  the  various  colleges  are  pitted  against  one  another. 
Nor,  indeed,  is  inter-collegiate  competition  confined  to 
athletics.  Each  college  is  continually  struggling  against 
the  rest  to  secure  the  most  promising  boys  from  the  public 
schools,  and  to  acquire  the  greatest  number  of  university 
distinctions.     Each  has  to  maintain  a  more  or  less  separate 


October  15,  1903] 


NATURE 


573 


staff,  partly  to  supplement  university  lectures,  but  partly  also 
to  give  more  individual  instruction  to  the  duller  or  idler 
students.  One  of  the  results  of  this  system  can  be  easily 
seen — the  average  graduate  quits  his  university  with  the 
greatest  affection  for  his  college,  but  with  little  or  nothing 
of  that  broader  esprit  de  corps  towards  his  university  as  a 
whole. 

In  America,  on  the  other  hand,  each  university  has  only 
one  college  preparing  him  for  the  B.A.  degree.  Con- 
sequently, a  single  American  college,  e.g.  Harvard  College, 
Cambridge,  contains  several  thousand  students.  ^  The 
centre  of  social  life  can  no  longer  be  in  the  college ;  it  is 
transferred  to  the  class,  the  class  consisting  of  all  students 
who  are  in  the  same  year.  Each  class  elects  its  own  presi- 
dent and  other  officers,  has  its  various  rowing,  football,  and 
baseball  teams,  and  holds  meetings  for  the  discussion  of 
matters  of  common  interest.  A  class  in  Cambridge, 
Massachusetts,  knits  the  students  together  in  somewhat  the 
same  way  as  does  a  college  in  Cambridge,  England, 
although,  of  course,  far  less  closely. 

In  the  second  place,  there  is  a  comparatively  large  number 
of  students  in  American  universities,  who  intend  to  lead,  or 
finally  do  lead,  a  business  life  after  they  leave  college.  It 
is  true  that  just  now  the  question  is  being  raised  whether 
a  college  training  is  the  right  one  for  an  American  busi- 
ness fnan,  but  the  only  probable  outcome  of  this  discussion 
-will  be  an  improved  adjustment  of  the  college  curriculum 
.in  the  interests  of  those  who  intend  to  embark  on  a  busi- 
ness career.  Already  at  Harvard  there  is  a  proposal  on  the 
part  of  the  president  to  make  it  possible  for  such  students 
to  complete  their  training  in  a  shorter  time  than  the  usual 
four  years. 

In  the  end  these  two  American  features,  the  formation 
of  class  ties  and  the  presence  of  students  who  are  intended 
for  a  business  career,  combine  to  place  a  number  of  wealthy 
alumni  at  the  beck  and  call  of  the  universities.  It  is  a 
cmnmon  occurrence  for  the  class  of  a  certain  year  to  defray, 
wholly  or  in  part,  the  cost  of  a  building  of  which  their 
alma  mater  stands  in  need  ;  at  Cornell  alone  twenty-two 
class-gifts  of  this  or  similar  kind  are  on  record.  More- 
over, the  alumni  of  the  various  universities  form  themselves 
into  societies,  both  local  and  general.  Every  important 
city  in  America  contains  various  associations  of  alumni, 
each  association  representing  one  of  the  more  important 
universities.  The  alumni  of  various  classes,  dispersed 
throughout  the  States,  are  periodically  invited  to  revisit 
their  university.  In  some  universities  they  directly  elect  a 
certain  number  of  their  body  to  serve  on  the  board  of 
trustees  or  corporation  of  the  university.  Such  is  the  hold 
exercised  by  many  American  universities  on  their  former 
students. 

But  it  is  not  only  from  wealthy  alumni,  but  also  from 
citizens  who  have  never  been  to  college,  that  the  universi- 
ties of  the  United  States  derive  their  greatest  benefactions. 
Now  this  would  be  impossible  unless  the  American  people 
were  in  full  sympathy  with  American  university  work. 
Indeed,  the  university  holds  as  warm  a  place  in  the  heart 
of  the  American  as  the  hospital  holds  in  that  of  the  English- 
man. He  feels  that  it  is  a  living  organisation,  not  an  inert 
out-of-date  machine,  which  is  doing  necessary  work  in  the 
advancement  of  the  civilisation  of  his  country.  Further, 
we  come  to  understand  the  reason  of  this  feeling  when  we 
contrast  the  undergraduate  courses  at  the  two  Cambridges. 
At  Harvard,  the  examination  for  admission  consists  of 
papers  in  English,  history,  algebra,  geometry,  and  natural 
science,  Latin  or  Greek,  and  French  or  German.  After 
passing  this,  the  student  has  to  choose  four  courses  of 
lectures  per  year  in  more  than  one  of  the  following  sub- 
jects : — English,  German,  French,  Italian,  Spanish,  history, 
government,  economics,  philosophy,  fine  arts,  music, 
mathematics,  engineering,  or  some  natural  science.  Apart 
from  certain  reasonable  restrictions,  which  prevent  him 
from  acquiring  a  too  superficial  knowledge  in  too  many 
subjects,  the  student  is  at  liberty  to  select  just  those  courses 
which  will  best  suit  him  in  after  life;  and,  of  course,  he 
can  readily  obtain  advice  in  any  difficulties  that  may  beset 
him  when  making  his  choice.  In  his  second  and  later  years 
he   may    specialise   more    deeply    in    these   and    other    sub- 

1  The  words  college  and  university  have  thus  acquired  a  significance  in 
America  which  is  unfamiljar  to  us.  No  college  is  regarded  as  a  university 
unless,  besides  teaching,  it  encourages  post-graduate  research. 


NO.    1772,  VOL.  68] 


jects.  He  is  examined  twice  a  year,  and  shows  thereby 
whether  he  is  capable  of  proceeding  to  more  advanced 
courses  advantageously.  He  obtains  his  degree  on  the 
result  of  these  bi-annual  examinations.  For  an  honours 
degree  a  thesis  or  special  examination  is  required. 

The  undergraduate  of  our  English  Cambridge,  on  the 
other  hand,  having  mastered  at  school  the  modicum  of 
compulsory  Greek  required  for  the  previous  examination, 
has  the  choice  of  two  distinct  paths.  He  can  straightway 
read  for  an  honours  degree  in  any  one  of  the  triposes  which 
suits  his  requirements,  the  classical,  mathematical,  theo- 
logiqal,  natural  sciences,  mental  and  moral  sciences, 
mechanical  sciences,  mediaeval  and  modern  languages, 
oriental  languages,  historical  or  other  tripos — in  which  case 
he  takes  his  degree  almost  always  upon  the  results  of  a 
single  examination  in  a  single  tripos  at  the  end  of  his  three 
years  '  ;  or  he  may  be  content  to  take  an  ordinary  degree, 
for  which  he  must  devote  at  least  the  whole  of  his  first 
year  to  Greek,  Latin,  English,  algebra,  statics,  hydrostatics 
and  heat,  and  spend  his  later  years  preparing  for  examin- 
ation in  any  one  subject  {inter  alia)  of  the  following  : — 
theology,  economics,  law,  history,  logic,  mathematics, 
classics,  music,  chemistry,  physics,  botany,  physiology, 
zoology,  or  agriculture.  This  examination,  qualifying  him 
for  the  ordinary  B.A.  degree,  is  completed  at  the  end  of  his 
third  year. 

Few  graduates  who  have  been  educated  on  the  basis  of 
a  Cambridge  tripos  would  welcome  changes  in  so  admir- 
ably conceived  a  system  of  education.  At  one  time  it  was 
believed  that  the  student  who  devoted  his  three  or  four 
years  in  this  manner  to  a  single  subject  must  suffer  in 
general  culture,  whereas  it  is  nearer  the  truth  to  believe 
that  there  is  scarcely  any  branch  of  learning  which  cannot 
impart  a  very  high  degree  of  culture,  provided  only  that 
it  be  taught  from,  a  sufficiently  wide  and  liberal  point  of 
view.  On  the  other  hand,  there  are  probably  few  who 
would  not  desire  considerable  changes  in  the  regulations 
for  the  ordinary  degree.  The  examir.ation  is  hardly  more 
than  an  advanced  Little-go,  ending  in  a  feeble  effort  at 
specialisation.  Instead  of  having  to  spend  a  year  or  more 
at  Greek,  hydrostatics,  heat,  &c.,  why  should  it  not  be 
possible  for  the  undergraduate  who  is  bent  on  an  army 
career  to  qualify  in  modern  or  oriental  languages,  geo- 
graphy, surveying,  and  ethnology,  or  for  him  who  intends 
to  enter  into  finance  to  study  mercantile  law,  economics,  and 
modern  languages,  or  for  the  future  country  squire  to  read 
straightway  in  history,  literature,  law,  and  agriculture? 
Is  a  university  to  confine  herself  solely  to  the  encourage- 
ment of  research  and  to  the  preparation  of  ministers, 
teachers,  physicians,  engineers,  and  musicians?  Or  is  it 
impossible  to  prepare  men  for  other  walks  of  life  without 
the  sacrifice  of  culture  in  the  interest  of  practical  needs? 
Surely  America  gives  us  a  useful  lesson  as  to  the  unwisdom 
of  driving  away  such  embryo  financiers  and  others  else- 
where owing  to  the  lack  of  attractive  and  useful  courses 
of  study  which  they  could  pursue  after  leaving  school.  The 
expenses  of  administration  in  our  universities  increase  so 
enormously  from  year  to  year  that,  unless  they  are  to 
receive  State  aid  or  to  decay  from  sheer  stagnation,  they 
must  be  continually  appealing  to  the  public  for  support. 
And  public  interest  can  only  be  maintained  when  the  uni- 
versities are  prepared  to  equip  men  appropriately  for  many 
more  different  walk.«  in  life  than  they  are  at  present.  Such 
changes,  which  involve  merely  the  framing  of  new  regula- 
tions, cannot  fail  to  be  followed  by  an  increase  in  bene- 
factions, whereby  training  in  languages,  archaeology, 
history,  and  economics  may  be  improved,  and  the  teaching 
and  laboratories  be  alike  brought  to  the  requisite  condition 
of  efficiency  for  establishing  a  successful  school  of  post- 
graduate research.  C.  S.  Myers. 

Gonville  and  Caius  College,  Cambridge. 


An  Ancient  Lava  Plug  like  that  of  Mont  Pel^e. 

The  photograph  of  what  is  described  as  "  a  gigantic 
plug  of  solidified  lava  "  in  the  centre  of  the  new  cone  of 
Mont  Pelde,  which  appears  in  Nature  of  October  i  (p.  530), 

1  No  mention  is  here  made  of  the  still  more  specialised  second  part  of  the 
triposes  which  corresponds  in  many  respects  to  the  training  given  in  the 
post-graduate  schools  of  the  better  American  universities. 


574 


NATURE 


[October  15,  1903 


reminds  me  of  similar  columns  of  ancient  lava  not  un- 
common among  the  trap  rocks  of  the  Deccan,  and  I  enclose 
a  copy  of  a  sketch  I  made  of  one  of  these  in   1839,  the  re- 


.Jk 

■  >-.'"": 

-^ 

^ 

,.■  ; ..  .x-^'^f'*^'- 

'■"'";.VMxr,'7^   '-'^'i-' 

--^W., 

markable  similarity  of  which  to  the  column  on  Mont  Pelde 
seems  to  be  worthy  of  notice.  A  second  similar  column  is 
seen  in  the  distance  on  the  right.  Richard  Strachey. 

69  Lancaster  Gate,  W. 


"Lessons  on  Country  Life." 

In  your  issue  of  September  24  you  published  a  review  of 
"  Lessons  on  Country  Life,"  by  Messrs.  Buchanan  and 
Gregory,  but  may  I  ask,  with  all  deference,  if  your  reviewer 
has  not  omitted  to  read  an  important  part  of  this  useful  little 
book?  He  refers  to  Mr.  Buchanan's  earlier  works,  "Country 
Readers,"  Nos.  i  and  2,  as  "  most  excellent  books  for 
children,"  but  had  he  read  the  preface  to  the  "  Lessons  " 
he  would  have  found  that  these  were  intended,  not  for 
children,  but  for  teachers.  Your  reviewer  truly  says : — 
"  Country  life  is  a  vast  subject,  so  vast  that  no  child  can 
learn  during  his  school  life  even  a  fraction  of  the  inform- 
ation it  may  be  desirable  he  should  possess,"  and  the  same 
remark  may  be  equally  well  applied  to  teachers.  This 
book  travels  over  much  the  same  ground  as  "  Reader  " 
No.  I,  but  the  matter  is  differently  treated.  In  one  case 
simplicity  of  language  is  aimed  at,  in  the  other  the  inform- 
ation is  condensed,  with  a  view,  as  it  appears  to  me,  of 
leaving  jt  to  the  discretion  of  individual  teachers  to  use 
such  lessons,  or  portions  of  each  lesson,  as  are  most  suit- 
able to  their  own  districts. 

I  do  not  wish  wrongly  to  attribute  ideas  to  the  joint 
authors,  but  I  fancy  their  intention  is  to  put  before  rural 
teachers  (many  of  whom  have  had  little  or  no  country  train- 
ing) as  complete  a  summary  as  possible,  taking  it  for 
granted  that  they  would  be  able  to  pick  out  and  study  the 
essential  parts. 

This  series  of  agricultural  Readers  and  Lessons  will,  I 
think,  do  much  to  create  a  love  of  country  life,  may  even 
help  to  counteract  the  attractions  of  town  life.  Rural  de- 
population is  one  of  the  most  serious  problems  of  the  day, 
and  if  these  books  will  assist,  in  only  a  small  way,  to  arrest 
this  migration,  I  feel  sure  you  will  not  detract  from  their 
value  by  a  few  words  which  were  probably  due  to  a  pardon- 
able oversight. 

A.  H.  H.  Matthews,  Secretary. 

Central  Chamber  of  Agriculture,  Broad  Sanctuary 
Chambers,  20  Tothill  Street,  Westminster,  S.W., 
September  30. 


Mr.  Matthews  has  hardly  grasped  the  point  of  our 
notice — that  Messrs.  Buchanan  and  Gregory's  book 
approaches  the  subject  in  the  wrong  spirit.  The  teacher  is 
provided  with  a  mass  of  indifferently  selected  information 
about  farming  matters,  which  he  will  pass  on  to  his  class 
instead  of  trying  to  lead  it  to  observe  and  reason  on  its 
own  account.  The  latter  process  is  more  difficult,  but  it 
happens  to  be  education.  We  have  of  late  had  only  too 
many  occasions  to  deplore  the  "  rural  teachers  with  little 
or  no  country  training  "  who  hand  out  "  condensed  in- 
formation "  from  little  books  about  the  country.  It  is  this 
kind  of  instruction  which  offends  both  farmers  and 
educationists,  and  if  Mr.  Matthews  imagines  it  is  going 
to  counteract  the  attractions  of  town  life  and  arrest  rural 
depopulation,  we  can  only  hope  that  on  this  occasion  he 
does  not  represent  the  opinion  of  the  Central  Chamber  of 
Agriculture.  The  Reviewer. 


NO.   1772,  VOL.  68] 


CRATER    LAKE    IN    URnGON.^ 
'T^WENTY  years  ago,  as  Mr.  Diller  informs  us,  this 

-»■  picturesque  record  of  a  strange  episode  in 
volcanic  history  was  unknown  to  any  but  the  Indians. 
It  is  still  not  very  accessible,  for  it  lies  in  an  un- 
frequented region,  deep  set  in  the  summit  of  the 
Cascade  Range,  some  sixty-five  miles  north  of  the 
California _  line,  but  the  United  States  Government, 
"  recognising  its  worth  as  an  educational  feature,"  has 
already  wisely  secured  it  from  the  speculator  and  spoiler 
by  making  it  a  national  park.  An  area  of  two  hundred 
and  fifty  square  miles  is  thus  protected,  of  which  we 
find  a  description  in  the  present  memoir.  The  first 
part,  by  Mr.  Diller,  deals  with  the  geology  and  physical 
history  of  the  great  volcano,  named  after  a  local 
society  Mount  Mazama,  which  was  shattered  to  form 
Crater  Lake,  and  the  second,  by  Mr.  Patton,  discusses 
the  petrography  of  its  rocks.  It  was  virtually  dis- 
covered by  Captain  Dutton,  by  whom  and  by  Mr. 
Diller  it  has  already  been  noticed;  the  U.S.  Geological 
Survey  has  also  published  a  special  map,  but  the  story 
is  now  completed  in  this  excellently  illustrated  memoir. 
The  Cascade  Range  is  largely,  if  not  wholly,  built 
up  of  volcanic  material.  In  Cretaceous  times'^  it  had 
no  existence,  "there  flowed  the  sea";  this  retreated 
during  the  Eocene,  when  vents  opened  in  the  Coast 
Range  region,  possibly  also,  though  that  is  not  yet 
quite  certain,  on  the  site  of  the  Cascade.  Here,  how- 
ever, volcanoes  were  in  full  activity  during  the 
Miocene,  and  built  up  a  large  part  of  the  Range,  where 
eruptions  have  continued  almost  to  the  present  time. 
Post-Glaclal  outbursts  occurred  In  some  places,  but 
seem  to  have  ceased  before  history  began,  though 
hot  springs  and  fumaroles  show  that  the  subterranean 
hearths  are  not  yet  cold.  Some  of  the  peaks  rise 
above  10,000  feet,  Mount  Rainier  even  attaining  14,525 
feet,  and  the  surface  of  Crater  Lake  Is  rather  more 
than  6200  feet  above  sea-level.  It  is  an  oval  basin 
between  twenty  and  twenty-one  square  miles  in  area, 
surrounded  by  cliffs  which  range  from  more  than  500 
to  nearly  2000  feet  in  height,  the  ground  falling  more 
gradually  from  their  rim  to  the  present  upland  level. 
This  great  sheet  of  blue  water,  in  places  almost  2000 
feet  deep.  Is  Interrupted  near  its  western  margin  by  a 
pyramidal  rocky  mass,  called  Wizard  Island,  itself 
evidently  a  volcanic  vent,  and  a  study  of  the  enclosing 
walls  of  the  great  caldera  proves  them  to  be  built  up 
in  the  usual  way  by  ash-beds  and  lava-flows,  dipping 
outwards  from  its  axis,  and  riven  by  occasional  dykes. 
The  exterior  slopes  are  dotted  by  parasitic  cones,  and 
exhibit  occasionally  moraines  and  Glacial  striae;  they 
are  also  furrowed  by  valleys,  which  in  some  cases 
run  up  to  and  actually  notch  the  edge  of  the  cone,  so 
that  they  evidently  cannot  have  been  formed  on  Mount 
Mazama  as  It  now  exists.  They,  like  it,  have  been 
truncated,  and  the  bowl  occupied  by  Crater  Lake  has 
been  formed  by  the  destruction  of  a  volcanic  cone 
which  must  once  have  risen  some  six  thousand  feet 
above  its  present  rim.  Of  this  there  can  be  no  doubt ; 
it  is  substantiated  by  numerous  facts  .  cited  In  this 
memoir,  and  we  have  only  to  study  the  geological 
map  which  It  contains  to  see  that  the  present  lava 
streams  are  merely  remnants  of  those  discharged  from 
sources  at  a  greater  elevation  and  nearer  the  central 
axis  of  the  cone. 

But  the  precise  mode  In  which  the  upper  part  of 
the  original  Mount  Mazama  was  destroyed,  and 
Crater  Lake  formed  among  its  ruins,  Is  not  quite  so 
certain.  Two  explanations  are  possible.  All  the 
upper  part  of  the  mountain  may  have  been  hurled 
In   shattered   fragments   through   the   air  by   a   series 

1  "The  Geology  and  Petrography  of  Crater  Lake.  National  Park."  By 
Joseph  Silas  Diller  and  Horace  Bushnell  Patton  (U.S.  Geological  Survey). 
Pp.  168.     Plates  i-xix.     (Washington,  1902.) 


October  15,  1903] 


NATURE 


575 


of  tremendous  explosions,  like  those  which  truncated 
Papandayang  in  Java  and  shattered  Rakata  in 
Krakatoa,  or  the  cone  may  have  collapsed  and  been 
engulfed;  mother  earth,  like  the  fabled  Saturn, 
devouring  her  own  offspring — which  has  happened  on 
a  smaller  scale  at  Kilauea.  Mr.  Diller,  after  a  dis- 
cussion of  the  rival  hypotheses,  follows  Captain 
Dutton  in  preferring  the  latter.  Space  does  not 
allow  of  a  full  discussion  of  the  reasons,  but  it  may 
be  enough  to  say  that  the  explosive  destruction  of  a 
great  central  cone  might  be  expected  to  have  piled 
up  the  fragments  more  or  less  symmetrically  around 
the  margin  of  the  void ;  but,  though  much  fragmental 
volcanic  material  has  been  scattered  over  not  a  few 
square  miles  of  the  surrounding  region,  this  does  not 
exhibit  any  such  arrangement,  and  its  presence  may 
be  explained  by  eruptions  posterior  to  the  formation 
of  the  caldera,  such  as  that  which  built  up  Wizard 
Island.  It  must,  however,  be  admitted  that  such  a 
vast  engulfment  seems  to  demand  the  withdrawal  of 
a  corresponding  quantity  of  lava  from  beneath  the 
cone,  and  its  discharge — as  in  the  Kilauea  eruption 
of  1S40 — from  some  distant  vent,  of  which  at  present 
'  evidence  has  been  found.  It  is  thus  possible  that 
h    hypothesis    is   in    part    correct,    for   engulfment 


n  Border  of  Crater  Lake  with  Wizard  Island 


and  explosion  may  have  cooperated  in  the  work  of 
destruction,  vast  blocks  of  the  ruined  cone  tum- 
bling inwards  to  be  blown  out  in  shattered  fragments 
and  distributed  over  many  miles  of  country — so  that 
the  volcano  practically  became  an  automatic  muzzle- 
loader.  But  that  Mount  Mazama  was  not  destroyed 
merely  by  an  explosion  like  that  of  a  colossal  powder 
magazine,  seems  to  be  evident. 

In  the  second  part  of  the  memoir  Mr.  Patton  gives  us 
a  careful  petrographical  study  of  the  materials  of 
Mount  Mazama.  They  are  mostly,  as  is  so  usual  with 
the  volcanoes  of  the  great  mountain  chains  of  the  two 
•Americas,  andesites,  among  which  the  hypersthene- 
bearing  varieties  are  common,  though  on  the  one 
hand  dacites,  and  on  the  other  basalts,  are  to  be  found. 
Full  descriptions  of  these  and  their  included  minerals 
are  given,  as  well  as  of  certain  portions  of  a  rather 
different  mineral  character,  which  Mr.  Patton  regards 
as  secretions.  It  is  difficult  to  form  an  opinion  with- 
out an  actual  study  of  the  rock  specimens  and  slices, 
but  we  venture  to  suggest  that  they  may  rather  be 
inclusions — that  is  to  say,  material  which,  though  it 
may  have  been  originally  separated  by  some  kind  of 
differential  action,  and  might  so  far  be  called  a  secre- 

NO.   1772,  VOL.  68] 


tion,  owes  its  present  position  to  being  caught  up 
and  carried  away  by  the  general  mass  of  molten 
material.  This,  however,  is  a  very  small  criticism. 
The  memoir  is  a  most  valuable  one,  and  its  printing 
and  illustrations  maintain  the  usual  high  standard  of 
the  publications  of  the  United  States  Geological 
Survey.  T.  G.  Bonney. 


THE    BRUSSELS    AND    TERVUEREN 
MUSEUMS. 

FOR  many  years  past  the  Royal  Brussels  Museum 
of  Natural  History  has  presented  attractions  for 
the  vertebrate  palaeontologist  which  can  be  rivalled  by 
few  and  excelled  by  none  of  the  institutions  of  a 
similar  nature  in  Europe.  But  those  who  have  not 
had  an  opportunity  of  seeing  the  collections  recently 
will  scarcely  fail  to  be  surprised  at  the  vast  increase 
which  has  been  made  in  the  exhibited  series,  and  at  the 
excellent  manner  in  which  the  specimens  are  displayed 
even  in  the  limited  space  at  present  available.  A  still 
greater  degree  of  astonishment,  and,  we  may  add,  of 
admiration,  will  be  expressed  by  the  visitor  when  he 
is  shown  the  new  buildings,  now  nearing  completion, 
designed  for  the  housing  of  the 
entire  recent  and  fossil  fauna  of  the 
countrv.  , 

When  the  present  writer  (some 
twelve  or  fifteen  years  ago)  last  saw 
the  collection,  on'lv  a  single  skeleton 
of  the  far-famed  Bernissart  iguano- 
dons  was  mounted  in  the  exhibition 
galleries.  Now  there  are  no  less 
than  five  such  skeletons  set  up  in 
their  natural  posture,  while  a  sixth 
is  shown  lying  on  a  mass  of  Wealden 
rock  as  it  was  exhumed  from  the 
quarry.  A  more  magnificent  dis- 
play than  the  one  presented  by  the 
skeletons  of  these  mighty  dinosaurs 
can  scarcely  be  imagined. 

Next  in  importance  to  the  un- 
rivalled iguanodons  and  associated 
reptiles  from  the  Bernissart  Wealden 
may  probably  be  ranked  the  mag- 
nificent series  of  mosasaurian  re- 
mains which  have  been  obtained  in 
working  the  phosphatic  beds  of  the 
Upper  Cretaceous  strata  of  the 
Maastricht  district  and  other  parts 
of  the  country.  In  addition  to  several  more  or  less 
imperfect  skulls  and  other  parts  of  the  skeleton  of  the 
typical  Mosasaurus,  the  collection  includes  remains  of 
several  other  generic  types,  some  of  which,  such  as 
Hainosaurus,  are  peculiar  to  Belgian  territory.  Un- 
like so  many  European  fossil  vertebrates  of  large  size, 
most  or  all  of  these  generic  types  are  represented  by 
skeletons  so  nearly  perfect  as  to  admit  of  their  being 
set  up  like  those  of  recent  animals.  One  of  the 
treasures  of  the  museum  is  the  skeleton  of  the  fore- 
paddle  of  a  representative  of  these  gigantic  marine 
lizards,  this  specimen  being  believed  to  be  the  only 
known  example  of  this  part  of  the  mosasaurian  skele- 
ton hitherto  discovered  in  Europe.  Another  note- 
worthy specimen  in  this  group  is  the  skull  of  Pro- 
gnathosaurus,  remarkable  for  the  exquisite  state  of 
preservation  of  the  bones  of  the  elongated  muzzle. 
The  turtles  of  the  Upper  Cretaceous,  as  represented 
by  the  well-known  Chelone  hoffmanni,  and  a  still  more 
gigantic  unnamed  species  characterised  by  the  extreme 
flatness  of  the  carapace,  likewise  form  a  large  and 
interesting  exhibit. 

Much   more  might  be  written   about  the   Mesozoic 
vertebrates,   but,    from   exigencies   of   space,    it   must 


576 


'NATURE 


]^Ogtober  15,  1903 


suffice  to  refer  to  an  imperfect  skeleton  of  Plesiosaurus 
homalospondylus,  and  another  of  Ichthyosaurus 
platyodon  from  the  Lias  of  Luxembourg.  The  special 
interest  attaching  to  these  specimens  is  that,  unlike 
the  majority  of  "  halosaurians  "  from  the  English 
Lias,  the  bones  are  separate,  so  as  to  admit  of  the 
skeletons  beingf  mounted  after  the  fashion  ■  of  the 
Oxfordian  plesiosaurs  in  the  British  Museum. 

Turning  to  Tertiary  fossils,  the  magnificent  series 
of  cetacean  remains  from  the  Pliocene  of  Antwerp  is 
too  well  known  to  n.eed  more  than  passing  reference. 
Special  attention  may,  however,  be  directed  to  the 
beautifully  preserved  skulls  of  long-nosed  dolphins 
(Eurhinodelphis)  from  the  Miocene  deposits  of  the 
same  locality,  which  have  been  recently  described  by 
Dr.  Abel,  and  are  some  of  the  most  interesting  of  all 
cetacean  fossils.  Neither  is  the  collection  lacking  in 
valuable  remains  of  sirenians,  one  case  containing  no 
less  than  five  more  or  less  imperfect  skeletons  of  a 
representative  of  the  widely  spread  Oligocene  genus 
Halitherium,  while  in  a  second  is  displayed  the  skele- 
ton of  the  body  of  an  allied  Miocene  type,  for  which 
Monsieur  Dollo  has  proposed  the  name  of  Miosiren. 
Evidently  a  large  and  specialised  form  descended  from 
Halitherium,  this  genus  is  characterised  by  the 
enormous  stoutness  and  solid  structure  of  the  ribs, 
which  are  so  close  together  as  to  simulate  a  massive 
carapace  in  the  region  of  the  thorax.  The  specimens 
of  the  rhynchocephalian  Champsosaurus,  from  the 
Lower  Eocene,  are  likewise  unique  treasures  of  the 
collection. 

The  collection  of  remains  from  the  cavern  and  other 
Pleistocene  deposits  forms  another  striking  feature  of 
the  museum.  Among  the  mounted  specimens  are 
three  skeletons  of  the  cave-bear,  one  of  the  cave-lion, 
and  three  of  the  woolly  rhinoceros.  The  mammoth 
skeleton  from  a  superficial  deposit  is  one  of  the  finest 
in  existence  out  of  Russia ;  while  of  especial  interest 
is  the  imperfect  skull  of  a  ver}'  young  individual  of  the 
same  species,  with  the  earlier  milk-molars  in  position, 
A  skeleton  of  the  much  rarer  Elephas  antiquus  is  like- 
wise noteworthy,  first,  because  the  tusks  are  strongly 
curved,  and,  secondly,  on  account  of  the  peculiar 
manner  in  which  their  tips  are  worn.  This  curvature 
of  the  tusks  suggests  that  the  title  of  straight-tusked 
elephant,  which  has  been  proposed  for  this  species, 
is  not  so  diagnostic  as  it  might  be.  As  regards  the 
tips  of  the  tusks,  each  has  been  ground  into  a  blunt 
wedge — a  mode  of  wear  never  observable  in  those  of 
either  the  Indian  or  Airican  species,  and  the  cause  of 
which  is  at  present  inexplicable. 

Owing  to  lack  of  space,  the  fossil  collections  are 
now  mingled  with  the  series  of  skins  and  skeletons 
of  recent  animals  in  a  manner  calculated  to  confuse 
the  non-scientific  visitor,  while  at  the  same  time  the 
proportions  of  many  of  the  specimens  are  not  so  well 
displayed  as  is  desirable.  All  this,  however,  will  soon 
be  remedied,  for  the  magnificent  new  wing,  destined 
to  contain  the  entire  collection  of  indigenous  Belgian 
animals,  is,  as  already  mentioned,  fast  nearing  com- 
pletion, the  whole  of  the  building  itself  being  finished. 
A  notable  feature  is  the  entire  absence  of  any  archi- 
tectural decoration  in  the  interior,  a  feature  which 
might  advantageously  have  been  adopted  in  our  own 
museums.  The  main  hall  of  this  magnificent  build- 
ing is  no  less  than  100  metres  in  length  by  30  in 
width.  The  floor  Is  on  four  different  levels,  rising  in 
terraces  one  above  the  other  from  the  entrance.  On 
the  entrance  level  will  be  arranged  the  recent  and 
Quaternary  vertebrates  (other  than  fishes) ;  on  the  first 
terrace  the  Tertiary  vertebrates,  on  the  second  the 
Upper  Cretaceous  vertebrate  fauna,  and  on  the  third 
and  highest  the  iguanodons  and  other  reptiles  of  the 
VVealden.     The  visitor  will  thus  obtain  a  coup-d'oeil 

NO.    1772.  VOL.  68] 


of  the  whole  effect  immediately  on  entering.  The 
iguanodons  will  be  represented  by  no  less  than  thir- 
teen skeletons,  of  which  nine  are  to  be  mounted  and 
erect,  while  the  remainder  are  to  occupy  a  large  tank- 
like excavation  in  the  floor,  in  which  they  are  to  lie 
as  in  their  native  quarry.  In  the  gallery  running 
round  this  hall  are  to  be  arranged  the  recent  and  fossil 
fish-fauna  of  Belgium,  while  the  invertebrates  are  to 
be  housed  on  the  floor  above.  By  an  ingenious- 
arrangement  of  details,  space  has  been  found  for  a 
numerous  series  of  large  and  well-lighted  work-room>. 
Some  idea  of  the  lavish  scale  on  which  the  new  build- 
ing is  planned  may  be  gathered  from  the  fact  thai 
the  space  available  for  the  display  of  the  Belgian 
fauna  alone  is  four  times  as  great  as  that  allotted  in 
the  Paris  Museum  to  the  fossil  vertebrate  fauna  oi 
the  whole  world. 

Eventually,  I  am  told,  it  is  hoped  that  a  similar 
wing  may  be  built  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  museum 
for  the  exhibition  of  the  fauna  and  products  of  the 
Congo  Free  State.  At  present  the  large  collection 
from  that  territory  (which  is  the  private  property  of 
King  Leopold)  is  housed  at  Tervueren,  reached  by  a 
tram-ride  of  about  fifty  minutes  from  Brussels.  In 
addition  to  many  interesting  anthropological  and 
ethnological  objects,  the  collection  contains  a  fine 
mounted  pair  of  okapis,  as  well  as  numerous  antelopes 
and  other  representatives  of  the  mammalian  fauna  of 
the  Congo  State,  not  to  mention  specimens  of  the 
birds,  reptiles,  fishes,  and  lower  forms  of  life. 

R.   L. 


TECHNICAL     EDUCATION     AND     INDUSTRY. 

THE  national  importance  of  a  close  and  strong  re- 
lationship between  science  and  industry  is  shown 
by  Sir  William  Ramsay  in  a  letter  in  Monday's  Times. 
Two  points  upon  which  emphasis  is  laid  are  that 
numerous  scholarships  awarded  by  county  councils  re- 
present an  expenditure  of  public  funds  which  can  do 
little  to  promote  industrial  progress,  and  that  our 
manufacturers  offer  few  openings  for  men  who  have 
received  a  sound  and  scientific  education.  Technical 
education,  as  it  is  understood  in  this  country,  and  as 
most  of  our  technical  schools  are  compelled  to  under- 
stand it  if  they  wish  to  obtain  students,  consists  of 
lectures  on  the  rudiments  of  science,  illustrated  by 
practical  work  of  a  very  elementary  kind.  It  is 
scarcely  necessary  to  say  that  the  training  thus 
received  is  of  "little  value  to  the  students  or 
to  the  community  in  comparison  with  the  work 
carried  on  in  the  technical  high  schools  of  Germany. 
Sir  William  Ramsay  recently  had  an  opportunity  of 
conversing  with  the  manager  of  a  large  chemical 
works  in  Germany,  which  manufactures  no  product 
of  which  it  sells  "less  than  100  tons  a  year,  and  he 
directs  the  attention  of  our  manufacturers  to^  the 
following  facts  as  to  the  connection  between  science 
and  industry  in  Germany. 

The  company  has  seventy  chemists,  of  whom  twenty  are 
employed  in  analysing  the  raw  materials  and  intermediate 
and  finished  products ;  twenty-five  are  engaged  in  super- 
intending the  processes  of  manufacture  ;  and  the  remaining 
twenty-five  are  exclusively  employed  in  scientific  work — i.e. 
in  endeavouring  to  improve  the  present  processes^  of  manu- 
facture, and  in  trying  new  suggestions,  either  their  own,  or 
those  brought  to  the  notice  of  the  firm  by  patentees.  Almost 
all  these  chemists  have  been  trained  in  universities,  but  a 
few  come  from  technical  high  schools  or  Polytechnika.  It 
is  common  for  the  best  of  such  men  to  receive  a  "  call  " 
to  a  chair  in  a  university  or  a  Polytechnikum,  and  it  is  also 
usual  for  a  company  to  offer  a  lucrative  post  to  one  who 
already  holds  a  chair,  even  though  he  may  have  had  no 
technical  experience,  and  in  this  way  a  close  bond  has  been 


'^E 


October 


D» 


1903] 


NATURE 


S17 


ablished  between  science  and  industry  to  the  enormous 
advantage  of  both. 

A  large  part  of  the  duties  of  the  director  consists  in 
attending  congresses  and  in  every  way  keeping  abreast  of 
the  most  recent  discovery,  with  the  object,  of  course,  of 
gaining  information  which  may  be  turned  to  practical 
utility. 

While  in  Germany  there  is  thus  a  fairly  lucrative  career 
for  a  young  chemist,  in  England,  although  there  will  soon 
be  many  well-trained  men,  the  openings  are  few.  Such  as 
there  are  are  filled  by  men  whose  minds  are  occupied  with 
too  many  things.  The  chemist  is  often  analyst,  works- 
manager,  and  investigator  all  at  once  ;  and  it  is  no  wonder 
that  he  is  not  a  success,  and  that  manufacturers  doubt  his 
utility  in  their  business.  Moreover,  it  is  very  desirable 
that  a  closer  touch  between  universities  or  university 
iDlleges  and  manufactures  should  be  brought  about,  if 
possible,  for  it  cannot  fail  to  be  to  the  advantage  of  both 
industry  and  science — to  industry,  in  order  that  technical 
problems  may  receive  scientific  treatment,  and  to  science, 
1  ("cause  some  of  the  most  interesting  problems  are  often 
L^'gested  by  the  technologist. 

Now,   we  are  producing  trained  engineers  and   chemists 
:te  as  inventive  and  capable  as  our  German  competitors. 
a    the   prospect    of   a   reasonably    remunerative    career   is 
iierally  wanting.     It  would  obviously  be  to  the  advantage 
manufacturers  to  engage  such   young  men,   not  expect- 
4  them,  of  course,  to  be  able  at  first  to  introduce  improve- 
nts  which  will  effect  a  saving;  but  by  looking  out  for 
yuung  men  with  some  originality,  by  giving  them  time  to 
iearn   their  business,    and   by   offering   an   ultimate   induce- 
ment in  the  shape  of  a  share  of  profits,  our  manufacturers 
will   undoubtedly   reap   the   benefits   which   have   given   our 
German    competitors    their    lead    in    industries    in    which 
chemistry  plays  a  part. 


NOTES. 

At  the  Institution  of  Civil  Engineers  on  Tuesday, 
November  3,  an  inaugural  address  will  be  given  by  the 
president.  Sir  William  H.  White,  K.C.B.,  F.R.S.  ;  the 
medals  and  other  awards  made  by  the  council  will  be  pre- 
sented, and  there  will  be  a  reception  in  the  library  of  the 
Institution. 

Mr.  Marconi  arrived  at  Liverpool  on  board  the  Lucania 
last  Saturday.  The  results  of  his  experiments  are  said  to 
have  been  very  satisfactory  ;  whilst  in  mid-Atlantic  he  was 
able  to  receive  simultaneously  communications  from 
England  and  America.  It  is  also  stated  that  he  hopes 
within  six  or  eight  months  to  re-establish  commercial  com- 
munication across  the  Atlantic. 

The  trials  of  the  high-speed  electric  cars  on  the  Berlin- 
Zossen  military  line  have  been  continued  with  much  success. 
A  maximum  speed  of  125^  miles  an  hour  was  attained  by 
the  Siemens-Halske  car  last  week  ;  the  average  speed  over 
the  whole  run  of  14  miles,  including  the  time  of  starting 
and  stopping,  was  1095  miles  an  hour.  The  trials  of  the 
rival  car,  which  the  Allgemeine  Elektricitiits  Gesellschaft 
is  building,  have  yet  to  be  made.  The  track  has  been 
relaid  since  the  experimental  runs  last  year,  and  it  is  stated 
that  it  is  now  thoroughly  satisfactory.  The  result  of  the 
trials  is  looked  upon  as  demonstrating  the  practicability  of 
high  speed  working  over  long  distances,  and  it  is  estimated 
that  it  will  be  possible  to  reduce  the  time  taken  over  the 
journey  from  Berlin  to  Colop'ne  from  nine  to  three  and  a 
quarter  hours. 

The  secretary  of  the  Institution  of  Electrical  Engineers 
informs  us  that  the  bronze  shield  subscribed  for  by  the 
students  of  the  Institution  at  the  beginning  of  the  present 
year  has  now  been  placed  upon  the  tomb  of  Volta  at 
Camnago,  near  Como.  The  ceremony  of  fixing  it  in  place 
was  performed  on  Sunday,  October  4,  with  many  ex- 
pressions of  international  good  feeling,   in  the  presence  of 


NO.    1772,   VOL.   O   J^] 


Prof.  Count  Alessandro  Volta,  Cav,  Franchi,  the  Sindaco 
of  Camnago,  with  several  members  of  the  Volta  family  and 
a  number  of  other  guests.  The  shield  is  mounted  on  a  slab 
of  green  marble  supported  on  granite  in  front  of  the  tomb. 
The  electrotype  reproduction,  which  was  officially  deposited 
on  the  tomb  on  the  occasion  of  the  visit  of  the  Institution 
in  April  last,  has  been  transferred  to  the  Civic  Museum  in 
Como,  where  it  is  placed  in  the  collection  of  Volta  relics. 

Dr.  W.  a.  Noyes,  of  the  Rose  Polytechnic  Institute,  has 
accepted  the  position  of  chemist  in  the  United  States 
National  Bureau  of  Standards. 

Dr.  B.  a.  Whitelegge,  C.B.,  His  Majesty's  Chief  In- 
spector of  Factories,  has  been  appointed  president  of  the 
Epidemiological  Society  in  succession  to  the  late  Dr.  W.  H. 
Corfield. 

An  International  Fine  Art  and  Horticultural  Exhibition 
is  to  be  opened  at  Diisseldorf  on  May  i,  1904.  A  hope  is 
expressed  that  England  will  contribute  largely  to  this 
exhibition. 

Reuter  reports  that  Prof.  Langley's  aerodrome,  for  which 
the  U.S.  Government  granted  a  subvention  of  15,000/.,  was 
launched  on  October  7  from  the  railway  over  the  flat  boat 
on  Whitewater,  a  section  of  the  Potomac  River.  The 
machine  balanced  perfectly  when  it  started,  but  soon  struck 
the  water,  with  the  result  that  it  was  wrecked.  Previous 
experiments  have  been  made  with  models  only,  and  this 
trial  was  the  first  made  with  the  full-sized  airship,  which 
is  constructed  to  carry  a  passenger. 

The  Home  Counties  Nature-Study  Exhibition,  which  is 
being  organised  by  the  Middlesex  Field  Club  and  Nature- 
Study  Society,  and  delegates  from  the  Selborne  Society, 
will  be  held  from  October  30  to  November  3  at  the  offices  of 
the  Civil  Service  Commission,  Burlington  Gardens,  London, 
W.  Intending  exhibitors  should  communicate  with  the 
honorary  secretary,  Mr.  Wilfred  Mark  Webb,  20  Hanover 
Square,  London,  W.,  who  will  be  pleased  to  supply  full 
information. 

We  learn  from  Science  that  the  American  Grape  Acid 
Association,  318  Front  Street,  San  Francisco,  Cal.,  offers 
a  premium  of  5000/.  for  any  person  who  devises  a  process 
or  formula  for  the  utilisation  of  California  grapes  contain- 
ing more  than  20  per  cent,  of  saccharin,  worth  2I.  a  ton, 
to  produce  tartaric  acid  at  a  price  that  would  permit  of 
exportation  without  loss.  The  decision  in  awarding  the 
amount  is  to  rest  with  a  jury  of  five,  of  which  Prof.  E.  W. 
Hilgard,  of  the  University  of  California,  is  one.  The  offer 
closes  on  December  i,  1904. 

The  first  meeting  of  the  Manchester  Astronomical  Society 
— a  new  local  association  of  persons  interested  in  astronomy 
and  observational  work — was  held  on  Wednesday,  October 
7, .  when  an  address  on  solar  parallax  was  given  by  the 
president,  Prof.  T.  Gore.  The  Society  has  its  centre  and 
home  in  the  Municipal  School  of  Technology,  Manchester, 
and  members  have  the  privilege  of  using  the  telescopes  and 
other  instruments  in  the  new  Godlee  Observatory. 

The  death  is  announced  of  Mr.  Henry  M.  Brunei,  the 
second  son  of  I.  K.  Brunei,  the  engineer.  Mr.  Henry 
Brunei  entered  into  partnership  with  Sir  John  Wolfe  Barry 
in  the  'seventies  of  last  century,  and  took  active  interest  in 
the  scientific  researches  bearing  upon  naval  architecture 
carried  on  by  the  late  Mr.  William  Froude,  F.R.S.  He 
was  largely  associated  in  the  work  of  Barry  Dock,  the  rail- 
way bridge  over  the  Thames  at  Blackfriars,  the  bridge 
erected  at  Connel  Ferry,  and  with  the  Tower  Bridge.  He 
was  a  member  of  the  Institution  of  Civil  Engineers  and  of 
the  Institute  of  Naval  Architects. 


578 


NATURE 


[October  15,  1903 


An  excessive  downpour  of  rain  is  reported  from  New 
York  on  October  8-g,  amounting-  to  more  than  ten  inches 
in  thirty  hours.  This  is  said  to  be  the  greatest  fall  at  that 
place  since  the  Weather  Bureau  was  established  there,  in 
1867,  and  has  caused  great  damage  to  property.  The  streets 
resembled  rivers,  and  in  some  parts  the  water  rose  waist- 
deep.  The  train  service  between  New  York  and  Phila- 
delphia was  temporarily  suspended ;  the  Delaware 
River  rose  to  the  highest  level  ever  known,  and  several 
bridges  have  collapsed.  Since  1889,  the  U.S.  Weather 
Bureau  has  published  tables  of  excessive  rainfall  from  self- 
recording  gauges.  We  have  referred  to  these,  and  find 
that,  although  such  excessive  falls  do  occur  from  time  to 
time,  they  are  of  rare  occurrence.  During  the  years  1889- 
1896,  for  instance,  the  highest  record  was  986  inches  in 
twenty-four  hours,  at  Jacksonsville  (Florida),  in  September, 
1894. 

We  have  received  the  report  of  the  director  of  the 
Philippine  Weather  Bureau,  1902,  part  iii.,  contain- 
ing very  clearly  printed  hourly  observations  of  atmo- 
spheric phenomena  at  the  Manila  Central  Observatory,  with 
hourly  and  monthly  means.  The  extreme  daily  values  of 
each  of  the  elements  are  brought  together  in  a  separate 
table.  This  is  one  of  the  few  observatories  at  which  observ- 
ations of  ozone  are  taken.  Parts  iv.  and  v.  still  remain  to 
be  published,  and  will  contain  magnetic  observations  and 
the  results  for  the  secondary  stations  of  the  Archipelago. 
The  complete  series  will  form  a  valuable  contribution  to 
the  climatology  of  the  Far  East. 

W'e  have  received  the  report  of  the  Hong  Kong  Observ- 
atory for  the  year  1902,  containing  hourly  readings  of  the 
different  meteorological  elements,  together  with  some 
magnetic  and  astronomical  observations.  The  weather 
forecasts  issued  during  the  year  have  been  very  satis- 
factory ;  56  per  cent,  were  completely  successful,  and  35  per 
cent,  partially  successful.  According  to  the  practice  usually 
followed  in  dealing  with  the  results,  91  per  cent,  of  the 
forecasts  may  be  therefore  considered  as  more  or  less 
successful.  The  collection  of  observations  at  sea  for  the 
construction  of  trustworthy  monthly  pilot  charts  has  been 
vigorously  continued;  the  number  of  days'  observations 
obtained  during  the  year  was  9073,  while  the  total  number 
of  sets  now  collected  amounts  to  nearly  261,000.  The 
area  dealt  with  lies  between  9°  S.  and  45°  N.  latitude,  and 
between  the  longitude  of  Singapore  and  180°  east. 

M.  K.  Olszewski  describes  in  the  Cracow  Bulletin  a 
new  apparatus  for  the  liquefaction  of  hydrogen,  differing 
from  his  previous  models  in  having  both  regenerators  and 
the  intermediate  cooler  for  receiving  liquid  air  all  placed 
in  a  common  vacuum  chamber.  The  apparatus  is  said  to 
work  faultlessly. 

The  formation  of  "  Liesegang's  rings  "  by  the  precipita- 
tion of  silver  chromate  in  gelatin  forms  the  subject  of  a 
paper  by  Messrs.  H.  W'.  Morse  and  G.  W.  Pierce  in  the 
Proceedings  of  the  American  Academy.  The  formation  of 
the  precipitate  in  rings  is  clearly  a  case  of  supersaturation, 
and  the  authors  now  obtain  a  definite  constant  value  for 
the  product  of  the  concentrations  of  the  silver  and  chromate 
ions  in  order  that  supersaturation  may  take  place. 

Several  papers  on  the  so-called  N  rays  discovered  by 
M.  Blondlot  are  printed  in  the  Journal  de  Physique  for 
August.  M.  Blondlot  shows  that  these  rays  are  of  common 
occurrence,  being  emitted  by  an  Auer  lamp  and  an  in- 
candescent silver  lamina,  and  being  present  in  sunlight. 
M.  G.  Sagnac  describes  determinations  of  the  wave-length 
of  these  rays  by  means  of  their  diffraction.  It  appears 
NO.    1772,  VOL.  68] 


that  the  rays  in  question  are  about  two  octaves  below  th> 
Rubens  infra-red  rays,  and  intermediate  between  these  an  1 
the  Hertzian  radiations  of  Lampa.  Their  wave-length  i- 
about  02  of  a  millimetre. 

Several  writers  have  raised  difficulties  in  connection  wiili 
Boltzmann's  minimum  theorem  in  the  kinetic  theory  of 
gases  on  the  ground  of  the  reversibility  of  the  motions  ot 
the  individual  gas-molecules.  Some  remarks  on  this  point 
are  contributed  by  Dr.  A.  Pannekoek  to  the  Proceedinj^^ 
of  the  Amsterdam  Academy.  For  the  case  considered  the 
author  finds  that  when  in  a  purely  mechanical  reversibh 
process,  which  is  repeated  a  number  of  times,  a  small 
variation  in  the  initial  data  causes  a  large  variation  in  thf 
final  state,  the  total  process  assumes  the  properties  of  an 
irreversible  process. 

Some  observations  made  in  the  Arosa  Valley  on  atmo- 
spheric electricity  at  high  altitudes  are  described  by  Mr. 
W.  Saake  in  the  Physikalische  Zeitschrift,  23.  The  most 
noteworthy  results  were  the  observation  of  a  negative  fall 
of  potential  on  certain  clear  and  cloudless  winter  days,  the 
facts  that  the  coefficient  of  electric  dispersion  of  electricity 
was  increased  by  the  Fohn  and  that  under  normal  con- 
ditions the  coefficient  of  negative  dispersion  attained  a 
maximum  at  about  8  a.m.  and  between  4  and  5  p.m.,  and 
the  large  capacity  of  the  atmosphere  for  radio-active  eman- 
ation, which  was  about  three  times  as  great  as  in  Wolfen- 
biittel. 

The  Hopkins-Stanford  Expedition  to  the  Galapagos 
Islands  in  1898-99  turns  out  to  have  been  remarkably 
successful  in  the  matter  of  new  species  of  marine  fishes 
from  that  area.  According  to  a  paper  by  Messrs.  Heller 
and  Snodgrass,  published  in  the  Proceedings  of  the 
Washington  Academy  (vol.  v.  pp.  189-229),  the  number  of 
novelties  is  twenty-three,  of  which  no  less  than  five  are 
regarded  as  indicating  new  generic  types.  Most  of  the 
species  are  figured  in  the  plates  accompanying  the  memoir, 
and  we  may  particularly  direct  attention  to  the  excellent 
effect  produced  by  the  sepia-like  printing  of  plates  8  and  9. 

In  the  October  issue  of  Bird  Notes  and  News,  attention 
is  directed  to  the  power  now  possessed  by  county  councils 
of  extending  protection  during  winter  to  birds  of  any  kind, 
and  the  value  of  this  to  many  resident  species.  The  intro- 
duction last  July  into  Parliament  of  a  Bill  to  abolish  the 
pole-trap  is  likewise  the  subject  of  a  commendatory  note. 
A  letter  from  Colonel  Irby,  which  appeared  in  the  Saturday 
Review  of  July  18,  on  the  subject  of  taking  rare  birds  and 
their  eggs  for  so-called  scientific  purposes  is  reproduced. 
In  this  communication  the  writer  directs  attention  to  the 
shooting  of  a  pair  of  pratincoles  last  spring  near  Romney, 
and  likewise  to  the  taking  of  a  nest  of  the  blue-headed 
wagtail  near  Winchelsea. 

The  Century  Magazine  for  October  contains  an  account 
by  Mr.  L.  O.  Howard  of  the  recent  investigations  which 
have  served  to  connect  the  propagation  of  yellow  fever  with 
a  certain  species  of  mosquito  {Culex  aeniatus).  A  map 
(after  Mr.  Theobald)  is  given  of  the  distribution  of  this 
mosquito,  which  coincides  exactly  with  that  of  yellow  fever. 
To  protect  oneself  from  the  malaria  mosquito,  it  is  only 
necessary  to  use  gauze  curtains  at  night ;  the  yellow  fever 
mosquito,  on  the  other  hand,  is  a  diurnal  species,  so  that 
escape  from  its  stab  is  a  matter  of  much  greater  difficulty. 
In  a  well-illustrated  article  in  the  same  journal  entitled 
"  The  Wild  Bird  by  a  New  Approach,"  Mr.  F.  H.  Herrick 
comments  on  the  revival  of  interest  in  nature  generally, 
and  natural  history  in  particular,  which  has  taken  place  of 
late  years  in  the  United  States.     Birds  have  been  specially 


October  15,  1903] 


NATURE 


579 


\ 


favoured  in  this  respect,  and  the  author  directs  attention 
to  the  amount  of  information  with  regard  to  their  habits 
obtainable  by  the  new  method  of  photography  at  short 
distances,  to  which  allusion  has  been  previously  made  in 
these  columns. 

We  have  received  a  copy  of  the  eighth  report  on  the 
periodic  variations  of  glaciers,  by  Dr.  S.  Finsterwalder  and 
E.  Muret  i^Arch,  des  Sc.  phys.  et  nat.,  Geneve). 

We  have  received  from  the  Queensland  Department  of 
Mines,  Geological  Survey  Reports,  Nos.  i8i  and  183,  by 
Mr.  Walter  E.  Cameron.  The  author  deals  with  recent 
mining  developments  on  the  Ravenswood  Gold  Field,  where 
rather  more  than  2  oz.  7  dwt.  of  gold  per  ton  has  been 
raised  during  the  past  three  years.  He  also  gives  further 
particulars  relating  to  coal,  and  gold,  silver,  and  copper 
ores  in  the  Mackay  and  Bowen  districts. 

Prof.  W.  M.  Davis  has  sent  us  copies  of  two  recent 
essays  on  earth  sculpture  (Bull.  Mus.  Comp.  Zool.,  Harvard 
Coll.,  vol.  xlii.).  One  deals  with  the  plateau  province  of 
Utah  and  Arizona.  Evidence  is  given  to  show  that  the 
greater  part  of  the  faulting  had  been  accomplished  before 
the  uplift  of  the  region  by  which  the  erosion  of  the  Colorado 
canyon  was  initiated,  but  some  modern  faulting  of  large 
amount  has  taken  place.  The  other  essay  is  on  the  moun- 
tain ranges  of  the  Great  Basin,  in  which  the  author  deals 
with  the  effects  of  erosion  on  faulted  mountain-blocks. 

The  surface  geology  of  Cheshire  in  its  relation  to  agri- 
culture is  dealt  with  by  Mr.  William  Edwards  (Proc.  Liver- 
pool Geol.  Soc,  vol.  ix.  part  iii.).  He  refers  to  the  Drift 
soils,  but  more  especially  to  those  derived  from  Triassic 
rocks.  The  Keuper  Marls  yield  some  of  the  best  soils, 
owing  to  their  mineral  ingredients,  to  their  physical  proper- 
ties, and  in  part  to  their  colour.  The  author  observes  that 
most  of  our  best  soils  have  a  deep  red  colour,  and  probably 
the  value  of  this  colour  depends  upon  its  power  to  absorb 
the  heat  rays  of  the  sun. 

The  general  report  of  the  work  carried  on  by  the  Geo- 
logical Survey  of  India  for  the  year  1902-1903  has  been 
drawn  up  by  the  new  director,  Mr.  T.  H.  Holland. 
Economic  inquiries  have  been  made  with  regard  to  coal, 
chromite,  fire-clay,  gold,  iron,  manganese,  lead,  petroleum, 
&c.  Field-work  was  carried  out  in  seven  districts.  In  the 
report  on  the  Punjab  area,  reference  is  made  to  evidence 
brought  forward  by  Dr.  Noetling,  that  in  the  Salt  Range 
the  sedimentary  series  from  Cambrian  to  Tertiary  has  been 
thrust  bodily  in  a  southerly  direction  over  the  salt-marl, 
and  that  the  marl  is  not  pre-Cambrian,  but  simply  belongs 
to  the  Tertiary  salt-bearing  formation,  like  that  repre- 
sented at  Kohat. 

We  have  received  from  Messrs.  Darbishire  and  Stanford, 
of  the  Oxford  Geographical  Institute,  Oxford,  specimens  of 
a  new  series  of  outline  maps  which  they  are  issuing  under 
the  title  of  the  "  Autograph  Handmaps,"  at  the  price  of 
one  penny  each.  The  feature  of  the  series  is  that,  besides 
showing  the  coast  lines  and  the  principal  rivers,  the  chief 
hill  features  of  the  country  are  indicated  by  a  very  ex- 
pressive scheme  of  shading,  which  renders  the  pictorial 
value  of  the  maps,  and  therefore  their  value  in  elementary 
teaching,  decidedly  greater  than  is  the  case  where  contour 
lines  are  employed.  The  execution  is  somewhat  unequal, 
but  generally  good  ;  the  maps  of  the  British  Isles,  Scotland, 
and  Ireland  are  the  best.  We  note  that  in  most  cases  the 
name  of  the  projection  on   which  the  map   is  drawn,   the 

NO.    1772,  VOL.  68] 


natural  scale,  and  scales  of  miles  and  kilometres,  are  given. 
The  maps  are  printed  in  a  dull  brown  colour,  so  that 
additional  matter  introduced  by  teacher  or  pupil  stands 
clearly  out.  The  maps  are  a  valuable  addition  to  the  equip- 
ment available  for  teaching  geography,  and  as  such  should 
be  heartily  welcomed. 

In  the  Cracow  Bulletin,  Mr.  Ed.  Janczewski  proposes  a 
new  classification  of  the  species  belonging  to  the  genus 
Ribes.  The  author  distinguishes  six  subgenera,  four  of 
which  (Ribesia,  Berisia,  Grossularioides,  and  Grossularia) 
are  characterised  by  scarious  scales,  while  in  the  other  two 
(Calobotrya  and  Coreosma)  the  scales  are  herbaceous. 

The  early  cell  divisions  in  the  germinating  spore  of  the 
liverwort  Pellia  form  the  subject  of  a  paper  by  Mr.  C.  J. 
Chamberlain  in  the  Botanical  Gazette.  As  Prof.  Farmer 
originally  showed,  interest  attaches  to  the  nuclear  divisions 
at  this  stage  owing  to  the  appearance  of  a  centrosphere 
and  radiations.  Mr.  Chamberlain  holds  the  opinion  thaJ 
the  radiations  represent  lines  of  streaming  material. 

It  is  known  that  the  red  and  blue  colours  of  many  flowers 
and  fruits  are  due  to  the  pigment  anthocyanin,  which 
occurs  in  the  cell  sap.  Mr.  T.  Ischimura  has  examined  its 
formation  in  hydrangea  flowers,  and  describes  the  results 
in  the  Journal  of  the  College  of  Science,  Tokio.  In  con- 
formity with  the  reactions  obtained  the  author  concludes 
that  anthocyanin  is  a  tannin,  or  a  tannin  derivative,  and 
shows  that  besides  tannin,  light,  and  generally  sunlight,  is 
necessary  for  its  formation. 

In  the  report  for  the  year  1902-3,  the  director  of  the 
Botanical  Survey  of  India  announces  the  retirement  of  Mr. 
J.  F.  Duthie,  who  held  the  post  of  director  of  the  Botanical 
Department  of  Northern  India.  The  investigations  of  the 
various  kinds  of  Indian  yams  are  being  continued,  and 
cultivations  of  fibre  plants  are  being  undertaken  in  order 
to  determine  the  sources  of  the  fibres  classed  as  Indian 
hemp.  Mr.  C.  A.  Barber  refers  to  a  disease  known  as 
"  spike  "  which  is  destroying  the  sandal  wood  plantations 
of  Mysore  and  Coorg,  and  also  reports  the  appearance  of 
a  species  of  fungus  on  cholam  leaves,  similar  to  one  which 
is  very  destructive  to  the  sugar  cane. 

A  USEFUL  little  book  on  "  Hardy  Perennials,"  by  Mr. 
D.  S.  Fish,  has  been  published  in  the  Rural  Handbook 
Series  by  Messrs.  Dawbarn  and  Ward,  Ltd.  Amateur 
gardeners  will  find  in  the  book  practical  hints  on  the  selec- 
tion, arrangement,  and  cultivation  of  many  hardy  garden 
flowers. 

Messrs.  Ross,  Ltd.,  have  issued  recently  an  abridged 
catalogue  for  1903,  and  a  new  edition  of  their  "  C  "  cata- 
logue. Both  lists  are  beautifully  illustrated  with  reproduc- 
tions of  photographs  taken  with  Ross,  Ross-Zeiss,  and 
Ross-Goerz  lenses,  and  contain  full  information  of  photo- 
graphic and  other  optical  apparatus. 

We  have  received  a  second  edition  of  the  discourses  by  Dr. 
Stephan  Waetzoldt  bearing  the  title  "  Die  Jugendsprache 
Goethe's"  and  "Goethe  und  die  Romantik,"  the  first 
edition  of  which  was  printed  in  1888.  An  addition  has  now 
been  made  in  the  form  of  a  third  discourse  dealing  with 
the  ballads  of  Goethe  and  their  origin. 

All  photographers  will  find  something  of  value  and 
interest  in  the  first  number  of  the  Practical  Photographer — 
that  for  October.     Not  only  is  photography  regarded  from 


58o 


NATURE 


[October  15,  1903 


its  scientific  side  by  chemists  and  others,  but  the  artistic 
aspects  of  the  photographer's  work  are  dealt  with  in  a 
helpful  manner  by  experienced  writers.  The  magazine  is 
admirably  illustrated  by  a  profusion  of  well  executed  plates, 
and  is  published  by  Messrs.  Hodder  and  Stoughton. 

Messrs.  F.  E.  Becker  and  Co.,  of  Hatton  Wall,  London, 
are  manufacturing  cheap  electric  switchboards  for  use  in 
physical  laboratories  supplied  with  continuous  current,  de- 
signed by  Mr.  William  Bennett,  of  the  Gravesend  Technical 
School.  It  is  claimed  that  by  this  method  it  is  impossible 
fo"-  students  to  short  circuit  the  mains,  as  only  one  wire  is 
carried  round  the  room.  A  switch  block  is  provided  in  each 
working  place,  and  all  students  have  the  same  current,  but 
any  student  can  switch  the  current  on  or  off  without  in- 
terrupting others.  The  boards  are  supplied  with  resist- 
ances, instruments  for  measuring  current,  and  other  neces- 
sary adjuncts. 

We  have  received  the  thirty-sixth  volume,  that  for  1902, 
of  the  Journal  and  Proceedings  of  the  Royal  Society  of  New 
South  Wales.  The  original  papers  contained  in  the  first 
part  of  the  volume  are  seventeen  in  number,  and  many  of 
them  are  illustrated  by  plates,  of  which  there  are  no  less 
than  twenty-one.  The  volume  concludes  with  the  annual 
address  delivered  to  the  engineering  section  of  the  Society, 
and  two  papers  also  read  to  the  same  section.  As  abstracts 
of  the  papers  read  before  the  Society  are  periodically  pub- 
lished in  Nature,  it  only  remains  to  be  said  that  the  scien- 
tific work  of  the  Society,  as  represented  by  the  contents 
of  the  volume  before  us,  does  honour  to  the  colony  of  New 
South  Wales. 

The  additions  to  the  Zoological  Society's  Gardens  during 
the  past  week  include  two  Black  Lemurs  (Lemur  macaco) 
from  Madagascar,  presented  by  Mr.  Walter  Barnes;  a 
South  African  Hornbill  (Bucorvus  cafer)  from  South  Africa, 
presented  by  Mr.  W.  Champion ;  two  Larger  Patagonian 
Conures  (Cyanolyseus  hyroni)  from  Chili,  presented  by  Mr. 
E.  C.  Davids ;  two  Grey-winged  Ouzels  (Merula  boulboul) 
from  India,  an  Adelaide  Parrakeet  (Platycercus  adelaidae) 
from  Australia,  three  Derbian  Sternotheres  (Sternothaerus 
derbianus)  from  West  Africa,  two  Adorned  Terrapins 
(Chrysemys  ornata)  from  Central  America,  four  Brazilian 
Tortoises  (Testudo  tabulata),  four  Orbicular  Horned  Lizards 
(Phrynosoma  orbiculare)  from  Brazil,  deposited. 


OUR  ASTRONOMICAL   COLUMN. 

Reported  Discovery  of  a  Nova. — A  telegram  received 
from  the  Kiel  Centralstelle  on  October  5  announced  that 
Prof.  Wolf  had  discovered  what  was  probably  a  new  star 
on  the  evening  of  September  21.  He  found  the  position  of 
the  object,  reduced  to  the  equinox  of  1903,  to  be  R.A.  = 
2oh.  14m.  6-8s.,  Dec.  =  -1-37°  9'  49",  and  reported  that  its 
spectrum  was  of  the  nebular  type. 

A  further  communication  received  from  Kiel  announces, 
however,  that  a  telegram  received  from  Prof.  Pickering 
states  that  the  object  is  not  a  Nova,  but  a  variable  having 
a  spectrum  of  the  fourth  type,  whilst  another  telegram  from 
Prof.  Hale  announces  that  Barnard  has  identified  the  sup- 
posed Nova  with  the  star  B.D. -h  37°.3876  (R.A.  = 
2oh.  14m.  6.8s.,  Dec.  =  -f-37°  9'  47").  and  found  the  colour 
to  be  "very  red."  Dr.  Parkhurst  determined  the  magni- 
tude of  the  variable  on  October  5,  and  found  it  to  be  io-6. 

1903-4  Ephemeris  for  Winnecke's  Periodical  Comet. — 
The  elements  and  ephemeris  of  Winnecke's  comet  for  its 
appearance  during  1903-4  have  been  calculated  by  Herr  C. 
Killebrand,  of  Graz,  and  are  published  in  No.  3907  of  the 
Astronomische  Nachrichten.  The  elements  and  part  of  tht 
ephemeris  are  given  below  : —    .  - 


NO.    1772,  VOL.  68] 


M  = 


Epoch  =  igo4 /an.  24-0  (M.T.  Berlin). 
o     28     I  "61 


TT      =     274        19    45-401 

<^  =  45 

38'  o"-i2 

ft  =    104     12  36-44  1- 

1903-0                   M  =  608' 

801706 

i    = 

16    59  5478J 

Perihelion  =  1904  Jan  21-24 

Ephemetisoh.  (M.T.Berlin). 

1903 

h.V.'^-s. 

«  app.               log  r 

log  A 

Nov.     I 

••  133554-28. 

.  +1  it  47-0  ...  0-166981 

..  0-374761 

..       3 

•■  13  41  4941  • 

.  -f0  35    3-6 

••  1347  5073- 

.  -0    2    5-9  ...0155366 

..  0  366226 

••  13  53  58-38 

■  -03940-7 

..  14    0  12-47  . 

.  -I  1739-6  ...  0-143512 

..0-357652 

..  14    633-07. 

.  -I  56    2-0 

•    14  13    0-47. 

.  -23446-1  .. .0-131432 

••  0-349133 

..  14  1934-92. 

•  -3  1350-8 

..  14  26  16-54  . 

•  -3  53  13-8  ...  0-119153 

..  0-340701 

•  •  14  33    5-45  • 

•  -43253*3 

„     21 

..  14  40    I -.91  . 

.  -5  12  469  ...  0-106706 

..  0-332417 

»     23 

..  1447    618 

•  -55252-6 

>>     25 

..  1454  18-36  . 

..  -633    7-1  ...0-094136 

..  0324344 

»     27 

..  15    I  38-61  . 

.  -7  1327-7 

M         29 

..  15    9    7-05  . 

•  -7  S3  507  ...0081493 

..  0-316550 

Diameter  of  Neptune. — Herr  C.  W.  Wirtz,  Strassburg, 
publishes  the  results  of  a  series  of  measurements  of  the 
diameter  of  Neptune,  made  by  him  during  the  period 
December,  1902-March,  1903,  in  No.  3907  of  the  Astrono- 
mische Nachrichten.  As  the  mean  result  of  forty-nine 
measurements,  made  on  twenty-six  evenings,  he  obtained 
2". 303  with  a  possible  error  of  ±o".044  for  the  value  of  the 
diameter. 

Taking  the  value  of  the  solar  parallax  as  8''.8o,  and 
Bessell's  dimensions  for  the  earth,  this  gives  the  actual 
diameter  of  Neptune  as  50,251  km.  and  the  mean  density 
of  the  planet  as  154,  the  density  of  the  earth  being  taken 
as  5-53-  . 

The  Opposition  of  Eros  in  1905. — In  No.  73  of  the 
Harvard  College  Observatory  Circulars  Prof.  Pickering 
publishes  an  ephemeris  for  Eros  during  the  opposition  of 
1905. 

This  ephemeris  gives  the  Julian  Day,  the  date,  the  R.A. 
(1900)  and  Dec.  (1900),  the  logarithms  of  the  distances  from 
the  sun  and  earth  respectively,  and  the  computed  magnitude 
for  every  tenth  day  from  November  21,  1903,  to  December 
20,  1905  ;  it  has  been  obtained  by  interpolation  from  an 
ephemeris,  for  intervals  of  forty  days,  computed  by  Mr. 
F.  E.  Seagrave  from  the  elements  published  in  the  Berliner 
Jahrbuch  for  1905. 

As  seen  from' the  ephemeris,  the  opposition  of  Eros  during 
1905  will  be  one  of  the  most  unfavourable  oppositions  that 
can  possibly  occur,  for  the  computed  magnitudes  never 
e.xceed  the  twelfth.  Prof.  Pickering  recommends  that 
observations  of  the  light  variations,  both  photographic  and 
visual,  should  be  made  during  the  opposition,  although  Prof. 
Bailey,  working  with  the  13-inc'h  Boyden  telescope  at 
Arequipa  during  the  present  year,  has  obtained  an  excellent 
set  of  light-turves  of  this  planet.  In  general  the  position 
of  the  planet  in  the  sky,  during  the  1905  opposition,  will 
be  nearly  opposite  to  that  which  it  occupied  during  the 
spring  of  190 1,  when  its  variability  was  discovered. 

The     Royal     University     Observatory,     Vienna. — The 

sixteenth  annual  volume  of  the  Vienna  Observatory  Publi- 
cations contains  the  details  of  the  "  zone  observations  "  for 
the  zone  —6°  to  —10°,  made  in  accordance  with  the  pro- 
gramme of  the  Astronomische  Gesellschaft  for  its  star 
catalogue,  and  collected  by  Dr.  Johann  Palisa.  The  observ- 
ations were  made  with  the  iif-inch  Clark  refractor,  and 
the  tables  give  the  position  for  18750,  together  with  the 
usual  reductions. 

The  same  instrument  was  also  used  by  Herr  J.  Rheden 
for  observing  the  opposition  of  Mars  during  the  period 
December  21,  1898-March  16,  1899,  and  the  results  of  these 
observations,  including  eight  excellent  coloured  reproduc- 
tions of  Herr  Rheden 's  drawings,  forni  the  second  part  of 
the  publication. 

The  third  and  last  section  is  devoted  to  the  meteorological 
observations  made  during  the  years  1897,  1898,  i8q9  and 
1900. 


October  15,  1903] 


NATURE 


581 


THE    BRITISH    ASSOCIATION. 
SECTION   L. 

EDUCATIONAL  SCIENCE. 

Opening  Address  by  Sir  William  de  W.  Abney,  K.C.B., 
D.C.L.,  D.Sc,  F.R.S.,  President  of  the  Section. 

The  Section  over  which  I  have  the  honour  to  preside 
deals  with  every  branch  of  education.  It  is  manifest  that 
in  an  Address  your  President  cannot  deal  with  all  of  them, 
and  it  remained  for  me  to  choose  one  on  which  I  might 
remark  with  advantage.  As  my  official  work  during  the 
last  thirty-three  years  has  been  connected  with  education 
in  science,  I  think  I  cannot  do  better  than  take  as  my 
subject  the  action  that  the  State  has  taken  in  encouraging 
this  form  of  education,  and  to  show  that  through  such 
action  there  has  been  a  development  of  scientific  instruction 
amongst  the  artisan  population  and  in  secondary  day 
s'-hools.  The  development  may  not  indeed  have  been  to  the 
\tent  hoped  for,  but  it  yet  remains  that  solid  progress  has 

'■n  made. 

I  have  chosen  the  subject  deliberately,  as  I  find  that  there 
are  very  few  of  those  who  have  the  interests  of  education 
strongly  at  heart,  or  who  freely  criticise  those  who  have 
borne  the  burden  of  the  past,  that  have  any  knowledge  of 
the  trials  and  difficulties  (some  of  its  own  creating,  but 
others  forced  on  it  by  public  opinion)  which  the  State,  as 
represented  by  the  now  defunct  Science  and  Art  Depart- 
ment, had  to  contend  with  in  its  unceasing  missionary 
efforts  in  the  cause  of  scientific  instruction.  I  shall  not 
attempt  to  do  more  than  show  that  whatever  its  defect  may 
have  been  in  tact,  whatever  its  shortcomings  in  method, 
that  Department  still  deserved  well  of  the  country  for  the 
work  that  it  did  in  regard  to  the  fostering  of  scientific 
instruction  in  the  country  at  large. 

As  far  back  as  1852  the  Government  of  the  day,  in- 
fluenced very  largely  by  the  Prince  Consort,  realised  that 
it  had  an  educational  duty  to  perform  to  the  industrial 
classes.  Whether  it  was  influenced  by  philanthropic 
motives  or  from  the  evidence  before  it  that  if  Great  Britain 
was  to  maintain  its  commercial  and  industrial  supremacy 
scientific  instruction  was  a  necessity,  it  matters  little.  The 
fact  remains  that  it  determined  that  the  industrial  classes 
should  have  an  opportunity  of  acquiring  that  particular  kind 
of  knowledge  which  would  be  of  service  to  them  as  crafts- 
men. In  this  year  1852  the  Speech  from  the  Throne  con- 
tained these  words  :  "  The  advancement  of  Fine  Arts  and 
of  Practical  Science  will  be  readily  recognised  by  you  as 
worthy  of  a  great  and  enlightened  nation.  I  have  directed 
that  a  comprehensive  scheme  shall  be  laid  before  you, 
having  in  view  the  promotion  of  those  objects  towards 
v/hich  I  invite  your  aid  and  co-operation." 

It  is  somewhat  remarkable  that  the  then  Ministry,  of 
which  Lord  Derby  was  the  chief  and  Mr.  Disraeli  the 
Chancellor  of  the  Exchequer,  did  not  survive  to  promulgate 
the  scheme,  which  proposed  theoretical  rather  than  practical 
science,  but  that  their  successors,  under  Lord  Aberdeen, 
issued  it  and  commenced  to  carry  it  into  effect.  In  1853 
the  Department  of  Science  and  Art  was  established  under 
the  direction  of  Mr.  Cole.  Since  1835  so-called  Schools  of 
Design  had  been  in  being.  These  came  under  the  new 
Department,  and  it  was  determined  to  establish  science 
classes  for  instruction  in  science,  Dr.  Lyon  Playfair,  the 
well-known  chemist,  being  charged  with'  the  duty.  Play- 
fair  resigned  in  1858,  and  in  1859  Mr.  Cole  induced  a  young 
Engineer  officer,  Lieut.  Donnelly,  to  undertake  the  inspec- 
tion and  organisation  of  science  instruction  throughout  the 
country.  It  was  through  this  officer's  untiring  energy  and 
zeal  that  the  classes  in  science  flourished  and  were  added 
to  at  this  early  stage  of  the  new  Department's  history. 
The  same  energy  was  displayed  by  Donnelly  during  the 
whole  of  his  long  career  in  the  service  of  the  State,  and  I 
feel  that  it  was  fortunate  for  myself  to  have  served  so 
many  years  as  I  did  under  one  to  whom  the  country  at 
large  owes  a  deep  debt  of  gratitude. 

Not  long  ago  he  passed  away  from  us,  and  there  will  be 
no  more  lasting  memorial  to  him  than  that  which  he  him- 
self erected  during  his  lifetime  in  the  fostering  of  that  form 
of  education  which  is  of  such  vital  importance  to  the 
national  well-being. 

To  revert  to  history,   I  may  record  that  the  first  science 


examinations  conducted  by  the  State  took  place  in  May, 
1861,  and,  the  system  of  grants  being  made  on  the  results 
of  examination  having  been  authorised,  the  magnificent 
sum  of  1300/.  was  spent  on  this  occasion  on  the  instruction 
of  650  candidates,  that  number  having  been  examined. 
Thus  early  was  the  system  of  examination  commenced  in 
the  Department's  career,  and  the  method  of  payments  on 
the  results  of  these  examinations  stereotyped  for  many 
years  to  come.  There  is  reason  to  believe  that  the  educa- 
tional e.xperts  of  that  day  considered  that  both  were  essential 
and  of  educational  value,  a  value  which  has  since  been 
seriously  discounted.  Employers  of  labour  in  this  country 
were  not  too  quick  in  discerning  the  advantages  that  must 
ultimately  ensue  from  this  class  of  education  if  properly 
carried  out  and  encouraged.  Theoretically  they  gave 
encouragement,  but  practically  very  little,  and  this  survives 
to  some  extent  even  to  the  present  day.  Some  of  the  fore- 
most employers,  however,  gave  material  encouragement  to 
t'li  formation  of  classes,  insisting  on  their  employees  attend- 
ing evening  instruction  ;  but  conspicuous  above  all  was  Mr. 
Whitworth,  who,  in  1868,  placed  in  the  hands  of  the  De- 
partment the  sum  of  loo.oooZ.,  to  be  devoted  to  the  creation 
of  scholarships,  which  were  to  be  awarded  at  the  annual 
May  examinations.  The  proviso  made  by  him  was  that 
all  competitors  were  to  have  had  experience  in  practical 
work  in  an  engineering  establishment.  Such  candidates, 
it  was  evident,  must  have  found  out  their  own  weakness  in 
education,  and,  by  working  in  science  classes,  could  make 
up  their  deficiencies,  and  the  award  of  these  scholarships 
would  enable  them  to  study  further.  Sir  J. 'Whitworth  was 
far-seeing  and  almost  lived  before  his  age,  but  the  benefits 
that  he  has  conferred,  not  only  on  individuals,  but  on 
science  and  industries,  by  his  generosity  will  make  his 
name  to  be  remembered  for  generations  to  come.  To  have 
been  a  Whitworth  scholar  gives  an  entree  into  various 
Government  and  engineering  posts,  and  we  have  in  the 
front  rank  of  science  men  who  have  held  these  scholarships 
and  whose  names  stand  prominent  in  the  development  of 
engineering. 

Incidentally,  I  may  say  that  no  country  but  this,  for  very 
many  years,  considered  that  instruction  in  science  for  the 
artisan  was-a  large  factor  in  maintaining  and  developing 
industry.  The  educational  interests  of  the  employer  and 
the  foreman  were,  in  some  countries,  well  provided  for, 
but  the  mechanic  was  merely  a  hand,  and  a  "  hand  " 
trained  in  merely  practical  work  he  was  to  remain.  He 
could  not  aspire  to  rise  beyond.  We  may  congratulate  our- 
selves that  such  a  "  caste"  system  does  not  exist  amongst 
ourselves. 

For  the  first  twenty-five  years  of  the  Department  of 
Science  and  Art  the  grants  given  by  Parliament  for  science 
instruction  were  distributed  almost  entirely  amongst  those 
who  were  officially  supposed  to  belong  to  the  industrial 
classes,  and  no  encouragement  was  offered  to  any  higher 
class  in  the  social  scale. 

It  would  take  me  too  long  to  show  that  at  first  the 
industrial  classes  were  very  shy  of  seizing  on  the  advantages 
offered  them.  Suffice  it  to  say  that  they  had  to  be  bribed 
by  the  offer  of  prizes  and  certificates  of  success  to  attend 
instruction,  and  it  was  not  for  several  years  that  the  even- 
ing classes  got  acclimatised  and  became  popular. 

The  evening  instruction  was  then  largely  attended  by 
adults.  That  this  was  the  case  may  be  judged  by  the  fact 
that  the  average  age  of  candidates  who  obtained  successes 
in  advanced  chemistry  was  about  twenty-five  and  in 
elementary  chemistry  about  twenty-one.  I  have  alluded  to 
the  apathy  displayed  by  employers  and  by  the  artisans  in 
th-j  early  days  of  the  Department  of  Science  and  Art.  The 
causes  which  dispelled  it  in  both  employers  and  employed, 
in  regard  to  science  instruction,  will  be  found  in  the  follow- 
ing extract  from  a  report  by  the  Department  of  Science 
and  Art  : — 

"  The  Paris  Exhibition  (1867)  caused  the  work  of  this 
country  to  be  brought  into  close  comparison  with  that  of 
the  rest  of  the  Continent,  and  in  many  points  both  of 
manufacture  and  of  skilled  labour  it  was  found  England 
did  not  stand  in  such  a  good  position  as  she  had  done  a  few 
years  back.  Dr.  Playfair,  in  a  letter  to  the  Times,  drew 
attention  to  this,  attributing  much  if  not  all  the  evil  to  the 
deficiency  of  our  technical  education  among  the  artisan 
class.     The  substance  of  this  letter  was  taken  up  by  many 


NO.    1772,  VOL.  68] 


582 


NATURE 


[October  15,  1903 


persons  of  influence  during  the  autumnal  recess,  and  it  led 
to  a  sort  of  educational  panic,  the  cry  for  technical  educa- 
tion becoming  quite  the  absorbing  topic  among  all  circles 
and  forming  a  considerable  portion  of  the  contents  of  all 
periodicals.  Meetings  were  convened  and  addresses  de- 
livered all  over  the  country,  and  the  question  was  so  much 
ventilated  that  important  changes  were  anticipated  in  the 
educational  arrangements  of  the  country  during  the  coming 
Session  of  Parliament,  which  unfortunately  were  put  off  on 
account  of  the  debates  on  the  Reform  Bill  of  1868. 

"  The  agitation  necessarily  brought  forward  the  work  of 
the  Science  Division  of  the  Science  and  Art  Department, 
and  it  is  not  a  little  remarkable  how  completely  the  system 
which  had  been  growing  up  since  i860  seemed  to  meet 
all  the  requirements  of  the  case,  and  at  the  same  time  how 
few  persons  had  any  idea  of  its  provisions  in  spite  of  all 
that  had  been  done  to  spread  a  knowledge  of  the  scheme. 

"  There  can  be  no  doubt,  however,  but  that  this  six 
years'  work  had  silently,  though  materially,  effected  a 
change  in  the  general  tone  of  feeling  on  the  subject  of 
scientific  education,  and  had  been  the  means  of  preparing 
th-:;  country  for  the  1867  agitation.  The  different  feeling 
among  the  working-classes  on  the  subject  is  forcibly  shown 
in  the  Annual  Report  of  the  Science  and  Art  Department. 
From  this  it  appears  that  in  i860  a  pupil  in  one  of  the 
science  classes  in  Manchester,  a  town  usually  looked  upon 
as  in  advance  of  others,  could  hardly  continue  his  attend- 
ance at  the  class  owing  to  the  taunts  of,  and  ill-treatment 
by.  his  companions.  Nevertheless,  in  the  autumn  of  this 
year,  1867,  hardly  enough  could  be  said  or  done  to  satisfy 
the  desire  for  science  classes  being  formed  for  those  very 
persons  who,  but  six  years  before,  had  considered  attend- 
ance at  a  Government  science  school  as  almost  against  the 
rules  of  their  trade." 

Such  was  the  account  of  1867  given  by  Mr.  G.  C.  T. 
Bartley  (now  Sir  G.  Bartley,  M.P.).  The  plan  adopted  by 
the  Science  and  Art  Department  for  encouraging  instruction 
in  science  was  perhaps  the  best  that  could  be  devised  at  the 
time,  though  we  now  know  that  it  was  capable  of  improve- 
ment. It  may  be  mentioned  that  an  improvement  in  it  was 
made  the  next  year  by  the  introduction  of  a  very  large 
system  of  scholarships,  scholarships  which  have  enabled  the 
possessors  in  some  instances  to  continue  their  studies  at 
universities,  and  several  distinguished  men  owe  their  posi- 
tions to  this  aid.  It  was  in  this  same  year  that  Mr.  Whit- 
worth  established  his  scholarships,  as  before  described. 

I  have  endeavoured  to  give  a  brief  risumi.  of  what  was 
done  during  the  first  fifteen  years  of  the  existence  of  the 
Science  and  Art  Department,  and  it  continued  to  expand 
its  operations  after  1868  on  the  same  lines  for  another  ten 
years.  In  1876  your  President  became  connected  with  the 
Department  as  a  Science  Inspector.  I  am  sure  the  Section 
will  forgive  me  if  I  am  somewhat  personal  for  a  few 
moments.  During  the  previous  eight  years  I  had  had  the 
honour  of  being  a  teacher  of  some  branches  of  physical 
science  at  the  School  of  Military  Engineering,  and  my  own 
training  was  such  that  I  had  formed  a  very  definite  opinion 
as  to  how  science  instruction  should  be  imparted,  both  to 
those  who  had  a  good  general  education  and  also  to  those 
who  had  not.  The  method  was  the  same  in  both  cases  :  it 
should  be  taught  practically.  I  may  say  that  though  I  had 
not  myself  had  the  advantage  of  being  taught  it  at  school, 
I  had  learned  all  the  science  I  knew  practically,  and  I 
entered  the  Department  fully  impressed  with  this  view. 
Whenever  possible  I  have  until  the  present  time  endeavoured 
to  impress  this  view  on  all  who  were  interested  in  the  work 
of  the  Department.  Much  of  the  science  that  was  taught 
in  State-supported  classes  was  largely  book  work  and  cram, 
and  the  theoretical  instruction  as  a  rule  was  unillustrated 
by  experiment.  This  was  undoubtedly  due  to  the  system 
of  payments  being  based  on  success  at  the  examinations. 
I  must  here  say  that  there  were  honourable  exceptions  to 
this  procedure.  There  were  teachers,  then  as  now,  who 
knew  the  subjects  they  taught,  and  who  were  inspired  by 
a  genuine  love  of  their  calling.  I  can  in  my  mind's  eye 
recall  many  such,  some  of  whom  have  Joined  the  majority 
and  others  who  are  still  at  work  and  as  successful  now  as 
then  in  rousing  the  enthusiasm  of  their  students. 

I  am  not  one  of  those  who  think,  as  some  do,  that 
cramming  is  entirely  pernicious.  A  good  deal  of  what  used 
to  be  taught  at  public  schools  in  my  days  was  cram.       It 


NO.    1772,  VOL.  68] 


served  its  purpose  at  the  time  in  sharpening  the  memory, 
and  was  a  useful  exercise,  and  it  did  not  much  matter  if  in 
after  years  much  of  it  was  forgotten.  If  the  cramming  is 
in  science,  a  few  facts  called  back  to  mind  in  after  life  are 
better  than  never  having  had  the  chance  at  all.  In  fact, 
as  the  faded  beauty  replied  to  the  born  plain  friend,  it  is 
better  to  be  one  of  the  "  have  beens  "  than  a  "  never 
wasn't." 

It  was  determined  to  make  a  vigorous  onslaught  against 
teaching  that  was  unillustrated  by  experiment  and  to 
encourage  practical  teaching  as  far  as  could  be  done. 
Proper  apparatus  for  illustrating  lectures  was  insisted  upon, 
and,  with  aid  from  the  Department,  was  eventually  pro- 
vided, though  in  some  instances  several  years'  pressure  had 
to  be  exercised  before  it  was  obtained.  I  am  bound  to  say 
that  in  many  instances  after  it  had  been  procured  a  surprise 
visit  by  the  inspector  during  the  hours  of  instruction  often 
found  that  the  lecture  table  was  free  from  all  encumbrance, 
and  that  the  dust  of  weeks  was  upon  the  apparatus  that 
should  have  been  in  use.  This  was  sometimes  due  to  the 
inability  of  the  teacher  to  use  the  apparatus  rather  than  to 
a  wish  to  disregard  the  rules  laid  down  by  the  Department  ; 
but  usually  it  was  due  to  the  fact  that  the  teacher  found 
cram  paid  best.  I  should  like  to  say  here  that  this  state 
of  things  does  not  exist  at  the  present  time,  and  that  the 
training  of  science  teachers  by  the  Royal  College  of  Science 
and  by  other  institutions  has  completely  broken  down  the 
excuses  that  were  often  offered  at  that  time. 

The  first  grants  for  practical  teaching  were  paid  for 
chemistry.  The  practical  work  had  to  be  carried  out  in 
properly  fitted  laboratories.  There  were  not  half-a-dozen 
at  the  time  which  really  answered  our  purpose,  and  one  of 
the  earliest  pieces  of  work  on  which  I  was  engaged  was  in 
assisting  to  get  out  plans  for  laboratory  fittings.  These 
were  very  similar  to  those  which  I  had  designed  for  the 
School  of  Military  Engineering  several  years  before. 
Thanks  to  the  Education  Act  of  1870  (I  speak  thankfully 
of  the  work  that  some  of  the  important  School  Boards  have 
done  in  the  past  in  taking  an  enlightened  view  of  science 
instruction)  there  were  some  localities  where  the  idea  of 
fitting  up  laboratories  was  received  with  favour,  and  it  was 
not  long  before  several  old  ones  were  refitted,  in  which 
instruction  to  adults  was  given,  and  new  ones  established 
in  Board  Schools  for  the  benefit  of  the  Sixth  Standard 
children.  At  that  time  an  inspector's,  like  the  policeman's, 
lot  was  not  a  happy  one.  We  had  to  refuse  to  pass  labor- 
atories which  did  not  fulfil  conditions,  though  we  left  very 
few  "  hard  cases." 

Until  after  the  passing  of  the  Technical  Instruction  Act 
in  1887  the  Department  aided  schools  in  the  purchase  of 
the  fittings  of  laboratories  (both  chemical  and  others),  and 
year  after  year  this  help,  which  stimulated  local  effort, 
caused  large  numbers  of  new  laboratories  to  be  added  to  the 
recognised  list.  After  six  or  seven  years  we  had  a  hundred 
or  more  laboratories  at  work  of  what  I  may  call  "  sealed- 
pattern  efficiency."  I  am  not  very  partial  to  sealed  patterns, 
but  they  are  useful  at  times,  for  they  tell  people  what  is 
the  least  that  is  expected  from  them.  The  pattern  was  not 
without  its  defects ;  but  laboratories,  like  other  matters, 
follow  the  law  of  evolution,  and  the  more  recently  fitted 
ones  show  that  the  experience  gained  whilst  teaching  or 
being  taught  in  a  sealed-pattern  type  has  led  to  marked 
improvements.  Personally  I  am  of  opinion  that  only  neces- 
saries should  be  required,  and  I  rebel  against  luxuries ;  for 
a  student  trained  by  means  of  the  latter  will,  as  a  rule,  in 
after  life  fail  to  meet  with  anything  beyond  the  mere 
essentials  for  carrying  on  his  scientific  work. 

The  sealed  pattern  is  practically  in  abeyance,  though  it 
can  be  trotted  out  as  a  bogey,  and  any  properly  equipped 
laboratory  is  recognised  so  long  as  it  meets  the  absolute 
necessities  of  instruction. 

The  half-dozen  chemical  laboratories  which  existed  in 
1877  have  now  expanded  to  349  physical  and  774  chemical 
laboratories.  These  are  spread  over  all  parts  of  England. 
I  leave  out  Scotland  and  Ireland,  as  the  science  teaching 
is  no  longer  under  the  English  Board  of  Education. 

It  is  only  fair  to  say  that  many  of  this  large  number  of 
laboratories  are  at  present  in  secondary  schools,  regarding 
which  I  shall  have  to  speak  more  at  length.  But  the  fact 
remains  that  in  twenty-seven  years  there  has  been  such  a 
growth     of    practical     science    teaching    that     some     1120 


October  15,  1903] 


NATURE 


583 


laboratories  have  come  into  being.  My  predecessor  in  the 
Chair  likes  to  call  laboratories  "  workshops."  I  have  no 
objection,  but  the  reverse;  for  the  word  "  laboratory,"  like 
"  research,"  sounds  too  magnificent  for  what  is  really 
meant,  and  all  education  should  more  or  less  be  carried 
out  in  workshops. 

The  increase  is  as  satisfactory  as  it  is  remarkable.  It 
was  only  possible  to  increase  the  numbers  in  early  days  by 
gentle  pressure  and  prophesying  smooth  things  which, 
happily,  did  eventually  come  to  pass.  In  later  days  the  in- 
crease has  been  almost  automatic.  The  Technical  Instruc- 
tion Act  has  called  into  being  technical  instruction  com- 
mittees who  in  many  cases  have  taken  up  science  instruc- 
tion in  their  districts  in  earnest.  They,  too,  have  had 
public  money  to  allocate,  and  not  a  little  has  gone  in  the 
encouragement  of  practical  education.  It  may,  however', 
be  remarked  that  had  it  not  been  for  the  preliminary  work 
that  had  been  done  by  the  Science  and  Art  Department  it 
is  more  than  probable  that  the  Technical  Instruction  Act 
of  1887  would  never  have  seen  the  light. 

.\  reference  must  now  be  made  to  the  removal  of  what 
anyone  will  see  was  a  great  bar  to  the  spread  of  sound 
instruction  in  every  class  of  school  where  science  was 
taught.  So  long  as  the  student's  success  in  examination 
was  the  test  which  regulated  the  amount  of  the  grant 
paid  by  the  State,  so  long  was  it  impossible  to  insist  on 
all-round  practical  instruction.  It  was  impracticable  to 
hold  practical  examinations  for  tens  of  thousands  of  students 
in  some  twenty  different  subjects  of  science.  The  practical 
examination  in  chemistry  told  its  tale  of  difficulties.  It  was 
only  when  the  Duke  of  Devonshire  and  Sir  John  Gorst  in 
iSq8  substituted  for  the  old  scheme  of  payments  payment 
for  attendance,  and  in  a  large  measure  substituted  inspec- 
tion for  examination,  that  the  Department  could  still  further 
press  for  practical  instruction.  For  all  elementary  instruc- 
tion the  test  of  outside  examination  does  more  harm  than 
good,  and  any  examination  in  the  work  done  by  elementary 
students  should  be  carried  out  by  the  teacher,  and  should 
be  made  on  the  absolute  course  that  has  been  given.  It 
seems  to  be  useless  or  worse  that  an  examination  should 
cover  more  than  this.  Instruction  in  a  set  syllabus  which 
for  an  outside  examination  has  to  be  covered  spoils  the 
teaching  and  takes  away  the  liberty  of  method  which  a 
gccd  teacher  should  enjoy.  The  literary  work  involved  of 
answering  questions,  for  an  outside  examiner,  is  also  against 
the  elementary  student's  success,  and  cannot  be  equal  to 
that  which  may  properly  be  expected  from  him  a  couple 
of  years  later. 

.Vdvanced  instruction  appears  to  be  on  a  different  foot- 
ing. The  student  in  advanced  science  must  have  gradually 
obtained  a  knowledge  of  the  elementary  portions  of  the 
subject,  and  it  is  not  too  much  to  ask  him  beyond  the 
inspection  of  his  work  to  express  himself  in  decent  English 
and  to  submit  to  examination  from  the  outside ;  but  even 
here  the  payment  for  such  instruction  should  be  by  an 
attendance  grant  tempered  in  some  degree  by  the  results  of 
examination,  since  examiners  are  not  always  to  be  trusted. 

The  attendance  grant  was  not  viewed  by  some  with  great 
favour  at  first,  and  protests  were  received  against  its  adop- 
tion, a  favourite  complaint  being  that  it  was  sure  to  entail 
a  loss  of  grant.  One  became  suspicious  that  some  of  those 
who  protested  were  aware  that  the  last  bulwark  which 
defended  the  earning  of  grants  by  cram  was  being  re- 
moved, and  that  inspection  might  prove  more  irksome  than 
examination.  This  is  past  history  now,  and  the  new  system 
works  as  smoothly  as  the  old  and  with  not  more  complaints 
than  are  to  be  always  expected. 

As  I  have  said,  grants  were  for  very  many  years  supposed 
to  be  confined  to  aiding  the  instruction  of  the  industrial 
classes,  but  this  limitation  was  more  nominal  than  real. 
It  might  probably  be  imagined  that  it  was  no  very  difficult 
task  to  distinguish  an  artisan  and  his  children  from  students 
who  belonged  to  the  middle  classes.  This  was  not  the  case, 
however.  Children  belonging  to  the  industrial  class  were, 
on  joining  a  science  class,  obliged  to  state  the  occupation 
of  the  father,  and  it  was  no  uncommon  thing  for  fathers 
to  be  given  brevet-rank  by  their  children.  Thus,  a  brick- 
layer's son  would  describe  his  father  as  a  "  builder,"  which, 
if  true,  ought  to  have  brought  him  into  the  ranks  of  the 
middle  class.  These  unauthorised  promotions  were  one  of 
the  difficulties  the  inspector  had  to  face  when  judging  as 
to   the   status  of   the   parents.     This   difficulty    was   largely 


NO.    1772,  VOL.   68] 


met  by  a  rule  that  all  those  who  attended  evening  classes 
were  supposed  to  be  of  the  industrial  class ;  but  as  day 
classes  increased  the  numbers  of  those  who  by  no  possibility 
could  be  of  the  artisan  class  also  increased,  and  it  became 
a  very  invidious  duty  of  the  inspector  to  put  M.C.  (Middle 
Class)  against  the  names  of  many.  It  was  determined  by 
superior  authority  that  only  those  students  or  their  parents 
who  could  claim  exemption  from  income-tax  should  be 
reckoned  as  coming  within  the  category  of  industrial 
students.  In  early  days  the  qualification  for  abatement  on 
income-tax  was  a  much  lower  figure  than  it  is  to-day,  and 
almost  each  succeeding  Chancellor  of  the  Exchequer  has 
raised  the  figure  of  the  income  on  which  the  abatement 
could  be  claimed.  To-day  it  is,  I  believe,  700^  a  year, 
bringing  the  official  definition  as  to  membership  of  the 
industrial  classes  to  an  absurdity.  It  became  evident  to  the 
official  mind,  which  some  people  are  good  enough  to  say 
works  but  slowly,  that  the  definition  must  be  amended  or 
the  limitation  abolished.  The  progress  of  events  happily 
made  the  abolition  the  better  plan,  and  was  the  means  of 
allowing  inroads  of  science  instruction  to  be  made  into 
secondary  day  schools. 

The  history  of  these  inroads  I  shall  now  give.  Instruc- 
tion given  in  so-called  organised  science  schools  was  origin- 
ally aided  by  the  Department  by  means  of  a  small  Capita- 
tion Grant.  These  schools  were  supposed  to  give  an 
organised  course  of  science  instruction,  and  the  successes 
at  examination  determined  the  payment.  They  were  not 
satisfactory  as  at  first  constituted,  and  they  so  dwindled 
away  in  numbers  that  in  1890  only  some  one  or  two  were 
left.  A  small  increase  in  Capitation  Grant  in  1892  revived 
some  of  them,  and  a  fair  number  existed  in  the  following 
year.  There  was  no  doubt,  however,  that  the  conditions 
under  which  they  existed  were  most  unfavourable  for  a 
sound  education,  which  ought  not  only  to  include  science 
but  also  literary  instruction.  The  latter  was,  in  many 
schools,  wholly  neglected,  owing  to  the  fact  that  the  grants 
earned  depended  on  the  results  of  examination,  and  so  all 
the  school  time  was  devoted  to  grant  earning. 

Mr.  Acland,  at  this  time  Minister  for  Education,  was 
made  aware  of  this  neglect  to  give  a  good  general  educa- 
tion, and  as  I  was  at  that  time  responsible  for  science 
instruction  I  was  directed  to  draw  up  a  scheme  for  re- 
organising these  schools  and  forcing  a  general  as  well  as 
scientific  education  to  be  carried  out.  Baldly  the  scheme 
abolished  almost  entirely  ^  payments  on  results  of  examin- 
ation, and  the  rate  of  grant  depended  on  inspection  and 
attendance.  Further,  a  certain  minimum  number  of  hours 
had  to  be  given  to  literary  subjects,  and  another  minimum 
to  science  instruction,  a  great  deal  of  it  being  practical  and 
having  to  be  carried  out  in  the  "  workshop."  The  pay- 
ments for  science  instruction  were  to  be  withheld  unless  the 
inspector  was  satisfied  that  the  literary  part  of  the  educa- 
tion was  given  satisfactorily. 

The  scheme  was  accepted  and  promulgated  whilst  the 
Roval  Commission  on  Secondary  Education  was  sitting, 
and,  if  I  may  be  allowed  to  say  so,  Mr.  Acland's  tenure  of 
office  would  be  long  remembered  for  this  innovation  alone, 
since  in  it  he  took  a  wide  departure  from  the  traditional 
methods  of  the  Department  and  created  a  class  of  secondary 
school  which  differed  totally  from  those  then  existing. 
Needless  to  say  the  scheme  was  not  received  with  favour 
on  all  sides,  more  especially  by  those  who  thought  that 
serious  damage  would  be  done  to  secondary  schools  by  the 
competition  from  this  new  development  of  secondary 
education.  I  am  not  ashamed  to  say  that  the  disfavour 
shown  on  some  sides  made  me  rejoice,  as  it  indicated  that 
a  move  had  been  made  in  the  right  direction.  At  first  it 
was  principally  the  higher-grade  Board  Schools  that  came 
under  the  scheme,  and  in  the  first  year  there  were  twenty- 
four  of  them  at  work.  This  type  of  school  gradually  in- 
creased until  about  seventy  of  them,  and  chiefly  of  a  most 
efficient  character,  were  recognised  in  1900.  Their  further 
increase  was  only  arrested  by  the  Cockerton  judgment,  now 
so  well  known  that  I  need  only  name  it.  But  here  we  come 
to  a  most  interesting  development.  State  aid,  as  already 
said,  was  at  first  limited  to  the  instruction  of  the  industrial 
classes,  but  no  limitation  as  to  the  status  of  the  pupil  was 
made  in  this  new  scheme  for  the  schools  of  science,  and 
logically  this  freedom  was  extended  in  1897  to  all  instruc- 
tion aided  by  the  Department — the  date  when  all  limitation 
1  Within  the  next  four  years  they  will  entirely  cease. 


584 


NATURE 


[October  15,  1903 


as  to  the  status  of  the  pupil  was  abolished,  the  only  limit- 
ation being  the  status  of  the  school  itself.  Thus,  if  a 
flourishing  public  school,  charging  high  fees  for  tuition, 
were  to  apply  to  participate  in  the  grant  voted  by  Parlia- 
ment, it  may  be  presumed,  it  would  have  to  be  refused. 
The  abolition  of  the  restriction  as  to  the  status  of  the  pupils 
left  it  open  to  poorly  endowed  secondary  grammar  schools 
to  come  under  the  new  scheme.  To  a  good  many  the 
additional  income  to  be  derived  from  the  grant  meant  con- 
tinuing their  existence  as  efficient,  and  for  this  reason,  and 
often,  I  fear,  for  this  reason  alone,  some  claimed  recognition 
as  eligible. 

Such  is  an  outline  history  of  the  invasion  of  science  in- 
struction into  certain  secondary  schools— an  invasion  which 
ought  to  be  of  great  national  service.  In  my  view  no 
general  education  is  complete  without  a  knowledge  of  those 
simple  truths  of  science  which  speak  to  everyone,  but  usually 
pass  unheeded  day  by  day.  The  expansion  of  the  reason- 
ing and  observational  powers  of  every  child  is  as  material 
to  sound  education  as  is  the  exercise  of  the  memory  or  the 
acquisition  of  some  smattering  of  a  language.  I  am  not 
going  into  the  question  of  curricula  in  schools,  as  I  hope, 
regarding  them,  we  shall  have  a  full  discussion.  But  of 
this  I  am  sure,  that  no  curriculum  will  be  adequate  which 
does  not  include  practical  instruction  in  the  elementary 
truths  of  science.  The  President  of  the  Royal  Society,  in 
his  last  Annual  Address,  alluded  to  the  mediaeval  education 
that  was  being  given  in  a  vast  number  of  secondary  schools. 
Those  who  planned  the  system  of  education  of  those  times 
deserve  infinite  credit  for  including  all  that  it  was  possible 
to  include.  Had  there  been  a  development  of  science  in 
those  days,  one  must  believe  that  with  the  far-seeing 
wisdom  they  then  displayed  they  would  have  included  that 
which  it  is  the  desire  of  all  modern  educationists  to  include. 
Observational  and  experimental  science  would  have 
assuredly  found  a  place  in  the  system. 

One,  however,  cannot  help  being  struck  by  the  broaden- 
ing of  views  in  regard  to  modern  education  that  has  taken 
place  in  the  minds  of  many  who  were  certainly  not  friendly 
to  its  development.  Perhaps  in  the  Bishop  of  Hereford, 
when  headmaster  of  Clifton,  we  have  the  most  remarkable 
early  example  of  breadth  of  view,  which  he  carried  out  in 
a  practical  manner,  surrounding  himself  with  many  of  the 
ablest  teachers  of  science  of  the  day.  There  are  other  head- 
masters who,  though  trained  on  the  classical  side,  have  had 
the  prescience  to  follow  in  his  footsteps,  and  of  free  will  ; 
but  others  there  are  who  have  neither  the  desire  nor  the 
intention,  if  not  compelled  to  do  so,  to  move  in  the  direc- 
tion which  modern  necessities  indicate  is  essential  for 
national  progress.  I  am  inclined  to  think  that  the  move- 
ment in  favour  of  modernising  education  has  been  very 
largely  quickened  by  the  establishment  of  schools  of  science 
in  connection  with  endowed  schools  and  the  desire  for  their 
foundation  by  the  Technical  Instruction  Committees,  who 
had  the  whisky  money  at  their  disposal,  and  who  often 
more  than  supplemented  the  parliamentary  grants  which 
these  schools  were  able  to  earn.  It  was  the  circumstance 
that  the  new  scheme  was  issued  when  many  endowed 
schools  were  in  low  water  that  made  it  as  successful  as  it 
has  been. 

The  number  of  schools  of  science  increased  so  rapidly  that 
it  appeared  there  might  be  a  danger  of  too  many  of  this 
type  being  started  on  sufficient  educational  'grounds. 
Science  instruction  was  carried  in  them  to  such  an  advanced 
point  and  so  many  hours  of  the  week  were  spent  on  it  that 
they  became  in  some  degree  specialised  schools.  At  least 
eight  hours  a  week  had  to  be  devoted  to  science,  ten  tc 
literary  instruction,  and  five  to  mathematics — any  further 
time  available  could  be  spent  on  any  section  that  was  con- 
sidered desirable.  For  some  pupils  the  time  devoted  to 
science  is  barely  enough,  but  for  others  who  intend  to  follow 
careers  in  which  the  literary  section  should  oredominate  it 
appeared  that  some  curtailment  of  hours  in  the  science 
section  might  be  usefully  allowed,  and  it  became  a  question 
how  far  such  instruction  might  be  shortened  without  im- 
pairing its  soundness.  After  much  anxious  thought  it  was 
considered  that  four  hours  per  week,  besides  mathematics, 
was  the  very  least  time  that  ought  to  be  devoted  to  such 
instruction,  and  that  the  latter  part  of  it  should  be  practical 
work.  A  scheme  embodying  this  modification  was  approved 
by  the  Lord  President  and  the  Vice-President  whilst  I  was 
Principal  Assistant  Secretary  for  Secondary  Education,  and 

NO.    1772,  VOL.   68] 


smaller  grants  than  those  for  schools  of  science  were 
authorised  in  1901  for  those  schools  which  were  prepared  to 
adopt  it.  By  the  scheme  instruction  has  to  be  given  only 
in  such  subjects  and  to  such  an  extent  as  is  really  necessary 
to  form  part  of  that  general  education  of  ordinary  students 
who  might  not  have  to  follow  in  industrial  pursuits.  This 
modified  and  shortened  course  has  met  with  unqualified 
success.  Some  127  schools  came  under  the  scheme  the  first 
year,  and  I  gather  that  there  will  be  a  considerable  increase 
in  numbers  in  the  future.  The  establishment  of  schools  of 
science  and  of  these  schools  may  be  considered  to  be  a  great 
step  taken  in  getting  practical  instruction  in  natural  know- 
ledge introduced  into  secondary  schools.  The  leaven  has 
been  placed  in  some  300  of  them,  and  we  may  expect  that 
all  schools  which  may  be  eligible  for  State  aid  will  gradually 
adopt  one  scheme  or  the  other.  Though  it  is  said  that 
there  is  nothing  in  a  name,  I  am  a  little  doubtful  as  to 
whether  the  earmarking  of  science  education  as  distinct 
from  secondary  education  is  not  somewhat  of  a  mistake  at 
the  present  day.  For  my  own  part,  I  should  like  to  think 
that  the  days  have  passed  when  such  an  earmarking  was 
necessary  or  advisable.  The  science  to  be  taught  in 
secondary  schools  should  be  part  and  parcel  of  the  secondary 
education,  and  it  would  be  just  as  proper  to  talk  of  Latin 
and  Greek  instruction  apart  from  secondary  education  as  it 
is  to  talk  of  science  instruction.  One  of  the  causes  of  the 
unpopularity  of  the  Science  and  Art  Department  was  its 
too  distinctive  name.  At  the  same  time  it  would  be  most 
unwise  at  the  present  time,  when  the  new  Education  Com- 
mittees are  learning  their  work  and  looking  to  the  central 
authority  for  a  lead,  for  the  State  to  alter  the  conditions 
on  which  it  makes  its  grants  to  these  schools.  It  will  re- 
quire at  least  a  generation  to  pass  before  modernised  educa- 
tion will  be  free  from  assault.  If  science  instruction  is 
not  safeguarded  for  some  time  to  come  it  runs  a  good  chance 
of  disappearing  or  being  neglected  in  a  good  many  schools. 
As  to  the  schools  which  have  no  financial  difficulties,  it  is 
hard  to  say  what  lines  they  may  follow.  Tradition  may  be 
too  strong  in  them  to  allow  any  material  change  in  their 
courses  of  study.  If  it  be  true  that  the  modern  side  of 
many  a  public  school  is  made  a  refuge  for  the  "  incapables, " 
and  is  considered  inferior  to  the  classical  side,  as  some  say 
is  the  case,  such  a  side  is  practically  useless  in  representing 
modern  education  in  its  proper  light.  Again,  one  at  least 
of  the  ancient  universities  has  not  shown  much  sympathy 
with  modern  ideas,  and  so  long  as  she  is  content  to  receive 
her  students  ignorant  of  all  else  but  what  has  been  called 
mediaeval  lore,  so  long  will  the  schools  which  feed  her 
have  no  great  inclination  to  change  their  educational 
schemes. 

If  we  would  only  make  the  universities  set  the  fashion 
the  public  schools  would  be  bound  to  follow.  The  universi- 
ties say  that  it  is  for  the  public  schools  to  say  what  they 
want,  and  vice  versd,  and  so  neither  one  nor  the  other 
change.  It  appears  to  me  that  we  must  look  to  the  modern 
universities  to  lead  the  movement  in  favour  of  that  kind 
of  education  which  is  best  fitted  for  the  after  life  of  the 
large  majority  of  the  people  of  this  country.  If  for  no 
other  reason,  we  must  for  this  one  hail  the  creation  of  two 
more  universities  where  the  localities  will  be  able  to  impress 
on  the  authorities  their  needs.  The  large  majority  of  those 
whose  views  I  share  in  this  matter  are  not  opposed  to  or 
distrust  the  good  effects  of  those  parts  of  education  which 
dat::!  from  ancient  times.  The  great  men  who  have  come 
under  their  sway  are  living  proofs  that  they  can  be  effective 
now  as  they  have  been  in  times  past,  but  we  look  to  the 
production  of  greater  men  by  the  removal  of  the  limitations 
which  tradition  sets.  I  myself  gratefully  acknowledge 
what  the  public  school  at  which  I  had  my  early  education 
did  for  me,  but  I  think  my  gratitude  would  be  more  intense 
had  I  been  given  some  small  elementary  instruction  in  that 
natural  knowledge  which  has  had  to  be  picked  up  here  and 
there  in  after  life. 

There  is  one  type  of  college  which  I  have  not  alluded  to 
before,  and  that  is  the  technical  institutes.  These  have 
been  fostered  by  the  localities  in  which  they, are  situated, 
and  been  largely  supported  by  the  whisky  money,  supple- 
mented by  Government  aid.  I  am  glad  to  see  that  in  the 
last  regulations  of  the  Board  of  Education  these  colleges 
will  receive  grants  for  higher  scientific  instruction,  and  I 
have  no  doubt  that  in  the  near  future  such  institutions  and 
schools  of  science   will   receive  a  block   grant,    which   will 


October  15,  1903] 


NATURE 


585 


give  them  even  still  greater  freedom  than  they  now  enjoy. 
These  are  colleges  to  which  students  from  secondary  schools 
will  gradually  find  their  way,  where  they  wish  for  higher 
education  of  a  type  different  from  that  to  be  gained  at  a 
university. 

I  have  endeavoured  to  give  a  brief  historical  sketch  of 
what  the  State  has  done  in  helping  forward  instruction  in 
natural  knowledge  amongst  the  industrial  classes,  adults 
and  children,  and  how  gradually  its  financial  aid  has  been 
extended  to  secondary  schools.  I  have  also  endeavoured  to 
indicate  the  steps  by  which  practical  instruction  has  been 
fostered  by  it.  I  have  done  this  because  I  am  confident 
that  ninety-nine  educationists  out  of  every  hundred  have 
but  little  idea  what  the  State  has  been  doing  for  the  last 
fifty  years.  Some  connected  with  secondary  schools — I  have 
personal  knowledge — were  until  lately  ignorant  that  the 
State  had  offered  advantages  to  them  of  a  financial  nature. 
I  may  say  that  the  work  of  the  late  Science  and  Art  De- 
partment was  largely  a  missionary  work.  It  was  abused, 
sometimes  rightly  but  more  often  wrongly,  for  this  very 
work,  and  it  had  more  abusers  at  one  time  probably  than 
any  other  Ciovernment  Department.  Even  friends  to  the 
movement  of  modernising  education  found  fault  with  it  as 
antiquated  and  slow,  but  I  can  assure  you  that  no  greater 
mistake  can  be  made  in  pressing  forward  any  movement 
by  any  hurried  change  of  front  or  by  endeavouring  to  push 
forward  matters  too  rapidly.  In  the  first  place,  the  Treasury 
naturally  views  untried  changes  with  suspicion,  and  this 
fact  has  to  be  dealt  with  more  particularly  when  there  is 
no  great  expression  of  public  opinion  to  reckon  with.  At 
the  same  time  it  cannot  be  stated  too  strongly  that  the 
Treasury  has  in  recent  years  dealt  in  a  friendly  and 
enlightened  spirit  with  all  matters  which  could  affect  the 
spread  of  science.  Again,  there  is  a  hostility  to  great  and 
rapid  changes  in  the  minds  of  those  whom  such  changes 
affect. 

The  policy  must  always  be  to  progress  as  much  as  is 
possible  without  rousing  too  great  an  opposition  from  any 
quarter,  and  I  think  it  will  be  seen  that  the  progress  made 
during  the  last  twenty-five  years  has,  by  the  various  annual 
increments,  been  perhaps  more  than  could  have  been  hoped 
for,  and  gives  a  promise  for  even  more  rapid  advances  in 
the  future. 

As  an  appendix  to  this  Address  I  have  given  a  brief 
epitome  of  the  increases  in  students,  in  schools,  in  labor- 
atories, and  in  grants  which  have  taken  place  since  1861. 
If  to  the  last  be  added  the  amount  spent  out  of  the  whisky 
money  an  additional  half  million  may  be  reckoned. 

It  will  be  seen  that  the  progress  made  has  been  gradual, 
but  satisfactory,  and  that,  if  we  showed  some  of  the  results 
graphically,  weighted  according  to  the  circumstances  of 
their  date,  and  dared  make  an  extrapolation  curve  of  future 
results,  we  should  have  a  complete  justification  for  pro- 
phesying hopefully. 

The  question  of  the  supply  of  science  teachers  has  already 
been  referred  to.  My  remarks  I  should  like  to  supplement 
by  saying  that  in  the  greater  number  of  schools  teachers 
are  to  be  found  who  have  been  trained  at  the  Royal  College 
of  .Science,  and  mostly  at  public  expense — some  through 
scholarships  gained  by  competition  and  some  through  train- 
ing selected  teachers.  The  success  of  the  movement  for  the 
introduction  of  science  instruction  in  schools  depended  on 
the  proper  supply  of  teachers,  and  even  now  the  demand  for 
men  possessing  the  highest  teaching  qualifications  in  science 
is  greater  than  the  supply.  It  may  be  said,  I  think,  that 
our  science  teachers  from  the  college  have  one  special 
qualification,  and  that  is,  that  besides  the  knowledge  of 
science,  practical  and  theoretical,  that  they  have  acquired 
they  have  lived  in  an  atmosphere  of  what  is  called  research, 
and  which  might  be  called  original  investigation.  Pro- 
fessors, assistants,  and  students  alike  are  impregnated  with 
it,  and  when  the  teacher  so  trained  takes  up  his  duties  in 
his  school  he  still  retains  the  "  reek  "  of  it.  True  instruc- 
tion in  science  should,  as  I  have  before  said,  be  practical, 
and  practical  instruction  should  certainly  include  original 
inquiry  into  matters  old  or  new.  The  teacher  who  retains 
the  "  reek  "  is  the  teacher  who  will  prove  most  successful. 
It  will  thus  be  seen  that  the  State  had  the  task  before  it, 
not  only  of  introducing  instruction  in  science,  but  of  train- 
ing teachers  to  give  such  instruction.  This  problem  is  the 
same  as  now  exists  in  Ireland,  and  the  experience  gained  in 


NO.    1772,  VOL.  68] 


England  cannot  but  be  of  the  greatest  use  to  those  at  the 
head  of  Irish  technical  education. 

Before  concluding  there  is  one  subject  that  I  must  lightly 
touch  upon,  and  that  is  the  supply  of  teachers  other  than 
science  teachers.  The  Education  Act  of  1870  gave  the 
power  to  elementary  schools  to  train  pupil  teachers,  who  in 
the  process  of  time  would  become  teachers,  either  by  enter- 
ing into  a  training  college  by  means  of  a  King's  Scholar- 
ship or,  less  satisfactorily,  by  examination.  In  large  towns 
the  need  of  a  proper  training  for  pupil  teachers  has  been 
felt,  and  gradually  pupil  teacher  centres  were  established, 
principally  by  School  Boards,  where  the  training  could  be 
carried  oiit  more  or  less  completely  ;  but  in  the  rural  dis- 
tricts and  smaller  towns  the  pupil  teacher  has  had  to  be 
more  or  less  self-taught,  and  e.xcept  in  rare  cases  "  self- 
taught  "  means  badly  taught.  The  Training  College 
authorities  make  no  secret  of  the  fact  that  one  of  the  two 
years  during  which  the  training  of  the  teacher  is  carried 
out  has  to  be  devoted  more  or  less  to  instructing  the  pupils 
in  subjects  thev  ought  to  have  been  taught  before  they 
entered  the  college.  Thus  all  the  essential  and  special  in- 
struction which  is  given-  has  to  be  practically  shortened, 
and  the  teacher  leaves  the  college  with  less  training  than 
he  should  have. 

The  new  Education  Act  has  put  it  in  the  power  of  the 
educational  authorities  to  rectify  the  defects  in  the  train- 
ing of  pupil  teachers.  It  is  much  to  be  hoped  that  Councils 
will  separately  or  in  combination  either  form  special  centres 
for  the  training  of  all  pupil  teachers  or  else  give  scholar- 
ships (perhaps  aided  by  the  State)  to  them,  to  be  held  at 
some  secondary  school  receiving  the  grant  for  science  and 
recognised  by  the  Board  of  Education  as  efficient.  The 
latter  plan  is  one  which  commends  itself,  as  it  ensures  that 
the  student  shall  associate  with  others  who  are  not  pre- 
paring for  the  same  calling  in  life,  and  will  prevent  that 
narrowness  of  mind  which  is  inevitable  where  years  are 
spent  in  the  one  atmosphere  of  pedagogy.  The  non- 
residential training  college,  where  the  training  of  the 
teacher  is  carried  on  at  some  university  college,  is  an 
attempt  to  give  breadth  of  view  to  him,  but  if  attempted 
in  the  earliest  years  of  a  teacher's  career  it  will  be  even 
more  successful.  All  teaching  requires  to  be  improved,  and 
the  first  step  to  take  in  this  direction  is  to  educate  the  pupil 
teacher  from  his  earliest  day's  appointment,  for  his  in- 
fluence in  after  vears  will  not  only  be  felt  in  that  elemen- 
tary but  will  also  penetrate  into  secondary  education.  In 
regard  to  the  additions  which  are  required  in  elementary 
education,  and  which  require  the  proper  training  of  the 
pupil  teacher,  I  must  refer  you  to  a  report  which  will  be 
presented  to  the  Section.  The  task  of  training  pupil  teachers 
is  one  which  requires  the  earnest  and  undivided  thought  of 
the  new  Education  Committees.  , 

In  the  earnest  Address  given  by  my  predecessor  in  this 
Chair  he  brought  forward  the  shortcomings  of  secondary 
education  and  of  the  requirements  for  a  military  career  in 
a  trenchant  manner  and  with  an  ability  which  I  cannot 
emulate.  With  much  of  what  he  said  I  agree  heartily,  but 
I  cannot  forget  that,  after  all.  the  details  of  education  are 
to  some  extent  matters  of  opinion,  though  the  main  features 
are  not.  We  must  be  content  to  see  advances  made  in  the 
directions  on  which  the  majority  of  men  and  women 
educational  experts  are  agreed.  Great  strides  have  already 
been  made  in  educating  the  public  both  in  methods  and 
subjects    but  a  good  deal  more  remains  to  be  done. 

It  ma'y  be  expected,  for  instance,  that  the  registration  of 
teachers  will  lead  to  increased  efficiency  in  secondary  schools, 
and  that  the  would-be  teacher,  fresh  from  college,  will  not 
get  his  training  bv  practising  on  the  unfortunate  children 
he  may  be  told  off'  to  teach.  It  may  also  be  expected  that 
such  increased  efficiency  will  have  to  be  vouched  for  by 
the  thorough  inspection  which  is  now  made  under  the  board 
of  Education  Act,  by  the  Board,  by  a  university,  or  by  Wie 
such  recognised  body.  It  again  may  be  expected  that 
parents  will  gradually  waken  up  to  the  meaning  of  the 
teacher's  register  and  the  value  of  inspection,  and  that 
those  schools  will  flourish  best  which  can  show  that  they 
too  appreciate  the  advantages  of  each. 

I  have  to  crave  pardon  for  having  failed  to  give  an 
Address  which  is  in  any  way  sensational.  I  have  thought 
it  better  to  review  what  has  been  done  in  the  past  within 
mv  own  knowledge,   and  with  this  in  my  mind   I  .cannot 


586 


NA  TURE 


[October  15,  1903 


but  prophesy  that  the  future  is  more  than  hopeful,  now  that 
the  public  is  beginning  to  be  educated  in  education.  It 
will  demand,  and  its  wants  will  be  supplied. 

APPENDIX. 

Number  of  Schools  of  Science  and  their  Grants. 


189s 
1898 
1 901 
1903 


Higher 
Grade 
Schools 

Endowed 
Secondary 
Schools 

Technical 
Institutes 

Total 
Schools 

53 

30 

29 

112 

69 

50 

49 

168 

63 

106 

43 

212 

SO 

H9 

57 

226 

£ 

39.163 

98,849 

118,833 

Notyetknown^ 


Number  of  Schools  teaching  Shortened  Course  of  Science. 
Year  No. 

1902  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  .-.      127 

1903         184 

Number  of  Laboratories  recognised. 


Year 

Chemistry 

Metallurgy 

Physics 

Biology 

Mechanics 

1880 

133 

_ 

_ 

_ 

_ 

1900 

669 

37 

219 

17 

4 

I901 

722 

37 

291 

26 

10 

1902 

758 

39 

320 

34 

14 

Grants  paid  for  Science  Instruction. 


Year 

Amount 

Year 

Amount 

£ 

£ 

i860 

709 

1890 

103,453 

1870 

20,118 

1895 

142,543 

1875 

42,474 

I90I 

212,982 

1880 

40,229 

1902 

240,822 

1885 

63.364 

THE  GERMAN  ASSOCIATION  AT  CASSEL. 
nPHE  seventy-fifth  meeting  of  the  German  Association  for 
■^  the  Advancement  of  Science  and  Medicine  took  place 
in  brilliant  weather  in  the  picturesque  town  of  Cassel.  «  By 
Saturday  evening,  September  19,  members  and  associates 
began  to  arrive,  and  on  Sunday  a  large  number  of  gaily 
coloured  "  rosettes  "  were  visible  in  the  streets.  Advantage 
was  taken  of  this  gathering  of  men  of  science  to  present  to 
Prof.  Graebe,  of  Geneva,  an  address  on  the  completion  of 
the  twenty-fifth  year  of  occupancy  of  his  chair  of  chemistry, 
and  M.  Moissan,  of  Paris,  on  behalf  of  the  Chemical  Society, 
conveyed  to  him  the  Lavoisier  medal  of  the  Institute  of 
France.  Prof.  Graebe,  who,  in  conjunction  with  Prof. 
Liebermann,  of  Berlin,  achieved  the  first  important  chemical 
synthesis — that  of  artificial  alizarine — was  an  old  assistant 
of  Prof.  V.  Baeyer,  of  Munich,  who  then  occupied  the  chair 
of  chemistry  in  the  Gewerbe  Akademie  in  Berlin.  Prof. 
V.  Baeyer,  in  his  opening  address,  directed  special  attention 
to  the  cooperation  of  men  of  science  with  technologists, 
which  was  the  fruit  of  this  important  synthesis — a  cooper- 
ation which  has  had  enormous  influence  on  the  develop- 
ment both  of  German  science  and  industry.  The  rector  of 
the  University  of  Geneva  followed,  and  he  mentioned  that, 
during  the  twenty-five  years  of  Prof.  Graebe 's  tenure  of 
the'thair,  he  had  published  196  memoirs  on  chemical  sub- 
jects, while  more  than  400  papers  were  published  by  workers 
in  his  laboratory.  Prof.  Moissan,  who,  as  delegate  of  the 
Acad^mie  des  Sciences,  handed  to  Prof.  Graebe  the 
Lavoisier  medal,  referred  in  an  eloquent  speech  to  the  great 
influence  which  Graebe's  work  has  had  in  developing 
synthetical  organic  chemistry,  and  after  the  presentation 
of  addresses  from  the  Royal  Academy  of  Sciences  of  Bavaria, 
from  the  German  Chemical  Society,  from  the  Societies  of 
1  In  1902  124,300/.  was  paid. 


Geneva  and  Frankfort,  and  from  the  University  of 
Lausanne,  Prof.  Graebe  received  from  the  chairman  a  gold 
plaque,  engraved  with  his  portrait,  and  from  M.  Am6 
Pictet,  on  behalf  of  his  old  students,  a  bound  copy  of  his 
own  papers.  Dr.  Brunck,  on  behalf  of  the  "  Badische  " 
Chemical  Company,  of  which  he  is  managing  director, 
added  a  tribute  to  Graebe  from  the  point  of  view  of 
technology,  and  in  an  eloquent  reply  Prof.  Graebe  ex- 
pressed his  gratitude  and  thanks.  About  sixty  of  the 
audience  remained  to  a  dinner  given  in  honour  of  Prof. 
Graebe,  at  which  numerous  toasts  were  drunk,  and  the 
proceedings  were  kept  up  until  a  late  hour. 

The  members  and  associates  met  for  the  first  time  on 
Sunday  evening,  September  20,  in  the  grounds  of  the 
Hessian  Brewery,  where  a-  large  hall  had  been  adapted  for 
the  purpose  of  the  general  meetings,  and  on  Monday  morn- 
ing, after  words  of  welcome  from  Prof.  Hornstein,  of 
Cassel,  the  local  secretary,  from  President  von  Trott  zu 
Solz,  from  the  mayor  and  others,  the  president  of  the 
Association,  Prof,  van  't  Hoff,  returned  thanks  in  the  name 
of  the  Association.  An  address  was  then  delivered  by  Prof. 
Ladenburg  on  the  influence  of  science  on  our  views  of  life. 
The  address  treated  of  the  gradual  development  of  scientific 
knowledge  and  its  opposition  by  the  church  ;  the  necessity 
of  education  in  the  phenomena  and  laws  of  nature,  and  the 
insignificant  position  of  man  among  natural  phenomena ; 
the  doctrine  of  the  immortality  of  the  soul  and  the  dicta 
of  science  on  the  subject.  He  contended  that  Christianity 
alone  had  been  unable  to  induce  mankind  to  accept  the 
doctrine  of  liberty,  equality,  and  fraternity,  and  that  this 
doctrine,  indispensable  for  our  future  progress,  must  be 
the  future  object  of  scientific  endeavour.  The  general 
opinion  of  the  audience  appeared  to  be  that  Prof.  Laden- 
burg's  address  was  unnecessary,  and  that  he  had  assumed 
for  science  an  infallibility  similar  to  that  claimed  by  the 
Apostolic  See.  The  second  address,  by  Prof.  Ziehen,  of 
Utrecht,  treated  of  impressions  and  sensations,  and  their 
connection  with  the  surface  of  the  brain.  Sensations  may 
be  termed  positive  or  negative,  according  as  they  produce 
pleasant  or  unpleasant  emotions,  and  their  intensity  depends 
less  on  the  degree  of  excitability  of  the  regions  of  the  brain 
affected  than  on  the  capacity  for  "  discharge  "  or  com- 
munication with  other  regions.  "  Negative  "  sensations  are 
more  numerous  than  positive ;  the  lecturer  attempted  to 
prove  this  by  the  fact  that,  in  German,  words  denoting  un- 
pleasant are  more  numerous  than  those  which  denote 
pleasant  sensations.  But  up  to  now  it  had  been  impossible 
to  bridge  the  gap  between  the  mechanism  of  the  brain  and 
the  sensations  and  perceptions. 

In  the  afternoon  the  sections  met,  and  in  the  evening  the 
opera  of  "  Tannhauser  "  was  well  performed  in  the  theatre. 
September  21  was  devoted  to  sectional  meetings,  and  in  the 
evening  the  members  and  associates  dined  together  in  the 
"  Festhalle,"  and  many  toasts  were  proposed.  On  the 
morning  of  the  next  day  addresses  were  delivered  by  Prof. 
Penck,  of  Vienna,  on  geological  time  ;  by  Prof.  Schwalbe, 
of  Strassburg,  on  the  early  history  of  man  ;  and  by  Dr. 
Alsberg,  of  Cassel,  on  inherited  degeneration  as  a  con- 
sequence of  social  influences.  On  the  morning  of  Sep- 
tember 24  the  medical  side  of  the  congress  was  represented 
bv  Dr.  Allan  Macfadyen,  who  gave  an  address  on  inter- 
cellular toxines  ;  by  Dr.  Paul  Jensen,  on  the  physiological 
action  of  light ;  and  by  Dr.  Rieder,  on  the  curative  results 
obtained  by  treatment  with  light. 

Later  in  the  morning,  in  order  to  open  a  discussion  on 
the  place  of  mechanics  in  our  views  of  nature,  papers  were 
read  by  Dr.  Schwarzschild,  of  Gottingen,  on  astronomical 
mechanics,  by  Prof.  Sommerfeld  on  technical  mechanics, 
and  by  Prof.  Otto  Fischer  on  physiological  mechanics. 
Dr.  Schwarzschild  began  by  stating  that  Newton's  law  of 
gravitational  attraction  still  remains  the  leading  factor  in 
astronomy,  and  every  observation  only  serves  as  a  confirm- 
ation of  its  correctness.  It  has  been  proved  to  be  correct 
to  two  parts  in  one  hundred  millions.  The  chief  aim  of 
astronomical  mechanics  is  to  represent  exactly  the  actual 
path  of  the  planets.  But  the  classical  "  Mechanics  of  the 
Heavens  "  fails,  if  it  is  applied  to  very  long  periods  of  time. 
The  formulae  which  are  applied  would,  if  extended,  point 
to  a  destruction  of  the  planetary  system.  There  are,  how- 
ever, two  reasons  for  believing  that  such  a  conclusion  would 
be  incorrect.  The  problem  of  "  secular  disturbances  "  was 
solved    by    Lagrange,    and    that    of   "  commensurabilities  " 


NO.    1772,  VOL.  68] 


October  15,  1903] 


NATURE 


587 


has  made  great  progress  during  the  last  thirty  years. 
Under  the  last  head  may  be  grouped  periodic  and  asymp- 
totic paths,  the  problem  of  the  gaps  in  the  asteroids  and 
the  ring  of  Saturn,  and  the  theory  of  the  libration  of  the 
moons  of  Jupiter  and  Saturn.  .When  these  are  carefully 
considered,  they  appear  to  point  to  the  stability  of  the 
planetary  system  for  all  time.  This  conclusion  is,  indeed, 
rendered  less  general  by  Poincard's  proof  of  the  divergence 
of  series  in  the  theory  of  disturbances,  but  it  can  neverthe- 
less be  shown  that,  during  a  long  period  of  time,  for  which 
it  is  possible  to  give  a  lower  limit,  changes  in  the  planetary 
system  are  unimportant.  The  problems  which  still  face  the 
astronomer  who  undertakes  similar  investigations  were 
exemplified  by  Lexell's  comet  and  Darwin's  periodic  paths. 

Prof.  Sommerfeld,  in  indicating  the  direction  in  which 
mechanics  comes  into  technical  use,  spoke  of  the  confirm- 
ation of  experimental  principles  and  the  greater  use  of 
theory.  He  gave  an  account  of  the  teaching  of  mechanics 
in  the  universities  and  Polytechnika  of  Germany,  entering 
somewhat  into  detail  as  regards  the  order  of  presentment  of 
various  conceptions.  Dr.  Otto  Fischer  discussed  the 
necessity  of  determining  the  dimensions,  the  mass,  the 
centre  of  gravity,  and  the  moment  of  inertia  of  various 
portions  of  the  living  body,  and  the  effects  of  external  and 
internal  forces  in  altering  these  properties. 

On  the  morning  of  September  25  Sir  William  Ramsay 
lectured  on  the  periodic  system  of  the  elements.  Prof. 
Griesbach  on  school  hygiene,  and  Prof,  von  Behring  on 
the  fight  against  tuberculosis.  Ramsay  spoke  of  the 
various  attempts  which  have  been  made  to  ascertain  whether 
mass  and  inertia,  on  the  one  hand,  are  invariable,  or,  on 
the  other,  whether  the  atomic  weights  show  signs  of  vari- 
ation. On  the  whole,  the  evidence  is  negative.  He  then 
described  the  spontaneous  change  of  the  emanation  from 
radium  bromide  into  helium,  and  concluded  with  some 
speculations  as  to  the  possible  formation  and  decomposition 
of  what  are  at  present  regarded  as  elementary  bodies.  The 
subject  of  school  hygiene,  though  a  very  important  one,  has 
little  scientific  interest,  but  the  lecture  of  von  Behring  was 
listened  to  with  the  greatest  attention.  Prof,  von  Behring 
has  a  large  estate  at  Marburg  where  experiments  on 
tuberculosis  are  carried  out  on  animals.  For  example,  he 
has  rendered  it  very  probable  that  vaccination  of  cows  with 
the  tuberculosis  antitoxin  renders  their  milk  immune,  and 
that  the  milk,  in  its  turn,  may  render  human  beings 
immune.  He  believes  to  have  shown  that  infants  acquire 
tuberculosis  through  milk,  and  that  even  before  birth  the 
skin  of  infants  is  penetrable  by  the  tubercular  bacillus.  If 
such  infants  are  nourished  on  the  milk  of  cows  which  have 
been  injected  with  tubercular  bacillus,  the  milk  contains  an 
antitoxin,  and  the  tendency  towards  tuberculosis  is  obviated. 
He  advocated  the  view  that  adults  seldom  acquire  tubercu- 
lous diseases  unless  they  are  early  predisposed  to  receive 
them  by  infection  as  infants.  But  this  tendency  can  be 
combated  by  feeding  infants  with  milk  from  cows  which, 
through  vaccination  with  tubercular  matter,  have  developed 
the  suitable  antitoxin. 

Prof,  van  't  Hoff,  the  president  of  the  Association,  then 
concluded  by  giving  a  short  account  of  the  most  important 
papers  which  had  been  communicated  to  the  sections,  after 
which  he  thanked  the  town  of  Cassel,  in  the  name  of  the 
Society,  for  its  hospitable  reception. 

The  German  "  Naturforscherversammlung,"  unlike  the 
British  Association,  includes  many  sections  which  treat  of 
medical  subjects.  Only  those  lectures  which  are  of  general 
interest  are  delivered  before  the  Association  as  a  whole. 
The  proceedings  of  the  medical  sections  will  doubtless  find 
their  way  into  the  medical  journals,  and  only  the  proceed- 
ings of  scientific  interest  will  be  treated  of  here.  Through 
the  courtesy  of  the  president  and  of  Prof.  Rassow,  of 
Leipzig,  abstracts  of  the  more  noteworthy  of  the  papers  in 
each  section  were  furnished  to  the  writer. 

Of  the  mathematical  section,  it  was  merely  stated  that 
in  all  five  meetings  were  held,  in  which  twenty-eight  papers 
were  read,  three  being  of  some  length.  It  would  appear 
that  mathematicians  are  too  modest  to  thrust  their  views  on 
the  scientific  brethren,  or  perhaps  they  doubt  if  they  would 
be  understood. 

The  most  noteworthy  papers  in  the  physical  section 
were,  first,  a  confirmation  by  Prof.  Rubens  of  Maxwell's 
theory  by  experiments  on  the  optics  of  metals — their  re- 
fractivity,  and  behaviour  to  electric  currents;  and,  second, 

NO.    1772,  VOL.  68] 


a  paper  by  Prof.  Nernst,  in  which  he  described  and  showed 
his  iridium  apparatus,  by  means  of  which  a  temperature 
of  2000°  C.  has  been  attained,  and  determinations  of  vapour 
density  carried  out.  Nernst 's  "  furnace  "  consists  of  an 
iridium  tube  about  10  inches  long  and  \\  inches  diameter. 
By  means  of  a  powerful  current  which  passes  through  the 
walls  of  the  tube  the  temperature  can  be  raised  to  any 
desired  degree,  short  of  the  melting  point  of  iridium.  A 
small  "  bulb  "  of  iridium,  similar  to  that  used  for  Victor 
Meyer's  density  apparatus,  hangs  inside  the  tube,  and 
attains  the  temperature  of  the  iridium  tube.  Nernst's 
balance,  by  means  of  which  a  couple  of  milligrams  of  sub- 
stance can  be  correctly  weighed  to  within  a  half  per  cent., 
consists  of  a  glass  fibre  suspended  by  a  quartz  fibre  at  right 
angles  to  it ;  from  one  end  hangs  a  small  iridium  capsule 
counterpoised  by  a  small  weight ;  the  other  end  of  the  glass 
fibre  projects  over  a  mirror-scale ;  the  balance  acts  partly 
by  torsion  of  the  quartz  fibre,  partly  like  a  steelyard.  The 
density  of  vapours  of  "  non-volatile  "  substances  is  deter- 
mined exactly  as  with  a  Victor  Meyer  apparatus,  and  while 
that  of  sulphur  was  found  to  correspond  to  S,,  that  of 
phosphorus  gave  negative  results  in  an  atmosphere  of 
nitrogen,  due,  no  doubt,  to  the  formation  of  a  compound 
of  phosphorus  with  nitrogen,  stable  only  at  a  high  tempera- 
ture. Nernst  also  described  his  method  of  measuring  high 
temperatures  by  noting  the  intensity  of  the  radiation  from 
the  interior  of  the  tube. 

In  the  section  of  applied  mathematics.  Dr.  Otto  Thilo 
spoke  of  the  necessity  of  a  knowledge  of  mechanics  for  the 
investigator.  By  help  of  preparations  and  models  he  demon- 
strated the  relation  of  sinews  to  bones,  especially  those 
which  confine  the  motion  to  one  plane,  the  mechanism  for 
getting  over  the  "  dead-point,"  and  those  for  restraint,  so 
that  muscular  power  is  saved,  for  example,  when  a  man  is 
standing  erect.  He  further  went  on  to  demonstrate  the 
mechanism  by  which  the  pressure  of  air  in  the  swimming- 
bladder  of  fishes  is  communicated  to  the  brain.  His  con- 
tention was  that  even  biologists  must  be  instructed  in 
mechanics  if  they  wish  to  study  the  movements  of  living 
organisms. 

In  the  chemical  section.  Prof.  Biltz  spoke  about  the  pre- 
cipitation of  colloids  by  salts.  He  advanced  the  theory  that 
a  colloidal  solution  consists  of  a  colloid  suspended  in  an 
electrolyte ;  when  a  precipitant  is  added  a  new  form  of  com- 
bination occurs,  for  instance  : — 
Electrolyte  — colloid -f- colloid-precipitant  = 

colloid  — colloid-precipitant  +  electrolyte. 

The  precipitation  of  the  iodine-starch  substance  by  means 
of  alumina  was  illustrated,  and  also  of  the  meta-phosphoric 
acid-albumen  couple.  Prof.  Ostwald  suggested  that  the 
precipitation  depends  on  the  relative  velocity  of  the  two  re- 
actions, and  that  that  reaction  which  takes  place  most 
rapidly  gives  rise  to  the  formation  of  stable  substances. 
Prof.  Wedekind  showed  isomeric  organic  ammonium  salts 
containing  radicals  of  high  molecular  weight,  and  Prof. 
Ladenburg  also  read  a  paper  on  asymmetric  nitrogen.  Prof. 
Wallach  mentioned  a  new  instance  of  optical  isomerism,  in 
which,  if  the  molecular  weight  of  the  substituting  group  is 
low,  no  isomerism  is  noticeable,  but  if  high,  isomerism  exists. 
CH,  OH 

For  example,  the  compound       -^ {^    gives  us  iso- 

H  ri 

merides  (the  benzene  nucleus  is  here  seen  in  perspective), 
while  the  similar  compounds 

CO .  CgHj  r-Tj  H 


CH, 

1< 

H 


N. 


> 


H 


CH3 
and       <^~ 

H 


-N. 


> 


CO  .  CgHs 


are  isomeric. 

Prof.  Nernst  read  a  paper  on  the  theory  of  ozone  form- 
ation. The  potential  difference  between  the  system 
O3,  OjlelectrolytejOj  is  057  volt,  and  this  corresponds  with 
the  heat  of  formation  of  ozone,  for  the  couple  has  practically 
no  temperature-coefficient.  He  calculated  that  if  oxygen  is 
heated  to  6400°  it  should  contain  10  per  cent,  of  ozone,  at 
3230°  I  per  cent.,  and  at  2183°  01  per  cent.  In  the  sun 
the  oxygen  must  be  wholly  in  the  state  of  ozone,  owing  to 
th'i  high  temperature  and  the  enormous  gravitational 
pressure.     Prof.  Abegg  spoke  of  two  cases  of  heterogeneous 


NA  rURE 


[October  15,  1903 


equilibrium,  and  other  papers  treated  of  the  ring  formula 
for  benzene,  the  use  of  the  spectroscope  in  the  determin- 
ation of  atomic  weight  (Runge),  fluorescence  and  chemical 
constitution  (Richard  Meyer),  &c. 

In  the  section  of  applied  chemistry,  Prof.  Konig  spoke  of 
the  determination  of  fibre,  cellulose,  and  lignin  in  plants, 
and  of  the  decomposition  of  fodder  by  microbes,  and  Dr. 
Marquart,  of  Cassel,  gave  an  account  of  Dr.  Schenck's 
red-phosphorus.  This  variety  is  produced  at  a  compara- 
tively low  temperature — about  i8o° — by  heating  a  solution 
of  yellow  phosphorus  in  phosphorous  bromide.  It  is  pre- 
cipitated out  of  the  solution,  and  must  be  filtered  off  and 
washed  with  carbon  disulphide  to  free  it  from  yellow 
phosphorus.  Its  point  of  inflammation  is  that  of  ordinary 
red  phosphorus,  but  it  is  in  a  state  of  such  fine  division 
as  to  be  readily  set  on  fire  by  rubbing  if  it  be  mixed  with 
potassium  chlorate  ;  at  the  same  time  it  gives  off  no  fumes, 
and  is  therefore  harmless  to  operatives  who  dip  matches. 
The  light  red  powder  is  soluble  in  caustic  soda  (for  it  prob- 
ably contains  an  atom  of  replaceable  hydrogen),  and  is 
reprecipitated  by  acids.  Dr.  Marquart  spoke  especially  of 
the  future  of  this  substance  in  the  manufacture  of  matches 
which  ignite  when  rubbed  on  any  surface,  and  which,  at 
the  same  time,  are  without  danger  to  workpeople. 

In  the  section  of  geophysics.  Dr.  Mansing  exhibited  an 
apparatus  for  determining  the  ebb  and  flow,  and  also  the 
direction  and  velocity,  of  currents,  and  likewise  the  pressure 
in  deep  water.  The  apparatus  is  electrically  connected  with 
a  ship,  and  registers  for  thirty  days.  The  advantage  over 
apparatus  which  registers  only  in  shallow  water  is  obvious. 
Dr  Nippolt  read  a  paper  on  terrestrial  magnetic  variations, 
citing  observations  made  partly  by  himself,  but  mainly  by 
others.  The  curves  which  he  obtained  point  to  changes 
which  occur  simultaneously  at  different  spots  of  the  earth's 
surface;  he  interprets  such  changes  as  significative  of 
changes  in  the  internal  nucleus  of  the  earth,  and  of  dis- 
placements of  the  relative  positions  of  the  earth's  crust 
and  the  magma  which  he  believes  to  exist  in  the  interior. 
Prof.  Krebs  treated  of  subaqueous  volcanic  regions,  and 
suggested  that  they  may  be  points  of  connection  between 
the  sea-water  and  the  earth's  internal  magma;  he  advo- 
cated that  their  position  and  nature  deserve  careful  in- 
vestigation on  account  of  danger  to  passing  ships.  In 
another  paper  Dr.  Krebs  believed  he  had  found  an  explan- 
ation of  the  inundations  in  Silesian  Austria,  in  certain  long 
areas  of  low  barometric  pressure  from  which  regions  of 
low  pressure  in  Silesian  Galicia  can  be  deduced. 

Dr.  Wolkenhauer,  in  the  geographical  section,  spoke  of 
the  oldest  German  maps,  which  he  ascribed  to  the  fifteenth 
and  sixteenth  centuries.  The  oldest  maps  are  by  Erhard 
Etzlaub  ;  those  of  Cuza,  which  were  formerly  believed  to 
have  been  published  in  1491,  appear  to  be  as  late  as  1530. 
The  attendance  in  this  section  was  very  small,  owing  to 
the  meeting  this  year  of  geographers  at  Cologne. 

In  the  botanical  section  the  most  important  papers  were 
by  Prof.  Kohl,  who  offered  a  proof  that  the  central  bodies 
of  the  Cyanophyceae  cells  possess  the  properties  of  cell 
nuclei,  and  he  expressed  the  belief  that  in  the  closely  allied 
Schizomyceta;  a  similar  proof  could  be  found.  Numerous 
experiments  on  Mycorrhizen,  an  account  of  which  was  given 
by  Prof.  MoUer,  proved  that  the  existence  of  fungi  on  the 
roots  of  plants  must  be  regarded  as  a  case  of  parasitic 
existence,  but  not  of  symbiosis.  Prof.  Drude,  who  has 
made  numerous  experiments  in  the  botanic  garden  at 
Dresden,  contended  that  mutation  cannot  be  sharply  dis- 
tinguished from  variation,  as  De  Vries  believes,  but  that 
the  difference  is  only  one  of  degree.  To  prove  his  conten- 
tion, he  exhibited  living  specimens  of  Oenothera 
Lamarckiana,  grown  from  seed  which  De  Vries  had  given 
him. 

In  the  zoological  section  only  one  meeting  was  held,  at 
which  lectures  were  delivered  by  Prof.  Klunziger,  Dr. 
Thilo,  Dr.  Eysell,  and  Dr.  Basse'.  They  were  illustrated 
by  demonstrations,  but  appear  not  to  have  contained  any 
specially  new  matter. 

The  anthropological  section  excited  a  good  deal  of 
interest.  Among  the  more  important  papers  was  one  by 
Prof.  Hagen,  in  which  he  demonstrated  that  the  eight 
months'  foetus  of  the  Malay  and  Melanesian  races  differed 
from  the  European  foetus  by  the  shortness  of  the  body  com- 
pared with  the  limbs,  and  the  greater  diameter  of  the  body 
:n  the  region  of  the  false  ribs,  &c.     The  Melanesian  foetus 

NO.    T772,   VOL.    68] 


showed  peculiarities  from  which  he  deduced  the  conclusion 
that  the  genus  man  became  differentiated  from  other 
mammals  at  a  very  early  period  of  history.  On  the  other 
hand,  Prof.  Schwalbe,  from  investigation  of  the  frontal 
sutures  of  apes  and  their  comparison  with  those  of  man, 
contended  that  there  is  a  close  relationship  to  be  observed 
between  man  and  old-world  apes.  Prof.  Gojanovic-Kram- 
berger  had  examined  human  remains  recently  discovered 
in  Croatia — the  so-called  Homo  crapinensis — and  con- 
cluded from  his  researches  that  in  the  Ice  age  two  races 
were  alive ;  the  differences  in  the  form  of  the  jaws  and  teeth, 
the  shape  of  the  collar-bone,  the  upper  arm  and  parts  of 
the  skull,  were  adduced  as  proof  of  his  view.  One  of  these 
races,  he  believed,  showed  analogy  with  the  owner  of  the 
Neanderthal  skull  and  the  skeleton  from  the  grotto  of  the 
Spy,  so  far  as  the  morphological  relationship  could  be 
traced. 

One  of  the  sections  dealt  with  the  teaching  of  mathe- 
matics and  science  in  schools,  and  there  Prof.  Grimsell 
demonstrated  the  use  of  new  apparatus  designed  to  illus- 
trate terrestrial  magnetism  and  the  mechanical  equivalent 
of  heat,  and  he  showed  a  lantern  which  gave  good  images 
with  an  ordinary  incandescent  gas  flame.  Prof.  Schotten 
gave  a  lecture  which  was  largely  attended,  and  at  which 
much  discussion  took  place  on  the  suitability  of  zoology 
as  a  school  subject.  While  most  of  the  speakers  agreed 
on  its  being  easily  taught  and  useful,  doubt  was  expressed 
whether  it  was  wise  to  add  another  subject  to  the  already 
heavy  load  which  a  German  boy  is  expected  to  carry.  On 
the  whole,  the  latter  opinion  was  the  more  widely  held. 

After  the  meeting  the  members  made  excursions  to  objects 
of  interest  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Cassel.  About  seventy 
chemists  arid  physicists  visited  Gottingen  and  inspected  the 
laboratories  of  Profs.  Nernst,  Voigt,  Rieke,  and  Wiechert ; 
the  last  has  been  created  only  a  few  years,  and  is  devoted 
to  the  investigation  of  the  problems  of  "  terrestrial  physics." 
It  is  furnished  with  seismographs,  instruments  for  investi- 
gating terrestrial  magnetism,  atmospheric  electricity,  &c., 
and  good  work  is  already  being  done  in  it.  It  is  a  hand- 
some building  at  some  distance  from  the  town,  and  it  may 
be  held  up  as  an  example  of  the  way  in  which  the  Germans 
leave  no  stone  unturned  to  be  first  in  the  investigation  of 
natural  phenomena  of  all  kinds.  Some  of  the  associates, 
chieflv  medical,  visited  Marburg,  in  order  to  inspect  Prof, 
von  Behring's  institute  for  the  study  of  tuberculosis.  The 
buildings  and  equipment  must  be  characterised  as  magni- 
ficent. Here,  again,  is  an  instance  of  the  cooperation  of 
the  scientific  man  and  the  manufacturer,  for  Dr.  von 
Behring  was  for  long  scientific  adviser  to  the  firm  of 
Hochst,  which  erected  the  laboratories,  and  undertook  the 
manufacture  of  the  antitoxin  serum.  Would  that  a  similar 
spirit  of  cordial  cooperation  between  English  men  of  science 
and  '*  practical  "  men  could  become  more  common  ! 

W.   R. 


FORTHCOMING  BOOKS  OF  SCIENCE. 
IV/r  R.  F.  ALCAN  (Paris)  gives  notice  of: — "  Essai  sur  le 
■'-  ■•^  Langage  int^rieur  et  la  Fonction  endophasique  k 
I'Etat  normal  et  dans  les  Etats  pathologiques, "  bv  Dr.  G. 
Saint-Paul;  "Travail  et  Plaisir,"  by  Dr.  Ch.  Fdr<i  ;  "La 
Philosophic  pratique  de  Kant,"  by  V.  Delbos ;  "Manuel 
d'Histologie  pathologique,"  by  Cornil,  Ranvier,  Brault  et 
Lelulle,  Tome  iii.  ;  "  M^canisme  et  Education  des  Mouve- 
ments,"  by  G.  Demeny  ;  "  Les  Defenses  de  la  Vie,"  by  Dr. 
J.  Laumonier ;  "  Histoire  de  I'Habillement  et  de  la  Parure, 
depuis  les  Temps  pr^historiques  jusqu'^  nos  Jours,"  by 
L  Bourdeau ;  "Traits  de  Sylviculture — Exploitation  et 
Am^nagement  des  Bois,"  by  Prof.  P.  Mouillefert ; 
"  L'fiducation,"  by  C.  A.  Laesant." 

Mr.  George  Allen  promises  : — "  Ideals  of  Science  and 
Faith,"  nine  essays  by  Sir  Oliver  Lodge  and  various  other 
writers,  edited  by  Rev.  J.  E.  Hand. 

Mr.  Edward  Arnold's  announcements  include  : — "  The 
Chemical  Synthesis  of  Vital  Products  and  the  Inter- 
relations between  Organic  Compounds,"  by  Prof.  R. 
Meldola,  F.R.S.  ;  "The  Strength  and  Elasticity  of  Struc- 
tural Members,"  by  R.  J.  Woods;  "The  Evolution 
Theory,"  by  Prof.  A.  W'eismann,  translated  by  Prof.  J.  A. 
Thomson,    two   volumes,    illustrated;   "Nature   Studv,"   bv 


October  15,  1903J 


NATURE 


589 


Prof.  L.  C.  Miall,  F.R.S.  ;  and  a  third  series  of  "  Memories 
of  the  Months,"  by  Sir  Herbert  Maxwell,  Bart. 

Messrs.  Bailli^re,  Tindall  and  Cox  announce  : — "  Health 
of  Armies  in  the  Field,"  by  Major  R.  Caldwell;  "The 
Nutrition  of  the  Infant,"  by  Dr.  R.  Vincent;  and 
"  Students'  Aids  to  Chemistry,"  by  T.  A.  Henry. 

Messrs.  A.  and  C.  Black  direct  attention  to  : — "  Trout 
Fishing:  an  Essay  in  the  Study  of  Natural  Pheijomena, " 
by  W.  Earl  Hodgson,  illustrated;  "The  Direction  of 
Hair  in  Animals  and  Man,"  by  Dr.  W.  Kidd,  illustrated; 
and  a  new  edition  of  "  Text-book  of  Operative  Surgery," 
by  Dr.  T.  Kocher,  translated  by  Dr.  H.  J.  Stiles. 

The  list  of  the  Cambridge  University  Press  includes  : — 
"  Micro-cosmographie,  or,  a  Piece  of  the  World  dis- 
covered;  in  Essays  and  Characters,"  by  John  Earle,  printed 
from  the  sixth  augmented  edition  of  1633  ;  "  Principia 
Ethica, "  by  G.  E.  Moore;  "The  Algebra  of  Invariants," 
by  J.  H.  Grace  and  A.  Young;  "The  Collected  Mathe- 
matical Papers  of  James  Joseph  Sylvester,  F.R.S.,"  edited 
by  Dr.  H.  F.  Baker,  F.R.S.  ;  "Radio-activity,"  by  Prof. 
E.  Rutherford,  F.R.S.  ;  "  The  Fauna  and  Geography  of  the 
Maldive  and  Laccadive  Archipelagoes.  Being  the  Account 
of  the  Work  carried  on  and  of  the  Collections  made  by 
an  Expedition  during  the  years  1899  and  1900  under  the 
leadership  of  J.  S.  Gardiner,"  vol.  ii.  part  ii.,  illustrated; 
"  Reports  of  the  Anthropological  Expedition  to  Torres 
Straits  by  the  Members  of  the  Expedition,"  edited  by  Dr. 
A.  C.  Haddon,  F.R.S.  ;  "  Immunity  in  Infectious  Diseases," 
by  Prof.  E.  Metchnikoff,  authorised  English  translation 
by  F.  G.  Binnie,  illustrated  ;  "  Rabies,  its  Place  amongst 
Germ-diseases,  and  its  Origin  in  the  Animal  Kingdom," 
by  Dr.  D.  Sime ;  "The  Natural  History  of  some  Common 
Animals,"  by  O.  H.  Latter;  "A  Systematic  Account  of 
the  Seed-Plants,"  by  Dr.  A.  B.  Rendle,  vol.  i.  ;  "  Fossil 
Plants,  a  Manual  for  Students  of  Botany  and  Geology," 
by  \.  C.  Seward,  F.R.S.,  vol.  ii.  ;  "  The  Morphology  of 
Plants,"  by  J.  C.  Willis;  and  new  editions  of  Scott's  "A 
Treatise  on  Determinants,"  by  G.  B.  Mathews,  F.R.S.; 
and  "  A  Manual  and  Dictionary  of  the  Flowering  Plants 
and  Ferns,"  by  J.  C.  Willis. 

The  list  of  Messrs.  Cassell  and  Co.,  Ltd.,  contains  : — 
"Wild  Nature's  Ways,"  by  R.  Kearton,  illustrated; 
"  Nature's  Riddles;  or  the  Battle  of  the  Beasts,"  by  H.  W. 
Shepheard-Wahvyn,  illustrated  ;  and  new  editions  of  "  The 
.Automobile:  its  Construction  and  Management,"  edited  by 
P  N.  Hasluck ;  "A  Manual  of  Operative  Surgery,"  by 
Sir  F.  Treves;  and  "Elements  of  Surgical  Diagnosis," 
by  A.  P.  Gould. 

Messrs.  W.  and  R.  Chambers,  Ltd.,  will  issue  : — 
"  Medicine,  Surgery,  and  Hygiene  in  the  Century,"  by 
Dr.  E.  H.  Stafford  ;  "  Discoveries  and  Explorations  of  the 
Century,"  by  Prof.  C.  G.  D.  Roberts;  "Progress  of 
Education  in  the  Century,"  by  J.  L.  Hughes  and  Dr.  L.  R. 
Klemm  ;  "  Progress  of  Science  in  the  Century,"  by  Prof. 
J.  .\.  Thomson  ;  and  a  new  edition  of  "  Practical  Mathe- 
matics," revised  under  the  supervision  of  Drs.  C.  G.  Knott 
and  J.  S.  Mackay. 

Messrs.  Chapman  and  Hall,  Ltd.,  direct  attention  to  : — 
"  Man's  Place  in  the  Universe,  a  Study  of  the  Results  of 
Scientific  Research  in  Relation  to  the  Unitv  or  Plurality 
of  Worlds,"  by  Dr.  A.  R.  Wallace,  "F.R.S.,  with 
diagrams;  "China,  Past  and  Present,"  by  E.  H.  Parker, 
with  a  map  of  China;  "Life  and  Sport  in  China,"  bv 
O.  G.  Ready,  illustrated  ;  "  The  Gun,  Afield  and 
.Afloat,"  by  H.  .Sharp,  illustrated;  "  i^ther  and  Gravita- 
tion," by  W.  G.  Hooper,  with  diagrams  ;  "  A  Short  Memoir 
of  Isaak  Walton  and  his  Friends,"  by  S.  Martin,  illus- 
trated; and  "The  Worship  of  the  Dead,  the  Origin, 
Nature  and  History  of  Pagan  Idolatry,"  by  Colonel  J. 
Gamier,  R.E.,  illustrated. 

The  list  of  the  University  of  Chicago  Press  (Chicago) 
contains  : — "  The  Mental  Traits  of  Sex,"  by  H.  B.  Thomp- 
son ;  "  The  Psychology  of  Child  Development,"  by  I.  King ; 
".Animal  Education,"  by  J.  B.  Watson;  "A  History  of 
Matrimonial  Institutions,"  by  G.  E.  Howard,  three 
volumes ;  "  Studies  in  Logical  Theory,"  edited  by  J.  Dewey  ; 
"  Physical  Chemistry  in  the  Service  of  the  Sciences,"  by 
Prof.  J.  H.  van  't  Hoff,  translated  by  A.  Smith;  and 
"  Studies  in  General  Physiology,"  by  J.  Loeb,  two  parts. 

Messrs.  J.  and  A.  Churchill  announce  new  editions  of 
Bloxam's  "  Chemistry,"  revised  by   Prof.   J.    M.   Thomson 


NO.    1772,  VOL.  68] 


and  A.  G.  Bloxam  ;  and  "  Elementary  Practical  Chemistry," 
by  Profs.  Clowes  and  Coleman,  two  parts. 

The  Clarendon  Press  will  publish  : — "  The  Theory  of 
Continuous  Groups,"  by  J.  E.  Campbell;  "Notes  on 
.Analytical  Conies,"  by  Dr.  A.  C.  Jones;  "The  Logic  of 
Arithmetic,"  by  Mrs.  M.  Boole;  "Index  Kewensis 
Plantarum  Phanerogamarum."  Supplementum  Secundum, 
confecerunt  T.  Durand  et  B.  D.  Jackson;  uoebel's 
"Organography  of  Plants,"  authorised  English  edition, 
by  Prof.  I.  Bayley  Balfour,  F.R.S.,  vol.  ii.  ;  Pfeffer's 
"  Physiology  of  Plants,"  translated  by  Dr.  A.  J.  Ewart, 
vol.  ii.  ;  and  "  Plant  Geography  upon  a  Physiological 
Basis,"  by  the  late  Dr.  A.  F.  W.  Schimper,  the  authorised 
English  edition  by  Prof.  W.  R.  Fisher,  revised  by  Prof.  P. 
Groom,  in  four  monthly  parts,   illustrated. 

Messrs.  Archibald  Constable  and  Co.,  Ltd.,  give  notice 
of:—"  .Motor  Vehicles  and  .Motors,"  by  W.  W.  Beaumont, 
vol.  ii.,  illustrated;  "The  Motor  Pocket  Book,"  by 
M.  O 'Gorman  and  Cozens-Hardy  ;  "  The  Engineer  in  South 
.Africa,"  by  S.  Ransome,  illustrated;  "  Liquid  F"uel  and  its 
Combustion,"  by  W.  H.  Booth,  illustrated;  "Dust  De- 
structors," by  W.  F.  Goodrich,  illustrated;  "Construction 
in  Reinforced  Concrete,"  by  C.  F.  Marsh,  illustrated; 
"  Air  Engines  and  Machinery,"  by  G.  Halliday,  illustrated  ; 
"The  Lymphatics,"  by  G.  Delamere,  P.  Poirier,  and 
B.  Cun^o,  illustrated;  and  "  New  Methods  of  Treatment," 
by  Dr.  Laumonner,  edited  by  Dr.  Sayers. 

The  Electrician  Company,  Ltd.,  announce : — "  Hand- 
book of  the  Electrical  Laboratory  and  Testing  Room,"  by 
Dr.  J.  A.  Fleming,  second  volume,  illustrated;  and  new 
editions  of  the  "  International  Telegraph  Convention  and 
Telegraph  and  Telephone  Service  Regulations,"  and 
"  Localisation  of  Faults  in  Electric  Light  Mains,"  by  F.  C 
Raphael. 

Messrs.  R.  Friedlander  and  Son  (Berlin)  give  notice  of  :— 
"  Kaferfauna  der  Balkanhalbinsel,"  by  V.  Appelbeck, 
Berichte  der  Deutschen  Chemischen  Gesellschaft,  reprint 
of  vols,  i.-vi.,  1868-73  ;  "  Die  Vogel  der  palaearktischen 
Region,"  by  E.  Hartert ;  and  "  Das  Tierreich,"  Lief.  20. 

Messrs.  Funk  and  Wagnalls  announce  : — "  A  Guide  to 
Electro-Diagnosis  and  Electro-Therapeutics,"  by  Dr.  T. 
Cohn. 

Messrs.  Gibbings  and  Co.,  Ltd.,  promise  : — "  Science  in 
Arcady,"  by  Grant  Allen;  "  Man  and  Beast,"  by  Rev.  C. 
Wood;  "Geological  Stories,"  by  J.  E.  Taylor;  "British 
Fossils,"  by  J.  E.  Taylor;  "  Playtime  Naturalist,"  by  J.  E. 
Taylor;  and  "  Sagacity  and  Morality  of  Plants,"  by  jf.  E. 
Taylor. 

the  list  of  Messrs.  Charles  Griffin  and  Co.,  Ltd.,  in- 
cludes:—"  The  Metallurgy  of  Steel,"  by  F.  W.  Harbord, 
with  a  section  on  "The  Mechanical  Treatment  of  Steel," 
by  J.  W.  Hall,  illustrated  ;  "  Precious  Stones  :  their  Proper- 
ties, Occurrences,  and  Uses,"  by  Dr.  M.  Bauer,  trans- 
lated by  L.  J.  Spencer,  illustrated;  "  Cyaniding  Gold  and 
Silver  Ores,"  by  H.  F.  Julian  and  E.  Smart,  illus- 
trated ;  "  The  Principles  and  Practice  of  Dock  Engineer- 
ing,"  by  Brysson  Cunningham,  illustrated;  "Electricity 
Control,  a  Treatise  on  Electricity  Switchgear  and  Systems, 
of  Transmission,"  by  L.  Andrews,  illustrated;  "  The  Micro- 
graphy of  Steel,  a  Handbook  of  the  Methods  Employed  in 
the  Investigation  of  the  Microstructure  of  Steel  and  its 
Constituents,"  by  F.  Osmond  and  J.  E.  Stead,  F.R.S.,  with 
an  appendix  including  Mr.  Stead's  latest  researches,  illus- 
trated; "The  Elements  of  Mining  and  Quarrying,"  bv 
Prof.  C.  Le  Neve  Foster,  F.R.S.,  illustrated;  "Fire  and 
Explosion  Risks,  a  Handbook  of  the  Detection,  Investi- 
gation, and  Prevention  of  Fires  and  Explosions,"  by  Dr. 
von  Schwartz,  translated  from  the  revised  German  edition 
by  C.  T.  C.  Salter;  "Applied  Anatomy:  a  Treatise  for 
Students,  House  Surgeons,  and  for  Operating  Surgeons," 
by  Dr.  Edward  H.  Taylor,  illustrated;  "The  Chemistry 
and  Pathology  of  the  Urine,"  by  Dr.  J.  D.  Mann,  illus- 
trated ;  "  Methods  and  Calculations  in  Public  Health  and 
Vital  Statistics,"  by  Dr.  H.  W,  G.  Macleod,  illustrated; 
"  Milk  :  its  Production  and  Uses,  with  Chapters  on  Dairy 
Farming,  the  Diseases  of  Cattle,  and  on  the  Hygiene  and 
Control  of  Supplies,"  by  Dr.  E.  F.  Willoughby,  illustrated; 
"  A  Text-book  of  Physics,"  by  Profs.  J.  H.  Poynting, 
F.R.S.,  and  J.  J.  Thomson,  F.R.S.,  vols,  on  heat,  light, 
magnetism  and  electricity ;  and  new  editions  of  *'  Tho, 
Cyanide  Process  of  Gold   Extraction,   a  Text-book  for  the 


590 


NATURE 


[OOTOBER   15,   1903 


Use  of  Metallurgists  and  Students  at  Schools  of  Mines, 
&c.,"  by  Prof.  J.  Park,  illustrated;  "  A  Manual  of  Marine 
Engineering  :  Comprising  the  Designing,  Construction,  and 
Working  of  Marine  Machinery,"  by  A.  E.  Seaton,  illus- 
trated ;  and  "  Central  Electrical  Stations  :  their  Design, 
Organisation,  and  Management,"  by  C.  H.  Wordingham, 
illustrated. 

Messrs.  Gurney  and  Jackson  will  issue  vol.  i.,  contain- 
ing parts  i.  and  ii.,  of  an  enlarged  edition  of  Dr.  G.  Lunge's 
"  Theoretical  and  Practical  Treatise  on  the  Manufacture 
of  Sulphuric  Acid  and  Alkali." 

Mr.  W.  Heinemann's  list  includes: — "The  Regions  of 
the  World,"  edited  by  H.  J.  Mackinder,  vol.  iv.,  India,  by 
Colonel  Sir  T.  Holdich,  vol.  v.  North  America,  by  I.  C. 
Russell ;  "  The  Founder  of  Mormonism,  a  Psychological 
Study  of  Joseph  Smith,  jun.,"  by  J.  W.  Riley;  "The 
Nature  of  Man,  Studies  in  Optimistic  Philosophy,"  by  Prof. 
E.  Metchnikoff,  authorised  English  translation,  edited  by 
Dr.  P.  C.  Mitchell,  illustrated  ;  and  in  the  Dainty  Nature 
Series,  "  The  Brook  Book,"  by  M.  R.  Miller,  illustrated. 

Mr.  R.  Brimley  Johnson  promises  : — "  Mrs.  Piper  and 
the  Society  for  Psychical  Research,"  by  M.  Sage,  trans- 
lated. 

Mr.  Henry  Kimpton's  list  is  as  follows  : — "  Bacteriology, 
a  Manual  for  Students  and  Practitioners,"  by  Dr.  F.  C. 
Zapffe,  illustrated;  and  new  editions  of  "  The  Physiological 
Feeding  of  Infants,"  by  Dr.  E.  Pritchard  ;  "  The  Treatment 
of  Disease  by  Electric  Currents,"  by  Dr.  S.  H.  Monell, 
illustrated  ;  "  Elements  of  Correct  Technique,"  by  Dr.  S.  H. 
Monell  ;  "  Medical  German,  a  Manual  Designed  to  Aid 
Physicians  in  their  Intercourse  with  German  Patients  and 
in  Reading  Medical  Works  and  Publications  in  the  German 
Language,"  by  S.  Deutsch. 

Mr.  John  Lane  gives  notice  of  : — Handbooks  of  practical 
gardening,  edited  by  H.  Roberts,  illustrated  :  "  The  Book 
of  Herbs,"  "The  Book  of  Shrubs,"  "The  Book  of  the 
Daffodil,"  "The  Book  of  the  Lily,"  "The  Book  of 
Topiary,"  "  The  Book  of  Town  and  Window  Gardening," 
"The  Book  of  Rarer  Vegetables,"  "The  Book  of  the 
Iris,"  and  "  The  Book  of  Garden  Furniture." 

Mr.  F.  Lehmann  (Stuttgart)  announces  : — "  Das  Mineral- 
reich,"  by  Prof.  R.  Brauns. 

Messrs.  Crosby  Lockwood  and  Sons  direct  attention  to  : — 
"  W'atch  Repairing,  Cleaning,  and  Adjusting,"  by  F.  J. 
Garrard,  illustrated;  "An  Elementary  Treatise  on  Hoist- 
ing Machinery,  including  the  Elements  of  Crane  Construc- 
tion and  Descriptions  of  the  Various  Types  of  Cranes  in 
Use,"  by  J.  Horner;  "  Gas  and  Oil  Engine  Management, 
a  Handbook  for  Users,  being  Notes  on  Selection,  Construc- 
tion, and  Management,"  by  M.  P.  Bale;  "  An  Introduction 
to  Pure  and  Applied  Geometry,"  by  E.  Sprague,  illus- 
trated ;  and  new  editions  of  "  Clocks,  Watches,  and  Bells 
for  Public  Purposes,"  by  E.  Beckett,  Lord  Grimthorpe, 
illustrated;  and  "The  Elements  of  Electrical  Engineer- 
ing, a  First  Year's  Course  for  Students,"  by  T.  Sewell, 
illustrated. 

The  announcements  of  Messrs.  Longmans  and  Co.  in- 
clude : — "  A  Social  History  of  Ancient  Ireland,  Treating  of 
the  Government,  Military  System  and  Law,  Religion, 
Learning  and  Art,  Trades,  Industries  and  Commerce, 
Manners,  Customs  and  Domestic  Life  of  the  Ancient  Irish 
People,"  by  Dr.  P.  W.  Joyce,  2  vols.,  illustrated;  "The 
Great  North-West  and  the  Great  Lake  Region  of  North 
America,"  by  P.  Fountain  ;  "  First  Lessons  in  Observational 
Geometry,"  by  Mrs.  W.  N.  Shaw;  "  Education  as  Adjust- 
ment, Educational  Theory  Viewed  in  the  Light  of  Con- 
temporary Thought,"  by  Prof.  M.  V.  O'Shea;  "Queries 
in  Ethnography,"  by  Dr.  A.  G.  Keller;  and  "Steam 
Boilers,  their  Theory  and  Design,"  by  Prof.  H.  de  B. 
Parsons,  illustrated. 

Messrs.  Luzac  and  Co.  will  issue  : — "  The  History  of 
Philosophy  in  Islam,"  by  T.  J.  de  Boer,  translated  by 
E.  R.  Jones;  and  "The  Indian  Sect  of  the  Jainas, "  by 
T.  G.  Biihler,  translated  by  Dr.  J,  Burgess. 

Messrs.  James  Maclehose  and  Sons  (Glasgow) 
announce : — "  The  Principal  Navigations,  Voyages, 
Trafiflcs,  and  Discoveries  of  the  English  Nation  made  by 
Sea  or  Overland  to  the  Remote  and  Farthest  Distant 
Quarters  of  the  Earth  at  any  Time  within  the  Compass  of 
these  1600  Years,"  by  Richard  Hakluyt,  preacher  and  some- 
time   student   of    Christ    Church    in    Oxford,    in    12    vols.  ; 


NO.    1772,  VOL    68] 


"  Museums,  their  History  and  their  Use,  with  a  Biblio- 
graphy and  List  of  Museums  in  the  United  Kingdom,"  by 
Dr.   D.  Murray,  3  vols. 

In  the  announcements  of  Messrs.  Macmillan  and  Co., 
Ltd.,  we  notice  : — "  The  Life  of  Sir  William  Henry  Flower, 
F.R.S.,"  by  C.  J.  Cornish,  with  photogravure  portraits; 
"  I'he  Native  Tribes  of  the  Northern  Territory  of 
Australi£(,"  by  Prof.  B.  Spencer,  F.R.S.,  and  F.  J. 
Gillen,  illustrated;  "  Wild  Tribes  of  the  Malay  Peninsula," 
by  W.  W.  Skeat,  illustrated  ;  Cambridge  Natural  History, 
illustrated:  vol.  vii.,  "  Balanoglossus,  &c.,"  by  Dr.  S.  F. 
Harmer,  F.R.S.,  "  Ascidians  and  Amphio.xus,"  by  Prof. 
W,  A.  Herdman,  F.R.S.,  "  Fishes,"  by  Dr.  W.  Bridge  and 
G.  A.  Boulenger,  F.R.S.  ;  vol.  i.,  "Protozoa,"  by  Prof. 
M.  Hartog,  "  Sponges,"  by  Prof.  W.  J.  Sollas,  F.R.S., 
"Jelly-fish,  Sea-anemones,"  &c.,"  by  Prof.  S.  J.  Hickson, 
F.R.S. ,  "Star-fish,  Sea-Urchins,  &c.,"  by  Prof.  E.  W. 
MacBride ;  vol.  iv.,  "Spiders,  Mites,  &c.,"  by  C.  War- 
burton,  "Scorpions,  Trilobites,  &c.,"  by  Dr.  M.  Laurie, 
"  Pycnogonids, "  by  Prof.  D'Arcy  W.  Thompson, 
"  Linguatulida  and  Tardigrada, "  by  A.  E.  Shipley, 
"Crustacea,"  by  Prof.  W.  F.  R.  Weldon,  F.R.S!  ; 
"  Education,  and  other  Subjects,"  by  the  Right  Hon.  Lord 
Avebury,  F.R.S.  ;  and  new  editions  of  "  A  Handbook  of 
Metallurgy,"  by  Prof.  C.  Schnabel,  translated  and  edited 
by  Prof.  H.  Louis,  2  vols.,  illustrated;  and  "A  Systematic 
Survey  of  the  Organic  Colouring  Matters,"  by  Drs.  G. 
Schultz  and  P.  Julius,  translated  and  edited,  with  extensive 
additions,  by  A.  G.  Green. 

Messrs.  Methuen  and  Co. 's  list  contains: — "The  Gods 
of  Egypt,"  by  Dr.  A.  E.  W.  Budge,  2  vols.,  illustrated; 
"The  Elements  of  Metaphysics,"  by  A.  E.  Taylor;  "The 
Way  to  be  Healthy  and  Wealthy  and  Wise  ;  What  to  Wear 
and  the  Wav  to  Wear  it,"  by  Mrs.  C.  MuUer ;  and  "  Pre- 
historic Man  in  England,"  by  Dr.  B.  C.  A.  Windle,  F.R.S., 
illustrated. 

Mr.  G.  A.  Morton  (Edinburgh)  promises: — "The  Life 
History  of  British  Lizards,"  by  Dr.  G.  Leighton,  illus- 
trated. 

Mr.  Murray  promises: — "A  Manual  of  Pathology,"  by 
Prof.  S.  Martin,  illustrated ;  "  Eleanor  Anne  Ormerod, 
LL.D.,  Economic  Entomologist,  Autobiography  and  Corre- 
spondence," edited  by  Prof.  R.  Wallace,  illustrated;  "  Some 
Indian     Friends     and     Acquaintances,"     by     Lieut. -Colonel 

D.  D.  Cunningham,  F.R.S.  This  volume  deals  with  the 
habits  of  some  of  the  commoner  bird  and  animal  inmates 
of  the  streets  and  gardens  of  Indian  towns  as  observed 
during  a  residence  of  nearly  thirty  years'  duration  in 
Bengal ;  "  The  Bacteriology  of  Milk,  with  Special  Chapters 
on  the  Spread  of  Disease  by  Milk  and  the  Control  of  the 
Milk  Supply,"  by  Dr.  G.  Newman  and  H.  Swithinbank, 
illustrated  ;  "  Artillery  and  Explosives,  Essays  and  Lectures 
Written  and  Delivered  at  Various  Times,"  by  Sir  A. 
Noble,  K.C.B.,  F.R.S.,  illustrated;  "Signs  of  Life,  a 
Series  of  Lectures  on  Physiology,"  by  Dr.  A.  D.  Waller, 
F.R.S.,  illustrated;  "  Heredity,"  by  Prof.  J.  A.  Thomson, 
illustrated  (the  Progressive  Science  Series) ;  "  The  Home 
Mechanic,"  by  J.  Wright,  illustrated;  "Growth  and 
Spread  of  Culture,"  by  Prof.  E.  B.  Tylor,  F.R.S.,  illus- 
trated ;  "  Animal  Life,"  by  Prof.  W.  B.  Bottomley  ;  "  Plant 
Life,"  by  Prof.  W.  B.  Bottomley;  "Algebra,"  part  ii.,  by 

E.  M.  Langley  and  S.  R.  N.  Bradly ;  "Telegraphs  and 
Telephones,"  by  Sir  W.  H.  Preece,  K.C.B.,  F.R.S.  ;  "  The 
Calculus  for  Artisans,"  by  Prof.  O.  Henrici,  F.R.S.  ;  "  The 
Elements  of  Moral  Philosophy,"  by  Prof.^M.  C.  Sen;  and 
a  new  edition  of  "  Primitive  Culture,  Researches  into 
the  Development  of  Mythology,  Philosophy,  Religion, 
Language,  Art  and  Custom,"  by  Prof.  E.  B.  Tylor, 
F.R.S. 

Messrs.  George  Newnes,  Ltd.,  will  publish  : — "  Beautiful 
and  Rare  Trees  and  Plants,"  by  the  Earl  Annesley,  illus- 
trated; and  in  the  Library  of  Useful  Stories:  "The  Story 
of  the  Atlantic  Cable,"  by  C.  Bright,  illustrated;  and 
"  The  Story  of  the  Extinct  Civilisations  of  the  West,"  by 
R.  E.  Anderson,  illustrated. 

In  the  list  of  Messrs.  C.  Arthur  Pearson,  Ltd.,  we 
observe: — "The  Romance  of  Modern  Engineering,"  by 
A.  Williams,  illustrated ;  and  a  new  edition  of  "  From 
Franklin  to  Nansen,"  by  G.  F.  Scott,  illustrated. 

Messrs.  G.  P.  Putnam's  Sons  announce: — "The  Law  of 
Mental    Medicine,"    by    T.    J.    Hudson;    "Sociology:    the 


October  15,  1903] 


NATURE 


591 


Science  of  Human  Society,"  by  Dr.  J.  H.  W.  Stuckenberg ; 
*•  Psychology  and  Common  Life,  a  Survey  of  the  Present 
Results  of  Psychical  Research,  with  Special  Reference  to 
their  Bearings  upon  the  Interests  of  Everyday  Life,"  by 
F-  S.  Hoffman;  "Christopher  Columbus,"  by  J.  B. 
Thacher,  3  vols.,  illustrated  ;  and  a  new  edition  of  "  Think- 
ing, Feeling,  Doing,"  by  Dr.  E.  W.  Scripture. 

Mr.  Grant  Richards  promises  : — "  The  Law  of  Evolu- 
tion :  its  True  Philosophical  Basis,"  by  J.  Scouller ;  and 
a  new  illustrated  edition  of  "  Pioneers  of  Evolution,"  by 
I     E.  Clodd. 

Messrs.  Rivingtons'  list  contains  : — "  Arithmetical  Types 
and  E.\amples, "  by  W.  G.  Borchardt ;  and  Rivingtons' 
Junior  Mathematics,  by  H.  G.  Willis,  "  Arithmetic," 
part  ii. 

In  the  list  of  Messrs.  George  Routledge  and  Sons,  Ltd., 
are  to  be  found  : — "  The  Management  of  Infancy  and  Child- 
hood in  Health  and  Disease,"  by  Dr.  H.  Barratt ;  "Tube, 
Train,  Tram,  and  Car,  a  non-Technical  Description  of 
Electric  Locomotion,"  by  A.  H.  Beavan  ;  "Nature  Study 
Readers,"  edited  by  J.  C.  Medd  ;  "  Electric  Locomotion," 
by  Sir  W.  Preece,  K.C.B.,  F.R.S.  ;  and  a  new  edition 
of  Morris's  "  British  Butterflies." 

The  Sanitary  Publishing  Co.,  Ltd.,  announce: — "The 
Zymotic  Enquiry  Book,"  by  J.  Storey;  "  The  Full  Solution 
of  the  Sewage  Problem,  being  the  Presidential  Address  to 
the  Association  of  Managers  of  Sewage  Disposal  Works  at 
Carshalton,  March  28,  1903,"  by  W.  D.  Scott  Moncrieff ; 
"The  Sanitary  Record  Diary  and  Year-Book  " ;  "The 
Sanitary  Record  and  Journal  of  Sanitary  and  Municipal 
Engineering,     &c.,"     by     Dr.     W.     Robertson;     and     new 

irions  of  "  Disinfection  and  the  Preservation  of  Food, 
ither  with  an  Account  of  the  Chemical  Substances  used 
Antiseptics  and  Preservatives,"  by   Dr.   S.    Rideal ;   and 

1  he  Purification  of  Sewage  and  Water,"  by  W.  J.  Dibden. 

Ihe  Walter  Scott  Publishing  Company,  Ltd.,  are  adding 
In  their  "Contemporary  Science  Series": — "Morals:  a 
'1  leatise  on  the  Psycho-Sociological  Bases  of  Ethics,"  which 
is  a  translation,  by  W.  J.  Greenstreet,  of  Duprat's  "  La 
Morale";  "Consumption,  its  Nature,  Causes,  Prevention, 
and  Cure,"  by  Dr.  S.  de  Plauzoles ;  "  Indigestion,  its  Pre- 
vention and  Cure,"  by  Dr.  F.  H.  Alderson ;  and  a  new 
edition  of  "An  Introduction  to  Comparative  Psychology," 
hv   Prof.   C.   Lloyd   Morgan,    F.R.S. 

Messrs.  Smith,  Elder  and  Co.,  give  notice  of : — "  A 
Naturalist  in  the  Guianas, "  by  E.  Andr^,  illustrated; 
"  Doctors  and  their  Work,  or  Medicine,  Quackery,  and 
Disease,"  by  R.  Brudenell  Carter. 

The  announcements  of  Messrs.  Swan  Sonnenschein  and 
Co.,  Ltd.,  include  : — "  A  History  of  Contemporary  Philo- 
sophy," by  Prof.  M.  Heinze,  translated  by  Prof.  W. 
Hammond;  "Physiological  Psychology,"  by  Prof.  W. 
■VVundt.  A  translation  of  the  fifth  and  wholly  rewritten 
(1902-3)  German  edition,  by  Prof.  E.  B.  Titchener,  in  three 
volumes,  vols.  i.  and  ii.,  illustrated  ;  "  The  Philosophy  of 
Auguste  Comte, "  by  Prof.  L.  L.  Bruhl,  translated  with 
notes  and  index  by  the  Hon.  Mrs.  de  Beaumont-Klein ; 
"Some  Popular  Philosophy,"  by  G.  H.  Long;  "The 
Student's  Text-book  of  Zoology,"  by  A.  Sedgwick,  F.R.S., 
vol.  ii.,  illustrated  ;  "  The  Fourth  Dimension,"  by  C.  H. 
Hinton,  illustrated;  "Fatigue,"  by  Dr.  Mosso,  translated 
by  W.  B.  Drummond,  illustrated;  "  Cancer:  Nature's  Own 
and  Onlv  Remedv,"  by  Dr.  C.  Carillo  ;  "Specimens  of  Bush- 
man Folklore, "by  Dr.  W.  H.  J.  Bleek  and  Miss  L.  C. 
Lloyd  ;  and  a  new  edition  of  "  Introduction  to  the  Study 
of  Organic  Chemistry,"  by  J.  Wade,  illustrated. 

The  list  of  the  University  Tutorial  Press,  Ltd.,  com- 
prises:— "Modern  Navigation,"  by  Rev.  W.  Hall;  "The 
Shilling  Arithmetic  ";  "  The  Key  to  the  New  Matriculation 
Algebra";  "The  School  Arithmetic,"  by  W.  P.  Work- 
man ;  "  Advanced  Botany,"  by  J.  M.  Lowson  ;  "  Graphical 
Representation  of  Algebraic  Functions,"  by  C.  H.  French 
and  G.  Osborn ;  and  new  editions  of  "  The  Tutorial 
Dynamics  "  and  "  The  Tutorial  Statics,"  by  Dr.  W.  Briggs 
and  Prof.  G.  H.  Bryan,  F.R.S.  ;  "  Advanced  Magnetism 
and  Electricity,"  by  Dr.  R.  W.  Stewart;  "First  Stage 
Magnetism  and  Electricity,"  by  Dr.  R.  H.  Jude  ;  "Advanced 
Mechanics,"  vol.  i.,  Dvnamics ;  vol.  ii.,  Statics,  bv  Dr. 
W.  Briggs  and  Prof.  G.  H.  Bryan,  F.R.S.  ;  and  "  A  Higher 
Text-book  of  Magnetism  and  Electricity,"  by  Dr.  R.  W. 
Stewart. 


NO.    1772,  VOL.  68] 


Mr.  T.  Fisher  Unwin  gives  notice  of : — "  Big  Game 
Shooting  and  Travel  in  South  and  East  Africa,"  by  F.  R.  H. 
Firicllay,  illustrated  ;  "  The  Mystics,  Ascetics  and  Saints  of 
India,"  by  J.  C.  Oman,  illustrated;  "Bird  Life  in  Wild 
Wales,"  by  J.  A.  W.  Bond,  illustrated. 

Messrs.  Whittaker  and  Co.  will  issue  : — "  Electric  Trac- 
tion, a  Practical  Handbook  on  the  Application  of  Electricity 
as  a  Locomotive  Power,"  by  J.  H.  Rider;  "  Electric  Light- 
ing and  Power  Distribution,"  by  W.  P.  Maycock,  vol.  ii.  ; 
"  Friction  and  its  Reduction,"  by  G.  U.  Wheeler;  and  new 
editions  of  "The  Dynamo,"  by  C.  C.  Hawkins  and 
F.  Wallis ;  "  Electricity  in  its  Application  to  Telegraphy," 
by  T.  E.  Herbert ;  and  "  The  Alternating  Current  Circuit 
and  Motor,"  by  W.  P.  Maycock. 


UNIVERSITY    AND    EDUCATIONAL 
INTELLIGENCE. 

Cambridge. — The  election  of  a  professor  of  physiology  in 
succession  to  Sir  Michael  Foster  will  take  place  on 
November  6,  and  the  election  to  the  chair  of  mechanism 
and  applied  mechanics,  vacant  by  the  resignation  of  Prof. 
Ewing,  on  November  14.  Candidates  are  requested  to 
communicate  with  the  Vice-Chancellor. 

Mr.  J.  M.  Dodds,  Peterhouse,  and  Mr.  E.  W.  Barnes, 
Trinity,  have  been  appointed  moderators,  and  Mr.  A.  Berry, 
King's,  and  Mr.  A.  S.  Ramsey,  Magdalene,  examiners  for 
the  mathematical  tripos,  1904. 

Mr.  J.  E.  Wright,  senior  wrangler  1900  and  Smith's 
prizeman  1902,  and  Mr.  H.  A.  Webb,  third  wrangler  1902, 
have  been  elected  to  fellowships  at  Trinity  College. 


The  Duke  of  Norfolk  has  contributed  8000Z.  towards  the 
endowment  of  a  university  in  Sheffield,  if  the  charter  be 
granted.  Sir  F".  Mappin,  Sir  H.  Stephenson,  and  the 
Sheffield  Corporation  Tramways  committee  have  also  each 
given  5000/. 

In  some  American  colleges  there  is  a  system  by  means 
of  which  the  work  done  throughout  the  various  terms  of 
the  college  course  is  taken  into  account  in  awarding  a 
student  a  degree.  The  plan  adopted  is  known  as  the  credit 
system.  Thus  in  the  current  "  Year  Book  "  of  the  Michigan 
College  of  Mines,  there  is  published  an  outline  list  of  courses 
of  instruction  arranged  in  order  of  sequence,  and  under  each 
main  subject  is  given  the  number  of  attendances  which 
must  be  made  at  the  classes  in  different  branches  of  that 
subject  in  order  to  secure  certain  credits.  To  take  two 
instances,  under  the  heading  mathematics  we  find 
"  spherical  trigonometry,  six  times  a  week,  five  weeks;  to 
count  as  three-tenths  of  a  credit."  Or,  under  physics, 
"  light,  six  hours  a  week,  twelve  weeks;  to  Count  as  two- 
tenths  of  a  credit,"  and  so  on.  By  some  such  plan  in  this 
country  regularity  of  attendance  by  students  at  their  classes 
would  be  quite  assured. 

Mr.  S.  D.  Chalmers  has  been  appointed  head  of  the  new 
department  of  technical  optics  at  the  Northampton  Insti- 
tute, Clerkenwell.  Evening  classes  in  technical  optics  were 
started  at  the  Northampton  Institute  as  part  of  the  work 
of  the  Applied  Physics  Department  in  the  session  1898-99. 
In  the  first  session  the  students  largely  consisted  of  those 
who  desired  to  take  the  examinations  of  the  Spectacle 
Makers'  Company,  and  the  work  was  confined  to  lectures 
and  laboratory  work.  In  the  following  session  an  optical 
workshop  was  added,  and  an  increasing  number  of  students 
engaged,  professionally  or  otherwise,  in  optical  work  have 
in  recent  years  been  enrolled  as  students.  Owing  to  the 
assistance  of  the  London  Technical  Education  Board,  it 
has  now  become  possible  to  separate  the  department  of 
technical  optics  from  that  of  applied  physics,  and  place  it 
in  charge  of  a  responsible  head  who  can  devote  his  whole 
time  to  its  organisation  and  development. 

The  following  entrance  scholarships  in  connection  with 
medical  schools  have  been  awarded  : — St.  Mary's  Hospital 
Medical  School — natural  science  scholarship,  145/.,  G.  E. 
Oates,  St.  Paul's  School  ;  natural  science  scholarships, 
yRl.  15s.,  (i)  J.  E.  L.  Johnston,  Epsom  College  and  St. 
Mary's  Hospital,  (2)  W.  E.  Haigh,  Bradford  Technical 
College;  natural  science  scholarship,  52/.  10s.,  D.  W. 
Daniels,  Wyggeston  Schools,  Leicester ;  university  scholar- 


5^2 


NA  TURE 


[October  15;  1903 


ships,  63/.,  (i)  W.  A,  E.  Dobbin,  University  College, 
Cardiff,  (2)  E.  Beaton,  Portsmouth  Grammar  School  and 
Caius  College,  Cambridge.  London  Hospital  Medical 
College — first  prize,  entrance  science  scholarship,  120/., 
W.  H.  Palmer  ;  second  prize,  entrance  science  scholarship, 
60Z.,  J.  E.  Scudamore ;  third  prize,  entrance  science  scholar- 
ship, 35L,  J.  P.  Johnson;  anatomy  and  physiology  prize, 
scholarship  open  to  students  of  Oxford  and  Cambridge, 
scholarship,  60Z.,  H.  S.  Souttar,  University  of  Oxford. 
King's  College,  London  (Faculty  of  Medicine) — medical 
entrance,  50Z.,  W.  T.  Briscoe  and  W.  D.  Sturrock  (equal) ; 
Sambrooke  (science),  looZ.,  E.  Gauntlett ;  Warneford  (arts), 
100/.,  O.  J.  W.  Adamson. 

Prof.  E.  A.  Schafer,  F.R.S.,  delivered  the  introductory 
address  to  the  medical  students  at  the  Yorkshire  College, 
Leeds,  at  the  opening  of  the  winter  session  on  October  i. 
The  object  of  the  address  was  to  offer  practical  suggestions 
with  regard  to  the  manner  in  which  a  medical  curriculum 
might  be  mapped  out  in  existing  circumstances.  It  was 
appalling  to  think,  said  Prof.  Schafer,  that  many  people 
who  passed  as  highly  educated  had  absolutely  no  know- 
ledge of  any  of  the  sciences  except,  perhaps,  mathematics. 
He  went  on  to  say  that,  as  a  subject  of  general  education, 
scientific  knowledge  was  an  absolutely  essential  preliminary 
to  the  study  of  medicine,  and  that  because  such  knowledge 
was  not  imparted  in  our  schools  it  had  become  necessary 
to  incorporate  into  the  medical  curriculum,  and  in  so  far 
to  burden  it  with,  courses  of  preliminary  science. 

The  distribution  of  medals,  prizes,  and  diplomas  to  the 
students  of  the  Royal  College  of  Science,  South  Kensing- 
ton, took  place  on  October  8,  when  Prof.  J.  B.  Farmer, 
F.R'.S.,  delivered  an  address,  in  the  course  of  which  he 
said  it  was  still  unfortunately  true  that  many  people  of 
influence,  while  freely  admitting  the  claims  of  science  as 
a  factor  of  ever-growing  importance  in  the  world  of  pro- 
duction and  industry,  nevertheless,  when  they  said  they 
wanted  more  technical  education  in  the  country,  did  not 
really  want  either  science  or  education  at  all.  What  they 
did  desire  was  merely  some  ready  means  of  instruction  that 
should  adapt  the  knowledge  already  in  sight  to  industrial 
and  technical  purposes.  He  believed  in  securing  a  more 
widespread  and  intelligent  interest  in  the  meaning  of 
science  and  the  modes  by  which  knowledge  might  be  really 
advanced.     Chief  among  these  was  assuredly  research. 

In  distributing  the  prizes  to  the  successful  students  of  the 
Halifax  Municipal  Technical  School  last  week,  Mr.  Bryce, 
while  commending  the  study  of  commerce  as  a  matter  of 
science  and  philosophy,  urged  the  authorities  at  Halifax  to 
fix  their  attention  principally  to  applied  science.  "  But," 
he  added,  "  our  experience,  and  that  of  Germany  and  the 
United  States,  has  shown  that  applied  science,  to  be  valu- 
able, must  be  in  connection  with  theoretical  science,  and  in 
this  country  there  must  be  ampler  provision  for  teaching 
the  higher  branches  of  theoretical  science  if  we  are  to  make 
progress  with  those  branches  of  science  concerned  with  the 
practical  arts.  There  is  no  reason  in  the  world  why 
England  should  not  have  as  great  a  career  in  commerce  and 
manufactures  in  the  future  as  in  the  past.  A  country  which 
wishes  to  keep  abreast  of  modern  trade  must  keep  abreast 
of  modern  science.  We  have  been  falling  behind  in  the 
study  of  science  and  its  application  to  our  industries  in  this 
modern  world  of  ours.  Science  is  king,  and  the  commercial 
and  industrial  future  is  with  the  nations  able  most  com- 
pletely to  master  and  apply  the  forces  of  nature  in  the  most 
economical  way." 


SOCIETIES  AND  ACADEMIES. 
Paris. 
Academy  of  Sciences,  October  5.— M.  Albert  Gaudry 
in  the  chair. — The  influence  of  water  on  the  structure  of 
the  aerial  roots  of  orchids,  by  M.  Gaston  Bonnier.  Con- 
tact with  water  produces  an  effect  on  the  aerial  roots  of 
many  orchids,  either  by  preventing  the  sclerification  or 
lignification  of  the  tissues  of  the  central  cylinder,  a  result 
which  seems  natural  when  compared  with  the  modifications 
of  the  roots  of  aquatic  plants,  or  by  provoking  a  reaction 
tissue   in   the   pericycle,    capable   of   protecting   the   rest   of 

NO.    1772,  VOL.  68] 


the  cylinder  against  the  action  of  water. — On  a  class  of 
linear  differential  equations,  by  M.  Alexander  Chessin. — 
The  conditions  which  determine  the  sign  and  the  magni- 
tude of  electrification  by  contact,  by  M.  Jean  Perrin.  The 
contact  charge  between  a  solid  and  a  liquid  can  be  readily 
studied  by  means  of  electrical  osmosis,  the  charge  being 
always  greater  when  the  body  is  a  good  ioniser,  such  as 
water. — The  heats  of  combustion  of  organic  compounds 
considered  as  additive  properties;  alcoholg  and  phenols, 
ether-oxides,  aldehydes  and  ketones,  by  M.  'P.'  Lemoult. 
By  assigning  definite  values  to  certain  atomic  groupings  it 
is  possible  to  calculate  the  heats  of  combustion  of. organic 
compounds  of  the  above-mentioned  classes  with  consider- 
able accuracy. — The  action  of  phosphorous  acid  upon 
mannite ;  remarks  on  mannide,  by  M.  P.  Ca.rr6.      The  ether 

P,(OH),.0,(CH,),.(CH.OH), 

is  first  formed,  a  phosphite  of  mannide  being  ultimately 
produced. — Derivatives  and  products  of  oxidation  of  nitro- 
pyromucic  acid,  by  M.  R.  Marquis.  This  acid  is  totally 
destroyed  by  oxidation  with  permanganates,  chromic  acid 
or  nitric  acid,  but  with  sodium  peroxide  gives  nitrous  and 
fumaric  acids. — Researches  on  the  formation  of  azo- 
compounds.  The  reduction  of  ortho-nitrobenzyl-methyl 
ether  oxide,  by  M.  P.  Freundler. — On  the  affinities  of  the 
genus  Oreosoma,  by  M.  G.  A.  Boulang^er. — The  action  of 
solutions  of  salts  of  the  alkalis  and  alkaline  earths  on  fish, 
by  M.  Michel  Siedleeki. — On  the  genus  Ascodesmis,  by 
M.  P.  A.  Dangreard. — Researches  on  the  transpiration  of 
green  leaves,  either  the  upper  or  lower  face  of  the  leaf 
being  illuminated,  by  M.  Ed.  Griffon. — On  the  develop- 
ment of  the  embryo  of  the  rush,  by  M.  Marcellin  Laurent. 
— On  ajgyrine  granites  and  riebeckite  in  Madagascar  and 
their  contact  phenomena,  by  M.  Lacroix. — On  the  func- 
tions of  the  Charriages  in  the  delphino-provengal  Alps  and 
of  the  fan-like  structure  of  the  Alps  of  the  Briangonnais, 
by  M.  W.  Kilian. 


CONTENTS.  PAGE 

Egyptian  Geology.     By  J,  W,  J 569 

Experiments  on  Human  Monsters.     By   Dr.  C.  S. 

Myers 570 

Our  Book   Shelf:— 

Elbs  :  "  Electrolytic  Preparations." — F.  M.  P.      .    .  571 

Batson  :  "  A  Concise  Handbook  of  Garden  Flowers"  571 

Bastiani  :  "  Lavori  marittimi  ed  Impianti  portuali"  571 
Righi :  "  II  Moto  degli  loni  nelle  Scariche  elettriche  "  571 
Letters  to  the  Editor  : — 

Radium  and  the  Sun's  Heat.— Hon.  R.  J.  Strutt ; 

Prof.  J.  Joly,  F.R  S 572 

Cambridge  in  the  Old  World  and  in  the  NeW. — Dr. 

C.  S.  Myers 572 

An   Ancient    Lava  Plug    like   that   of  Mont    Pelee. 

(Illustrated.)— Sir  Richard  Strachey,  F.R.S.  .    .  573 
"  Lessons  on  Country  Life." — A.  H.  H.  Matthews  ; 

The  Reviewer 574 

Crater  Lake  in  Oregon.    {Illustrated.)  By  Prof.  T.  G. 

Bonney,  F.R.S 574 

The  Brussels  and  Tervueren  Museums.     By  R.  L,  575 

Technical  Education  and  Industry 576 

Notes 577 

Our  Astronomical  Column  : — 

Reported  Discovery  of  a  Nova 580 

1903-4  Ephemeris  for  Winnecke's  Periodical  Comet  .  580 

Diameter  of  Neptune 580 

The  Opposition  of  Eros  in  1905 580 

The  Royal  University  Observatory,  Vienna     ....  580 
The  British  Association  : — 

Section  L. — Educational  Science. — Opening  Address 
by  Sir  William  de  W.  Abney,  K.C.B.,  D.C.L., 

D.Sc,  F.R.S.,  President  of  the  Section      ....  581 

The  German  Association  at  Cassel.     By  W,  R.   .    .  586 

Forthcoming  Books  of  Science 588 

University  and  Educational  Intelligence  .....  591 

.Societies  and  Academies 592 


NATURE 


593 


THURSDAY,    OCTOBER    22,    1903. 


ANCIENT    CALENDARS. 
Aticient   Calendars  and   Constellations.     By  the   Hon. 
Emmeline   M.    Plunket.     Pp.   xvi  +  263.     (London  : 
Murray,  1903.)     Price  95.  net. 

THIS  fascinating  work  consists  of  a  series  -of  re- 
prints, arranged  in  logical  order,  of  papers  con- 
tributed at  different  times,  chiefly  to  the  Proceedings 
of  the  Society  of  Biblical  Archaeology.  Altogether 
they  give  us  an  able  summary  of  what  is  now  known 
respecting  the  ancient  calendars  of  the  Babylonians, 
Egyptians,  Indians,  and  Chinese,  and  a  very  interest- 
ing discussion  of  the  vexed  question  of  the  origin  of 
the  ancient  (especially  the  zodiacal)  constellations,  on 
which  subject  the  author  has  succeeded  in  throwing 
fresh  light,  her  conclusions  being  corroborated  by 
approaching  the  question  of  precessional  change  from 
different  points  of  view. 

The     first     chapter     is     on     the     calendar     of     the 
Accadians,  who  possessed  the  country  watered  by  the 
Euphrates    and    Tigris    before    the    Semitic    conquest. 
Now    this    calendar    was    sidereal,    not    tropical    like 
ours;     it    was    founded,     that    is    to    say,     on     the 
positions    of     the    sun     amongst     the    zodiacal     con- 
-tcilations,   not  those   with   respect   to  the   equinoxes. 
\!  though   the   importance   to  us   in   these  climates   of 
asonal  changes  leads  us  to  make  our  calendar  con- 
firm in  length  to  the  tropical  year,  as  it  is  called,  yet 
reminiscences  of  the  old  usage  remain.     Thus  in  the 
"  Nautical  Almanac  "  the  sun  is  said  to  enter  Aries 
at  the  time  of  the  vernal  equinox,  though  he  is  really 
then    situated    in    the    constellation    Pisces ;    and    this 
having  excited  the   surprise  of  some  people   who     in 
these  days    dabble  in  astronomical  questions  without 
having    studied    them,    the    superintendent    has,    be- 
i^^inning  with  this  year,  tried  to  help  them  by  inserting 
"  sun  enters  sign  Aries."     But  as  it  has  generally  been 
erroneously  su^ioosed  that  most  of  the  ancient  calendars 
began  the  year  with  the  vernal  equinox  or  thereabouts 
(in  this  way  the  old  Kbman  usage  made  March  the 
first  month  in  the  year,  whence  we  still  have  September 
M    December    nominally    the    seventh    to    the    tenth 
nonths),   the  conclusion  was  drawn  that  the  zodiacal 
instellations  were  formed  into  a  series  to  mark  the 
ilfferent  times  of  the  year  at  an  epoch  when  the  sun 
A  as  really  entenng  Aries  at  the  vernal  equinox,  which 
A  ould  be  about  three  thousand  years  ago. 

The  Accadian  calendar,  however,  it  is  now  known, 
\  ent  back  ages  before  that,  and  Miss  Plunket  puts 
>>nh  the  very  probable  theory  that  the  true  date  of 
its  commencement  and  of  the  twelve  Mazzaroth  (if  we 
may  use  the  Hebrew  term  for  the  zodiacal  signs)  was 
about  B.C.  6000.  That  the  initial  sign  was  from  the 
first  the  Ram  (of  the  eminence  of  which  we  have  so 
many  indications  in  Egyptian  antiquities)  there  seems 
no  reason  to  doubt,  but  our  author  suggests  that  the 
year  was  made  to  begin,  as  we  begin  it  now,  about 
the  time,  not  of  the  vernal  equinox,  but  of  the  winter 
-olstice.  Eight  thousand  years  amount  to  about  a 
third  part  of  the  annus  magnus,  during  which  a  whole 
round  of  precessional  change  is  effected,  and  the  sun 
NO.    1773,  VOL.  68] 


eight  thousand  years  ago  would  be  at  the  beginning 
of  Aries  about  the  time  of  the  winter  solstice.  This 
suggestion  seems  to  be  a  key  which  unlocks  the  door 
to  the  explanation  of  many  difficulties. 

But  we  must  pass  on,  for  our  hope  is  that  nearly 
all  our  readers  will  study  this  volume  for  themselves. 
The  second  chapter  is  devoted  to  the  constellation  Aries 
and  the  importance  attributed  to  it  in  ancient  caleridars. 
It  is  true  that  the  surpassing  importance  to  the 
Egyptians  of  the  rising  of  the  Nile,  which  takes  place 
about  the  time  of  the  summer  solstice,  led  them 
in  early  times  to  transfer  the  beginning  of  the  year  to 
that  season.  But  every  student  of  Egyptian  antiqui- 
ties is  constantly  reminded  of  the  prominence  assigned 
on  the  monuments  to  the  ram,  or  rather  the  head  of 
the  ram,  which  marks  the  position  of  the  two 
brightest  stars  in  the  constellation.  Other  indicatio.is 
are  pointed  out  from  the  orientation  of  the  Egyptian 
temples  of  the  importance  attached  to  the  stars  of 
Aries.  How  this  was  carried  afterwards  into  Greece 
is  explained  in  the  last  chapter  of  Sir  Norman 
Lockyer's  "  Dawn  of  Astronomy,"  and  we  may  direct 
attention  to  two  interesting  articles  by  the  same  writer 
in  Nature  for  January  16  and  May  29,  1902,  on  '*  The 
Farmers'  Years,"  in  which  it  is  shown  that  not  merely 
temples,  but  dolmens  and  cromlechs,  were  oriented  to 
the  sun  when  half-way  between  the  solstices  and 
equinoxes.     Miss  Plunket  says  : — 

"  As  we  further  study  the  records  of  antiquity, 
now  within  our  reach,  it  will,  I  believe,  become  evident 
that  not  only  the  Egyptians,  but  also  all  the  great 
civilised  nations  of  the  East  had  traditions  of  a  year 
beginning  when  the  sun  and  moon  entered  the  con- 
stellation Aries — such  a  year  as  that  in  use  amongst 
the  Babylonians  during  their  long  existence  as  a 
nation,  and  such  as  that  which  is  used  by  the  Hindus 
in  India  to  this  present  day  "-  (p.  41). 

The  ancient  Median  calendar  is  next  dealt  with.  Its 
starting-point  seems  to  have  been  about  b.c.  3000,  when 
the  sun  was  in  Taurus  at  the  vernal  equinox.  The 
adoption  of  this  by  the  conquering  Assyrians  was 
probably  the  cause  of  their  fondness  for  Tauric 
symbolism  and  our  present  familiarity  with  the 
Assyrian  bull.  Miss  Plunket  thinks  that  they  also 
adopted  in  part  the  religion  they  found  there,  on  the 
same  principle  that  induced  Sargon,  after  he  had  re- 
peopled  the  conquered  kingdom  of  Samaria,  to  send 
one  of  the  former  priests  to  teach  the  new  inhabitants 
"  the  manner  of  the  God  of  the  land  "  (2  Kings,  xvii. 
26).  She  contends  that  Assur,  the  name  of  the  great 
god  of  the  Assyrians,  is,  in  fact,  a  modification  of  the 
Aryan  word  Asura.  Several  other  points  are  elucidated 
in  the  Median  calendar,  and  the  cause  of  the  promin- 
ence given  to  some  ultra-zodiacal  stars,  particularly 
Altair  or  o  Aquilae. 

We  now  pass  on  to  the  Indian  and  Chinese  calendars. 
When  Sir  WiUiam  Jones  opened  out  such  a  flood  of 
light  upon  ancient  Indian  lore,  there  were  many 
scholars  who  refused  to  accept  the  antiquity  of  the 
astronomy  of  the  Brahmins,  and  would  have  it  that 
they  derived  their  calendar  from  the  Greeks  after  the 
conquests  of  .Alexander  the  Great.  But  since  that  time 
the  spade  has  effected  as  great  a  revolution  in  archae- 
ology as  the  spectroscope  has  subsequently  done  in 
astronomy.     When  Sir  George  Cornewall  Lewis  pub- 

C  C 


594 


NA  TURE 


[October  22,  1903 


lished  his  "  Historical  Survey  of  the  Astronomy  of  the 
Ancients  "  in  1862,  he  threw  cold  water  upon  the 
attempts  which  had  then  been  made  to  decipher  the 
cuneiform  inscriptions.  He  died  the  year  after,  just 
forty  years  ago  last  spring;  had  he  survived  until  now, 
very  different  would  have  been  the  line  which  he  must 
have  taken.  The  wealth  of  the  material  since  accumu- 
lated has  made  it  impossible  to  reject  the  conclusions  of 
Assyriologists,  and  though  some  of  the  early  attempts 
have  necessarily  been  modified,  we  have  enormous 
results  now  in  our  hands  from  the  library  of  Assur- 
hanipal  and  other  sources  which  cannot  in  the  main 
be  gainsaid.  The  consequences  are  indirect  as  well 
as  direct.  For  if  the  Assyrian  and  Babylonian 
calendars  are  so  ancient,  there  is  no  longer  any  reason 
to  call  in  question  the  antiquity  also  of  those  of  India, 
or  to  suppose  that  they  derived  this  knowledge  from 
the  Greeks,  who  themselves  express  great  respect  for 
the  Indian  lore. 

Now,  with  regard  to  the  Chineses,  if  we  may  follow 
th?  obsolete,  but  perfectly  correct,  form  used  by  Milton 
("  Paradise  Lost,"  iii.,  438),  Miss  Plunket's  chapter 
on  their  calendar-system  is  worthy,  like  the  rest  of  her 
book,  of  careful  perusal.  In  China  the  year  is  now 
tropical,  and  does  not  begin  either  at  the  winter 
solstice  or  the  vernal  equinox,  but  at  a  time  midway 
between  these.  But  the  Gregorian  length  of  the 
calendar-year  was  really  introduced  into  that  country 
by  some  Jesuit  fathers  who  obtained  great  influence 
at  the  Chinese  Court  early  in  the  seventeenth 
century.  The  date  used  as  that  of  the  com- 
mencement of  the  year  began  much  earlier.  Their 
•old  reckoning  was  reformed  by  the  Emperor  Tchuen 
about  the  year  corresponding  to  B.C.  2500,  and  many 
indications  point  to  the  conclusion  that  it  originally 
Siegan,  like  the  x\ccadian  calendar,  at  the  winter 
solstice  about  b.c.  6000.  Miss  Plunket  comments  on 
.the  circumstance  that  this  is  two  thousand  years  before 
;the  creation  of  man  according  to  the  Ussherian 
.chronology,  formerly  inserted  in  the  margins  of  our 
Bibles ;  but  she  rightly  remarks  that  a  consideration 
of  the  variations  of  the  readings  in  diflferent  ancient 
versions  has  shown  that  no  reliance  can  be  placed  on 
the  Ussher  theory,  and  his  dates  are  accordingly  not 
inserted  in  the  margin  of  our  revised  version. 

On  one  point  it  may  be  worth  while  to  take  exception 
'to  a  remark  by  our  author  about  the  Julian  reform- 
ation. There  is  every  reason  to  believe  that  it  was  then 
'known  that  the  true  length  of  the  year  was  several 
minutes  short  of  365^  days,  but  Caesar  probably 
thought  the  insertion  of  a  bissextile  every  fourth  year 
was  near  enough  for  all  practical  purposes.  It  was 
unfortunate  that  his  rule  was  at  first  misunderstood. 
^But  Pope  Gregory,  in  1582,  not  only  ordered  certain 
future  centurial  leap-years  to  be  dropped,  but  omitted 
ten  days  from  the  calendar  that  the  vernal  equinox 
(and  other  seasons)  might  fall  as  at  the  epoch  of  the 
Council  of  Nicaea.  Miss  Plunket  concludes  these 
chapters  by  once  more  directing  attention  to  the 
identity  of  the  earliest  astronomical  traditions  of  the 
nations  of  the  east,  which  suggests  matter  for  reflec- 
tion. Her  book  is  excellently  illustrated  throughout, 
but  the  second  part  consists  of  a  series  of  illustrations 
•of  ancient  constellations  wuth  descriptive  letterpress; 
NO.  1773.  VOL.  68] 


although  we  have  not  space  to  enter  into  this  at 
length,  we  cannot  refrain  from  mentioning  the  in- 
genious suggestion  that  the  position  of  Pegasus  was 
originally  upright,  the  horse  striking  the  vase  of 
Aquarius  with  his  hoof  (p.  251).  The  whole  is  very 
carefully  printed,  and  a  full  index  is  provided. 

W.  T.  L. 


PHYSIOLOGICAL  CHEMISTRY. 
A  Laboratory  Manual  of  Physiological  Chemistry. 
By  Ralph  W.  Webster,  M.D.,  Ph.D.,  and  Walde- 
mar  Koch.  Pp.  107;  21  plates.  (Chicago:  the 
University  of  Chicago  Press ;  London  :  William 
Wesley    and   Son,    1903.)     Price   6s.    6d.    net. 

THE  introduction  to  this  manual  is  written  by 
Dr.  A.  P.  Mathews.  He  dwells  upon  the  rapid 
development  of  physiological  chemistry,  and  the  efforts 
which  are  being  made  to  bring  it  into  closer  touch 
with  the  biological  sciences.  He  therefore  considers 
it  necessary  that  the  science  should  be  presented  in  a 
broader  way  than  has  hitherto  been  the  case,  and 
implies  that  the  present  manual  meets  this  require- 
ment. I  therefore  proceeded  to  study  the  work 
with  considerable  expectations  of  profit,  especially 
when  I  considered  that  it  was  an  outcome  from 
the  laboratories  of  the  University  of  Chicago,  which 
have,  in  recent  years,  produced  so  much  of  original 
and  valuable  work  in  various  physiological  fields. 

I  have  closed  the  book  with  a  feeling  of  great 
disappointment.  The  ideal  the  authors  have  set 
before  them  has  not  been  realised ;  in  fact,  it  is  not 
often  I  have  read  a  book  which  is  so  full  of 
faults.  It  has  a  few  good  points;  every  teacher  can 
always  learn  something  from  other  teachers ;  the 
idea  of  inserting  a  chapter  on  the  general  characters 
of  the  cell,  taking  yeast  as  an  example,  is  a  good 
one;  the  directions  given  for  the  examination  of 
milk  from  the  sanitary  standpoint  form  a  new  and 
useful  departure  in  such  text-books.  In  several  other 
particulars,  a  competent  teacher  will  glean  some 
useful  hints  in  adding  to  or  amending  his  repertory  of 
class  exercises. 

It  was,  however,  for  the  student  that  the  book  was 
originally  written,  and  for  him  it  Is  practically  useless. 

From  some  points  of  view  the  work  is  a  pretentious 
one,  giving  Information  on  complex  subjects  which 
Indicate  a  desire  on  the  part  of  the  authors  to  be  con- 
sidered up  to  date ;  but  this  character  is  lamentably 
lacking  on  many  questions  where  one  should  have  ex- 
pected to  find  recent  and  important  work  described  in 
detail ;  thus  there  Is  no  reference  to  work  of  Bayliss 
and  Starling  on  the  pancreas,  no  mention  of  the  dis- 
tinctions between  the  euglobullns  and  pseudoglobulins, 
and  the  description  of  the  urinary  pigments  is  hope- 
lessly out  of  date. 

The  arrangement  of  the  exercises  may  be  logical  as 
the  preface  states,  but  it  is  absolutely  unpractical.  For 
Instance,  the  first  exercises  the  student  is  set  to  work 
out  are  the  preparation  of  lecithin  and  cholesterin  from 
the  yolk  of  the  egg.  The  egg  may  be  the  starting 
point  of  life,  but  the  complicated  methods  necessary 
for  the  obtaining  of  a  complex  fat  like  lecithin  hardly 


October  22,  1903] 


NATURE 


595 


form  a  suitable  introduction  to  the  study  of  physio- 
logical chemistry,  but  would  have  come  more  fittingly 
after  the  student  knew  a  little  about  the  nature  of  the 
simpler  fats.  There  is,  moreover,  little  or  no  indica- 
tion of  the  relative  importance  of  the  substances  de- 
scribed; the  space  devoted  to  cystin  and  cerebrin,  for 
instance,  is  entirely  disproportionate  to  their  import- 
ance. 

The  description  of  the  analytical  methods  is  most 
slipshod ;  they  are  usually  given  in  telegraphic  or  note- 
book English ;  they  are  interlarded  with  questions, 
"  why  is  this?  "  or  "  what  does  this  mean?  "  which, 
in  the  case  of  the  majority  of  students,  will  remain 
for  ever  unanswered,  for  nine  out  of  ten  will  never 
take  the  trouble  to  "consult  this  or  that  text-book," 
or  "  ask  the  instructor,"  which  is  the  only  answer  the 
present  work  affords. 

The  omission  of  small  but  often  important  points 
is  not  confined  to  the  description  of  the  more  com- 
plicated methods  of  analysis,  but  is  seen  also  in  those 
V  hich  are  elementary;  thus  in  the  directions  given  for 
t!i'  making  of  haemin  crystals,  the  application  of  heat 
umitted;  in  the  description  of  the  Adamkiewicz 
,  the  student  is  left  in  doubt  as  to  whether  the 
^i\uxylic  acid  to  which  the  reaction  is  due  is  contained 
ill  the  substance  to  be  tested  or  the  reagents  added. 
Ill  the  description  of  the  biuret  reaction,  no  indication 
i-  given  of  its  value  as  a  diagnostic  test  between  the 
n  I  rive  proteids  and  the  products  of  proteolysis;  in  the 
ription  of  the  nitric  acid  test  for  proteoses,  the  most 
I  acteristic  p>ortion  of  the  test,  namely,  the  reappear- 
'  of  the  precipitate  on  cooling,  is  omitted;  the  only 
riments  relating  to  blood-clotting  are  those  con- 
..>^cted  with  the  inhibitory  influence  of  oxalates;  those 
who  follow  the  directions  given  for  the  performance 
of  Hopkins's  method  of  uric  acid  estimation  will  fail 
because  of  the  omission  of  small  details;  in  Gmelin's 
test  for  bile  pigments  the  important  detail  that  fuming 
nitric  acid  m.ust  be  used  is  left  out ;  directions  are  given 
for  testing  for  iron  in  the  liver,  but  no  directions  for 
the  preliminary  removal  of  blood  from  the  organ ;  uric 
acid  is  spoken  of  as  the  result  of  metabolism  of  the 
white  blood  corpuscles,  but  the  essential  fact  is  omitted 
that  it  is  from  their  nuclei,  and  the  nuclei  of  other  cells 
also,  that  this  substance  originates.  We  are  told  that 
ammonium  urate  is  apt  to  be  mistaken  for  globulin 
in  urine,  but  no  means  are  furnished  of  distinguish- 
ing the  two;  and  in  another  part  the  student  is  led 
to  suppose  that  true  peptones  may  appear  in  the  urine. 
The  only  method  given  for  the  estimation  of  urea  is 
the  hypobromite  process,  and  the  apparatus  recom- 
mended, that  of  Doremus,  is  one  of  the  least  satis- 
factory for  the  carrying  out  of  this  test,  the  importance 
of  which  is  now  mainly  historical. 

Such  are  a  few  of  the  faults  of  omission  with  which 
the  pages  abound.  Let  us  next  turn  to  instances  of 
faults  of  commission,  the  actual  mistakes  with  which 
the  book  bristles.  The  coagulating  points  of  the 
muscle  proteids  are  wrongly  given,  and  the  most  im- 
portant proteid  of  all,  myosmogen,  is  altogether  left 
out;  histone  is  classified  with  the  native  albumins,  and 
globin  with  the  globulins ;  for  the  performance  of  the 
biuret  test,  heating  is  recommended ;  in  the  phenyl- 
hydrazine  test  for  dextrose,  it  is  stated  that  crystals 
NO.  1773,  VOL.  68] 


only  appear  on  cooling;  indol  and  tryptophan  are 
spoken  of  as  synonymous;  starch  is  stated  to  be  con- 
vertible into  sugar  by  acid  in  a  few  minutes ;  in  the 
preparation  of  serum  globulin,  water  is  recommended 
for  washing  the  precipitate ;  the  sugar  formed  by  the 
pancreatic  juice  is  stated  to  be  glucose;  to  obtain  the 
iodine  reaction  with  glycogen  boiling  with  the  re- 
agent is  the  means  adopted;  the  yellow  colour  of  urine 
is  ascribed  to  a  mixture  of  several  pigments  not  yet 
isolated,  to  which  are  added  in  brackets  the  astonish- 
ing words  "called  by  Garrod  urochrom."  Albumose 
is  stated  to  be  a  normal  constituent  of  blood;  at  least 
that  is  how  I  read  it,  though  I  admit  the  passage 
is  so  obscure  that  it  might  equally  well  read  the  other 
way ;  the  old  misstatement  that  gelatin  does  not  give 
Millon's  reaction  is  perpetuated;  students  are  led  to 
suppose  that  the  reaction  of  normal  human  urine  is 
alkaline  ;  at  all  events  they  are  told  to  ascertain  whether 
the  alkalinity  is  due  to  fixed  or  volatile  alkali ;  and  as 
a  final  instance  of  the  careless  way  in  which  the  book 
has  been  prepared,  the  name  of  v.  Fleischl  is  per- 
sistently misspelt.  This  does  not  by  any  means  ex- 
haust the  list  of  glaring  errors  with  which  the  book 
abounds,  but  enough  has  been  said  to  show  that  this 
is  an  unsafe  work  to  place  in  students'  hands. 

W.  D.  Halliburton. 


POPULAR    AMERICAN   ENTOMOLOGY. 

The  Insect  Folk.  By  Margaret  Warner  Morley. 
Pp.  vi  +  204;  illustrated  by  the  author.  (Boston  and 
London  :   Ginn  and  Co.,   1903.)     Price  2s. 

Ways  of  the  Six-Footed.  By  Anna  Botsford  Com- 
stock,  B.S.,  Lecturer  in  Cornell  University  Ex- 
tension. Pp.  xii+152.  (Boston  and  London:  Ginn 
and  Co.,  1903.)     Price  25. 

THESE  are  two  popular  publications  on  the  insects 
of  North  America,  and  may  conveniently  be 
noticed  together,  though,  except  that  they  are  uniform 
in  size  and  appearance,  and  are  both  by  ladies,  there 
is  little  resemblance  between  them. 

The  first  is  for  young  children,  and  seems  to  be 
intended  partly  as  a  reading  book,  for  it  is  in  very 
simple  language,  and  is  mostly  in  words  of  one  or 
two  syllables,  and  all  long  or  technical  words  are  ex- 
plained in  a  glossary  at  the  end  of  the  book. 

We  are  pleased  to  see  that  children  are  advised  to 
keep  insects  under  observation,  and  not  to  kill  them, 
except  in  the  case  of  those  which  are  injurious. 

Neuroptera,  Hemiptera,  and  Orthoptera  are  the 
orders  dealt  with,  and  the  first  chapter  is  on  dragon- 
flies,  which  are  more  numerous  and  of  more  varied 
colours  in  .America  than  in  Europe. 

We  may,  perhaps,  quote  one  of  the  longer  sentences. 

"  I  once  went  up  the  side  of  a  beautiful  mountain  in 
North  Carolina,  where  was  such  a  mighty  host  of 
cicadas  in  the  trees  that  I  could  not  hear  my  com- 
panion speak,  and  a  little  way  off  the  noise  sounded 
like  a  torrent  of  rushing  water." 

Notwithstanding  the  simple  style  of  the  book,  the 
authoress  has  contrived  to  include  in  it  a  good  deal  of 
information  that  will  be  new  to  most  people  who  are 
not  fairly  well  acquainted  with  entomology;  and  part 


59^^ 


NATURE 


[October  22,  1903 


of  it  relates  to  insects  which  are  found  in  Europe  as 
well  as  in  America,  and  it  appears  to  be  accurate  and 
trustworthy.  We  may,  however,  dispute  the  state- 
ment which  we  meet  with  here,  not  for  the  first  time, 
that  the  small  cockroach  {Blatta  germanica),  called  in 
America  the  croton  bug,  "  is  supposed  to  have  been 
brought  to  England  by  soldiers  from  the  Crimea,"  if 
this  is  supposed  to  imply  that  it  was  then  first  intro- 
duced into  England,  for  it  was  well  known  as  an  in- 
habitant of  most  parts  of  Europe,  England  included, 
long  before  that  time,  though  it  may  perhaps  have  be- 
come commoner  after  the  Crimean  War. 

Frequently  the  information  is  directly  addressed  to 
the  children  who  are  supposed  to  be  instructed,  as  : — 

"  MoUie  wants  to  know  why  it  would  not  be  a  good 
plan  for  people  who  live  where  there  are  many  mosqui- 
toes to  raise  dragonflies?  " 

"  That  is  a  very  sensible  idea,  MoUie,  and  it  has 
been  tried." 

Mrs.  Comstock  is  already  well  known  as  an  entom- 
ologist, especially  as  the  illustrator  of  her  husband's 
"Manual  for  the  Study  of  Insects,"  &c.  Her  book 
consists  of  a  series  of  ten  popular  articles  on  entom- 
ology, most  of  which  have  previously  appeared  in 
magazines.  The  subjects  are  "  Pipers  and  Minne- 
singers "  (mosquitoes,  cicadas,  crickets,  &c.),  "  A 
Little  Nomad  "  {Incurvaria  acerifoliella),  "  A  Sheep 
in  Wolf's  Clothing  "  {Basilarchia  archippus  mimick- 
ing Anosia  plexippus),  "  The  Perfect  Socialism  "  (bees, 
ants,  termites  and  wasps),  "  Two  Mother  Masons  " 
(Pelopaeus  and  Eumenes),  "  The  Story  we  Love 
Best  "  {Ceratina  dupla),  "  A  Dweller  in  Tents  " 
{Panto grapha  litnata),  "  A  Tactful  Mother  "  (Chry- 
sopa),  "  A  Seine  Maker  "  (Hydropsyche),  and  "  Hermit 
and  Troubadour  "  (Cicada). 

The  book  is  written  in  a  popular  and  attractive,  but 
not  childish,  style,  and  is  very  nicely  illustrated. 
There  are  forty-seven  illustrations  altogether,  several 
of  which  occupy  a  full  page. 


OUR    BOOK  SHELF. 

Catalogue  of  Books,  Manuscripts,  Maps,  and  Draw- 
ings in  the  British  Museum  {Natural  History). 
Vol.  i.,  A— D.  Pp.  500.  (London  :  Printed  by 
Order  of  the  Trustees,  1903.) 
Few  even  of  the  habitues  of  the  Natural  History 
Museum  have  any  adequate  idea  of  the  extent  and 
value  of  the  collection  of  books  on  natural  history  (in 
its  widest  sense)  subjects  contained  within  its  walls. 
Nor  is  this  difficult  to  account  for.  Owing  to  the 
exigencies  of  work,  the  collection  is  split  up  into  a 
zoological,  a  geological,  a  mineralogical,  a  botanical, 
and  a  general  library,  the  latter  containing  all  those 
works  which  treat  of  subjects  belonging  to  more  than 
one  department  of  the  museum.  But  even  this  sub- 
division by  no  means  expresses  the  real  facts  of  the 
case,  the  various  departmental  libraries  being  further 
divided  into  subsections.  For  instance,  the  bird  room, 
the  spirit  building,  the  entomological  department 
have  each  libraries  of  their  own,  while  even  individual 
officers  who  have  charge  of  one  group  of  animals 
possess  a  collection  of  books  in  their  own  rooms. 

In  these  circumstances  there  can  be  no  question  but 
that  the  director  has  been  well  advised  in  recommend- 
ing the  Trustees   to   sanction   the   publication   of   the 

NO.   1773,  VOL.  68] 


"  Catalogue,"  of  which  the  first  volume  is  before  us, 
since  it  is  certain  that  such  a  series  of  volumes  will 
be  of  great  interest  and  value  not  only  to  workers  in 
the  museum,  but  likewise  to  naturalists  and  biblio- 
graphists  all  over  the  world. 

The  collection  had  its  origin  in  the  departmental 
libraries  of  the  establishment  at  Bloomsbury,  and  was 
largely  augmented  by  purchase,  by  means  of  a  special 
Parliamentary  grant,  at  the  time  of,  and  subsequent 
to,  the  transference  of  the  natural  history  collections 
to  South  Kensington.  An  Important  addition  was  the 
bequest  of  the  Tweeddale  library,  some  years  after  the 
transference.  In  spite  of  certain  gaps,  the  collection 
is  believed  to  be  one  of  the  finest  in  the  world.  When 
complete,  it  Is  estimated  that  the  catalogue  will  include 
some  60,000  entries,  the  present  volume  containing 
about  one-fourth  of  this  number. 

The  editing  has  been  confided  to  Mr.  B.  B.  Wood- 
ward, who,  in  the  present  volume,  appears  to  have 
discharged  an  arduous  task  with  conspicuous  success. 
Although  the  work  is  only  an  "  author-catalogue," 
many  of  the  entries  contain  information  with  regard 
to  the  contents  of  the  works,  their  dates  of  publica- 
tion, or  other  bibliographical  detail.  It  should  be 
added  that,  on  account  of  their  special  interest  and 
importance,  four  subject-headings,  namely,  atlases, 
dictionaries,  encycIopEedlas,  and  gazetteers,  have  been 
included.  "  R.  L. 

A  Class  Book  of  Botany.     By  G.  P.  Mudge  and  A.  J. 

Maslen.     Pp.      xvl      +      512.        (London  :      Edward 

Arnold,  n.d.)  Price  7s.  6d. 
The  scope  of  this  book  Is  somewhat  ambitious,  for 
although  it  is  limited  to  the  requirements  of  inter- 
mediate examinations,  it  takes  up  in  considerable 
detail  the  four  main  branches  of  botany.  Morphology 
and  anatomy  are  treated  in  the  course  of  a  series 
of  types ;  classification  with  special  chapters  on  floral 
morphology  and  physiology  occupy  the  second  and 
third  parts  of  the  book.  Judging  by  experience,  the 
relegation  of  morphology  to  the  amount  which  Is 
distributed  throughout  the  discussion  of  a  series  of 
types  is  Injudicious,  because  a  sound  knowledge  of 
external  morphology  Is  necessary  to  the  elementary 
student,  partly  as  a  preliminary  to  anatomy  and 
generally  as  a  foundation  for  other  branches  of  the 
subject.  It  should  be  pointed  out  that  the  authors 
have  not  tied  down  the  types  to  one  or  two  specimens, 
but,  where  necessary,  additional  examples  are  given ; 
nevertheless,  the  specific  training  value  of  a  morpho- 
logical introduction  is  wanting.  Further,  by  adopt- 
ing the  type  system,  the  authors  provoke  comparison 
with  the  admirable  book  written  by  Dr.  Scott,  more 
especially  since  the  cryptogamic  types  are  practically 
the  same  in  both  cases,  and  Mr.  Mudge  is  not  en- 
dowed with  the  same  happy  power  of  expression,  nor 
does  he  display  the  accuracy  which  distinguishes  the 
"  Structural  Botany."  The  style  Is,  indeed,  too  rigid, 
and  this  only  serves  to  emphasise  the  numerous 
mistakes  or  to  give  rise  to  misconceptions.  To 
mention  a  few  instances  v/e  find  p.  13,  "  a  root  .  .  . 
always  .  .  .  grows  downward";  p.  16,  "spines  have 
become  enlarged  and  form  thorns";  p.  60,  "the 
petiole  is  polystelic  ";  and  p.  80,  a  samara  is  described 
as  a  "  winged,   one-seeded  capsule." 

Turning  to  the  chapters  dealing  with  classification 
and  morphology  of  the  flower,  for  which  Mr.  Maslen 
is  responsible,  these  are  much  more  satisfactory,  and 
both  in  choice  and  arrangement  of  subject-matter 
the  author's  judgment  commends  itself.  The  physio- 
logical section  might  with  advantage  be  more 
practical,  and  would  be  much  improved  by  some  re- 
arrangement. It  is  not  obvious  why  the  consideration 
of  the  absorption  of  food  material  by  the  roots  should 


October  22,  1903] 


NATURE 


597 


be  placed  after  photosynthesis,  and  after  the  account 
of  parasites  and  saprophytes ;  here  it  is  noticeable  that 
Lathraea  is  placed  amongst  carnivorous  plants,  without 
any  mention  of  Groom's  work.  But  few  practical 
experiments  are  suggested,  and  it  would  be  easy  to 
improve  the  apparatus  depicted  in  figs.  204,  206,  208, 
and  219.  Finally,  the  last  chapter,  in  which  irrit- 
ability is  discussed,  is  headed  "  Movements  of 
Plants,"  which  quite  ignores  the  phenomena  of 
stimulus,   and  the  stimulating  source. 

In  the  introduction,  the  authors  state  that  they  have 
been  impressed  with  the  need  of  a  work  which  should 
contain  all  the  information  which  is  necessary  for 
certain  examinations.  On  the  contrary,  the  present 
tendency,  and  there  is  much  to  be  said  in  favour  of 
it,  is  to  bring  out  smaller  books,  written  by  specialists, 
which  deal  only  with  one  branch  of  the  subject. 

Traite  de  Chimie  physique,  Les  Principes.  By  Jean 
Perrin.  Pp.  xvi  +  300.  (Paris  :  Gauthier-Villars, 
1903-) 
This  volume  deals  with  the  elements  of  dynamics,  the 
thermodynamical  potential,  the  phase  law  and  other 
allied  subjects  of  which  a  knowledge  is  indispensable 
to  the  modern  chemist.  The  treatment  is  non-mathe- 
matical, but  the  author  indulges  in  a  good  many  dis- 
cussions of  a  philosophical  character.  In  defining  the 
scope  and  aim  of  physical  chemistry,  he  refers  to  the 
old  style  of  thinkmg,  according  to  which  physics  was 
the  science  of  reversible  phenomena,  and  chemistry  the 
science  of  irreversible  phenomena.  The  notion  of 
force  is  defined  by  means  of  the  extension  of  a  stretched 
elastic  string  or  wire.  Why  should  not  this  treatment 
be  adopted  in  books  where  relations  involving  mass 
and  acceleration  do  not  play  a  prominent  part?  We 
notice,  as  a  useful  feature,  that  Lord  Kelvin's  defini- 
tion of  absolute  temperature  is  dealt  with  at  some 
length.  In  the  preface  the  author  rightly  directs  atten- 
tion to  the  desirability  of  abandoning  such  misleading 
notions  as  that  of  absolute  in  contradistinction  to 
relative  velocity,  the  statement  that  "  heat  cannot  pass 
from  a  cold  to' a  hot  body,"  which  is  like  speaking  of 
an  apple  passing  from  one  hand  to  the  other,  and  the 
prevalent  confusion  of  language  in  speaking  of  ideas 
involving  force  and  energy. 

The  Arithmetic  of  Elementary  Physics  and  Chemistry. 

By    H.    M.    Timpany.     Pp.    74.     (London  :    Blackie 

and  Son,  Ltd.,  1903.)  Price  is. 
This  collection  of  numerical  exercises  is  very  limited 
in  its  scope.  It  is  composed  of  four  sections;  one  in- 
cludes problems  on  relative  densities,  another  is  de- 
voted to  examples  on  moments  and  centres  of  gravity, 
a  third  is  concerned  with  the  conversion  of  thermo- 
metric  scales  and  with  specific  and  latent  heats,  while 
the  last  deals  with  the  calculation  of  the  weights  and 
volumes  of  the  substances  taking  part  in  chemical 
reactions.  Typical  examples  are  worked  out  for  the 
guidance  of  the  student. 

Gisements  miniraux.  Stratigraphie  et  Composition. 
By  Francois  Miron.  Pp.  157.  (Paris  :  Gauthier- 
Villars  and  Masson  et  Cie,  n.d.) 
M.  MxRON  here  provides  geologists  and  others  with  a 
compact  account  of  numerous  non-metalliferous 
mineral  deposits  which  are  useful  in  numerous 
branches  of  technology.  A  previous  volume  in  the 
series  known  as  the  "  Encyclopedic  scientifique  des 
Aide-Mdmoire,"  to  which  the  present  book  also  be- 
longs, dealt  with  those  minerals  in  which  the  metal- 
lurgist is  particularly  interested,  and  attention  is  here 
chiefly  directed  to  the  natural  sources  of  sulphur, 
nitrates,  phosphates,  borates,  compounds  of  the  alkali 
and  alkaline  earth  metals,  and  other  minerals. 

NO.  T773,  VOL.  68] 


LETTERS  TO  THE  EDITOR. 
[The  Editor  does  not  hold  himself  responsible  for  opinions 
expressed  by  his  correspondents.  Neither  can  he  undertake 
to  return,  or  to  correspond  with  the  writers  of,  rejected 
manuscripts  intended  for  this  or  any  other  part  of  Nature. 
No  notice  is  taken  of  anonymous  communications.] 

Human  Science  and  Education. 

There  surely  never  was  a  time  when  there  was  more 
need  for  consideration  of  the  root-principles  of  higher  educa- 
tion. It  is  generally  allowed  that  we  in  England  are 
behindhand  in  the  matter,  that  we  have  allowed  the 
Germans  and  Americans  to  have  the  start  of  us.  And 
awaking  to  this  conviction  we  have  a  difficulty  in  seeing 
in  what  direction  we  should  move  in  an  attempt  to  recover 
our  lost  ground. 

I  accede  with  pleasure  to  a  suggestion  of  the  Editor  of 
Nature  that  I  should  endeavour  to  lay  before  his  readers 
some  of  my  views  as  to  the  direction  in  which  those  studies 
which  have  man  for  their  subject  should  move.  At  first 
sight  it  might  seem  that  the  present  place  is  inappropriate 
for  a  paper  of  this  kind.  Yet  it  is  among  the  students  of 
nature  that  my  contentions  as  to  the  study  of  man  are 
perhaps  most  likely  to  find  support. 

What  I  plead  for  is  that  the  two  great  branches  of  know- 
ledge, the  science  of  nature  and  the  science  of  man,  should 
be  brought  nearer  together,  that  it  should  be  recognised 
how  much  they  have  in  common,  and  that  the  reasonable 
votaries  of  both  should  make  common  cause  against  the 
same  enemies. 

The  enemy  in  higher  education  of  the  science  of  nature 
is  the  technical  spirit,  which  will  not  take  a  wide  outlook, 
which  ties  all  investigation  down  to  narrow  points  of 
practice,  which  does  not  see  that  breadth  of  study  and 
imaginative  insight  are  necessary  in  our  schools  of  science 
if  we  would  produce  men  of  real  efficacy  for  the  work  of  the 
world  and  not  mere  technical  experts.  The  enemy  of  the 
science  of  man  is  the  spirit  of  convention,  which  is  domin- 
ated by  rhetoric  and  commonplace,  which  has  no  ambition 
to  see  the  facts  of  human  nature  and  of  history  as  they 
really  are,  but  interprets  them  by  tradition  by  self-interest, 
by  sentiment.  And  between  these  two  enemies  of  the 
children  of  the  light  there  springs  up  a  natural  alliance. 
The  man  who  has  received  a  narrow  technical  training  may 
be  a  good  linguist  or  the  like,  but  is  not  likely  to  appreciate 
a  wide  humanistic  culture.  The  man  who  has  received  a 
merely  conventional  literary  education  may  master  technical 
details,  but  will  scarcely  understand  how  the  steady  growth 
of  science,  of  ordered  knowledge,  has  changed  our  whole 
way  of  regarding  life,  religion  or  society.  The  two  enemies 
will  combine  when  they  can  to  keep-  education  at  its  pre- 
sent level,  and  to  ridicule  all  attempts  to  provide  a  really 
scientific  training  in  universities  and  schools. 

It  is  scarcely  necessary  to  say  much  in  these  days  as  to 
the  importance  of  a  thorough  organisation  of  the  study  of 
nature  and  natural  forces  in  our  colleges.  There  has  been 
in  this  matter  extraordinary  progress  in  the  last  thirty  years. 
At  any  rate  it  would  be  an  impertinence  for  me,  who  have 
never  been  trained  in  any  branch  of  natural  science,  to 
dwell  on  this  matter.  But  while  natural  studies  have  moved 
forward  rapidly,  those  which  concern  man  have  in  our 
universities  scarcely  moved.  The  course  in  humanity,  and 
in  modern  history,  is  at  Oxford  almost  exactly  what  it  was 
thirty  years  ago.  Cambridge  is  less  averse  to  change  than 
Oxford,  and  has  been  more  mobile ;  yet  it  may  be  doubted 
whether  human  studies  have  imbibed  much  more  of  the 
modern  spirit  in  Cambridge  than  at  Oxford.  In  the  new 
universities  which  are  springing  up  on  all  sides,  generally 
speaking  the  side  of  natural  science  is  more  or  less  well 
developed  with  teachers  and  apparatus,  but  in  the  matter 
of  history,  psychology,  archaeology  and  the  like  they  are 
much  to  seek.  In  the  case  of  the  new  University  of 
London,  one  sees  the  germs  of  better  things.  Several  of 
the  schemes  of  study  there  arranged  look  well  on  paper. 
Only  funds  are  needed  to  set  the  machine  in  motion.  In 
London  there  are  great  institutions,  like  the  Record  Office 
an.l  the  British  Museum,  which  are  in  the  nature  of  things 
obliged  to  be  scientific,  and  one  hears  great  things  of  the 
London  School  of  Economics. 

I  think  the  readers  of  Nature  will  admit  that  the  slow- 


598 


NATURE 


[October  22,  1903 


ness  and  incompleteness  with  which  reorganisation  is  going 
on  in  the  studies  concerned  with  man  is  an  undesirable, 
even  a  dangerous,  fact.  The  disparity  between  the  two 
halves  of  human  knowledge  has  grown  so  great  that  there 
is  a  fear  that  almost  all  young  men  of  original  or  inventive 
mind  will  turn  to  the  study  of  material  nature.  It  would 
be  foolish  to  make  any  comparison  between  the  importance 
of  the  knowledge  of  man's  surroundings  and  the  know- 
ledge of  his  nature,  his  works,  and  his  history.  Both  are 
beyond  value.  But  if  the  two  halves  of  the  human  brain, 
so  to  speak,  work  on  different  plans,  what  will  become  of 
th°  unity  of  man  himself? 

A  reason  why  the  votaries  of  natural  science  should  have 
some  sympathy  with  those  who  are  endeavouring  to  re- 
model humanist  studies  is  that  it  is  from  the  natural  sciences 
that  methods  and  ideas  have  flowed  into  those  relating  to 
man.  The  ideas  of  continuity,  of  adc^tation  to  environ- 
ment, of  evolution,  were  transplanted  into  historic  studies 
from  those  of  biology,  and  it  was  soon  found  that  they 
flourished  almost  as  well,  and  bore  almost  as  much  fruit,  in 
the  new  field  as  in  the  old.  But  whereas  the  highly  trained 
and  scientific  worker  in  history,  psychology,  archaeology, 
and  kindred  studies  is  quite  alive  to  the  use  of  the  new 
scientific  methods,  they  have  as  yet  only  partially  affected 
education  in  these  subjects,  even  in  our  universities.  The 
books  used  by  the  students  are  changed  in  character,  but 
not  the  ways  of  working.  Undergraduates  are  not 
thoroughly  taught  the  principles  of  weighing  evidence,  they 
are  not  accustomed  to  work  on  the  comparative  method, 
they  do  not  acquire  historic  imagination.  They  have  not 
learned  to  judge  by  evidence  rather  than  by  authority,  nor 
rigidly  to  distinguish  degrees  of  probability. 

Of  course,  education  is  not,  and  cannot  be,  only  scientific. 
To  everyone's  education  there  should  be  other  sides.  There 
should  be  a  religious  side,  in  some  ways  the  most  important 
of  all.  There  should  be  an  artistic  side.  Every  boy  and 
every  girl  should  be  taught  to  draw  or  to  play  some  instru- 
ment, and  to  appreciate  good  work  done  in  the  art  which 
is  thus  practised.  And  every  student  should  be  taught  to 
use  the  English  language  to  some  purpose,  and  to  appreciate 
what  has  been  best  written  in  that  language,  and  in  one 
or  two  other  languages.  But  at  present  I  am  not  speaking 
of_  religious,  of  artistic,  or  of  literary  education,  but  of 
scientific  education,  of  the  direct  training  of  the  faculties 
for  dealing  with  the  facts  of  the  world  ;  and  it  is  my  con- 
tention that  this  scientific  side  of  education  has  been  com- 
paratively neglected  in  the  case  of  those  who  have  not  taken 
up  some  branch  of  physical  science.  In  fact,  so  completely 
has  the  really  scientific  character  of  such  studies  as  history 
and  archaeology  and  economics  and  the  like  been,  at  least 
in  this  country,  overlooked  that  when  we  hear  of  a  man 
studying  science  it  is  at  once  assumed  that  he  is  giving 
his  attention  to  the  facts  of  the  natural  rather  than  of  the 
human  world.  But  the  word  science  has  not  and  cannot 
rightly  have  any  meaning  but  "ordered  knowledge." 
Whatever  can  be  surely  known  is  matter  of  science. 

But  I  must  come  to  the  practical  question  of  the  organ- 
isation of  study,  and  especially  of  university  study.  Know- 
ledge of  the  physical  world  has  so  greatly  grown  by  two 
things,  the  improvement  of  method  and  the  organisation 
of  research.  Improved  methods  of  investigation  in  the  study 
of  man  and  of  history  have  fairly  come  in  :  they  are  scarcely 
yet  fully  recognised  in  schools  and  universities^  but  the  best 
authorities  in  the  various  branches  of  the  subject  are 
acquainted  with  them.  What  is  most  needed  is  a  new 
oiganisation  of  research. 

At  present  in  our  universities  the  spread  of  better  methods 
in  the  human  studies  has  principally  effected  this,  that  the 
student  works  on  better  text-books. '  This  in  itself  is  some- 
thing, but  not  very  much.  Compare,  for  example,  such  a 
subject  as  geology.  Would  it  be  regarded  as  sufficient  if 
the  students  of  geology  read  books  in  which  the  latest  and 
most  approved  views  are  expressed  ?  Surely  not ;  until  the 
student  has  grubbed  for  himself  in  the  chalk  pit  and  the 
chff,  and  learned  in  museums  to  recognise  the  substances 
belonging  to  various  strata  of  the  earth,  he  has  done  nothing 
worth  doing.  He  must  not  take  results  ready  made  but 
must  work  for  himself,  see  for  himself,  learn  'the  value  of 
evidence  and  the  touch  of  fact.  I  venture  to  think  that 
the  case  is  the  same  in  human  studies.  Here  also  it  is  of 
little  use  to  accept  the  best  results,  unless  the  student  grasps 
NO.    1773.  VOL.  68] 


the  grounds  on  which  they  are  reached.  Here  also  he 
must  for  himself  work  on  the  data,  see  why  one  view  is 
more  probable  than  another,  map  out  the  exact  stale  of  the 
evidence. 

Our  remedy  is  to  adopt  in  the  human  sciences  organ- 
isation and  methods  of  study  which  have  triumphed  in  the 
natural  sciences.  In  every  college  and  university  there 
should  be,  beside  the  laboratory  of  the  chemist  and  the 
dissecting  room  of  the  physiologist,  work-rooms  for  the 
students  of  man.  As  regards  psychology  and  anthropology, 
which  are  two  foundation  stones  of  the  arch,  this  is  already 
conceded.  Specimens  and  apparatus  are  there  acknow- 
ledged to  be  necessary.  The  same  necessity  exists  as  re- 
gards other  branches  of  human  study.  Work-rooms  are 
needed  in  which  the  student  should  be,  so  far  as  possible, 
brought  into  contact  with  evidence.  All  the  important 
books,  dictionaries  and  the  like  should,  of  course,  be  there. 
And  besides,  the  authorities  for  the  books  should  be  so  far 
as  possible  put  together,  facsimiles  of  documents  and  of 
inscriptions,  maps,  chronicles,  coins,  seals,  and  the  like. 
In  the  economic  section  every  kind  of  statistics  should  be  at 
hand.  In  the  department  of  ancient  history  there  should 
be  casts  of  inscriptions,  photographs  of  sites,  facsimiles  of 
manuscripts,  casts  of  statues  and  of  coins.  Even  when 
such  objects  are  not  direct  authorities  for  the  points  of 
which  the  student  is  in  search,  they  form  his  mind  by  bring- 
ing him  into  contact  with  fact  and  evidence,  and  thev 
greatly  stimulate  his  imagination  by  placing  him  in  presence 
of  some  of  the  surroundings  of  history.  The  result  of  work 
of  this  kind  would  be  a  change  of  outlook  and  of  method, 
the  substitution  of  investigation  for  theory,  of  science  for 
fancy.  It  would  prepare  the  "student  for  wider  work  in  the 
actual  world,  for  which,  of  course,  it  would  be  no  sub- 
stitute but  a  propaedeutic. 

Those  who  teach  and  organise  natural  studies  are  fully 
alive  to  the  great  demands  made  by  the  changed  state  of 
the  world,  and  are  demanding  endowment  with  energy  and 
persistency.  They  are  quite  right.  But  the  teachers  of 
human  studies  are  more  inert  and  less  keenly  alive  to  the 
need  of  expansion.  But  science,  ordered  knowledge,  is,  in 
spite  of  all  divisions,  one,  and  it  will  be  a  great  misfortune 
for  the  country  if  in  the  extension  and  re-endowment  of 
our  university  system  the  necessity  of  thorough  and 
elaborate  investigation  of  man  in  all  his  aspects,  his  histcrv 
and  his  works,  falls  into  the  background. 

Oxford,   October.  p.    Gardner. 

Uniformity  in  Scientific  Literature. 

In  1894  a  committee  was  appointed  by  the  British  Associ- 
ation to  inquire  into  the  question  of  uniformity  in  the  size 
of  the  pages  of  proceedings,  transactions,  and  scientific 
journals  in  which  original  papers  are  published.  The 
appearance  of  a  number  of  Proceedings  of  the  London 
Mathematical  Society  of  a  different  size  from  its  predecessors, 
in  accordance  with  an  announcement  circulated  as  recenth' 
as  the  end  of  August,  suggests  that  it  may  be  desirable  to 
direct  attention  to  the  report  of  this  committee  (Brit.  Ass. 
Rep.,  1895,  p.  77). 

In  this  country  all  the  more  important  octavo  journals 
in  question  are  printed  on  either  medium  or  demv  paper  ; 
as  examples  we  may  cite  the  Royal  Society's  Proceedings, 
the  Philosophical  Magazine,  the  Proceedings  of  the 
Physical  Society,  &c.  A  considerable  number  of  foreign 
journals  (e.g.  Wiedemann's  Annalen)  are  of  practically  the 
same  size.  The  difference  between  medium  and  demy 
octavo  is  too  small  to  cause  any  inconvenience  either  in 
placing  the  volumes  together  on  a  shelf  or  in  binding 
together  reprints  of  papers.  In  the  case  of  certain  American 
and  Italian  journals  a  somewhat  larger  sized  page  has 
been  adopted,  but  the  difference  is  entirely  in  the  margin, 
the  printed  portion  being  in  some  cases  smaller  even  than 
in  our  demy  octavo  journals.  This  allows  of  reprints  being 
cut  down  for  binding  with  others  from  the  Philosophical 
Magazine  or  British  Association  Report,  and  still  leaving 
plenty  oi  margin.  Where  papers  are  too  long  to  be  pub- 
lished in  octavo  form,  medium  and  demy  quarto  are  the 
most  prevalent  sizes.  Here  again  there  is  not  much  to 
choose  between  the  two,  and,  as  in  the  case  of  octavo,  the 
committee  decided  to  recommend  the  demy  size  as  a 
standard.  The  most  inconvenient  pamphlets  to  deal  with 
are  those  in  which  the  paper  is  too  small   for  binding  up 


October  22,  1903] 


NATURE 


599 


with  demy  quarto,  and  the  printed  page  is  too  large  to 
allow  of  the  paper  being  cut  down  to  demy  or  even  medium 
iictavo  size.  The  Atti  of  the  Lincei  Academy  may  be  cited 
IS  an  important  example.  Fortunately,  hovvever,  such  ex- 
<  ptions  are  comparatively  few  in  number,  and  they  include 
nune  of  the  main  English  journals  in  which  original  papers 
are  published  on  mathematics  or  physics. 

It  is  my  hope  that  by  again  directing  attention  to  this 
n\atter  further  uniformity  may  be  secured  in  the  sizes  of 
proceedings  and  transactions  by  the  gradual  elimination  of 
inconvenient  sizes,  and  by  the  avoidance  of  further 
divergences.  The  size  of  the  new  number  of  London 
-Mathematical  Proceedings  is  peculiarly  unfortunate,  as  it 
is  not  uniform  even  with  those  outstanding  foreign  journals 
which  do  not  conform  to  the  recommendations  of  the  com- 
"1  it  tee.  G.  H.  Bryan. 


Expansion  Curves. 

Mr.  Stoddart's  method  of  finding  points  on  the  curve 
/7"=  constant,  to  which  Prof.  Perry  directed  attention  on 
October  S  (p.  548),  is  interesting,  but  it  does  not  give  a 
great  number  of  convenient  points  on  the  curve.  If  the 
points  A,  E,  .  .  .  are  called  {v„  />,),  {v^,  />,),  .  .  .,  the 
values  of  v  and  p  form  two  series  of  quantities  in  continued 
proportion,      i.e.      such      that      vjv.,=v.lv  =   .  .  .,      and 

A  modification  of  the  method,  bringing  out  more  clearly 
its  essential  simplicity,  and,  moreover,  far  easier  in  practice, 
would  be  to  calculate  the  positions  of  two  points  A,  E 
instead  of  finding  A  and  the  specially  related  angles  a,  /3. 

It  will  then  be  seen  from  the  diagram,  by  drawing  the 
lines  needful   to  find  a  third  point  (say  for  definiteness   in 


B 

A 

./ 

B' 

\ 

E 

^\ 

.    ^*;;.v>,E' 

'^ 

G 

v; 

c 

ki 

K 

H        /H' 

r 


the  direction  of  increasing  v  and  decreasing  />),  that  the 
method  advocated  is  only  that  of  finding  the  above  two  series 
of  continued  proportionals,  and  that  any  angles  would  serve 
the  purpose,  all  that  is  necessary  being  that  all  the  con- 
struction lines  like  JH  must  be  parallel  to  each  other,  and 
similarly  all  the  lines  like  BC  parallel  to  each  other.  But 
no  modification  of  the  method  will  give  more  than  the 
points  I  have  indicated. 

By  drawing  the  tangents  at  the  points  so  found,  the 
accurate  construction  of  the  curve  would  evidently  be  facili- 
tated. This  can  be  neatly  done  by  taking  care  in  the  choice 
of  the  first  two  points ;  for  in  these  curves  the  gradient  is 
-p-rvin,  so  that  the  tangent  at  the  point  (y,p)  cuts  the 
axis  of  -v  at  the  point  the  abscissa  of  which  is  v(i  +  i In). 
Hence  if  we  choose  the  first  two  points  (f,,  p^)  and  {v^,  p^) 
so  that  "j,,=i;,(i+i/n),  the  tangent  at  the  first  point  will 
pass  through  the  foot  of  the  second  ordinate,  and  similarly 
the  tangent  at  the  second  point  will  pass  through  the  foot 
of  the  third  ordinate,  and  so  on. 

NO.    1773.   VOL.  6^] 


Or,  if  we  take  Vj=Vi'^{i  +  i/n},  so  that  Vj  =  i',(i+i/n), 
the  first  tangent  will  pass  through  the  foot  of  the  third 
ordinate,  and  so  on. 

This  happens  to  be  approximately  the  case  in  Prof.  Perry's 
diagram,  which  for  convenience  has  been  reproduced  here 
with  a  set  of  additional  construction  lines. 

Coopers  Hill.  Alfred  Lodge. 


Rocket  Lightning. 

A  PECULIAR  species  of  lightning,  bearing  a  strong  re- 
semblance to  ascending  rockets,  was  witnessed  on  the  even- 
ing of  July  22  by  two  of  the  professors  in  Sibpur  Engineer- 
ing College,  Hovvrah,  near  Calcutta,  one  of  whom  wrote 
me  the  following  careful  account  in  a  letter  dated  the  next 
day.  I  wrote  back  suggesting  local  inquiry  in  the  direc- 
tion in  which  the  phenomenon  appeared,  and  sending  some 
extracts  from  Hann's  "  Lehrbuch  der  Meteorologie  "  bear- 
ing on  the  subject.  The  reply,  dated  September  i,  shows 
that  the  suggested  inquiry  is  impracticable. 

II  Leopold  Road,  Ealing,  W.  J.  D.  Everett. 

We  saw  some  strange  lightning  yesterday  evening  at 
about  9  p.m.  It  was  a  clear,  moonless  night,  with  just 
a  bank  of  cloud  very  low  in  the  S.S.W.,  with  a  well-marked 
edge,  height  say  from  horizon  (flat)  to  5°  up.  There  was 
a  misty  cloud  above  this.  These  clouds  we  could  only  see 
properly  when  the  flashes  came.  Stars  were  visible  at 
about  10°  above  the  horizon  at  this  point,  and  the  sky  was 
quite  clear  all  over  elsewhere.  Now  and  then  flashes  showed 
from  behind  the  lower  cloud  (the  flashes  themselves  were 
mostly  hidden,  and  thunder  was  not  audible).  The  flashes 
were  not  so  frequent  as  usual,  say  one  per  minute  or  so. 
Generally  here  they  are  almost  incessant  during  thunder- 
storms. 

At  intervals  of  three  minutes  or  so,  immediately  after  a 
flash — which,  as  common  here,  was  mostly  multiple,  lasting 
a  second  or  so  altogether — a  luminous  trail 
shot  straight  up  to  15°  or  so,  about  as  fast 
as,  or  rather  faster  than,  a  rocket,  and  of 
very  similar  appearance,  but  with  minute 
waves,  like  ribbon  lightning.  It  was  hardly 
as  bright  as  most  lightning.  S.  and  I 
saw  it  repeated  seven  times,  and  Prof. 
Bruhl  (physics)  three  or  four  times  after  we 
directed  his  attention  to  it.  He  was  equally 
surprised  at  the  novelty,  and  he  has  been 
out  here  some  eighteen  years.  One  of  the 
trails  turned  off,  as  shown  ;  the  others  were 
about  vertical  as  seen  from  here.  Each 
grew  up  steadily  from  below,  and  then  dis- 
appeared at  once.  The  upper  end  was 
definite,  and  did  not  branch  or  spread. 

In  each  case  it  followed  immediately  on 
a  vivid  flash  or  set  of  flashes.  It  was 
certainly  not  fireworks  of  any  kind.  It 
terminated  in  apparently  clear'  sky.  Its  appearance  as  a 
uniformly  and  very  bright  ribbon  was  different  from  any 
fireworks.  It  was  somewhat  yellowish,  not  purple  as 
lightning  often  is.  It  was  much  too  far  off  for  fireworks 
to  be  so  high  and  bright.     Xo  thunder  was  audible. 

July  23.  W.  H.  Everett. 


Thanks  for  trouble  of  making  extracts  from  Hann  re 
lightning,  which,  as  you  say,  describe  phenomena  different 
from  what  we  saw. 

Peake  is  in  charge  of  the  Meteorological  Office  for  India, 
and  did  not  hear  about  it,  nor  did  I  see  anything  in  the 
Calcutta  newspapers. 

There  would  be  practically  no  Europeans  or  any  com- 
petent observers  nearer  the  lightning  than  we  were  ;  as  it 
must  have  occurred  at  a  spot  above  the  Sunderabunds,  a 
wilderness  of  waterways  and  jungle.  And  there  are  probably 
not  a  score  of  men  in  all  Bengal  who  would  take  serious 
interest  in  such  lightning  if  they  did  happen  to  see  it.  I 
was  lucky  to  have  Briihl  as  a  witness,  he  being  an  old 
resident,  and  one  who  keeps  his  eyes  open. 

It  was  not  like  a  string  of  fireballs,  for  it  was  of  uniform 
width.  But  it  had,  as  Hann  says  of  globular  lightning, 
doubtless  some  connection  with  the  breaking  down  of  the 
air  by  the  volleys  of  discharges.  \V.  H.  E. 

September   i. 


6oo 


NATURE 


[October  22,  1903 


Our  Winters  in  Relation  to  Briickner's  Cycle. 

It  was  said  in  Bacon's  time  that  every  tiiirty-five  years 
"  the  same  kind  of  suite  of  years  and  weathers  comes  about 
again  "  (see  his  essay  "  Of  Vicissitude  of  Things  "),  and 
the  important  researches  of  Bruckner  on  this  subject  are 
now  receiving  considerable  attention. 

The  value,  35  years,  as  used  by  Bruckner,  is,  of  course, 
an  average.  The  interval  from  centre  to  centre  of  his 
cold  and  wet  periods  (or  the  opposite)  is  sometimes  as  much 
as  40,  sometimes  as  little  as  30.  It  has  been  noted,  further, 
that  35  is  very  nearly  three  times  the  sun-spot  cycle  of  ii-i 
years. 

Now  if  we  look  into  the  variation  of  certain  weather- 
elements  at  Greenwich  since  1841,  it  may,  I  think,  be  truly 
said  to-day  that  the  same  kind  of  weather  has  come  round 
again  after  about  33  years.  Let  us  take  e.g.  our  winter 
seasons  as  measured  by  the  total  number  of  frost  days  from 
September  to  May. 

In  the  upper  curve  of  the  diagram  herewith,  each  year 
point  represents  the  sum  of  frost  days  in  five  winters  so 
understood  ;  the  first  (1844)  for  winters  ending  1842-46,  the 
second,  winters  ending  1843-47,  ^"^  ^^  on. 

Similarly,  in  the  lower  curve,  each  point  represents  a 
five-winter  group,  but    thirty-three  years  later,  commencing 


i^^'-y    '^  '3   -6    'f  '61^'-^  ^ 


?riTT  I  r 


(Sy-p'So  '-3    '<b   '<^    '92_  ^  's    b\ 


Curve  showing  the   variation  of    frost   days   from    five-year  sums   for  the 
pstiod  1842— 1902. 

with  1877,  and  ending  with  1901  (which  includes  last 
winter). 

There  is  obviously  a  general  correspondence  between 
these  curves  ;  high  values  in  one  matched  with  high  values 
in  the  other,  and  low  with  low.  Twenty-five  pairs  of  values 
being  thus  compared,  there  are  only  four  in  which  the 
members  of  the  pair  are  on  opposite  sides  of  the  average 
line  (273). 

Again,  we  have,  in  general. 


Diminishing  cold 
Increasing  cold 
Diminishing  co'd 


1846-51  (5  years) 

.  ) 


[879-83  (4 
1851-56(5   .,  ) 
1881-89(6   ,,  ) 
1856-64  (8 
1889-98  (9 

From  these  last  dates  there  is  a  rise. 

The    earlier    curve    might    thus    be    considered    a    kind    of 

programme  for  the  series  of  winters  commencing  33   years 


after  the  first.  It  will  be  interesting,  I  think,  to  see 
how  far  it  continues  to  be  so  in  the  future. 

The  winters  about  1856  and  1889  appear  to  have  been 
conspicuously  cold  times.  We  might,  perhaps,  anticipate 
another  such  time  in  the  early  'twenties,  the  curve  not 
rising  so  high  between,  though,  of  course,  individual 
winters  might  be  very  severe.  This  seems  to  be  suggested 
by  the  course  of  the  curve  after  1868,  but  the  corre- 
spondence may  perhaps  fail. 

Other  examples  of  such  recurrence,  corresponding  more 
or  less  closely,  might  be  given.  The  long  record  of 
Rothesay  rainfall  (from  1800)  will  be  found  worth  treatment 
in  this  way;  conspicuously  dry  times  occur  about  1822, 
1855,  and  1887,  and  the  smoothed  curve  from  1835  to  date 
may  be  said  to  repeat  in  its  main  features  that  from  1802 
to  1867.  Alex.  B.  MacDowall. 


An  Ant  Robbed  by  a  Lizard. 

The  following  account  of  the  robbery  from  an  ant  by  a 
lizard  may  interest  some  of  your  readers. 

While  walking  along  the  main  road  on  the  outskirts  of 
Bordighera  yesterday  morning,  I  noticed  a  strange-looking 
insect  moving  across  it  in  a  peculiar  way.  On  getting 
nearer,  I  saw  that  what  had  attracted  my  notice  was  a 
black  ant — about  an  inch  long  with  brown  wings — dragging 
a  cricket  bigger  than  itself.  It  held  the  cricket  by  the 
head,  and  as  the  ant  moved  backwards  it  drew  the  cricket 
towards  it.  While  doing  so  it  entered  the  shadow  cast  by 
my  umbrella,  and  instantly  released  its  hold  and  got  out 
of  the  shadow,  but  finding  there  was  no  danger  it  returned 
and  seized  its  prey  again  by  the  head,  and  recommenced 
its  backward  movement.  A  low  wall  ran  alongside  the 
read,  and  when  the  ant  got  within  six  feet  of  it  a  common 
brown  lizard  appeared  on  the  top  of  the  wall  and  evidently 
soon  caught  sight  of  the  ant,  for  it  ran  quickly  down  the 
wall  and  to  within  two  feet  of  it,  when  it  crouched  for  a 
second  or  two  like  a  cat  ready  to  spring,  and  then  charged 
the  ant,  apparently  butting  the  cricket  free  with  its  head. 
Before  the  ant  could  regain  its  hold  the  lizard  seized  the 
cricket  in  its  mouth,  and  darted  up  the  wall  in  the  direction 
from  which  it  originally  appeared  on  the  scene,  leaving  the 
ant  running  round  and  round,  moving  its  wings  in  an 
agitated  manner,  vainly  searching  for  its  lost  prey. 

J.  W.  Stack. 

Villa  Mona,  Bordighera,  September  i. 


T 


A    NEW   MECHANICAL   THEORY    OF    THE 
yETHER.^ 
HIS    memoir    was    communicated    to    the    Royal 
Society   in    February,    1902,    and   has   now  been 
issued  in  the  dual  form  of  a  contribution  to  the  Philo- 
sophical Transactions  and  a  volume  of  Prof.  Osborne 
Reynolds's  collected  papers. 

It  may  safely  be  described  as  one  of  the  most  re- 
markable atternpts  that  have  been  made  of  recent  years 
to  formulate  a  dynamical  system  capable  of  account- 
ing- for  all  physical  phenomena  at  present  known.  A 
theory  such  as  is  here  set  forth  may  not  improbably 
play  the  same  part  in  modern  science  that  was  assumed 
by  the  atomic  theory  and  the  kinetic  theory  of  gases 
in  the  science  of  the  time  when  these  theories  were 
propounded.- 

If  we  suppose  the  ultimate  particles — Prof.  Reynolds 
calls  them  "  g^rains  " — constituting-  the  material  uni- 
verse to  be  either  spheres,  or  what  comes  to  the  same 
thing,  point  atoms  behaving  in  the  same  manner  as 
uniform  smooth  spheres,  then  it  is  impossible  to  assume 
these  grains  to  be  of  equal  size  and  distributed  at 
random  through  space  without  assuming  them  (as  in 
the  kinetic  theory  of  gases)  to  be  in  motion  among 
themselves.  On  the  other  hand,  a  medium  in  which 
the  motion  of  the  different  grains  among  themselves 
partakes    of    the    nature    of    diffusion    does    not    lend 

1  "The  Sub-Mechanics  of  the  Universe."  By  Osborne  Reynolds, 
M.A.,  F.R.S.,  LL.D.,  M.Inst.C.E.  Pp.  xvii  +  256.  (Cambridge  Uni- 
versity Press  :  Published  for  the  Royal  Society  of  London,  1903.)  Price 
10s.  i>d.  net. 


NO.    1773,  VOL.   68] 


October  22,  1903] 


NATURE 


601 


itself  kindly  to  the  explanation  of  such  phenomena 
as  the  propagation  of  transverse  waves.  The  medium 
considered  in  the  present  mvestigation  is  assumed 
[o  consist  of  uniform  spherical  grains  which  are  so 
close  together  as  to  prevent  diffusion,  and  when  in 
a  state  of  "  normal  piling  "  the  centre  of  each  grain 
i-.  supposed  to  be  equidistant  from  those  of  twelve 
neighbouring  grains,  this  being  the  distribution 
corresponding  to  minimum  volume,  and  the  system 
"  constituting  to  a  first  approximation  an  elastic 
medium  with  six  axes  of  elasticity  symmetrically 
placed."  [It  may  be  pointed  out  before  proceeding 
further  that  there  is  more  than  one  way  of  piling  balls 
so  that  each  ball  is  in  contact  with  twelve  neighbour- 
ing ones    and  the  total  volume  is  a  minimum.] 

The  grains  are  supposed  to  be  capable  of  limited 
relative  motion,  and  local  inequalities  may  exist  due 
to  the  presence  or  absence  of  a  number  of  grains  above 
or  below  that  necessary  for  normal  piling.  In  such 
cases  singular  surfaces  are  formed  between  the  grains 
in  unstrained  and  those  in  strained  piling.  The  author 
finds  that  the  local  negative  inequalities  produced  by 
the  absence  of  grains  present  the  ordinary  properties 
of  matter.  They  are  free  to  move  through  the  medium 
without  resistance,  the  grains  streaming  freely  through 
their  singular  surfaces,  and  they  attract  one  another 
according  to  the  law  of  the  inverse  square.  The 
density  of  matter  is  thus  negative,  taking  that  of  the 
medium  to  be  positive,  and  if  the  density  of  water  be 
taken  as  —  i,  the  author  finds  that  of  the  medium  to 
be  10'.  The  diameter  of  the  grains  in  C.G.S.  units 
is  5-534  X  10- '%  their  mean  path  is  8.612  x  10-==*,  their 
mean  relative  velocity  is  6.777  x  10.  the  mean  pressure 
is  1. 172  X  10",  the  rate  of  propagation  of  the  transverse 
wave  is  3004  x  lo*",  and  the  rate  of  degradation  of 
the  transverse  wave  is  such  that  it  would  require  56 
million  years  to  reduce  the  total  energy  in  the  ratio  of 
I  to  e\  The  absorption  thus  produced  is  of  such  a 
magnitude  as  to  account  for  the  blackness  of  the  sky 
on  a  clear  night  compatibly  with  the  absence  of  any 
measurable  absorption  of  light  by  the  ether.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  absence  of  any'  evidence  of  normal 
waves  until  quite  recently  is  accounted  for  by  the  con- 
clusion that  the  rate  of  degradation  of  the  normal 
wave  would  reduce  its  energy  to  about  one-eighth  in 
3.923XIO-'  of  a  second,  or'before  it  had  traversed 
2200  metres.  In  addition  to  positive  and  negative  in- 
equalities of  which  the  latter  correspond  to  matter, 
the  existence  is  assumed  of  "  complex  inequalities  " 
due  to  the  displacement  of  grains  from  one  position 
to  another,  and  a  comparison  of  the  attractions  of 
such  inequalities  with  those  due  to  the  inequalities 
representing  matter  is  in  complete  accordance  with 
the  known  smallness  of  gravitative  as  compared  with 
electric  action. 

The  theory  accounts  for  the  refraction,  dispersion, 
polarisation  by  reflection,  metallic  reflection  and 
aberration  of  light. 

The  analytical  investigation  is  based  on  the  general 
equations  of  motion  and  conservation  of  any  entity 
(Section  ii.),  these  equations  being  generalisations 
of  the  well-known  equations  of  continuity  of  hydro- 
dvnamical  and  allied  systems ;  the  formation  of 
the  equations  of  motion  in  a  purely  mechanical 
medium  (Section  iii.),  the  separation  of  the  motion 
into  its  components  of  "  mean  "  and  relative  motion 
(Sections  iv.-vii.),  the  extension  of  the  kinetic  theory 
to  granular  media  (Sections  viii.-x.),  and  an  elaborate 
analysis  of  the  changes  taking  place  in  the  angular 
inequalities,  the  momentum  and  energy,  the  mean  and 
relative  systems,  and  the  mean  inequalities  and  their 
motions  (Sections  xi.-xiv.).  It  should  be  observed  that 
X\\'i  present  theory  involves  the  assumption  that  posi- 
tively electrified  bodies  do  not  repel  each  other,  and 
for  this  the  author  gives  arguments  in   §   226.       In 

NO.  1773,  VOL.  68] 


the  final  section  (xv.)  the  numerical  values  of  the 
quantities  which  define  the  condition  of  the  granular 
medium,  as  stated  above,  are  deduced  from  the  results 
of  physical  experience. 

The  mathematical  reasoning  is  very  difficult,  in  some 
places  almost  impossible,  to  follow,  owing  to  the  large 
number  of  doubtful  points  or  inaccuracies  in  the  equa- 
tions. Even  if  the  fundamental  conclusions  should 
prove  to  be  correct,  there  are  many  points  in  the  argu- 
ment which  are  at  present  obscure,  and  require  to  be 
ckared  up.  To  take  a  few  examples,  in  equation  (4), 
p.  10,  a  new  symbol  r  is  introduced  without  any  ex- 
planation, and  the  dual  use  of  5  is  very  confusing. 
Having  used  5S  to  denote  a  volume  element,  and 
8s  a  surface  element  on  this  page,  the  author  suddenly 
changes  from  6S  to  5s  in  the  first  of  equations  (20)  on 
p  16,  and  to  ds  in  the  second  and  third,  although  he 
refers  to  equation  (2)  of  p.  10,  which  involves  5S.  On 
p.  13  in  equation  (13),  the  differential  is  omitted  after 
the  treble  sign  of  integration;  also  in  (16)  one  of 
the  expressions  under  the  sign  of  summation  is  multi- 
plied by  the  differential  element  dS,  while  the  other 
is  not ;  in  the  former  equation  the  reader  will  naturally 
supply  the  missing  dx  dy  dz,  but  the  meaning  of  the 
latter  equation  is  obscure.  Again,  turning  to  p.  105, 
we  find  that  §  116  refers  to  "  The  mean  velocities  of 
pairs  having  relative  velocities  s/ 2W ^'  and  Vj'/V2," 
while  in  §  120  we  read,  "  Since  the  mean  velocities  of 
pairs  of  grains  having  relative  velocity  V^V/  is 
V//y2  .  .  .  ."  In  §  117,  "All  directions  of  mean 
velocity  of  a  pair  are  equally  probable  whatever  the 
direction  of  the  mean  velocity."  On  p.  120,  equation 
(181),  it  is  not  easy  to  see  how,  if  N  be  equal  to  the 
number  of  grains  in  unit  volume,  the  square  root  of 
N  should  be  equal  to  N  dx  dy  dz  multiplied  by  a  certain 
function  of  the  coordinates,  nor  how  by  integrating 
the  equation  with  respect  to  y  and  z  the  square  root 
of  N  now  becomes  equal  to  N  multiplied  by  another 
function  multiplied  by  the  linear  differential  dx.  In 
ordinary  circumstances  there  is  no  useful  purpose 
served  in  filling  a  review  with  a  list  of  errata  which 
any  reader  could  easily  correct  for  himself.  But  the 
present  investigation  would  be  difficult  to  follow  even 
under  the  most  favourable  conditions,  and  the  presence 
of  so  many  formulae  and  statements  which  cannot 
possibly  be  correct  as  they  stand  renders  the  task  well 
nigh  hopeless. 

An  objection  of  an  entirely  different  character  applies 
to  the  sections  in  which  Maxwell's  law  of  distribution 
of  velocity  components  and  partition  of  energy  is  ex- 
tended to  a  medium  of  closely  packed  spheres  such  as 
that  considered  by  Prof.  Reynolds.  \  great 'deal  has 
been  written  as  to  the  validity  of  Maxwell's  law,  and 
of  the  fundamental  assumptions  involved  in  the  proofs 
of  it.  The  general  opinion  on  which  all  mathematical 
physicists  are  pretty  well  agreed  is  that  the  law  holds 
good  to  a  first  approximation  in  gaseous  media  the 
molecules  of  which  are  not  too  closely  crowded 
together;  but  one  method  of  proof  after  another  has  on 
closer  examination  been  found  to  involve  some  assump- 
tion or  other  which  usually  breaks  down  in  the  case 
even  of  a  dense  gas.  Moreover,  Mr.  Burbury  has  gone 
so  far  as  to  establish  a  different  formula  for  the  law  of 
distribution  in  dense  gases.  To  assume  the  law  to 
hold  good  in  the  extreme  case  of  a  medium  the  ultimate 
particles  of  which  are  permanently  interlocked  must 
be  regarded,  failing  other  evidence  than  that  given  by 
Maxwell,  as  a  very  doubtful  step. 

A  number  of  interesting  questions  suggest  them- 
selves for  the  consideration  of  physicists,  such  as 
the  ultimate  distribution  of  energy  between  the  grains 
and  molecules,  the  determination  of  the  temperature 
of  cosmic  space  as  defined  by  the  mean  kinetic  energy 
of  the  grains,  the  influence  of  the  absorption  of  the 
medium,   however  small,   on   the  progress  of  cosmic 


602 


NA  TURE 


[OcTOr.ER   2  2,    190;; 


events,  the  existence  of  directional  properties  of  the 
ether  determined  by  the  regular  arrangement  of  the 
grains,  and  the  finity  or  infinity  of  extent  of  the 
medium.  It  may  be  confidently  anticipated  that  Prof. 
Osborne  Reynolds's  granular  medium  will  play  an  im- 
portant part  in  the  physics  of  the  future.  It  is,  how- 
ever, to  be  hoped  that  the  subject  will  receive  careful 
and  critical  study  in  the  hands  of  numerous  mathe- 
matical physicists,  and  that  it  will  not  be  left  for  the 
experimenter  and  philosopher  blindly  to  accept  Prof. 
Reynolds's  doctrines  as  the  basis  of  speculations  about 
things  which  they  do  not  understand.  The  practice  of 
assuming  statements  to  be  true  because  Maxwell  made 
them  has  been  too  prevalent  in  the  past,  and  there  is 
not  very  much  difference  between  those  who  adopt  this 
attitude  and  writers  who  publish  papers  at  their  own 
expense  to  show  that  the  earth  is  not  round  or  that 
gravitation  does  not  exist.  The  dogmatic  statements 
of  the  former  class  of  philosopher  often  afford  plenty 
of  material  for  the  abusive  attacks  of  the  latter. 

G.  H.  Bryan. 


THE  EFFECT  OF  EDUCATION  AND 
LEGISLATION  ON  TRADE. 
T  N  his  second  presidential  address  to  the  Society  of 
■»•  Chemical  Industry  at  its  annual  meeting  held  in 
Bradford,  Mr.  Levinstein  again  addressed  himself  to 
the  subject  of  education.  He  thinks  that  almost  too 
much  importance  has  been  attached  to  education  as 
being  the  only  factor  which  has  caused  the  industrial 
progress  and  superiority,  in  certain  classes  of 
merchandise,  of_  Germany  in  comparison  with  this 
country.  Attention  is  therefore  directed  to  other  con- 
siderations which  he  considers  have  also  to  be  taken 
into  account,  such  as  the  unification  of  the  various 
German  States  after  the  Franco-German  war,  which, 
of  course,  gave  an  internal  free  trade  to  the  German 
nation,  the  nationalisation  of  the  railways  and  canals, 
and  the  protective  patent  laws. 
_  He  then  refers  to  America,  which  he  does  not  con- 
sider to  be  a  better  educated  countrv  than  our  own. 
Naturally  the  new  Education  Act  of  1902  comes  under 
review.  _  Mr.  Levinstein  is  doubtful,  as  are  many 
others,  if  the  Bill  will  advance  secondarv  education, 
because  the  number  of  persons  appointed  to  the 
councils  who  represent  secondarv  education  is  ex- 
ceedingly small.  No  remark  is  made  upon  another 
aspect  of  the  case,  namely,  that  a  great  many  of  those 
appomted  know  practically  nothing  about  primary,  and 
still  less  about  secondary  education.  In  some  cases 
which  have  come  before  our  notice,  persons  of  little 
education  (beyond  their  own  inflated  opinion  of  them- 
selves), but  desirous  of  local  fame,  and  having  plenty 
of  "  push,"  have  brought  themselves  forward  and  been 
elected,  while  those  who  reallv  are  educated,  and  know 
what  education  means,  have  been  passed  by. 

The  raising  of  secondarv  education  to  a  'really  high 
and  uniform  standard  will  be  extremely  costlv.  But 
the  expenditure  on  primarv  education,  according  to  the 
provisions  of  the  new  Act,  will  absorb  such  a  large 
amount  of  the  ratepayers'  monev  that  thev  will  be 
disinclined  to  incur  further  expenditure  in"  order  to 
make  it  really  efficient.  No  student  can  enter  a 
German  technical  college  without  passing  an  extremely 
searching  and  thorough  examination.  In  Great 
Britain  the  total  number  of  students,  from  fifteen  years 
and  upwards,  taking  complete  dav  technological 
courses  is  3873;  probably  not  more  than  10  per  cent, 
could  pass  the  entrance  examination  of  Charlotten- 
burg. 

As  an  illustration  of  what  Manchester  is  doing  in 
the  way  of  technical  training,  Mr.  Levinstein  gives  an 
account  of  "  the  department  for  preparing,  bleaching, 

NO.    1773,  VOL.  68] 


dyeing,  printing,  mercerising  and  finishing  textiles, 
together  with  the  manufacture  of  paper."  There  is 
no  dabbling  here  with  manufacture  in  a  test  tube,  such 
as  we  see  in  some  of  our  educational  institutes.  The 
department  is  lodged  in  a  separate  building  apart 
from  the  school  of  technology.  It  is  fitted  with  the 
latest  and  most  up-to-date  machinery,  taken  from  this 
country  and  abroad.  As  all  the  machinery  is  driven 
by  separate  motors,  there  will  be  no  difficulty  in  re- 
placing it,  as  it  becomes  out  of  date  and  obsolete,  by 
means  of  newer  and  more  modern  machinery. 

In  this  country  we  excel  in  the  production  of  first- 
class  yarn  and  cloth,  made  from  first-class  raw 
material.  These  goods  will  alwavs  fetch  a  good  price. 
But  within  the  last  quarter  of  a  century  a  demand  has 
sprung  up  for  cheap  imitations,  made  from  inferior 
materials,  but  which  must  have  the  external  appear- 
ance of  the  first-class  article.  It  is  in  the  weighting 
of  silk,  the  intermixing  of  fibres  and  the  manufacture 
of  imitation  velvets  that  the  foreigner  excels.  But 
the  demand  is  enormous,  and  if  we  would  hold  our 
own  in  the  markets  of  the  world,  we  must  learn  how 
to  manufacture  these  cheap  goods.  The  British  manu- 
facturer must  learn  to  adapt  himself  to  the  times  and 
to  the  tastes  and  wishes  of  the  consumer. 

Manufacturers     have     often      refused     to     employ    t 
chemists,  except  as  "testing  machines,"  because  the    I 
chemist  is  so  often  only  a  theorist,  sometimes  not  even    ' 
that,     and     understands     absolutely     nothing     about 
machinery.     This   excuse   will,    however,    soon    be    no 
longer   tenable.     Students   who   have   passed   through 
the    department    just    mentioned     at    the    Manchester 
Technical   School    should  be  fully  qualified  to  take  a 
position  not  only  in  dye,  bleach,  print,  mercerising,  or 
finishing  works,   but  also  in  paper  mills.     They  will 
have  not  only  a  knowledge  of  chemistry,  but  also  of 
niachinerv.     It  is   a   pity  that   technical   institutes   do 
not  make  it  compulsory  for  those  who  intend  to  be- 
come   works    chemists    to    include    in    the    syllabus    a 
course  in  engineering,  both  practical  and  theoretical. 

Referring  to  the  "  Patent  Law  Amendment  Act," 
Mr.  Levinstein  has  great  hopes  that  satisfactory  re- 
sults will  accrue  to  our  manufacturers.  The  chief 
clause  in  the  Act,  and  one  for  which  British  manu- 
facturers have  been  agitating  for  many  years,  is  that 
which  deals  with  the  granting  of  licences.  Hitherto 
the  foreigner  could  patent  anything  he  chose,  manu- 
facture It  abroad,  and  "  dump  "  it  down  here,  without 
his  being  under  any  obligation  to  manufacture  It  on 
British  soil.  And  it  was  a  matter  of  great  difficulty 
to  compel  him  to  grant  a  licence  to  a  British  firm  to 
manufacture  the  goods.  Under  the  new  Act,  if  he 
does  not  manufacture  in  this  country,  he  can  be  com- 
pelled to  grant  a  licence  for  the  manufacture  of  the 
product,  or  failing  this  his  patent  may  be  declared 
void. 

It  is  only  aftef  more  than  twenty  years  of_  agitation 
that  this  Act  has  been  passed.  Mr.  Levinstein  reviews 
the  pioneering  work  which  had  to  be  done  before  the 
inertia  of  the  Board  of  Trade  was  overcome. 

Finallv,  the  difficult  and  vexed  question  of  foreign 
tariffs  Is  dealt  with.  Mr.  Levinstein  considers  that 
the  reasons  we  have  not  made  greater  headway,  so  far 
as  our  export  trade  is  concerned,  are  :^our  education 
has  been  at  fault,  our  patent  laws  were  bad,  and  foreign 
tariffs  have  often  been  prohibitive ;  and  we  would  add 
the  want  of  adaptability  of  some  of  our  manfacturers. 
The  Government  is  also  exceedingly  slack  in  making 
known  to  our  traders,  at  the  earliest  moment  possible, 
changes  in  foreign  tariffs.  Interested  Continental 
traders  learn  at  once,  through  their  Minister  of  Com- 
merce, not  only  changes  which  have  taken  place,  but 
changes  which  are  contemplated.  But  the  wheels  of 
our  Government,  in  respect  to  information  which  may 


October  22,  1903J 


NATURE 


603 


be  of  vital  importance  to  the  traders,  move  so  exceed- 
ingly slow.  The  fact  is,  we  require  a  Minister  of 
Commerce  with  a  competent  staff,  and  the  sooner  the 
Government  awakes  to  the  fact  the  better  for  the 
country.  F.  Mollwo  Perkin. 


liOTES. 

It  is  probably  known  to  some  that  a  project  has  been 
started,  and  is  already  well  advanced,  to  found  a  prize  for 
physics  at  St.  Peter's  College,  Cambridge,  as  a  tribute  to 
the  memory  of  the  late  Prof.  Tait,  of  Edinburgh,  honorary 
fellow  of  the  college.  Besides  members  of  the  college  who 
have  heartily  taken  part  in  the  enterprise,  many  friends  of 
Prof.  Tait,  both  in  Belfast  and  Edinburgh,  have  recorded 
their  appreciation  of  him  and  of  his  great  services  to  the 
advancement  of  science  by  joining  in  this  memorial  of  him 
at  the  college  of  which  he  was  so  brilliant  a  member ;  and 
it  is  believed  that  others,  if  they  were  made  aware  of  the 
proposal,  would  desire,  for  a  like  reason,  to  be  associated 
with  it.  Mr.  I.  D.  H.  Dickson,  St.  Peter's  College,  Cam- 
bridge, will  reply  to  any  inquiries,  and  until  more  formal 
thanks  are  made  by  the  college,  will  gratefully  receive  and 
acknowledge  any  donations  that  may  be  sent  to  him  for  the 
purpose  of  the  memorial. 

It  is  expected  that  a  monument  to  the  electrician,  Zenobe 
Gramme,  will  shortly  be  raised  in  Brussels.  Owing  to  the 
efforts  of  M.  L^on  Janssen,  the  general  manager  of  the 
tramways  of  Brussels,  a  committee  has  been  appointed  to 
accomplish  this  purpose. 

We  learn  from  the  British  Medical  Journal  that  the  pro- 
posal of  the  German  committee  of  the  Virchow  memorial 
to  erect  a  statue  of  Virchow  in  one  of  the  public  streets  of 
Berlin,  near  the  place  where  his  scientific  work  was  con- 
ducted, will  be  carried  out.  Contributions  towards  this 
memorial  should  be  sent  to  the  Bankhaus  Mendelssohn  und 
Cie,  Berlin,  W.,  Jagerstr.  49,  50.  An  obelisk  of  unpolished 
grey  granite  has  been  placed  over  Virchow 's  grave  in  the 
old  Matthiiikirchof,  Berlin.  It  bears  on  one  side  a  black 
marble  tablet,  on  which  is  inscribed  "  Rudolph  Virchow," 
and  the  date  of  his  birth  and  death. 

We  regret  to  see  the  announcement  of  the  death,   in  his 
-pventy-first  year,   of  Prof.    Rudolf  Lipschitz,   the  professor 
f  mathematics  at  the  University  of  Bonn. 

The  death  is  announced  of  Prof.  Alexander  RoUet,  of 
'  iraz,  in  his  seventieth  year.  He  was  educated  at  Vienna, 
ut  was  deeply  influenced  by  Ludwig,  and  devoted  himself 
•  specially  to  the  physiology  of  the  blood  and  muscles.  He 
was  called  to  Graz  in  1863,  and  was  four  times  rector  of 
that  university. 

A  MESSAGE  from  Rome,  through  Laffan's  Agency,  dated 
October  20,  states  that  Mount  Vesuvius  is  again  active, 
'  normous  globes  of  steam  being  emitted  from  the  principal 
rater,  accompanied  by  incessant  subterranean  rumblings 
and  explosions.     A  stream  of  lava  is  flowing  down  one  side 

f  the  volcano. 

The  Odontological  Society  of  Great  Britain  announces 
that  it  is  prepared  to  receive  applications  for  grants  in  aid 
■  if  the  furtherance  of  scientific  research  in  connection  with 
dentistry.     For  particulars  and  forms  of  application  inquiry 

NO.  1773,  VOL.  68] 


should  be  made  of  the  honorary  secretary.  Scientific  Re- 
search Committee,  Odontological  Society,  20  Hanover 
Square,  London,  W. 

The  new  college  farm  established  at  Madryn,  midway 
between  Aber  and  Llanfairfechan,  in  connection  with  the 
Agricultural  Department  of  the  University  College  of  North 
Wales,  was  formally  opened  on  October  17  by  the  Earl  of 
Onslow,  President  of  the  Board  of  Agriculture.  In  the 
course  of  his  inaugural  address,  Lord  Onslow  advocated 
the  desirability  of  giving  greater  attention  to  forestry  in  this 
country. 

For  a  long  time  plague  has  been  endemic  in  Hong  Kong, 
the  disease  reappearing  after  a  period  of  intermission  in 
an  inexplicable  manner.  Prof.  Simpson  has  lately  pointed 
out  in  a  report  to  the  Colonial  Office  that  domestic  animals 
and  poultry  may  contract  plague  in  a  latent  form  from 
feeding  upon  plague-infected  material,  and  has  suggested 
that  infected  food  may  be  a  potent  source  in  disseminating 
the  disease.  According  to  the  Times  (October  17)  Sir 
Henry  Blake,  the  Governor,  has  recently  instituted  an  in- 
vestigation of  the  inhabitants  and  vermin  of  a  large  native 
quarter  in  the  colony  certified  to  be  free  from  plague.  This 
has  revealed  that  a  considerable  number  of  the  bugs,  fleas, 
spiders  and  cockroaches  contain  plague  bacilli.  Samples 
of  blood  from  supposed  healthy  natives  upon  examination 
showed  the  presence  of  plague  bacilli  in  5  per  cent,  of  the 
specimens.  Under  favourable  conditions  such  infected 
persons  and  vermin  become  possible  sources  of  danger,  and 
sporadic  outbreaks  must  be  expected  while  they  are  present. 
It  is  difficult  also  to  see  what  measures  can  be  taken  to 
eradicate  the  disease  in  these  circumstances. 

Is  the  course  of  the  Harveian  oration  delivered  before 
the  Royal  College  of  Physicians  on  Monday,  Dr.  W.  H. 
AUchin  referred  to  recent  work  on  radio-activity  and  the 
constitution  of  matter,  and  its  bearing  on  biological  pro- 
cesses. He  remarked  that  as  the  atomic  and  molecular 
theory  was  utilised  to  furnish  an  explanation  of  that 
flux  of  chemical  activity  which  is  denominated  bioplasm,  so 
have  speculations  on  ionic  action  been  pressed  into  the 
same  service,  and  with  some  promise,  wholly  hypothetica! 
as  they  may  be.  Nerve  action  is  simply  electrical  action, 
negative  ions  being  released  where  nerve  blends  with 
muscle  or  where  systems  of  concatenated  neurons  come  into 
connection.  Ion  after  ion  is  precipitated,  and  thus  neural 
conduction  takes  place.  This  play  of  ions  is  excited  or  in- 
hibited by  the  character  of  the  fluids  with  which  the  proto- 
plasm is  bathed— by  the  nature,  that  is,  of  the  ions  which 
these  fluids  contain.  Most  effective  in  stimulating  proto- 
plasmic action  are  such  substances  as  sodium  salts,  as  those 
of  lime  restrain  it,  and  since  such  inorganic  bodies  are 
among  the  products  of  tissue  waste,  it  may  be  that  in  the 
ions  of  metabolism  are  to  be  found  the  causes  of  that 
rhythmic  tendency  to  activity  which  nerve  cell  and  muscle 
fibre  alike  exhibit.  If  normal  neuro-muscular  action  may  be 
thus  induced,  the  theory  offers  a  clue  to  the  comprehension 
of  some  of  the  most  obscure  morbid  manifestations  of  these 
tissues.  In  many  departments  of  physiology,  notably  in 
that  concerned  with  nerve  and  muscle  and  with  secretion, 
a  large  mass  of  information  has  been  acquired  as  the  result 
of  experiments,  whilst  but  little  has  been  done  towards 
ascertaining  the  ultimate  structure  of  the  tissues  concerned 
—little,  that  is,  beyond  what  was  known  a  score  of  years 
ago  or  more.  In  respect  to  such  tissues  as  these,  micro- 
scopic examination  would  seem  almost  to  have  reached  its 
limits,  and  for  the  complete  comprehension  of  the  physico- 


6o4 


NATURE 


[October  22.  1903 


chemical  phenomena,  more  recently  ascertained,  the  problem 
of  the  chemical  and  electrical  constitution  of  the  muscle  or 
nerve  fibre  and  of  the  gland  cell  awaits  solution. 

A  REPORT  on  the  photogrammetric  measurement  »f  the 
height  of  clouds  at  Simla  during  the  twenty  months  June, 
1900,  to  January,  1902,  by  Mr.  W.  L.  Dallas,  is  published 
in  the  Indian  Meteorological  Memoirs,  vol.  xv.  part  ii. 
Only  forty-seven  good  observations  were  secured,  as  it 
frequently  happens  that  the  lower  clouds  are  ordinarily 
thick  and  below  the  level  of  the  observatory  (7224  feet). 
These  observations  give  the  mean  height  of  cirrus  30,440 
feet  above  Simla,  and  the  maximum  height  38,440  feet ;  of 
cumulus  the  mean  and  maximum  heights  are  7304  feet  and 
14,318  feet  respectively. 

We  have  received  from  Mr.  W.  G.  Davis  a  work  on  the 
climate  of  the  Argentine  Republic,  compiled  from  observ- 
ations made  to  the  end  of  the  year  1900.  All  the  meteor- 
ological elements  have  been  submitted  to  a  careful  and 
elaborate  discussion,  and  the  work  is  a  most  valuable  con- 
tribution to  the  climatology  of  the  South  American  Con- 
tinent. In  a  general  outline  of  the  treatise,  Mr.  Davis 
points  out  that,  in  a  country  which  embraces  33°  of  lati- 
tude, and  the  surface  of  which  slopes  from  the  Atlantic  to 
the  snow-clad  Andes,  great  differences  must  prevail  in  the 
atmospheric  conditions.  In  the  narrow  zone  lying  to  the 
north  of  the  Tropic  of  Capricorn,  the  mean  annual  tempera- 
ture varies  from  23°  C.  on  the  coast  to  less  than  14°  at  the 
western  limits,  while  the  rainfall  decreases  from  1600  mm. 
to  less  than  50  mm.  At  8°  or  9°  farther  south,  we  find,  in 
the  Pampas,  a  mean  temperature  of  19°,  which  rapidly 
decreases  towards  the  slopes  of  the  Cordilleras ;  in  the 
eastern  part  of  Entre  Rios  the  rainfall  is  1000  to  1200  mm., 
and  diminishes  to  less  than  100  mm.  in  the  province  of 
San  Juan.  At  10°  further  south  there  is  little  difference  in 
the  isotherms  (13°  or  14°)  between  the  Atlantic  and  the 
Andes,  while  the  rainfall  (200  to  400  mm.)  is  practically  the 
same.  At  the  extreme  south  of  the  Republic  the  climate 
is  rigorous ;  in  Tierra  del  Fuego  the  summer  mean  tempera- 
ture is  8°  to  9°,  and  the  winter  2°  to  3°.  Rains  are  frequent, 
and  no  month  is  free  from  snow.  At  Staten  Island  the 
mean  annual  precipitation  is  1400  mm.,  while  in  Tierra  del 
Fuego  less  than  half  this  quantity  falls. 

Mr.  R.  W.  Paul  has  sent  us  his  new  catalogue  of  elec- 
trical testing  instruments.  The  list,  in  addition  to  the  usual 
resistance  boxes,  bridges,  galvanometers,  and  other  familiar 
testing  instruments,  includes  several  new  pieces  of  apparatus 
and  new  patterns.  Amongst  these  mav  be  noticed  the  new 
pattern  of  Kelvin  double  bridge  for  the  measurement  of 
low  resistances ;  there  is  also  a  new  model  Ayrton-Mather 
narrow-coil  galvanometer  having  conveniently  interchange- 
able coils.  A  new  set  of  standard  wattmeters,  designed  by 
Messrs.  Duddell  and  Mather,  is  included  in  the  list;  these 
are  constructed  as  much  as  possible  from  insulating 
materials,  and  range  from  001  watt  to  200  kilowatts.  We 
hope  to  have  an  opportunity  of  describing  them  more  in 
detail  later.  An  interesting  type  of  resistance  has  been 
designed  for  use  with  these  wattmeters  ;  it  is  made  of  silk- 
covered  manganin  wire,  which  is  woven  into  a  fabric  with 
silk  threads,  thus  giving  a  high  resistance  free  from  errors 
due  to  capacity  or  self-induction. 

We  have  received  from  Mr.  C.  E.  Kelway  a  description 
of  his  system  for  warning  ships  at  sea  of  approaching 
danger  by  equipping  lighthouses  with  Hertzian  signalling 
apparatus.  The  ships  themselves  would  be  fitted  with  a 
receiving  apparatus  which  would  respond  when  they  came 
within  the  range  of  the  wireless  signals  sent  out  from  the 

NO.  1773,  VOL.  68] 


lighthouse  ;  these  are  to  be  sent  out  at  regular  intervals  at 
the  same  times  as  the  sound  warnings.  A  ship,  by  observ- 
ing the  time  that  passes  between  receiving  the  wireless 
signal  and  the  sound  warning,  is  enabled  at  once  to  calcu- 
late its  distance  from  the  lighthouse  ;  if  it  now  continues 
on  its  course  for  a  few  miles  and  then  makes  a  second 
observation,  all  the  necessary  data  for  ascertaining,  trigono- 
metrically,  the  exact  position  of  the  lighthouse  are  obtained. 
A  special  stop-watch  reading  directly  in  distances  and  a 
special  position  finder  have  been  devised  by  Mr.  Kelway 
for  use  with  his  system.  The  system  was,  we  understand, 
submitted  to  the  consideration  of  the  recent  Berlin  Wire- 
less Telegraphy  Conference  ;  it  illustrates  one  of  the  many 
ways  in  which  wireless  telegraphy  may  be  made  of  service 
to  ships. 

From  the  Bulletin  of  the  Cracow  Academy  we  have 
received  reprints  of  several  papers  by  Profs.  Ladislaus 
Natanson  and  St.  Zaremba  dealing  with  certain  points  in 
the  dynamical  theory  of  viscosity. 

Messrs.  Teubner,  of  Leipzig,  announce  the  forthcoming 
publication  of  a  new  work  entitled  "  Encyklopadie  der 
Elementar-Mathematik,"  under  the  joint  authorship  of 
Profs.  H.  Weber  (Strassburg)  and  J.  Wellstein  (Giessen). 
It  is  specially  written  for  teachers,  and  will  consist  of  three 
volumes  dealing  respectively  with  ■  elementary  algebra  and 
analysis,  elementary  geometry,  and  applications  of  elemen- 
tary mathematics. 

The  Proceedings  of  the  Edinburgh  Mathematical  Society 
for  1902-3  contain  the  reprint  of  some  correspondence 
between  Robert  Simson  (1687-1768,  professor  of  mathe- 
matics at  Glasgow,  1711-1761),  Matthew  Stewart  (1717- 
1785,  professor  of  mathematics  at  Edinburgh  1747-1772), 
and  James  Stirling,  F.R.S.  (1692-1770,  author  of  works  on 
Newton's  cubic  curves  and  on  the  calculus).  The  corre- 
spondence in  question  was  bought  at  the  Gibson  Craig 
sale  of  manuscripts  by  Mr.  J.  S.  Mackay  in  1887. 

The  Bulletin  of  the  American-  Mathematical  Society  for 
October  contains  an  English  translation  of  Poincar^'s 
review  of  Hilbert's  "  Foundations  of  Geometry."  Hilbert's 
monograph  is  undoubtedly  a  classic,  and  Poincar^'s  com- 
ments upon  it,  as  might  be  expected,  are  full  of  interest. 
One  passage  may  be  quoted  as  dealing  with  a  misunder- 
standing which  is  too  common.  "  Some  people  have  gone 
so  far  as  to  .  .  .  ask  whether  real  space  is  plane,  as  Euclid 
assumed,  or  whether  it  may  not  present  a  slight  curvature. 
They  even  supposed  that  experiment  could  give  them  an 
answer  to  this  question.  Needless  to  add  that  this  was  a 
total  misconception  of  the  nature  of  geometry,  which  is 
not  an  experimental  science." 

In  the  American  Naturalist  for  August,  Dr.  E.  W.  Doran 
emphasises  the  importance  of  the  use  of  vernacular  names 
for  animals,  and  urges  that,  when  these  are  of  a  composite 
nature,  a  uniform  method  in  regard  to  the  use  of  hyphens 
should  be  adopted  in  zoological  literature.  The  rules  he 
proposes  with  a  view  of  attaining  this  desirable  end  will, 
we  think,  meet  with  the  general  approval  of  English 
writers. 

Mr.  C.  R.  Eastman,  on  morphological  grounds,  ex- 
presses, in  the  American  Naturalist,  his  disbelief  in  Dr. 
Patten's  assertion  that  Cephalaspis  was  provided  with  a 
fringe  of  jointed  and  movable  appendages  along  the  ventral 
margin  of  the  trunk.  No  such  appendages  exist  in  the 
allied  Pterichthys,  and  it  seems  incredible  that  a  vertebrate 
can  possess  more  than  two  pairs  of  limbs.  In  these  respects 
the  writer  has  the  support  of  Dr.  Gaskell. 


October  22,  1903] 


NATURE 


605 


At  the  conclusion  of  a  paper  on  reptiles  and  amphibians 

kfrom  Arkansas  and  Texas,  published  in  the  Proceedings  of 
tho  Philadelphia  Academy  for  August,  Mr.  W.  Stone  dis- 
cusses thei^  .^bearing  on  previous  views  as  to  the  zoo- 
geographical  zones  of  this  part  of  the  United  States.  He 
concludes  that  the  boundary  between  the  Austro-riparian 
and  Sonoran  areas,  so  far  as  reptiles  are  concerned,  lies 
between  the  96th  and  98th  meridians  of  longitude,  that  the 
Texan  district  of  Prof.  Cope  should  be  referred  to  the 
Austro-riparian  instead  of  to  the  Sonoran  province,  and  that 
transcontinental  zones  of  distribution  are  not  indicated  by 
reptilian  evidence.  The  marked  faunal  division  between  the 
96th  and  98th  meridians  is  due  to  this  line  marking  the 
limits  of  the  heavy  rainfall  of  the  Gulf  coast. 

A  CURIOUS  problem  is  presented  by  the  hermit-crab.  As 
is  well  known,  these  crustaceans  present  a  marked  asym- 
metry, which  nearly  always  takes  the  form  of  a  dextral 
spiral — in  correlation  with  the  circumstance  that  they 
generally  inhabit  dextral  molluscan  shells.  Is,  then,  this 
asymmetry  due  to  this  habit,  or  was  it  pre-existent ?  In 
discussing  this  question  in  a  paper  on  the  metamorphoses  of 
the  hermit-crab,  published  in  the  Proceedings  of  the  Boston 
(U.S.)  Natural  History  Society,  Mr.  M.  T.  Thompson 
concludes  that  it  cannot  at  present  be  definitely  answered, 
owing  to  our  imperfect  knowledge  of  the  relationships  of 
the  different  generic  representatives  of  the  group.  Never- 
theless, the  asymmetry  is  structurally  adapted  to  the  con- 
ditions imposed  by  the  mode  of  life  in  question,  and  the 
presumption  is  accordingly  very  strong  that  it  was  from 
the  first  the  result  of  a  sojourn  in  dextrally  spiral  shells. 


I 


Mr.  M.  J.  NicoLL,  who  in  1902-3  accompanied  the  Earl 
of  Crawford  in  his  yacht,  the  Valhalla,  round  the  world  as 
naturalist,  and  made  good  collections  in  several  branches 
of  natural  history,  will  again  join  the  Valhalla,  in  the  same 
capacity,  next  month  for  a  winter  tour  in  the  West  Indies. 
Mr.  Nicoll's  specimens  collected  during  the  last  voyage  are 
being  examined  and  arranged  at  the  British  Museum,  to 
which  Lord  Crawford  has  presented  them.  Mr.  Nicoll's 
ornithological  notes  made  during  the  voyage  will  be  pub- 
lished in  the  next  number  of  the  Ibis. 

It  has  always  seemed  strange  that  so  large  and  strongly 
marked  an  animal  as  the  okapi  (Okapia  johnstoni)  should 
have  remained  unknown  to  Europeans  until  its  recent  dis- 
covery on  the  Semliki  by  Sir  Harry  Johnston.  But  it  would 
now  appear,  as  is  suggested  by  Herr  Hesse,  that  a  prior 
well-known  African  traveller,  Wilhelm  Junker,  had  obtained 
an  imperfect  skin  of  this  animal  at  Zemio,  in  the  Welle- 
basin,  twenty  years  ago,  although  he  did  not  recognise  the 
nature  of  it,  and  was  inclined  to  refer  it  to  the  water- 
chevrotain  {Hyomoschus  aquaticus).  But  as  the  animal  was 
called  by  the  natives  "  makapi,"  and  was  "  of  the  size  of 
a  dwarf  antelope,"  it  seems  more  probable  that  the  skin 
in  question  was  that  of  a  young  okapi  (see  Journ.  R.G.S., 
vol.  xxii.  p.  459). 

In  the  October  number  of  Climate  Dr.  Louis  Sambon 
continues  his  series  of  articles  on  the  chief  disease  scourges 
of  the  tropics,  dealing  with  malaria,  yellow  fever,  cholera, 
plague  and  sleeping  sickness.  Another  article  of  interest 
discusses  the  results  obtained  by  the  campaign  against 
mosquitoes  in  various  parts  of  the  world. 

The  Corporation  of  London  has  approved  and  adopted  a 
series  of  regulations  drafted  by  its  Public  Health  Depart- 
ment for  the  sanitary  control  of  the  milk  supply  of  the  City. 
Some  of  these  deal  with  the  registration  of  the  premises 
and  their  sanitary  condition,   contamination  of  milk,   milk 


from  diseased  cows,  &c.  Others  seek  to  secure  the  cleanli- 
ness of  milk-shops  and  vessels,  and  the  safeguarding  of 
the  milk-supply  against  infection  from  without. 

The  health  of  the  great  armies  of  Europe  is  discussed  by 
Dr.  V.  Lowenthal  in  an  interesting  statistical  article  in  the 
Revue  ginirale  des  Sciences  (September  30).  Of  the  armies 
of  the  six  great  Powers,  France,  Germany,  Austria,  Russia, 
Italy,  and  England,  France  heads  the  list  both  in  the  total 
mortality  rate  and  in  the  attack  rate.  On  the  whole  the 
German  Army  is  the  most  healthy,  then  comes  the  Italian, 
and  then  the  British.  But  for  the  enormous  incidence  of 
venereal  affections,  the  latter,  however,  would  in  all  prob- 
ability appear  as  the  most  healthy. 

"  The  Geology  of  the  Country  Around  Torquay  "  is 
the  title  of  a  memoir  by  Mr.  W.  A.  E.  Ussher  that  has  just 
been  issued  by  the  Geological  Survey.  The  author  has  for 
many  years  been  engaged  in  a  detailed  examination  of  the 
Devonian  rocks,  and  he  gives  full  particulars  of  the  complex 
structure  of  the  area  and  of  the  several  subdivisions  of  the 
strata,  with  lists  of  fossils.  Useful  tables  are  given  show- 
ing the  Continental  equivalents.  The  terra-cotta  clays  of 
Watcombe,  and  the  red  sandstones  and  conglomerates  that 
form  portions  of  the  picturesque  cliffs,  are  grouped  as 
Permian.  Cavern-deposits,  Raised  Beaches,  and  other 
superficial  deposits  are  described,  and  there  is  a  short 
chapter  on  economics. 

Messrs.  Dawbarn  and  Ward,  Ltd.,  are  publishing  a 
series  of  penny  pamphlets  dealing  with  various  subjects 
of  interest  to  practical  photographers.  The  first  number 
in  the  series  discusses  the  prevention  and  cure  of  halation, 
and  the  fourth  number  the  camera  and  its  movements. 

The  ninth  annual  volume — that  for  the  present  year — 
of  the  Reliquary  and  Illustrated  Archaeologist  has  been 
issued  by  Messrs.  Bemrose  and  Sons,  Ltd.  The  volume 
contains  the  four  quarterly  issues  of  the  magazine  which 
have  been  published  this  year,  and  most  of  the  articles  are 
excellently  and  profusely  illustrated.  The  publication 
appeals  preeminently  to  antiquarians,  ethnologists  and 
archaeologists. 

Mr.  John  Murray  has  published  a  cheap  edition — five 
shillings  net — of  Nasmyth  and  Carpenter's  classical  work 
on  "  The  Moon."  The  original  work  was  published  thirty 
years  ago,  and  was  reviewed  in  these  columns  on  March  12, 
1874  (vol.  ix.  p.  358).  Three  editions  of  the  book  were 
issued,  but  they  have  been  out  of  print  for  several  years, 
and  the  publication  of  the  work  in  a  popular  and  compact 
form  will  be  welcomed  by  many  students  of  astronomy. 

A  FIFTH  edition  of  the  "  Manual  of  Pathology  "  by  the 
late  Prof.  Joseph  Coats  has  been  published  by  Messrs. 
Longmans,  Green  and  Co.  The  new  edition  has  been  re- 
vised throughout  by  Prof.  L.  R.  Sutherland,  and  consider- 
able alterations  have  been  made  without  interfering 
materially  with  the  original  plan  of  the  book.  The  chapter 
on  bacteriology  has  been  omitted,  and  the  illustrations  have 
been  increased  in  number  from  490  to  729.  Two  new 
coloured  plates  have  also  been  added. 

The  fourth  revised  edition  of  Prof.  Max  Verworn's 
"  Allgemeine  Physiologie  "  has  been  published  by  Mr. 
Gustav  Fischer,  Jena.  The  first  edition  of  this  well-known 
work  was  reviewed  in  Nature  in  1895  (vol.  11.  p.  529).  A 
translation  of  the  second  edition,  by  Dr.  F.  S.  Lee,  was 
published  in  1899,  and  was  also  noticed  at  length  in  these 
columns  (vol.  Ix.  p.  565).  Since  the  third  German  edition 
was   published    in    1901,    progress    has   been    made    in    the 


NO.    1773,  VOL.  68] 


6o6 


NA  TURE 


[October  22,  1903 


knowledge  of  the  physiology  of  the  cell,  and  the  sections 
devoted  to  this  subject  have  been  carefully  revised  for  the 
new  edition  now  available. 

With  the  advance  of  scientific  education  in  this  country 
scientific  instrument  makers  are  continuously  bringing  out 
improved  forms  of  apparatus.  We  have  recently  received 
from  Messrs.  Brewster,  Smith  and  Co.  an  improved  form 
of  a  "  double  surface  condenser."  This  is  one  of  the  most 
compact  and  efficient  condensers  which  has  come  before  our 
notice.  We  have  tested  it  for  condensing  such  volatile  sub- 
stances as  ether,  carbon  disulphide,  and  acetone,  and  have 
found  that  even  with  rapid  distillation  the  condensation  is 
very  complete.  Generally  speaking,  in  order  to  condense 
these  substances  satisfactorily,  it  is  necessary  to  employ  a 
very  long  condenser  ;  of  course,  this  means  using  a  great 
amount  of  bench  space.  As  the  new  condensers  are  used  in 
a  perpendicular  position,  the  saving  in  space  is  very  great. 

Messrs.  Brewster,  Smith  and  Co.  have  also  sent  us  a 
"  new  Bunsen  burner  and  midget  furnace."  It  can  hardly 
be  said  that  the  Bunsen  burner  is  new,  but  the  combination 
of  furnace  and  burner  is  very  convenient.  The  makers 
claim  that  marble  is  reduced  to  quicklime  in  ten  minutes. 
This  will,  of  course,  to  a  large  extent  depend  upon  the 
quantity  of  marble  taken  in  the  first  place — we  find  that 
from  one  to  one  and  a  half  grms.  is  readily  reduced  to 
quicklime  in  twenty  minutes.  These  little  furnaces  are  not 
only  useful  for  reducing  calcium  carbonate  to  lime,  but 
also  work  very  well  in  fusion  experiments. 

The  measurements  by  Biltz  and  Preuner  of  the  density 
under  different  pressures  of  sulphur-vapour  at  448°  have 
usually  been  regarded  as  indicating  that  the  vapour  is  com- 
posed of  Sg  and  S^  molecules,  and  that  the  molecule  S,  does 
not  exist.  The  application  to  the  isothermal  of  the  law  of 
mass-action,  discussed  by  Preuner  in  the  Zeitschrift  fiir 
physikalische  Chemie,  shows  that  this  theory  is  inadequate, 
and  that  the  vapour  must  contain  molecules  intermediate 
in  complexity  between  S^  and  S^.  The  proportions  by 
volume  of  the  constituents  are  calculated  to  be,  under 
104  mm.  pressure,  292  per  cent.  S^,  19.0  S^,  19-7  S^  and 
32-1  Sj,  and  under  453.4  mm.  pressure,  778  Sg,  15-1  S,, 
47  S^    and  2-4  Sj. 

SiNXE  Beckmann  showed  that  iodine  in  all  solvents  has 
the  molecular  weight  I,,  it  has  been  suspected  that  the 
formation  of  violet  or  brown  solutions  is  dependent  upon 
the  extent  to  which  the  iodine  combines  with  the  solvent. 
By  means  of  comparative  experiments  on  the  solubility  of 
iodine  and  the  periodide  N(CH3).jI„,  described  in  a  recent 
number  of  the  Zeitschrift  fiir  physikalische  Chemie,  Strom- 
holm  has  obtained  evidence  that  iodine  actually  combines 
with  water,  alcohol  and  ether,  forming  brown  solutions, 
whilst  the  violet  solutions  in  carbon  disulphide,  benzene  and 
chloroform  contain  uncombined  iodine  ;  similarly  it  is  shown 
that  iodine  has  little  tendency  to  combine  with  methyl  iodide 
when  dissolved  in  ether,  or  with  sulphur  dissolved  in  carbon 
disulphide. 

The  additions  to  the  Zoological  Society's  Gardens  during 
the  past  week  include  a  Black  Lemur  and  young  {Lemur 
macaco)  from  Madagascar,  a  Brazilian  Hare  {Lepus 
brasiliensis)  from  Brazil,  eight  Hamsters  (Cricetus  frumen- 
tarius),  a  Snow  Bunting  {Plectrophenax  nivalis),  four 
Lacertine  Snakes  (Coelopeltis  monspessulana),  two  Dark- 
green  Snakes  (Zamenis  gemonensis),  a  Vivacious  Snake 
(Tarbophis  fallax),  European ;  three  Cuban  Snakes  (Lio- 
cephalus  andreae)  from  Cuba,  two  Garter  Snakes  (Tropi- 
donotus    ordinatus),    a    Prickly    Trionyx    {Trionyx    spinifer) 

NO.    1773,  VOL.  68] 


from  North  America,  a  South  Albemarle  Tortoise  {Testudo 
vicina)  from  Galapagos,  a  Wrinkled  Terrapin  {Chrysemys 
scripta  rugosa)  from  the  West  Indies,  two  Amboina  Box 
Tortoises  {Cyclemys  amboinensis)  from  the  East  Indies,  two 
Annulated  Terrapins  (Nicoria  annulata)  from  Western  South 
America,  a  Horned  Lizard  {Phrynosoma  cornutum)  from 
Mexico,  a  Carinated  Lizard  {Liocephalus  carinatus)  from 
the  West  Indies,  two  Hispid  Lizards  {Agama  hispida)  from 
South  Africa,  two  Scoresby's  Gulls  (Leucophoeus  scorebii) 
from  Chili,  deposited ;  a  Tasmanian  Devil  (Sarcophilus 
ursiniis)  from  Tasmania,  received  in  exchange. 

OUR  ASTRONOMICAL  COLUMN. 

Search-Ephemeris  for  Comet  i8g6  v. — A  further  portion 
of  the  search-ephemeris  for  Giacobini's  comet  (1896  v.), 
published  by  Herr  M.  Ebell  in  No.  3898  of  the  Astrono- 
mische  Nac'hrichten,  is  given  below.  As  will  be  seen  from 
this  ephemeris  the  computed  brightness  is  now  decreasing, 
although  the  comet  should  be  in  a  favourable  position  for 
observers  in  the  northern  hemisphere  : — 


i2/i.  M.  T.  Berlin. 

1903 

h.    m.    s. 

S                    logr 

log  A 

Bright- 
ness. 

Oct.    28  . 

•  3  54  51  • 

.  -t-  °8    6-5  ...  0-2943  . 

.  0-0130  . 

.  2-21 

Nov.     I  . 

.3  51  is. 

.  +   7  238 

»        5- 

■  3  47  33  • 

.  +   6  437  ...  0-3055  . 

.  0  0242   . 

.  I  99 

9'- 

•  3  43  40  . 

.  +   6     7-0 

„      13  ■ 

•  3  39  46  . 

.  +   5  34-0  ...  0-3x65  . 

.  00410  . 

..   1-75 

»      17 

••  3  35  56  . 

.  +   5     5*3 

,,      21  . 

•  3  32  15  • 

•  +  4  40-9  ...  0-3274  . 

.  0-0633   . 

..   1-51 

„     25. 

.  3  28  50  . 

.  +  4  21-2 

M          29    . 

•  3  25  44  . 

.  +  4.    6-0  ...  0-3381  . 

.  0-0901    . 

..   I  27 

A  Novel  Feature  for  Geodetical  Instruments. 

—In   a 

paper  contributed  to  No.  26,  vol.  iii.,  of  the  British  Optical 
Journal,  Sir  Howard  Grubb  describes  a  novel  feature  in 
geodetical  instruments  which  replaces  the  half-silvered, 
half-plain  piece  of  glass  generally  used  in  such  instruments 
by  a  piece  of  glass  having  a  thin  film  of  lead  sulphide  de- 
posited on  its  surface.  This  film  both  reflects  and  transmits 
the  incident  light,  and  by  varying  its  thickness  the  propor- 
tion of  transmitted  to  reflected  light  may  be  varied. 

Taking  the  case  of  the  prismatic  compass  as  an  illustra- 
tion, the  rays  of  light  from  the  object  the  position  of  which 
is  to  be  determined  are  transmitted  by  the  film  of  lead 
sulphide,  and,  at  the  same  time,  the  previously  collimated 
ravs  from  the  compass  card  are  reflected  by  it.  As  both 
sets  of  rays  are  parallel,  and  the  reflection  of  the  card  is 
superimposed  on  the  image  of  the  distant  object,  parallax 
does  not  interfere  in  the  observations,  and  the  position  of 
the  eye  may  therefore  be  changed  without  introducing  any 
error  into  the  reading,  thereby  rendering  it  possible  to  make 
the  readings  much  more  quickly  and  accurately  than  when 
using  the  older  forms  of  reflecting-transmitting  apparatus. 

The  Path  of  Comet  1894  I.  (Denning). — No.  2  of  the 
Mitteilungen  of  the  Heidelberg  Observatory  contains  a 
paper  by  Dr.  P.  Gast  on  the  observations  and  calculations 
of  the  path  of  comet  1894  I. 

The  first  part  is  devoted  to  a  series  of  new  observations 
of  the  comparison  stars  made  during  the  year  1902,  and  is 
followed  by  a  collection  of  the  observations  of  the  comet 
which  were  made  at  various  observatories,  then  the  various 
observations  are  compared  among  themselves  and  with  the 
computed  elements  of  this  comet.  The  paper  concludes 
with  a  discussion  of  the  perturbations  produced  by  Jupiter 
and  the  finally  deduced  elements.  In  a  supplementary  list 
the  positions  of  eighty-eight  reference  stars  for  the  year 
1900  are  given,  the  value  of  the  precessional  constant,  the 
secular  variation,  and  the  star's  proper  motion  being  stated 
in  each  case. 

Observations  of  Mars. — In  the  October  number  of  the 
Bulletin  de  la  Soci^t^  astronomique  de  France,  MM. 
Flammarion  and  Benoit  publish  the  results  of  their  observ- 
ations of  Mars  made  at  Juvisy  during  the  last  opposition 
of  that  planet.  Although  the  planet  was  nearer  to  the 
earth  during  this  opposition  than  it  was  in  1901,  the  un- 
favourable meteorological  conditions  prevented  the  making 


October  22,  1903] 


NATURE 


607 


of  a  complete  record,  but  the  set  of  fourteen  drawings  of 
the  polar  cap  which  accompany  the  paper  show  very  clearly 
the  diminution  of  the  cap  from  October  15,  1902,  to  March 
15,  1903,  and  its  augmentation  from  then  untij  July  i,  the 
minimum  apparently  taking  place  at  an  earlier  date  than 
usual. 

In  addition  to  detailed  descriptions  of  the  most  interest- 
ing observations,  the  paper  contains  reproductions  of  ten 
excellent  drawings  showing  various  features  on  the  planet's 
surface. 

Natal  Government  Observatory. — The  report  of  the 
Government  Astronomer  for  Natal,  Mr.  E.  Nevill,  for  1902 
is  chiefly  devoted  to  the  various  meteorological  records  of 
the  colony,  and  forms  a  valuable  addition  to  the  meteorology 
of  last  year. 

After  giving  brief  descriptions  of  the  staff,  the  instru- 
ments, the  management  of  the  time  signals,  the  magnetic 
observations,  and  the  tide  records,  the  report  gives  a  number 
of  tables  containing  very  complete  records  of  the  meteor- 
ological results  obtained  at  the  Durban  Observatory  and 
twenty-two  inland  stations,  and  the  less  complete  records 
of  twenty-six  subsidiary  stations  which  are  scattered 
throughout  the  colony. 

In  dealing  with  this  section  of  the  report  Mr.  Nevill 
directs  special  attention  to  the  importance  of  obtaining  the 
fullest  possible  records  of  the  meteorological  conditions  in 
Natal,  because,  in  addition  to  their  local  importance,  it  has 
been  shown  that  there  is  a  very  close  connection  between 
them  and  the  conditions  obtaining  in  Australia  and  India. 
In  the  latter  case  there  are  trustworthy  indications  that  the 
meteorological  conditions  of  Natal  are  those  which  are 
likely  to  prevail  in  India  during  the  following  season  ;  this 
is  especially  marked  in  the  case  of  the  rainfall. 


IXHERITANCE  OF  PSYCHICAL  AND 
PHYSICAL  CHARACTERS  IN  MAN.' 
'T'HERE  are  probably  few  persons  who  would  now  deny 
■*•  the  immense  importance  of  ancestry  in  the  case  of 
any  domestic  animal.  A  majority  of  the  community  would 
probably  admit  also  that  the  physical  characters  in  man  are 
inherited  with  practically  the  same  intensity  as  the  like 
characters  in  cattle  and  horses. 

But  the  preeminence  of  man  in  the  animal  kingdom 
is  justly  attributed,  not  to  his  physical,  but  to  his  psychical 
character.  The  latter  is  seen  developing  apparently  under 
the  influences  of  home  and  of  school,  and  we  conclude, 
perhaps  too  rashly,  that  home  and  school  are  the  chief 
sources  of  the  psychical  qualities.  We  are  too  apt  to  over- 
look the  possibility  that  the  home  standard  is  itself  a  pro- 
duct of  stock,  and  that  the  relative  gain  from  education 
depends  in  a  surprising  degree  on  the  raw  material  pre- 
sented to  the  educator. 

It  is  possible  to  hold  this  view  and  yet  believe  that 
moral  and  mental  characters  are  inherited  in  either  a 
qualitatively  or  a  quantitatively  different  manner  from  the 
physical  characters.  Both  may  be  influenced  by  environ- 
ment, but  one  in  a  far  more  marked  way  than  the  other. 

.Some  six  or  seven  years  ago,  then,  I  set  myself  the 
following  problem  :  What  is  the  quantitative  measure  of 
the  inheritance  of  the  moral  and  mental  characters  in  man, 
and  how  is  it  related  to  the  corresponding  measure  of  the 
inheritance  of  the  physical  characters? 

The  problem  really  resolved  itself  into  three  separate 
investigations  : — 

(a)  .\  sufficiently  wide  inquiry  into  the  actual  values  of 
inheritance  of  the  physical  characters  in  man. 

For  this  investigation  upwards  of  1000  families  were 
measured,  giving  ample  means  of  determining  the  quanti- 
tative measure  of  resemblance  for  both  parental  and 
fraternal  relationships. 

(b)  A  comparison  of  the  inheritance  of  the  physical 
characters  in  man  with  those  in  other  forms  of  life. 

No  substantial  difference  in  this  inheritance  has  been  dis- 
covered. 

(c)  An  inquiry  into  the  inheritance  of  moral  and  mental 
characters  in  man. 

Owing   to   the   great   difficulty   of   comparing   the   moral 

1  Abstract  of  the  Huxley  Ateniorial  Lecture  for  1903.  Delivered  before 
the  Anthropological  Institute  on  October  16,  byProK  Karl  Pearson,  F.R.S. 

NO.  1773,  VOL.  68] 


characters  of  a  child  with  those  of  its  adult  parents,  I  con- 
fined my  attention  to  fraternal  resemblance,  for  if  fraternal 
resemblance  for  moral  and  mental  characters  is  less  than, 
equal  to,  or  greater  than  its  value  for  physical  characters, 
the  same  must  be  true  for  parental  inheritance. 

In  the  next  place  it  seemed  impossible  to  obtain  moder- 
ately impartial  estimates  of  the  psychical  characters  of 
adults.  The  inquiry,  therefore,  was  limited  to  children,  so 
that  the  partial  parent  or  relative  could  be  replaced  by  the 
fairly  impartial  school  teacher. 

After  much  consideration  and  some  experimenting, 
schedules  were  prepared  in  which  teachers  could  briefly 
note  the  chief  characteristics  of  the  children  under  their 
charge.  These  schedules  were  white  for  a  pair  of  brothers, 
pink  for  a  pair  of  sisters,  and  blue  for  a  brother  and  sister. 
With  the  schedules  specially  devised  headspanners  were 
distributed,  directions  for  the  use  of  the  headspanner,  and 
general  directions  as  to  the  estimation  of  the  physical  and 
mental  characters. 

The  material  took  upwards  of  five  years  to  collect. 
Appeal  was  inade  through  the  columns  of  the  educational 
journals  to  teachers  of  all  kinds,  and  the  observations  were 
made  not  only  in  the  great  boys'  public  schools  and  the 
grammar  schools  of  the  country,  but  in  modern  mixed 
schools,  in  national  and  elementary  schools  of  all  kinds,  in 
board  schools,  and  private  schools  throughout  the  kingdom. 
Some  6000  schedules  were  distributed,  and  between  3000 
and  4000  returned  with  more  or  less  ample  data.  I  have 
most  heartily  to  thank  the  masters  and  mistresses  of  some 
200  schools  in  which  observations  have  been  made  for  me. 
In  the  midst  of  arduous  professional  claims  on  their  time  and 
energy,  they  have,  in  many  cases  at  considerable  personal 
inconvenience,  recorded  and  measured  the  children  in  their 
charge  for  a  purpose  only  dimly  foreshadowed  for  them. 

Much  of  what  I  have  to  say  upon  the  nature  of  the  theory 
applied  will  not  be  new  to  those  who  have  examined  recent 
biometric  work,  and  some  of  it  will  not  be  intelligible 
except  to  the  trained  mathematician.  Still  we  must  strive 
i.i  broad  lines  to  see  how  the  work  has  been  done,  and, 
above  all,  to  justify  our  treatment  of  the  psychical  character. 

[To  illustrate  the  method  the  lecturer  examined  the  degree 
of  resemblance  between  the  cephalic  indices  of  brothers, 
the  cephalic  index  of  a  person  being  100  X  the  ratio  of 
breadth  to  length  of  head.  This  scarcely  changes  with 
growth  after  the  first  two  years  of  life.  A  table  was  ex- 
hibited showing  the  cephalic  index  for  1982  pairs  of 
brothers.] 

Taking  the  boys,  for  example,  with  cephalic  indices 
between  74  and'  75,  these  boys  had  seventy-eight 
brothers  who  were  distributed  according  to  the  column 
headed  74  to  75.  Brothers  are  not  alike  in  cephalic  index, 
but  distributed  with  a  considerable  range  of  variation. 
The  arithmetic  mean  of  the  cephalic  indices  of  this  array 
of  brothers  is  77.45.  Thus  the  average  brother  of  a  boy 
with  cephalic  index' 74.5  has  a  cephalic  index  =7745.  This 
is  the  phenomenon  of  regression  towards  the  general  popu- 
lation mean  (78-9)  discovered  by  Francis  Galton. 

We  now  find  by  taking  all  the  arrays  that  whatever  the 
cephalic  index  of  first  brother  be,  cephalic  index  of  mean 
second  brother 

=  (l  -a){mean  cephalic  index  of  whole  population} 
+  0  {cephalic  index  of  first  brother} 
and   that   in   the   case  of  cephalic   indices   for  two   brothers 
the    quantity    o,    defined    as    the   "  resemblance,"    has    the 
value  05. 

Now  from  this  result  we  have  learnt  two  great  features 
about  inheritance  in  man.  Firstly,  that  part  of  the  cephalic 
index  of  the  second  brother  depends  in  the  above  linear 
manner  on  that  of  the  mean  of  the  whole  population  and 
part  on  that  of  the  first  brother  ;  and,  secondly,  that  these 
parts  are  about  equal.  Are  these  true  for  other  characters 
than  the  cephalic  index?  Undoubtedly,  for  all  physical 
characters.  And  further,  the  fraction  a,  which  we  have 
called  the  resemblance,  is,  for  brethren,  in  all  cases 
about  05. 

This  surprising  uniformity  in  the  inheritance  of  the 
measurable  physical  characters  can  be  extended  to  physical 
characters  not  capable  of  accurate  measurement,  and  to 
psychical  characters  provided  we  assume  a  certain  distri- 
bution  of   frequency   for   such   characters   in   human   popu- 


6o8 


NATURE 


October  22.  1903 


lations.  Suppose,  then,  we  assume  that  the  moral  and 
mental  qualities  in  man,  like  the  physical,  follow  a  normal 
law  of  distribution.  What  results  shall  we  obtain  by  thus 
assuming  perfect  continuity  between  the  physical  and 
psychical?  I  cannot  free  myself  from  the  conception  that 
underlying  every  psychical  state  there  is  a  physical  state. 
Hence  I  put  to  myself  the  problem  as  follows  : — 

Assume  the  fundamental  laws  of  distribution  which  we 
know  hold  for  the  physical  characters  in  man,  and  see 
whither  they  lead  us  when  applied  to  the  psychical 
characters.  They  must  (a)  give  us  totally  discordant  results. 
If  so,  we  shall  conclude  that  they  have  no  application  to  the 
mental  and  moral  attributes.  Or  (6)  they  must  give  us 
accordant  results.  If  so,  we  may  go  a  stage  further,  and 
ask  how  these  results  compare  with  those  for  the  inheritance 
of  the  physical  characters  ;  are  they  more  or  less  or  equally 
subject  to  the  influence  of  environment?  Here  are  the 
questions  before  us.  Let  us  examine  how  they  are  to  be 
answered.  Taking  as  an  example  ability  in  girls,  we  find 
that  the  resemblance  between  sisters  is  0.47.  There  can,  I 
think,  be  no  doubt  that  intelligence  or  ability  follows  pre- 
cisely the  same  laws  of  inheritance  as  cephalic  index  or  any 
other  physical  character. 

I  ask  you  to  admit  that  I  came  to  this  inquiry  without 
prejudice.  I  expected  a  priori  to  find  that  the  home 
environment  largely  affected  the  resemblance  in  moral  quali- 
ties of  brothers  and  sisters.  Putting  any  thought  of  pre- 
judice on  one  side,  accept  for  a  moment  the  methods 
adopted,  and  look  at  the  broad  results  of  the  inquiry.  You 
have  in  the  first  table  the  mean  resemblance  of  the  physical 
characters  of  brothers  and  sisters  from  my  records  of 
family  measurements.  You  have  in  the  second  table  the 
mean  of  the  physical  measurements  of  our  school  records. 
These  two  series  absolutely  confirm  each  other,  and  give  a 
mean  resemblance  of  0.5  nearly  between  children  of  the 
same  parents  for  all  physical  characters.  How  much  of 
that  physical  resemblance  is  due  to  home  environment  ? 
You  might  at  once  assert  that  size  of  head  and  size  of  body 
are  influenced  by  food  and  exercise.-  It  is  quite  true.  But 
can  any  possible  home  influence  affect  cephalic  index  or 
eye  colour?  I  fancy  not;  and  yet  these  characters  are 
within  broad  lines  inherited  exactly  like  the  qualities 
directly  capable  of  being  influenced  by  nurture  and 
exercise.  I  am  compelled  to  conclude  that  the  environment 
influence  on  physical  characters  is  to  the  first  approxim- 
ation not  a  great  disturbing  factor  when  we  consider  degrees 
of  fraternal  resemblance  in  man. 

Now  turn  to  the  list  of  the  degrees  of  resemblance  in  the 
mental  and  moral  characters.  We  find,  perhaps,  slightly 
more  irregularity  than  in  the  case  of  the  physical  characters. 
The  judgment  required  is  much  finer,  the  classification 
much  rougher,  but  the  obvious  conclusion  is  still  that  the 
values  of  the  coefficient  a  giving  the  resemblance  again 
cluster  round  05. 

We  are  forced,  I  think  literally  forced,  to  the  general 
conclusion  that  the  physical  and  psychical  characters  in 
man  are  inherited  within  broad  lines  in  the  same  manner 
and  with  the  same  intensity. 

This  sameness  surely  involves  something  additional. 
It  involves  a  like  heritage  from  parents.  So  we  inherit  our 
parents'  tempers,  our  parents'  conscientiousness,  shyness 
and  ability,  even  as  we  inherit  their  stature,  forearm  and 
span. 

At  what  rate  is  that?  [A  table  was  shown  which  repre- 
sents our  present  knowledge  of  parental  inheritance  in  man 
and  in  the  lower  forms  of  life,  the  resemblance  of  parent 
and  offspring  being  again  roughly  05.]  So  the  psychical 
characters  are  not  features  which  differentiate  man  from  the 
lower  types  of  life. 

If  the  conclusion  we  have  reached  to-night  be  substantially 
a  true  one,  and  for  my  part  I  cannot  for  a  moment  doubt 
that  it  is  so,  then  what  is  its  lesson  for  us  as  a  community? 
Why,  simply  that  geniality  and  probity  and  ability,  though 
they  may  be  fostered  by  home  environment  and  good 
schools,  are  nevertheless  bred  and  not  created.  The  educa- 
tion is  of  small  value  unless  it  be  applied  to  an  intelligent 
race  of  men. 

Our  traders  tell  us  we  are  no  match  for  the  Germans  or 
Americans.  Our  politicians  catch  the  general  apprehension 
and  rush  to  heroic  remedies.  Looking  round  impassion- 
ately    from    the    calm    atmosphere    of    anthropology,    I    fear 

NO.    1773,   VOL    68] 


there  really  does  exist  a  lack  of  leaders  of  the  highest 
intelligence,  in  science,  in  the  arts,  in  trade,  even  in  politics. 
I  do  seem  to  see  a  want  of  intelligence  in  the  British 
professional  man  and  in  the  British  workman.  But  I  do 
not  think  the  remedy  lies  in  adopting  foreign  methods  of 
instruction  or  in  the  spread  of  technical  education.  I 
believe  we  have  a  paucity  just  now  of  the  better  in- 
telligences to  guide  us,  and  of  the  moderate  intelligences 
to  be  guided.  The  only  account  we  can  give  of  this  on 
the  basis  of  the  result  we  have  reached  to-night  is  that  we 
are  ceasing  as  a  nation  to  breed  intelligence  as  we  did 
fifty  to  a  hundred  years  ago.  The  only  remedy,  if  one  be 
possible  at  all,  is  to  alter  the  relative  fertility  of  the  good 
and  bad  stocks  in  the  community.  We  stand,  I  venture 
to  think,  at  the  commencement  of  an  epoch  which  will  be 
marked  by  a  great  dearth  of  ability.  We  have  failed  to 
realise  that  the  psychical  characters  which  are  in  the  modern 
struggle  of  nations  the  backbone  of  a  State  are  not  manu- 
factured by  home  and  school  and  college ;  they  are  bred  in 
the  bone  ;  and  for  the  last  forty  years  the  intellectual  classes 
of  the  nation,  enervated  by  wealth  or  by  love  of  pleasure,  or 
following  an  erroneous  standard  of  life,  have  ceased  to  give 
us  the  men  we  want  to  carry  on  the  ever-growing  work  of 
our  Empire,  to  battle  in  the  fore  rank  of  the  ever-intensified 
struggle  of  nations. 

The  remedy  lies  in  first  getting  the  intellectual  section 
of  our  nation  to  realise  that  intelligence  can  be  aided  and 
be  trained,  but  no  training  or  education  can  create  it.  You 
must  breed  it ;  that  is  the  broad  result  for  statecraft  which 
flows  from  the  equality  in  inheritance  of  the  psychical  and 
the  physical  characters. 

THE  APPLICATION  OF  LOW  TEMPERATURES 
TO  THE  STUDY  OF  BIOLOGICAL  PROBLEMS} 
"T^HE  cellular  doctrine  lies  at  the  basis  of  modern  bio- 
•*■  logical  research.  Living  matter  in  its  simple  and 
complex  conditions  consists  essentially  of  protoplasm  with 
a  contained  body  or  nucleus.  The  two  elements  plasma  and 
nucleus  constitute  the  elementary  organism — the  cell.  The 
lowest  individual  forms  of  life  are  represented  by  a  single 
cell,  and  such  unicellular  organisms  may  be  either  of  a 
vegetable  or  animal  type.  The  cells  in  each  instance  exist 
as  free  living  and  independent  organisms.  The  higher 
forms  of  life  are  built  up  of  parts  in  which  the  structural 
unit  remains  the  cell,  despite  the  modifications  the  cell 
necessarily  undergoes  as  a  fixed  element  in  the  various 
tissues  and  organs.  All  phases  of  animal  and  plant  life 
are  demonstrably  of  cellular  origin  and  organisation,  and 
their  vital  manifestations  represent  the  summed  up  activi- 
ties of  cells.  Every  vital  problem,  therefore,  is  ultimately 
a  cellular  problem,  and  a  direct  study  of  the  cell,  in  so 
far  as  may  be  possible,  is  the  keynote  of  biological  re- 
search. The  methods  to  be  adopted  will  depend  upon  the 
problem  it  is  desired  to  investigate.  A  histological 
technique,  aided  by  the  microscope,  will  naturally  be  em- 
ployed where  it  is  desired  to  study  the  relations  of  parts 
and  the  structural  organisation  of  the  tissues  and  their 
cellular  elements.  The  soluble  products  of  the  living  cell 
spontaneously  present  themselves  for  examination  by 
chemical  and  other  means.  It  is  otherwise  with  regard  to 
the  agencies  acting  and  the  processes  occurring  within  the 
confines  of  the  cell.  These  are  naturally  beyond  the  range 
of  the  ordinary  methods  of  observation.  The  essential 
processes  of  life  are  intracellular  and  intimately  bound  up 
with  the  living  substance  of  the  cell,  and  of  these  but  few 
data  are  possessed.  The  importance  of  the  problems  in- 
volved is  as  great  as  their  investigation  is  difficult.  The 
cell  exercises  its  vital  functions  in  virtue  of  a  specific 
physical  and  chemical  organisation  of  its  molecular  con- 
stituents. The  ordinary  methods  of  biological  and  chemical 
research  modify  or  destroy  this  organisation,  and  do  not 
admit  of  an  intimate  study  of  the  normal  cell  constituents. 
For  this  purpose  it  is  essential  to  eliminate  or  to  reduce 
to  a  minimum  the  influence  of  external  modifying  agents 
on  the  cell  or  its  immediate  products.  An  intracellular 
physiology  can  only  be  based  on  a  direct  study  of  intra- 
cellular constituents  apart  from  their  secretions  and  pro- 
ducts.    This,  in  ordinary  circumstances,  is  impossible  with 

1  By  Dr.  Allan  Macfadyen.  Communicated  to  Section  B  of  the  British 
Association  at  Southport,  by  Prof.  J.  Dewar,  F.R  S. 


October  22,  1903] 


NATURE 


609 


respect  to  actively  functionating  and  intact  cells.  It  is 
obvious,  therefore,  that  the  first  desideratum  is  a  suitable 
method  of  obtaining  the  cell  plasma  for  experimental  pur- 
poses, and  it  is  only  recently  that  this  has  been  successfully 
accomplished.  The  most  feasible  means  of  procedure 
appeared,  to  be  the  use  of  mechanical  agents  which,  whilst 
bringing  the  cell  substance  within  the  field  of  observation, 
would,  at  the  same  time,  be  least  likely  to  affect  its 
character  and  constitution.  The  method  consists  in  a 
mechanical  rupture  of  the  cells  and  the  release  of  their 
contents  under  conditions  favouring  the  conservation  of 
their  properties.  The  first  successful  application  of  this 
description  of  method  was  made  by  Buchner  in  the  par- 
ticular instance  of  the  yeast  cell,  and  with  brilliant  results. 
The  researches  of  Buchner  were  of  wide  biological  signifi- 
cance, and  were  suggestive  of  much  more  than  a  cell-free 
alcoholic  fermentation  of  sugars.  They  demonstrated  the 
possibilities  of  the  new  methods  with  regard  to  more  general 
vital  problems.  The  Buchner  process  consisted  in  a 
mechanical  trituration  of  the  yeast  cell  with  the  aid  of  sand 
and  a  subsequent  filtration  of  the  resultant  mass  under 
pressure  through  Kieselguhr.  The  filtrate  contained  the 
expressed  constituents  of  the  yeast  cell  which  were  capable 
of  passing  through  Kieselguhr,  and  the  product,  in  virtue 
of  its  fermentative  properties,  was  termed  "  zymase." 

The  author  and  his  colleagues  have,  during  the  past 
four  years,  been  engaged  in  investigating  the  application 
of  cognate  methods  to  biological  research.  The  advice  and 
help  generously  afforded  by  Prof.  James  Dewar  materially 
forwarded  the  progress  of  the  research. 

It  was  considered  that,  by  the  employment  of  low 
temperatures,  a  disintegration  of  living  cells  might  possibly 
be  accomplished,  and  a  wide  field  of  inquiry  opened  to  in- 
vestigation in  the  biological  laboratory.  For  this  purpose 
the  methods  of  mechanical  trituration  required  refinement 
in  several  directions. 

The  conditions  it  was  desired  to  fulfil  were,  a  rapid  dis- 
integration of  the  fresh  tissues  and  cells,  an  avoidance  of 
heat  and  other  modifying  agents  during  the  process,  and 
an  immediate  manipulation  of  the  cellular  juices  obtained. 

It  had  likewise  been  noted  that  ordinary  filter  pressing 
through  Kieselguhr  removed  physiologically  active  sub- 
stances from  the  cell  juices.  Liquid  air  appeared  to  be  the 
most  convenient  means  of  obtaining  the  necessary  cold,  and  it 
presented  the  advantage  of  a  fluid  freezing  medium  in  which 
the  material  to  be  manipulated  could  be  directly  immersed. 
The  temperature  of  this  reagent  (about  — 190°  C.)  would,  in 
addition,  prevent  heat  and  chemical  changes,,  whilst  re- 
ducing the  cells  to  a  condition  of  brittleness  favourable  to 
their  trituration  without  the  addition  of  such  substances  as 
sand  and  Kieselguhr,  which  might  modify  the  composition 
of  the  resultant  prodiict. 

The  method,  if  successful,  would  meet  the  conditions 
desired  for  the  subsequent  study  of  the  intracellular  juices. 
It  may  be  briefly  and  generally  stated  that,  by  the  appli- 
cation of  low  temperatures,  a  mechanical  trituration  of 
every  variety  of  cell  per  se  has  been  accomplished,  and  the 
fresh  cell  plasma  obtained  for  the  purpose  of  experiment. 
A  number  of  control  experiments  have  demonstrated  that 
immersion  in  liquid  air  is  not  necessarily  injurious  to  life — 
bacteria,  for  example,  having  survived  a  continuous  ex- 
posure for  six  months  to  its  influence.  The  actual  tritura- 
tion of  the  material  is  accomplished  in  a  specially  devised 
apparatus,  which  is  kept  immersed  during  the  operation  in 
liquid  air. 

The  normal  and  diseased  animal  tissues  have  been  treated 
in  this  manner,  and  their  intracellular  constituents  obtained, 
(■.,47.  epithelium,  cancer  tissues,  &c. 

Moulds,  yeasts  and  bacteria  have  been  rapidly  triturated 
under  the  same  conditions,  and  the  respective  cell  juices 
submitted  to  examination. 

The  severest  test  of  the  capabilities  of  the  method  was 
furnished  by  the  bacteria,  an  order  of  cells  for  which  the 
standard  of  measurement  is  the  mikron.  The  experiments 
proved  successful  in  every  instance  tested.  The  typhoid 
bacillus,  for  example,  is  triturated  in  the  short  space  of 
two  to  three  hours,  and  the  demonstration  has  been  fur- 
nished that  the  typhoid  organism  contains  within  itself  a 
toxin.  From  these  and  other  researches  it  has  become 
evident  that  there  exists  a  distinct  class  of  toxins  and  fer- 
ments which  are  contained  and  operate  within  the  cell  or 
bacterium,  in  contradistinction  to  the  now  well-known  class 


of  toxins  which  are  extracellular,  i.e.  extruded  during  life 
from  the  cell  into  the  surrounding  medium.  To  this  latter 
class  belongs  the  diphtheria  toxin,  which  has  been  so 
successfully  used  in  the  preparation  of  diphtheria  antitoxin. 
A  number  of  infective  organisms  do  not  produce  appreciable 
extracellular  toxins,  and  the  search  must  therefore  be  made 
within  the  specific  cells  for  the  missing  toxins  to  which 
the  intoxication  of  the  body  in  the  course  of  the  disease  in 
question  is  probably  due.  The  practical  utility  of  investi- 
gating these  intracellular  toxins  has  already  become 
evident  in  the  preparation  from  the  intracellular  toxin  of 
the  typhoid  bacillus  of  a  serum  having  antitoxic  value  as 
regards  this  toxin. 

The  experiments  made  with  the  pus  organisms  have 
already  shown  that  intracellular  toxins  exist  in  this  im- 
portant order  of  disease  germs. 

The  cell  juices  of  other  types  of  pathogenic  bacteria,  such 
as  the  tubercle  and  diphtheria  bacillus,  present  character- 
istics of  equal  interest. 

The  application  of  low  temperatures  has  aided  the  investi- 
gation of  certain  other  biological  problems. 

The  photogenic  bacteria  preserve  their  normal  luminous 
properties  after  exposure  to  the  temperature  of  liquid  air. 
The  effect,  however,  of  a  trituration  at  the  same  tempera- 
ture is  to  abolish  the  luminosity  of  the  cells  in  question. 
This  points  to  the  luminosity  being  essentially  a  function 
of  the  living  cell,  and  dependent  for  its  production  on  the 
intact  organisation  of  the  cell. 

The  rabies- virus  has  not  yet  been  detected  or  isolated, 
although  regarded  as  an  organised  entity.  The  seat  of  the 
unknown  rabies  virus  is  the  nervous  system.  If  the  brain 
substance  of  a  rabid  animal  be  triturated  for  a  given  length 
of  time  at  the  temperature  of  liquid  air,  its  infective  proper- 
ties as  regards  rabies  are  abolished.  This  result  appears 
to  be  a  further  indication  of  the  existence  in  rabies  of  an 
organised  virus. 

The  method  described  admits  of  a  fresh  study  of  the 
question  of  immunity  from  an  intracellular  standpoint. 

The  intracellular  juices  of  the  white  blood  cells  have  been 
obtained,  and  tested  with  regard  to  bacteriolytic  properties 
and  the  natural  protection  that  may  thus  be  afforded  to  the 
bodv  against  the  invasions  of  microparasites. 

The  application  of  low  temperatures  to  the  study  of  bio- 
logical problems  has  furnished  a  new  and  fruitful  method 
of  inquiry. 


PHYSICS    AT    THE    BRITISH    ASSOCIATION. 

THE  meeting  of  the  International  Meteorological  Com- 
mittee at  Southport  during  the  week  of  the  meeting 
of  the  Association  resulted  in  an  unusually  large  proportion 
of  the  papers  presented  to  Section  A  dealing  with  cosmical 
problems,  and  these  were  taken  in  the  department  of 
the  section  devoted  to  astronomy  and  meteorology.  Of  the 
matters  brought  before  the  department  devoted  to  physics, 
there  seems  little  doubt  that  the  most  important  were 
those  involved  in  the  discussions  on  the  introduction  of 
vectorial  methods  into  physics,  on  the  treatment  of 
irreversible  processes  in  thermodynamics,  and  on  the  nature 
of  the  emanations  from  radio-active  substances  respectively, 
and  of  these  a  short  account  follows. 

In  opening  the  discussion  on  the  introduction  of  vectorial 
methods  into  physics.  Prof.  Henrici  pointed  out  that, 
although  vectors  were  invented  for  use  in  dynamics,  the 
ideas  involved  were  fully  introduced  into  physics  by 
Faraday's  representation  of  the  stresses  in  a  medium  by 
lines  of  force.  Maxwell  was  aware  of  this,  and  devoted 
some  sections  of  the  opening  chapter  of  his  "  Electricity 
and  Magnetism  "  to  an  exposition  of  the  properties  of 
vectors,  and  expressed  many  of  his  later  equations  in 
vectorial  form. 

So  long  as  we  have  to  deal  with  quantities  which 
involve  magnitude  and  direction,  but  which  are  not 
specified  as  starting  from  a  definite  point,  i.e.  with  non- 
localised  vectors,  a  very  simple  algebra  is  all  that  is 
necessary,  and  when  at  any  time  it  is  required  to  extend 
our  methods  to  localised  vectors  the  methods  of  Grassmann's 
"  Ausdehnungslehre  "  are  available.  The  algebras  which 
have  been  proposed  for  dealing  with  the  simpler  case  agree 
in  making  addition  follow  the  parallelogram  law  for  com- 
pounding two  forces,  but  they  differ  in  the  meanings  they 


NO.  1773.  VOL.  68] 


6io 


NATURE 


[October  22,  1903 


attach  to  multiplication.  In  Prof.  Henrici's  algebra  the 
products  of  two  vectors  a,  /3  are  : — (a/3)  a  non-directional  or 
"scalar,"  in  magnitude  equal  to  the  product  of  one 
vector  into  the  component  of  the  other  along  the  first,  and 
[o3]  a  vector  perpendicular  to  the  plane  drawn  through 
a  and  ;9,  and  in  magnitude  equal  to  the  area  of  the 
parallelogram  of  which  a  and  /3  are  concurrent  sides. 
This  algebra  is  evidently  identical  with  those  of  Heaviside 
and  Gibbs,  and,  like  them,  open  to  the  objection  that  it 
does  not  discriminate  between  "  polar  "  vectors,  e.g. 
forces  and  "  axial  "  vectors,  e.^.  couples.  Its  relation 
to  that  of  quaternions  is  expressed  by  the  equation 
oj3=  — (o;8)-f[a/8],  where  o;3  is  the  quaternion  product  of 
o  «nd  /3.  If,  now,  m  be  a  scalar  function  of  the  vector  p  of 
a  point  P,  and  P  be  displaced  through  a  distance  dp,  the 
change  du.  in  the  value  of  u  will  be  proportional  to  dp,  and 
may  be  denoted  by  dp  .  V",  where  vu  is  a  vector  such  that 
for  a  given  magnitude  of  dp,  du  is  a  maximum  when  dp 
is  parallel  to  V".  Hence  the  direction  of  vm  is  that  of 
the  greatest  rate  of  change  of  u,  and  its  magnitude  that 
rate  of  change.  Similarly  for  a  vector  function  r;  of  p 
dpi]  =  (dp'v.)v,  and  v  follows  quite  generally  the  laws  of 
combination  of  vectors.  Thus  we  have  (v»?)  the  "  diver- 
gence "  of  71  and  [  vr;]  the  ''  curl  "  of  tj,  with  their  numerous 
applications.  By  the  use  of  this  operator  v,  theorems  like 
those  of  Green  and  Stokes  can  be  proved  in  a  generalised 
form  with  great  ease  and  elegance,  and  the  equations  for 
the  electromagnetic  field  follow  in  a  couple  of  lines  of 
work. 

With  so  powerful  a  calculus  as  this  at  command.  Prof. 
Henrici  considers  it  the  height  of  folly,  after  using 
vectorial  methods  in  those  elementary  parts  of  physics  which 
deal  with  addition  of  forces  or  velocities,  to  drop  them 
for  Cartesian  coordinates  and  direction  cosines  at  the  next 
step  forward.  He  advocates  the  use  of  vectors  throughout, 
and,  like  Heaviside,  would  make  trigonometry  follow  and 
depend  on  vectors  by  the  definitions  x  =  r  cos  e,  y  =  r  sin  0. 
Vectors  would  thus  be  introduced  into  school  curricula 
previous  to  or  along  with  the  use  of  squared  paper  and 
the  idea  of  coordinates. 

In  the  discussion  which  followed,  Sir  Oliver  Lodge,  Dr. 
Sumpner  and  others  spoke  as  to  the  usefulness  of  vectorial 
methods  in  physical  work.  Prof.  Larmor  said  there  could 
be  no  doubt  as  to  the  extreme  elegance  of  vectorial  methods, 
and  attributed  the  slow  progress  they  had  made  to  the 
want  of  uniformity  in  definitions'  and  notation,  which 
rendered  it  necessary  for  each  writer  who  used  vectors  to 
describe  his  notation  and  methods  before  his  work  could 
be  understood  by  his  readers.  Mr.  Swinburne  also  referred 
to  this  difficulty.  Prof.  Boltzmann  pointed  out  that  this 
confusion  would  have  been  avoicled  if  Hamilton  had  accepted 
Grassmann's  methods  and  notation.  The  writer  suggested 
that  the  question  of  the  possibility  of  introducing  greater 
uniformity  into  the  notation  and  methods  of  vector  algebra 
was  a  suitable  one  to  be  considered  by  a  committee  of  the 
British  Association.  Prof.  Henrici  thought  there  would  be 
little  difficulty  in  coming  to  some  agreement  between  the 
advocates  of  the  various  systems  now  in  existence.  His 
communication  was  ordered  to  be  printed  in  extenso  in  the 
reports,  so  that  those  interested  in  the  subject  might  be  able 
to  consider  the  suggestions  made  m  detail. 

Mr.  Swinburne  opened  the  discussion  on  the  treatment 
of  irreversible  processes  in  thermodynamics  by  pointing  out 
that  so  much  attention  was  devoted  in  books  on  thermo- 
dynamics to  the  consideration  of  the  changes  involved  in 
reversible  processes,  and  so  little  to  irreversible  ones,  that 
there  was  a  danger  of  the  latter  being  overlooked,  although 
they  are  the  only  ones  which  really  occur  in  nature.  His 
object  was  to  bring  them  more  prominently  forward,  and 
to  suggest  a  method  of  introducing  the  subject  which  would 
not  involve  alteration  or  extension  of  fundamental  ideas 
on  passing  from  reversible  to  irreversible  changes.  The 
sketch  of  the  method  he  proposed  was  necessarily  brief,  and 
it  was  not  easy  at  the  time  to  see  to  what  the  proposals 
made  would  eventually  lead.  This  probably  accounts  for 
the  unsatisfactory  nature  of  the  discussion,  which  consisted 
to  a  great  extent  of  statements  by  the  speakers  that  they 
had  been  unable  to  understand  what  was  proposed,  or  of 
condemnation  of  any  attempt  to  alter  the  definition  of 
entropy.  Fortunately,  copies  of  Mr.  Swinburne's  com- 
munication   were    available,    and    a    quiet    perusal    of    his 


NO.  1773,  VOL.  68] 


suggestions  shows  that  they  are  by  no  means  so  drastic 
as  was  supposed. 

He  points  out  that,  while  the  first  law  of  thermo- 
dynamics asserts  that  heat  is  a  form  of  energy,  the 
second  states  that  only  a  portion  of  a  given  supply  of  heat 
is  available  for  conversion  into  work,  although  energy 
of  other  forms  is  wholly  convertible.  That  part  of  a 
supply  of  heat  which  cannot  be  converted  into  work  during 
a  cyclic  change  of  state  of  the  body  containing  the  heat 
he  proposes  to  call  the  "  waste  heat."  It  depends  on  the 
temperature  of  the  coldest  available  reservoir  of  heat  of 
large  capacity,  say  that  of  the  sea.  Any  process  which  goes 
on  in  an  isolated  system  involves  in  general  an  increase 
of  this  "  waste,"  and  the  quotient  of  this  increase  by  the 
temperature  of  the  coldest  available  reservoir  of  heat  Mr. 
Swinburne  defines  as  the  increase  of  entropy  of  the  system 
during  the  process. 

A  part  of  the  system  may  decrease  in  entropy,  but  the 
rest  must  increase  by  at  least  an  equal  amount.  If  the 
increase  is  equal  to  the  decrease  the  increase  is  said  to 
be  "compensated,"  if  it  exceeds  the  decrease  the  excess  is 
the  "  uncompensated  "  increase  of  entropy.  A  reversible 
change  in  an  isolated  system  involves  no  increase  of  entropy 
of  the  system,  and  any  change  in  the  entropy  of  any  part 
of  the  system  must  therefore  be  "  compensated."  When 
irreversible  changes  occur  there  is  an  increase  of  entropy 
of  the  system,  and  an  uncompensated  increase  of  entropy 
of  some  part  of  it.  So  far  as  reversible  changes  are  con- 
cerned, it  is  evident  that  Mr.  Swinburne's  definition  of 
entropy  leads  to  the  same  result  as  the  one  commonly  used, 

i.e.     I —  =  d<l>.        For    if    in    a    Carnot    cycle    heat    H^    i> 

taken  in  by  the  working  substance  at  a  temperature  0,,  the 
increase  of  entropy  of  the  substance  =H,/^i,  and  if  at  the 
temperature  of  the  coldest  available  reservoir  6„,  H„  is 
given  up  by  the  substance,  H„  is  Mr.  Swinburne's  waste 
heat,  and  Hg/^o.  according  to  his  definition,  the  increase 
of  entropy  of  the  substance  when  it  took  in  H,  from  the 
reservoir  0^.  As  temperatures  are  measured  on  the  absolute 
scale,  the  two  quantities  are  identical. 

From  this  point  onwards  Mr.  Swinburne's  treatment  of 
the  equilibrium  of  isolated  systems  is  much  like  those  in 
use  at  present,  except  that  he  objects  to  the  use  of  some 
of  the  names,  e.g.  "  thermodynamic  potential,"  now 
commonly  used. 

Prof.  Perry,  in  the  discussion  which  followed,  stated  that 
engineers,  while  using  the  definition  of  entropy  which  con- 
nected it  with  reversible  changes,  were  quite  aware 
that  most  of  the  processes  with  which  they  had  to  deal 
were  irreversible,  and  that  their  theory  was  an  approxim- 
ation only. 

Prof.  Larmor  thought  Mr.  Swinburne's  method  was  a 
praiseworthy  attempt  to  introduce  simplification  and  pre- 
cision into  a  part  of  the  subject  which  had  received  little 
attention,  and  was  still  somewhat  obscure,  and  Mr.  Boys 
added  that  the  ideas  brought  forward  were  well  worthy  of 
careful  consideration. 

Before  stating  his  views  as  to  the  nature  of  the  eman- 
ations from  radio-active  substances.  Prof.  Rutherford  gave 
a  short  resumi  of  the  known  facts  about  radio-activity. 
Substances  which  possess  the  property  throw  off  material 
which  carries  with  it  a  positive  electric  charge.  This 
charged  material  can  penetrate  to  some  extent  through 
solids,  is  deviated  in  electric  and  magnetic  fields,  and 
appears  to  consist  of  particles  of  matter  of  about  twice  the 
weight  of  a  hydrogen  atom,  moving  with  a  velocity  about 
one-tenth  that' of  light.  This  is  known  as  the  a  radiation, 
and  accounts  for  about  99  per  cent,  of  the  energy  sent  out 
by  a  radio-active  substance.  Another  kind  of  radiation, 
known  as  the  j8  or  kathode  ray,  is  also  emitted.  It  is 
negatively  charged,  more  penetrative  and  more  easily 
deviated  than  the  a  radiation,  and  appears  to  consist  of 
particles  of  about  one-thousandth  the  mass  of  the  hydrogen 
atom.  A  third  kind  of  radiation,  known  as  the  7,  is  more 
penetrative  still,  but  up  to  the  present  has  not  been 
sufficiently  studied  to  enable  its  properties  to  be  definitely 
stated.  The  matter  which  remains  after  the  a  radiation  has 
been  thrown  off  behaves  in  the  case  of  thorium  and  radium 
like  a  gas  of  large  molecular  weight,  diffuses,  condenses  at 
low  temperatures,  may  deposit  itself  on  bodies  with  which 
it  comes  into  contact,   and  may    again    divide  into  a  posi- 


October  22,  1903] 


NA  TURE 


611 


•'vpIv     charged     a     radiation     and     a     second     emanation, 

!id    so   on    until    /le   changes   cease    to    produce   the   usual 

:lect  on  an  electrometer.  Whatever  the  nature  of  the 
radio-active  material,  the  amount  of  radiation  it  emits  in 
unit  time  is  equal  to  A.  times  the  amount  of  radio-active 
I  lement  present,  where  A  is  a  constant  for  each  type  of 
matter,  and  is  unaffected  by  chemical  and  physical  agencies. 
I'rof.  Rutherford  regards  the  process  which  goes  on  in 
radio-active  substances  as  a  gradual  breaking  up  of  the 
atoms  of  the  substance,  and  this  gradual  disintegration  as 
I  ho  cause  of  the  radio-active  properties.  The  electrically 
neutral  atom  of  a  radio-active  substance  throws  off  a  posi- 
tively charged  body  which  constitutes  the  a  radiation  ;  what 
remains  of  the  atom  constitutes  the  emanation.  This  again 
throws  off  a  positively  charged  body,  and  the  process  repeats 
itself  until  the  positively  charged  bodies  are  exhausted,  and 
ihe  substance  no  longer  possesses  radio-active  properties. 

This  disintegration  theory  fits  all  the  known  facts,  but  it 
involves  the  existence  in  the  atom  of  a  radio-active  substance 
of  a  store  of  energy  hitherto  unsuspected,  amounting  in  the 
case  of  radium  to  at  least  lo"  ergs  per  gram.  This  energy 
exists,  according  to  Prof.  Rutherford,  as  kinetic  energy  of 
motion  of  the  atoms  in  closed  paths  with  velocities  com- 
parable with  that  of  light,  and  disintegration  is  the  moving 
off  at  a  tangent  of  one  or  more  of  the  particles  of  an  atom. 
It  this  is  the  case  it  seems  probable  that  the  atomic  energy 
!   elements  not  yet  found  to  be  non-radio-active  is  of  the 

me  order  of  magnitude,  and  may  be  set  free  by  methods 
:  which  we  are  not  yet  cognisant. 

In  the  discussion  which  followed  Sir  Oliver  Lodge  said 
the  theory  put  forward  by  Rutherford  seemed  to  him  to 
be  a  valuable  working  hypothesis,  very  near,  if  not  abso- 
lutely, the  truth.  It  was  supported  by  Larmor's  electrical 
theory,  according  to  which  the  atoms  of  matter  should  be 
unstable. 

Lord    Kelvin,    in    a   letter   communicated    to    the    section, 

I  forward  another  theory  as  to  the  nature  of  the  pro- 
'  -ses  going  on  in  radio-active  materials.  According  to  it 
( ach  atom  of  matter  has  positive  electricity  distributed 
uniformly  through  its  mass,  and  concentrated  at  one 
or  more  points,  in  general  within  it,  atomic  quantities  of 
negative  electricity,  to  which  Lord  Kelvin  gives  the  name 
"  electrions. "  A  normal  atom  has  the  necessary  number 
of  electrions  to  neutralise  the  positive  electricity  associated 
with  its  matter.  The  a  radiation  consists  of  atoms  of  matter 
which  have  less  than  the  normal  number  of  electrions. 
When  they  move  into  matter  they  quickly  pick  up  the 
negative  charges  necessary  to  render  them  neutral,  and 
cease  to  be  detected.  The  j3  radiation  consists  of  electrions 
thrown  off  during  violent  oscillations  of  the  atoms  of  matter, 
and  are  readily  absorbed  by  matter.  The  7  radiation  con- 
sists of  vapour  of  the  radio-active  matter,  e.g.  radium, 
which  would  possess  the  penetrative  power  it  is  found  to 
have  if  the  Boscovichian  forces  between  the  atoms  of  radio- 
active matter  and  ordinary  matter  were  small.  The  large 
amount  of  energy  radiated  is,  according  to  this  view,  derived 
from  without  the  atoms,  where  it  exists  in  a  form  which  we 
have  not  yet  found  a  means  of  detecting. 

Prof.  Armstrong  pointed  out  that,  as  the  experiments  of 
Rutherford  and  Soddy  had  been  made  on  what  was  sup- 
posed to  be  radium  bromide,  the  dissociation  which  they 
believed  to  be  taking  place  might  be  of  the  compound  and 
not  of  the  element.  He  was  disposed  to  regard  Lord 
Kelvin's  theory  with  favour. 

Mr.  Soddy  thought  ordinary  cheinical  changes  were  ex- 
cluded by  the  fact  that  the  rate  of  production  of  the  radi- 
ations was  unaffected  by  chemical  and  physical  conditions 
which  greatly  affected  the  former.  The  view  Prof.  Ruther- 
ford and  he  put  forward  was  that  at  each  stage  of  the 
process  a  new  element  was  formed. 

Prof.  Dewar  gave  an  account  of  the  experiments  on  the 
effects  of  low  temperature  on  the  properties  and  spectrum 
of  radium  carried  out  partly  in  conjunction  with  Sir  W. 
Crookes    and  recently  communicated  to  the  Royal  Society. 

Prof.  Schuster  thought  the  internal  energy  more  probable 
than  the  absorption  theory,  and  questioned  whether  the 
instability  of  the  atoms  predicted  by  electrical  theory  would 
account  for  the  high  velocities  of  the  emanations.  He  was 
disposed  to  regard  these  high  velocities  as  probably  due  to 
some  cause  not  yet  known. 

Prof.  Larmor  agreed  with  Prof.  Rutherford's  theory,  and 
pointed  out  that,  just  as  atoms  of  matter  must  have  size, 

NO.  T773.  VOL.  68] 


or  a  half-size  atom  would  still  be  an  atom,  so  it  may  be 
that  the  atoms  of  electricity  have  size  and  configuration, 
and  thus  account  for  the  complicated  structure  of  the 
radium  atom. 

Mr.  Whetham  directed  attention  to  the  still  unexplained 
fact  that  the  negatively  charged  emanation  seemed  to 
deposit  more  readily  on  negatively  than  on  positively 
charged  bodies,  and  Dr.  Lowry,  after  recounting  some  e.\- 
periments  on  the  flash  of  light  seen  when  certain  sub- 
stances are  crushed,  suggested  that  the  emanation  might 
be  a  modification  of  a  constituent  of  the  atmosphere,  e.g. 
helium.  C.   H.   Lees. 


CHEMISTRY  AT   THE   BRITISH 
ASSOCIATION. 

'X'HE  Southport  meeting  of  Section  B  proved  to  be  one 
■'•  of  the  most  successful  held  during  recent  years ;  the 
meetings  were  largely  attended,  and  a  keen  interest  was  ex- 
hibited in  the  proceedings  of  the  section.  After  the  reading 
of  the  presidential  address  (Nature,  p.  472),  Prof.  J. 
Campbell  Brown  described  an  apparatus  for  determining 
latent  heats  of  evaporation,  in  which  a  known  quantity 
of  heat,  generated  electrically  in  a  platinum  wire,  is 
absorbed  in  converting  a  liquid  at  its  boiling  point  into 
vapour  at  the  same  temperature ;  very  concordant  results 
are  obtained. 

In    a   paper   on    some   derivatives   of    fluorene.    Miss    Ida 

CeHs 
Smedley     showed     that     whilst     fluorenone       |         j>C=0, 

CeH/ 
IS  orange-red  in  colour,  the  corresponding  sulphur  derivative, 
thiofluorenone,  is  intensely  red  ;  the  radicle  >CS  has  thus 
a  greater  tendency  to  produce  colour  than  the  carbonyl 
group.  In  a  paper  on  the  action  of  diastase  on  the  starch 
granules  of  raw  and  malted  barley,  Mr.  A.  R.  Ling  showed 
that  the  starch  derived  from  both  raw  and  malted  barley 
is  dissolved  and  hydrolysed  by  diastase  at  a  temperature 
below  its  gelatinising  point,  and  that  the  optical  and  re- 
duction constants  differ  according  to  the  sample  of  grain 
from  which  the  starch  is  derived.  Evidence  was  adduced 
in  two  other  papers  on  the  action  of  malt  diastase  on  potato 
starch  paste,  one  by  Mr.  A.  R.  Ling  and  the  other  by  Mr. 
A  R.  Ling  and  Mr.  B.  F.  Davis,  that  when  diastase  is 
heated  in  aqueous  solution  at  6o°-7o°  for  a  short  time,  the 
molecule  of  the  enzyme  becomes  so  changed  that  it  no 
longer  yields  the  same  products  when  it  acts  on  potato 
starch  paste. 

Dr.  H.  C.  White  described  the  chemical  and  physical 
characteristics  of  the  so-called  mad-stone,  which,  in  accord- 
ance with  a  superstition  current  in  the  southern  States  of 
America,  is  used  to  detect  and  cure  the  bites  of  venomous 
snakes  or  rabid  animals ;  the  mad-stone  is  found  to  be  a 
concretionary  calculus  from  the  gullet  of  the  male  deer,  and 
is  devoid  of  discriminative  or  curative  powers. 

Prof.  E.  A.  Letts,  Mr.  R.  F.  Blake,  and  Mr.  J.  S.  Totton 
read  a  paper  on  the  reduction  of  nitrates  by  sewage,  in 
which  it  was  shown  that,  when  potassium  nitrate  is  added  to 
the  effluent  from  a  septic  tank,  practically  all  the  nitrogen 
is  evolved  in  the  free  state  or  as  nitric  oxide ;  the  oxygen  of 
the  nitrate  is  evolved  as  carbon  dioxide. 

A  method  for  the  separation  of  cobalt  from  nickel  and 
for  the  volumetric  determination  of  cobalt  was  described 
by  Mr.  R.  L.  Taylor  ;  it  is  based  on  the  fact  that  cobalt  is 
precipitated  quantitatively  as  a  black  oxide  from  neutral 
solutions  by  barium  or  calcium  carbonate  in  presence  of 
bromine  water.  The  black  oxide  has  the  composition 
Co,0,,  or  Co,0„. 

Prof.  J.  Dewar,  F.R.S.,  contributed  a  description  of  the 
more  recent  results  obtained  from  his  investigations  at  low 
temperatures ;  he  described  the  methods  by  which  he  has 
succeeded  in  determining  the  densities  of  solid  hydrogen, 
nitrogen,  and  oxygen,  the  methods  of  producing  solid 
hydrogen  and  nitrogen,  and  the  methods  by  which  he  has 
been  able  to  determine  the  latent  heats,  specific  heats,  and 
the  coefficient  of  expansion  of  liquid  hydrogen. 

A  paper  on  the  application  of  low  temperatures  to  the 
study  of  biological  problems,  by  Dr.  Allan  Macfadyen,  is 
printed  in  another  part  of  the  present  issue  (p.  608). 

Mr.  J.  Hubner  and  Prof.  W.  J.  Pope,  F.R.S.,  gave  a 
paper  on  the  cause  of  the  lustre  produce(I  on  mercerising 


6l2 


NA  rURE 


[October  22,  1903 


cotton  under  tension,  which  was  illustrated  by  photographs 
in  natural  colours  ;  the  lustre  of  mercerised  cotton  is  proved 
to  be  due  to  a  corkscrew-like  structure  of  the  mercerised 
fibre  brought  about  by  a  simultaneous  swelling,  shrinking 
and  untwisting  which  attends  the  immersion  in  caustic 
soda. 

Sir  H.  Roscoe,  F.R.S.,  in  presenting  the  report  of  the 
committee  on  duty-free  alcohol,  explained  the  conditions 
under  which  the  Board  of  Inland  Revenue  are  now  prepared 
to  allow  the  use  of  duty-free  alcohol  for  the  purposes  of 
research  work. 

Prof.  G.  von  Georgievics,  in  a  paper  on  the  theory  of 
dyeing,  argued  strongly  in  favour  of  the  mechanical  as 
opposed  to  the  chemical  theory  of  dyeing,  and  claimed  that 
the  experimental  work  upon  which  the  chemical  theory  is 
based  is  erroneous. 

In  opening  a  discussion  on  the  general  subject  of  com- 
bustion by  a  paper  on  the  slow  combustion  of  methane  and 
ethane.  Dr.  W.  A.  Bone  pointed  out  that  his  own  experi- 
mental work  showed  that,  in  the  combustion  of  methane, 
a  primary  oxidation  to  formaldehyde  and  steam  occurs, 
followed  by  rapid  oxidation  of  the  formaldehyde  to  carbon 
monoxide,  carbon  dioxide  and  steam ;  in  the  burning  of 
ethane  both  acetaldehyde  and  formaldehyde  are  formed  as 
intermediate  products. 

In  a  preliminary  note  on  some  electric  furnace  reactions 
under  high  gaseous  pressures,  Messrs.  J.  E.  Petavel  and 
R.  S.  Hutton  gave  an  account  of  work  carried  out  in  an 
enclosed  electric  furnace  constructed  to  work  with  gaseous 
pressures  up  to  200  atmospheres.  The  reactions  at  present 
under  investigation  include  the  direct  reduction  of  alumina 
by  carbon,  the  formation  of  calcium  carbide  and  of  graphite, 
and  the  production  of  nitric  acid  and  of  cyanogen  com- 
pounds. 

In  a  paper  on  the  atomic  latent  heats  of  fusion  of  the 
metals  considered  from  the  kinetic  standpoint,  Mr.  H. 
Crompton  showed  that,  if  in  the  solidification  of  a  liquid 
energy  is  lost  solely  in  bringing  moving  monatomic  mole- 
cules to  rest,  a  constant  can  be  deduced  in  a  very  simple 
manner  from  the  latent  heat  of  fusion  ;  approximately  the 
theoretical  value  is  obtained  for  this  constant  with  many  of 
the  metals,  but  not  with  gallium  and  bismuth. 

Dr.  E.  P.  Perman  brought  forward  a  number  of  results 
which  he  has  obtained  concerning  the  influence  of  small 
quantities  of  water  in  bringing  about  chemical  reaction 
between  salts  ;  he  investigated  more  particularly  the  action 
of  potassium  iodide  upon  salts  of  lead  and  mercury.  In  a 
paper  on  the  constitution  of  disaccharides.  Prof.  Purdie, 
F.R.S.,  and  Dr.  J.  C.  Irvine  described  the  methylation  of 
cane-sugar  and  maltose ;  from  experiments  on  the  hydro- 
lysis of  the  products  of  methylation  they  deduced  evidence 
substantiating  the  constitutions  attributed  by  Fischer  to 
these  two  disaccharides. 

Amongst  other  papers  read  in  the  section  may  be 
noted  the  following  : — Stead's  recent  experiments  on  the 
causes  and  prevention  of  brittleness  in  steel,  by  Prof.  T. 
Turner ;  the  colour  of  iodides,  by  Mr.  W.  Ackroyd ;  on 
essential  oils,  by  Dr.  O.  Silberrad  ;  the  cholesterol  group, 
by  Dr.  R.  H.  Pickard  ;  on  acridines,  by  Prof.  A.  Senier ; 
sur  le  spectre  de  self-induction  du  silicium  et  ses  com- 
paraisons  astronomiques,  by  M.  le  Comte  A.  de  Gramont ; 
fluorescence  as  related  to  the  constitution  of  organic  sub- 
stances, by  Dr.  J.  T.  Hewitt ;  freezing  point  curves  of 
binary  mixtures,  by  Dr.  J.  C.  Philip  ;  mutarotation  in  re- 
lation to  the  lactonic  structure  of  glucose,  by  Dr.  E.  F. 
Armstrong  ;  the  synthesis  of  glucosides,  the  preparation  of 
oximido-compounds  and  the  action  of  oxides  of  nitrogen  on 
oximido-compounds,  by  Mr.  W.  S.  Mills ;  further  investi- 
gations of  the  approximate  estimation  of  minute  quantities 
of  arsenic  in  food,  by  Mr.  W.  Thomson. 


GEOLOGY  AT  THE  BRITISH  ASSOCIATION. 
HTHE  programme  of  the  geological  section  of  the  British 
Association  is  usually  more  or  less  affected  by  the 
geological  character  of  the  country  around  the  place  of 
meeting,  and  this  was  the  case  in  the  present  year,  though 
the  geology  of  Southport  cannot  compare  in  interest  with 
that  of  Belfast,  Glasgow,  or  other  recent  meeting  places. 

Mr.  J.  Lomas  (Geology  of  the  country  around  Southport) 
explained   that    the   solid   rock,    Keuper   and    Bunter,    is   for 
the  most  part  below  sea-level,  and  only  reaches  the  surface 
NO.    1773,   VOL.    68] 


ia  a  few  places  where  it  projects  through  the  thick  cover- 
ing of  Drift.  The  Drift  is  mainly  Boulder-clay  with  an 
undulating  surface,  on  which  are  found  a  number  of  lake- 
deposits,  left  by  lakes  or  meres  now  partially  nor  wholly 
drained. 

One  of  these,  Martin  Mere,  was  visited  by  most  of  the 
geologists  present,  and  was  the  subject  of  a  paper  by  Mr. 
Harold  Brodrick.  Upon  the  Boulder-clay  there  is  a  bed 
of  grey  clay,  which  may  be  of  either  lacustrine  or  estuarine 
origin^  and  on  it  grew  a  forest  of  oak  and  Scotch  fir. 
Numbers  of  trunks  of  the  trees  still  remain,  and  Mr.  Brod- 
rick remarked  that  they  have  usually  fallen  in  a  north-east 
direction.  These  tree  trunks  are  buried  in  a  bed  of  peat, 
which  is  in  places  as  much  as  19  feet  thick,  and  many  dug- 
out canoes  have  been  found  in  this  peat. 

The  "  submerged  forest  "  at  Leasowe,  in  Cheshire,  is 
the  remains  of  a  similar  mere  which  has  been  cut  through 
by  the  sea,  and  the  peat  and  tree  trunks  are  now  found  on 
the  coast  below  the  level  of  high  water.  The  question 
whether  this  points  to  a  depression  of  the  surface  of  the 
land  was  discussed,  but  the  speakers  hesitated  to  give  any 
definite  opinion. 

Mr.  Whitaker  read  the  report  of  a  committee  appointed 
by  the  council  of  the  Association  to  record  observations  on 
changes  in  the  sea  coast  of  the  United  Kingdom,  and 
though  there  was  no  reference  to  Southport  in  the  report, 
its  reading  was  followed  by  considerable  discussion.  At 
Southport  itself  the  land  is  gaining  on  the  sea,  and  Mr. 
Lomas  considers  this  to  be  due  to  the  large  amount  of 
material  brought  down  by  the  River  Ribble.  The  sand 
dunes  on  the  coast  are,  he  believes,  also  due  to  material 
brought  down  by  the  river,  which,  drying  at  low  water, 
is  blown  inland  by  the  prevailing  south-west  wind.  He 
remarked  that  sand  dunes  are  usually  found  at  and  near 
the  mouth  of  a  fairly  large  river. 

The  question  of  coast  changes  was  also  discussed  in  a 
paper  on  a  raised  beach  in  County  Cork  by  Messrs.  Muff 
and  Wright,  of  the  Geological  Survey.  The  beach  deposits 
rest  upon  a  platform  of  solid  rock  which  is  some  7  to  12 
feet  above  the  corresponding  part  of  the  present  shore,  and 
the  beach  deposits  are  covered  by  a  thick  bed  of  Boulder- 
clay,  showing  that  they  are  of  early  Glacial,  if  not  of  pre- 
Glacial,  age.  This  is  almost  an  exact  counterpart  of  the 
raised  beach  in  Gower,  South  Wales,  which  was  described 
by  Mr.  R.  H.  Tiddeman  in  a  paper  read  before  Section  C 
of  the  British  Association  at  Bradford  in   1900. 

Mr.  Lamplugh  (Land  shells  in  the  infra-Glacial  chalk- 
rubble  at  Sewerby,  near  Bridlington)  directed  attention  to 
the  similarity  of  these  raised  beaches  to  that  at  Sewerby  in 
Yorkshire.  There  we  find  (i)  a  beach  deposit,  a  few  feet 
above  the  present  high-water  mark,  banked  against  an  old 
chalk  cliff ;  (2)  a  bed  of  land  wash  ;  (3)  a  bed  of  blown 
sand  ;  and  upon  it  (4)  a  bed  of  chalk-rubble,  in  which  Mr. 
Lamplugh  has  found  many  specimens  of  Pupa  muscorum,  a 
land  shell.  Consequently  the  bed  is  a  land  wash  correspond- 
ing to  the  "  Head  "  of  Cork  and  Gower.  The  author  found 
this  bed  on  the  foreshore  at  Sewerby,  showing  that  when  it 
was  formed  the  sea  stood  at  a  lower  level  than  at  the  time 
of  the  beach  deposits.  This  land  wash  is  underneath  all 
the  Glacial  Drifts  of  the  Yorkshire  coast. 

In  the  discussion  which  followed  the  reading  of  these 
papers,  it  was  suggested  that  the  raised  beaches  may  be 
due  to  an  alteration  in  the  level  of  the  sea  rather  than  to 
earth-movement.  Mr.  Clement  Reid,  however,  remarked 
that,  though  the  old  sea  beaches  in  Cork,  Gower,  and 
Yorkshire  are  about  the  same  height  above  the  present  sea- 
level,  there  is  at  Penzance  a  well-marked  notch  in  the  rock 
at  65  feet  above  the  sea,  and  in  Sussex  there  is  evidence 
of  a  sea-surface  not  only  a  few  feet  above  the  sea  at  Selsea, 
but  also  as  much  as  135  feet  above  the  sea  in  Goodwood 
Park. 

The  relations  of  an  estuarine  deposit  at  Kirmington,  in 
Lincolnshire,  to  the  Glacial  Drift  was  the  subject  of  the 
report  of  a  committee  appointed  at  Belfast  last  year.  The 
Kirmington  Drift  deposits  are  known  to  rest  upon  chalk, 
though  the  chalk  has  not  yet  been  reached.  A  silty  sand 
and  chalk-rubble  (i)  is  the  lowest  bed  at  present  examined  ; 
upon  it  rests  (2)  a  purple  clay,  no  doubt  a  Boulder-clay, 
12  feet  thick  ;  and  above  that  (3)  sand  and  chalky  gravel 
12  feet.  Upon  this  (4)  a  thin  fresh-water  bed  has  now  been 
found,  and  (5)  a  clay  with  estuarine  shells,  the  whole  being 
under  (6)  a  second  bed  of  Boulder-clay.     The  estuarine  bed 


October  22,  1903] 


NATURE 


with  a  fresh-water  layer  at  its  base  is  thus  shown  to  be 
between  two  Boulder-clays,  and  the  committee  hopes  to  carry 
operations  down  to  the  Chalk  before  the  meeting  of  the 
Association  next  year. 

The  report  of  the  committee  on  Irish  caves  described  ex- 
plorations in  some  caves  at  Edenvale,  near  Ennis.  Re- 
mains of  man,  associated  with  those  of  the  bear,  reindeer, 
&c.,  were  recorded. 

Implements,  mainly  Palaeolithic,  from  the  district 
between  Reading-  and  Maidenhead  were  dealt  with 
in  a  paper  by  Mr.  Llewellyn  Treacher.  He  has 
obtained  them  in  considerable  numbers  from  gravels  at 
levels  of  from  60  to  120  feet  above  the  river  Thames.  The 
implements  are  usually  of  flint,  but  two  examples  of  imple- 
ments made  from  quartzite  pebbles  were  described.  The 
geological  history  of  these  pebbles  is  well  known  ;  they  are 
from  the  Triassic  pebble  beds  of  the  Birmingham  district, 
and  were  brought  into  the  Reading  country  by  the 
River  Thames  in  an  early  part  of  its  history,  when  it 
drained  an  extensive  tract  now  within  the  drainage  area 
of  the  River  Severn.  Such  pebbles  are  abundant  in  the 
old  Thames  Gravel,  which  caps  much  of  the  high  ground 
north  and  north-west  of  Reading  up  to  a  level  of  about 
500  feet  above  the  sea,  and  no  doubt  the  makers  of  the 
implements  obtained  the  pebbles  from  the  old  Gravel. 

The  Swiss  geologist,  M.  Andr^  Delebecque,  read  a  short 
but  very  interesting  paper  on  the  lakes  of  the  Upper  Enga- 
dine.  The  lake  of  St.  Moritz  is,  he  said,  obviously  a  rock 
basin,  whilst  the  lakes  of  Sils,  Silva  Plana,  and  Campfer 
were,  he  believed,  once  a  single  lake  also  filling  a  rock 
basin.  The  torrents  descending  from  side-valleys  have  now 
partially  filled  up  ^^his  basin  and  divided  it  into  the  three 
lakes. 

This  paper  led  to  a  discussion  on  the  origin  of  rock- 
basins.  The  author  thought  that,  though  Glacial  erosion 
could  hardly  take  place  in  very  compact  rocks,  yet  in  many 
places  even  granite  and  gneiss  become  much  decomposed, 
and  glaciers  may  have  swept  away  the  decomposed  rock 
and  thus  have  produced  hollows.  Mr.  Marr  considered  that 
every  region  containing  rock-basins  must  be  studied  by 
itself,  and  that  they  are  probably  the  result  of  many  different 
causes. 

Mr.  Lamplugh  said  that,  in  regions  of  extreme  Glacial 
erosion,  we  find  true  rock-basins  near  the  gathering  ground 
of  ice,  but  as  we  approach  the  margin  of  the  glaciated  area 
we  find  lakes  due  to  terminal  moraines,  kettle  holes,  &c.  ; 
thus  in  the  marginal  areas  the  lakes  are  not  the  result  of 
direct  ice-erosion,  but  are  due  to  secondary  causes. 

.Mr.  Clement  Reid  said  it  was  unfortunate  that  in  north 
Europe  the  ice  had  so  completely  cleared  away  the  soft 
deposits  of  the  late  pre-Glacial  age  that  we  have  very 
little  evidence  as  to  the  age  of  the  lake  or  rock-basins. 

In  south  Europe  such  evidence  is  often  to  be  found,  and 
he  mentioned  a  case  in  Italy,  near  Florence,  where  there 
have  been  three  lakes ;  the  lowest,  now  silted  up,  is  of 
about  the  age  of  our  Cromer  Forest  Bed,  the  second,  also 
filled  up,  is  a  Pleistocene  lake,  whilst  the  third,  and  highest, 
still  exists  as  a  lake.  The  speaker  suggested  that  these 
lakes  were  due  to  earth-movements  in  a  direction  at  right 
angles  to  the  valley. 

Passing  to  petrography,  Mr.  Teall  contributed  a  most 
interesting  paper  on  dedolomitisation.  Taking  a  cherty 
dolomite,  such  as  that  of  Durness,  he  showed  that  it 
has  been  dedolomitised  by  the  formation  of  magnesian 
silicates,  whereas  in  the  case  of  the  marbles  formed  of 
calcite  and  brucite  it  may  be  inferred  that,  under  the  con- 
ditions which  prevailed  during  the  intrusion  of  the  plutonic 
rocks,  the  carbonic  acid  freed  itself  more  readily  from  the 
magnesia  than  from  the  lime,  thus  in  the  absence  of  silica 
giving  rise  to  the  formation  of  periclase  and  converting 
the  original  dolomite  into  an  aggregate  of  calcite  and  peri- 
clase, the  periclase  having  been  subsequently  changed  to 
brucite.  The  author  instanced  the  predazzite  of  the  Tyrol 
as  a  rock  probably  formed  in  this  latter  way.  The  history 
of  the  rock  would  then  be  as  follows  : — (i)  formation  of  the 
limestone  ;  (2)  dolomitisation  ;  (3)  intrusion  of  igneous  rock 
and  dedolomitisation  in  consequence  of  the  development  of 
silicate  or  periclase ;  (4)  hydration. 

Mr.  G.  W.  Lamplugh,  whose  name  is  well  known  in 
connection  with  the  study  of  crush-breccias  and  conglomer- 
ates, read  a  paper  on  the  disturbances  of  junction-beds  from 
differential  shrinkage  and  similar  local  causes  during  con- 
NO.    1773.  VOL.   68] 


solidation.  He  thought  that  in  many  cases  rock  was  in- 
durated before  it  became  covered  up  by  the  succeeding 
strata,  and  that  many  of  the  curious  structures  we  see  in 
calcareous  rocks  may  have  been  due  to  hardening  before 
anything  was  laid  on  top  of  them.  He  instanced  structures 
common  in  the  Chalk  and  Lower  Cretaceous  rocks.  He 
suggested  that  shrinkage  during  consolidation  may  account 
for  the  peculiar  appearances  which  we  sometimes  see  where 
a  thin  clay  or  shale  is  interbedded  with  thick  sands,  such 
as  in  the  Hastings  Sands,  or  at  a  junction  such  as  that  of 
the  sand  of  the  Lower  Greensand  with  an  underlying  clay. 

Mr.  J.  Lomas  referred  to  a  similar  problem  in  a  paper 
on  Polyzoa  as  rock-cementing  organisms. 

The  difficult  question  of  the  distinction  between  intrusive 
and  contemporaneous  igneous  rocks  was  raised  in  papers 
by  Mr.  W.  S.  Boulton  and  by  Messrs.  T.  H.  Cope  and 
J.  Lomas,  and  was  discussed  at  some  length. 

Mr.  Boulton  dealt  with  the  basaltic  rock  associated  with 
the  Carboniferous  Limestone  at  Spring  Cove,  Weston-super- 
Mare.  The  igneous  rock  shows  a  marked  pillow-structure, 
contains  tuff  and  agglomerate,  and  includes  lumps  and 
masses  of  the  limestone. 

The  tuff  within  the  sheet  behaves  like  a  lava  showing 
flow  structure,  and  is  clearly  not  the  result  of  sedimenta- 
tion. The  author  believes  the  included  limestone-fragments 
were  derived  from  the  underlying  calcareous  floor  when  it 
was  a  sea-bottom,  the  masses  having  been  rolled  and  picked 
up  by  the  lava,  and  thus  become  intercalated  between  its- 
spheroidal  masses.  He  thought  the  igneous  rock  was  a 
submarine  flow  of  lava.  Messrs.  Cope  an4  Lomas  dealt 
with  the  igneous  rocks  of  the  Berwyns.  The  district  has 
a  dome-like  structure,  shales  and  limestones  of  Llandeilo 
age  being  exposed  on  the  top  of  the  dome,  whilst  the  newer 
Bala  beds  form  a  ring  around.  There  are  four  thick 
sheets  of  rock  which  have  hitherto  been  regarded  as  con- 
temporaneous volcanic  ashes.  The  authors,  however, 
believe  them  to  be  intrusive  igneous  rocks. 

Mr.  J.  G.  Goodchild  (Some  facts  bearing  on  the  origin 
of  eruptive  rocks)  contended  that  intrusive  masses,  as  a 
rule,  replace  their  own  volume  of  the  rocks  which  they 
invade,  and  do  not  cause  displacement  to  any  important 
extent.  This  paper  gave  rise  to  some  discussion,  for  there 
were  present  many  believers  in  the  existence  of  laccolites. 
One  speaker  suggested  that  the  presence  of  flow  structure 
along  the  margins  of  intrusive  igneous  rocks  was  scarcely 
in  harmony  with  the  author's  views.  It  was,  however, 
admitted  that  there  were  difficulties  when  a  dyke  ends 
upwards  or  laterally  against  strata. 

The  palaeontological  papers  were  of  considerable  interest. 
Mr.  A.  C.  Seward,  president  of  the  botanical  section,  read 
a  paper  before  Section  C  on  the  fossil  floras  of  South  Africa. 
He  considers  that  the  plants  from  the  Uitenhage  series  of 
Cape  Colony  are  of  Wealden  age,  and  assigns  those  from 
the  Stormberg  Series  to  the  Rhajtic  period.  With  regard 
to  the  Vereeniging  plants,  he  describes  them  as  belonging 
to  a  flora  which  flourished  in  South  Africa,  India,  South 
.America,  and  Australia  during  some  portion  of  the  Permo- 
Carboniferous  epoch,  perhaps  that  part  nearly  correspond- 
ing to  the  Upper  Carboniferous  of  Europe.  We  have,  he 
said,  in  South  Africa  as  in  South  America,  evidence  of  an 
overlapping  or  commingling  of  the  northern  and  southern 
botanical  provinces. 

The  Carboniferous  flora  of  the  Ardwick  series  of  Man- 
chester was  the  subject  of  a  paper  by  Mr.  Newell  Arber, 
and  some  additional  details  as  to  the  Carboniferous  Mollusca 
were  furnished  in  the  report  of  the  committee  on  life-zones 
in  the  rocks  of  that  period. 

Dr.  Smith  Woodward  described  an  Acanthodian  fish, 
Gyracanthides,  from  the  Carboniferous  of  Victoria, 
Australia,  and  in  illustration  of  another  paper  he  exhibited 
some  fragments  of  bone  from  Brazil.  They  were  from  a 
Red  Sandstone  formation,  probably  of  Triassic  age,  and 
it  had  been  suggested  that  they  belong  to  an  Anomodont 
reptile. 

Mr.  W.   G.   Fearnsides  (on  the  Lower  Ordovician  rocks..- 
in  the  neighbourhood  of  Snowdon  and  Llanbcris)  gave  anj 
account    of    his   discovery    of    fossils    round    the    south-wesC 
and    north-west    flanks    of    Snowdon,    from    Criccieth    to 
Llanberis.     They   are   in   beds   corresponding   to   the   well- 
known    South    Wales    Llanvirn    series,    and    are    the    fin 
fossils    recorded    from    beds    on    Snowdon    older    than    t' 
fossiliferous  Bala  ash  of  the  summit. 


614 


NATURE 


October  22,  190^ 


Finally,  the  committee  appointed  last  year  to  investigate 
the  fauna  and  flora  of  the  Trias  of  the  British  Isles  made 
its  first  report.  It  was  written  by  Mr.  H.  C.  Beasley, 
and  deals  with  cheirotheroid  foot-prints.  The  attendance 
at  the  meetings  of  the  section  was  good,  and  on  several 
occasions  the  papers  led  to  animated  and  interesting  dis- 
cussions. H.  W.  M. 


ZOOLOGY  AT  THE  BRITISH  ASSOCIATION. 
T^HE  president's  address — which  was  postponed  until 
-*■  Friday,  September  ii,  in  order  to  avoid  the  hours 
fixed  for  the  opening  addresses  in  the  other  biological 
sections — dealt  first  with  the  inadequacy  of  the  public  pro- 
vision made  for  the  advancement  of  zoology  and  its  appli- 
cations in  this  country,  and  secondly  with  some  consider- 
ations bearing  on  the  problems  of  variation  and  heredity, 
more  especially  as  seen  in  the  Coelenterata.  In  fact,  in- 
fluenced no  doubt  by  the  personal  work  of  the  president, 
a  considerable  number  of  the  communications  brought  before 
the  section  this  year  dealt  with  the  Coelenterata,  especially 
with  corals  and  coral  reefs. 

7  hursday,  September  lo. — The  forenoon  was  given  up 
to  coral  papers,  and  the  afternoon  mainly  to  reports  of 
committees.  Dr.  J.  E.  Duerden  (from  the  United  States) 
gave  two  papers,  "  Septal  Sequence  in  the  Coral  Sider- 
astraea  "  and  "  Morphology  and  Development  of  Recent  and 
Fossil  Corals  "• — these  being  some  of  the  results  of  the 
author's  studies  of  living  West  Indian  corals  while  he 
served  as  curator  of  the  museum  at  Jamaica.  He  directed 
attention  to  the  general  occurrence  of  boring  filamentous 
Alga;,  and  to  the  fact  that  the  colours  of  West  Indian  corals 
are  mainly  due  to  the  presence  of  symbiotic  yellow  cells 
(zooxanthellae)  in  the  endoderm.  Mr.  C.  Crossland  had  a 
paper  describing  the  coral  formations  he  met  with  on  the 
east  coast  of  Africa,  near  Zanzibar,  and  Mr.  Stanley 
Gardiner  gave  a  general  account  of  the  coral  reefs  of  the 
Indian  Ocean.  In  connection  with  this,  Prof.  Herdman 
directed  attention  to  the  fact  that,  in  the  Gulf  of  Manaar, 
calcareous  masses  ("  calcretes  ")  of  great  extent  are  formed 
in  situ  on  the  sea-bottom  by  the  cementing  of  sand  and 
other  loose  material  by  calcareous  incrusting  Polyzoa. 
Miss  Edith  Pratt  had  a  paper  on  the  assimilation  and  dis- 
tribution of  nutriment  in  Alcyonium  digitatum.  The 
polypes  exercise  choice,  and  feed  mainly  on  small  Crustacea. 
Miss  Pratt  regards  the  so-called  nerve-plexus  as  part  of  a 
system  of  amoeboid  endoderm  cells  conveying  nutriment 
throughout  the  colony.  Prof.  Hickson  described  a  case  of 
polymorphism  in  a  Pennatula  murrayi  from  eastern  seas. 
Dr.  J.  Cameron  gave  a  lantern  demonstration  on  the  origin 
of  the  epiphysis  in  Amphibia  as  a  bilateral  structure. 

The  reports  of  committees  were  as  follows  : — (i)  On  bird 
migration  in  Great  Britain  and  Ireland.  This  is  the  final 
report,  and  consists  chiefly  of  Mr.  Eagle  Clarke's  observ- 
ations on  the  starling  and  the  rook.  (2)  Naples  Zoological 
Station.  This  includes  a  detailed  account,  by  Mr.  W. 
Wallace,  of  his  investigations  on  the  oocyte  of  Tomopteris. 
(3)  "  Index  Animalium."  The  first  volume,  dealing  with 
the  period  1758-1800,  has  been  issued,  and  the  indexing 
of  1801-1900  is  now  being  continued  by  Mr.  Sherborn.  (4) 
Zoology  of  the  Sandwich  Islands.  This  is  the  thirteenth 
report,  and  the  work  is  still  in  progress.  (5)  Coral  reefs 
of  the  Indian  region.  (6)  Plymouth  Marine  Laboratory. 
(7)  Millport  Marine  Laboratory.  As  on  this  occasion  the 
physiological  section  did  not  meet  separately,  the  physio- 
logical papers  were  taken  in  Section  D.  These  included 
two  reports  : — (i)  The  microchemistry  of  cells.  This  dealt 
chiefly  with  the  localisation  of  potassium  in  the  living  cell, 
and  was  drawn  up  by  Prof.  A.  B.  Macallum.  (2)  The  state 
of  solution  of  proteids. 

Friday,  September  11. — After  the  presidential  address 
came  a  paper  by  Dr.  Gamble  and  Mr.  Keeble  on  the 
bionomics  of  Convoluta  roscoffensis,  with  special  reference 
to  its  green  cells.  This  was  followed  by  three  short  notes 
by  Prof.  R.  J.  Anderson — the  skull  of  Ursus  ornatus,  the 
skull  of  Grampus  griseus,  and  the  peritoneum  in  Meles 
taxus.     The  section  did  not  meet  on  Saturday. 

Monday,   September   14. — The  morning  was  devoted  to  a 

•joiqt    discussion    with    botanists    on    fertilisation,    in    which 

-the;  president,    Prof.    Hartog,    Prof.    Bretland    Farmer,    Mr. 

W.  Bateson,  Mr.  M.  D.  Hill,  and  Mr.  Jenkinson  took  part. 

NO.    1773,  VOL.   68] 


The  following  papers  were  then  read  : — M.  D.  Hill,  on 
nuclear  changes  in  the  egg  of  Alcyonium  ;  Prof.  Hartog, 
on  the  function  of  chromatin  in  cell  division,  and  on  the 
tentacles  of  Suctoria ;  Prof.  Hickson,  on  conjugation  in 
Dendrocometes  (demonstrated  with  slides)  ;  J.  W.  Jenkin- 
son, on  some  experiments  on  the  development  of  the  frog  ; 
Dr.  Leighton,  on  British  reptiles;  N.  Annandale,  on  the 
coloration  of  Malayan  reptiles ;  H.  C.  Robinson,  on  the 
walking  fish  of  the  Malay  Peninsula,  and  also  an  ex- 
hibition of  convergent  series  of  Malayan  butterflies. 

Tuesday,  September  15. — Prof.  Herdman  gave  a  short 
account  of  a  remarkable  phosphorescence  phenomenon 
observed  in  the  Indian  Ocean,  which  led  to  descriptions  of 
other  similar  occurrences  by  the  president,  Mr.  Stanley 
Gardiner,  Mr.  Bateson,  and  others.  Prof.  Herdman  then 
read  a  joint  note  by  Mr.  James  Hornell  and  himself  on 
pearl-formation  in  the  Ceylon  pearl  oyster,  giving  a  bio- 
logical classification  of  pearls  into  (i)  ampullary,  (2) 
muscle  pearls,  and  (3)  cyst  pearls.  The  remaining  papers 
were  mainly  physiological  in  their  bearing,  viz.  Captain 
Barrett-Hamilton,  on  a  physiological  theory  of  the 
winter  whitening  of  animals ;  Prof.  B.  Moore,  on  a 
new  form  of  osmometer  for  direct  determinations  of 
osmotic  pressure  of  colloids,  and  also  experiments  on  the 
permeability  of  lipoid  membranes ;  Prof.  Sherrington  and 
Dr.  Griinbaum,  on  the  cerebrum  of  apes;  Mr.  J.  Bar- 
croft,  on  the  origin  of  water  in  saliva ;  Dr.  Greaves, 
demonstration  of  visual  combination  of  complementary 
colours ;  Mr.  C.  V.  Hughes,  note  on  two  rare  birds ; 
Dr.  Rennie,  on  epithelial  islets  in  the  pancreas  of 
Teleosteans ;  Mr.  D.  C.  Mcintosh,  on  variation  in 
Ophiocoma  nigra;  and  Prof.  W.  C.  M'Intosh,  on  the 
eggs  of  the  shanny.  Dr.  Rennie  suggests  that  his 
epithelial  islets  are  blood-glands  which  have  entered  into 
a  secondary  relation  to  the  pancreas,  and  that  they  main- 
tain their  primitive  function  of  producing  an  internal 
secretion. 

The  section  did  not  meet  on  Wednesday,  but  on  Thursday, 
.September  17,  there  was  a  dredging  expedition,  in  which 
the  president  and  a  number  of  the  members  of  Section  D 
took  part.  The  expedition  was  in  the  Lancashire  Sea- 
Fisheries  steamer,  John  Fell,  kindly  lent  for  the  purpose 
by  the  committee,  and  was  under  the  leadership  of  Mr. 
Dawson  (Superintendent  of  Fisheries),  Mr.  Isaac  Thomp- 
son (of  the  Liverpool  Marine  Biology  Committee),  and 
Prof.  Herdman.  The  first  hauls  of  the  fish  and  shrimp 
trawls  were  taken  in  the  shallow  waters  off  Southport  and 
the  estuary  of  the  Mersey,  in  order  to  show  the  fauna  of 
the  characteristic  Lancashire  small-fish  "nurseries";  a 
visit  was  paid  to  the  local  shrimping  fleet,  a  fishing  boat 
was  overhauled  and  boarded  and  its  nets  examined,  and 
the  other  routine  operations  of  the  fisheries  steamer  in 
policing  and  inspecting  the  district  were  fully  explained  to 
the  party.  The  processes  of  taking  the  physical  observ- 
ations, and  of  examining,  counting,  and  recording  a  haul 
of  the  trawl  were  also  gone  through.  Later  in  the  day 
dredging  and  tow-netting  took  place  further  out  to  sea 
on  harder  ground  with  a  more  varied  fauna.  Although 
not  strictly  part  of  the  work  of  the  section,  this  dredging 
expedition  made  an  interesting  and  appropriate  finish  to  a 
very  successful  zoological  meeting. 


UNIVERSITY    AND    EDUCATIONAL 
INTELLIGENCE. 

Dr.  Sydney  Young,  F.R.S.,  professor  of  chemistry  in 
University  College,  Bristol,  has  been  appointed  to  the  chair 
of  chemistry  in  Trinity  College,  Dublin,  vacant  by  the 
resignation  of  Prof.  Emerson  Reynolds. 

One  of  the  two  open  entrance  scholarships  which  were 
recently  founded  at  the  Victoria  University  of  Manchester, 
each  of  the  value  of  looZ.,  has  been  awarded  to  Mr.  W.  C. 
Denniston. 

Dr.  John  White,  of  the  University  of  Nebraska,  has  been 
appointed  head  of  the  department  of  chemistry  at  the  Rose 
Polytechnic  Institute,  succeeding  Prof.  W.  A.  Noyes,  who 
was  recently  appointed  chief  chemist  of  the  American 
National  Bureau  of  Standards. 

The  course  of  Saturday  morning  lectures  on  the  teaching 
of    mathematics,    which    the    London    Technical    Education 


October  22,  1903] 


NATURE 


615 


Hoard  announced  would  be  commenced  by  Prof.  Hudson 
at  King's  College,  Strand,  on  October  17,  has  been  post- 
poned until  next  term,  and  will  begin  on  January  23,  1904. 

At  a  special  convocation  of  the  University  of  Toronto 
on  October  2,  the  following  honorary  degrees  were  con- 
ferred in  connection  with  the  opening  ceremonies  of  the 
new  physiological  and  medical  laboratories :— LL  D 
{honoris  causa)  Prof.  W.  W.  Keen,  Jefferson  Medical 
College.  Philadelphia  ;  Prof.  W.  H.  Welch,  Johns  Hopkins 
University ;  Prof.  William  Osier,  F.R.S.,  Johns  Hopkins 
L  niversity  ;  Prof.  R.  H.  Chittenden,  Yale  University  ;  Prof. 
Chares  S.  Sherrington,  F.R.S.,  University  of  Liverpool. 
In  absentia.  Prof.  H.  P.  Bowditch,  Harvard  University. 
I  he  inaugural  address  at  the  opening  of  the  laboratories 
was  delivered  by  Prof.  Sherrington. 

The  new  buildings  of  the  Essex  Countv  Technical 
Laboratories,  Chelmsford,  will  be  opened  by  "the  Earl  of 
Onslow,  President  of  the  Board  of  Agriculture,  on  Friday 
afternoon,  October  30.  The  buildings,  which  have  just 
been  completed  at  a  cost  of  nearly  12,000/.,  comprise 
chemical,  physical  and  biological  laboratories  and  class- 
rooms, together  with  agricultural  and  horticultural 
museums  and  libraries,  and  provide  facilities  for  systematic 
instruction  in  agriculture  and  horticulture,  as  well  as  in 
pure  science.  The  laboratories  are  intended  to  be  a  centre 
for  agricultural  and  horticultural  information  for  the  whole 
county,  and  they  include  rooms  for  the  analysis  of  soils, 
manures,  foods,  seeds,  &c.,  and  for  other  scientific  work 
carried  on  in  the  interest  of  these  industries. 

In  reply  to  a  memorial  to  the  Board  of  Agriculture,  ask- 
ing that  ordnance  maps  might  be  sold  at  reduced  prices 
for  teaching  purposes,  the  Geographical  Association  has 
been  informed  that  the  Board  is  prepared  to  authorise  the 
Ordnance  Survey  Department  to  produce  and  supply  to 
educational  authorities  a  special  edition  of  the  outline  i-inch 
maps,  printed  on  cheap  but  reasonably  strong  paper,  at  the 
following  prices  : — 200  copies,  il.  5s.  ;  500  copies,  2I.  ;  1000 
copies,  3/.  ;  5000  copies,  12Z:  For  larger  numbers  the  estim- 
<ited  price  would  be  2I.  per  1000  copies.  The  Board  has 
stipulated  that  any  maps  thus  supplied  should  not  be  sold, 
and  a  heading  is  to  be  printed  on  the  maps  to  this  effect. 
Referring  to  the  educational  advantages  of  the  Board's 
decision.  Dr.  Herbertson,  secretary  of  the  Geographical 
Association,,  remarks: — "'it  is  universally  agreed  that  all 
sound  geographical  teaching  must  begin  in  a  study  of  the 
home  region,  and  it  is  therefore  to  be  hoped  that  most 
icachers  will  avail  themselves  of  the  facilities  so  generously 
j:;;^ranted,  either,  individually  or  by  making  application 
through  the  local  education  authority." 

Much  of  the  success  of  the  Glasgow  and  West  of  Scotland 
Technical  College  could  probably  be  traced  to  the  wide- 
spread interest  in  its  work  shown  by  the  Corporation  of 
Glasgow,  by  Scottish  manufacturers  and  merchants,  and 
by  the  associations  both  of  professional  men  and  of  artisans. 
The  most  recent  annual  report  of  the  governors  of  the 
college  provides  many  indications  of  the  belief  in  the  value 
of  higher  technical  education  by  the  inhabitants  of  Glasgow 
and  its  neighbourhood.  The  Corporation  of  Glasgow  has 
made  a  grant  of  5000/.,  of. which  4500/.  was  towards  work- 
ing expenses  and  500/.  towards  the  building  fund ;  many 
manufacturers  and  others  have  given  facilities  for  visits  to 
their  works  by  parties  of  students,  and  many  merchants 
have  made  additions  to  the  college  equipment  or  have  sup- 
plied laboratory  material.  It  is  of  interest  to  note  that  the 
total  expenditure  involved  by  the  erection  of  the  new  build- 
ings, the  foundation  stone  of  which  was  laid  last  May  by 
the  King,  exclusive  of  equipment,  will  be  not  less  than 
210,000/.  Of  this  sum  the  governors  are  able  to  announce 
promises  of  donations  and  grants  amounting  to  182,382/. 


SOCIETIES  AND  ACADEMIES. 
London. 
Entomological  Society,  October  7,— Prof.  E.  B.  Poulton, 
F.R.S.,  president,  in  the  chair. — Mr.  G.  C.  Champion 
exhibited  on  behalf  of  Prof.  Hudson  Beare  some  specimens 
■of  a  Ptinus  new  to  the  British  list,  captured  in  a  granary 
at  Strood  on  May  11.  1901. — Mr.  C.  O.  Waterhouse  ex- 
hibited on  behalf  of  Mr.  Charles  Pool  specimens  of  a  beetle 
of  the  genus  Niphus,    closely   resembling  N.   crenatus,   but 

NO.  1773,  VOL.  68] 


with    distinct    shoulders,    and    more   parallel    elytra     which 
are    less    strongly    striated.     They    were    found    in    large 
numbers  in  a  corn  chandler's  at  Edmonton.— Mr.  H.  St.  J. 
Donisthorpe  exhibited  specimens  of  Aphanisticus  emarpin- 
atus  from   the   Isle  of  Wight,   a   beetle  new  to  the   British 
list    and  a  Scymnus,  new  to  science,  from  the  same  locality. 
—Mr.  M.  Burr  exhibited  a  living  adult  male  earwig,  Labi- 
dura  rtpana,   Pall.,   captured  near  Boscombe  at  the  end  of 
August.       He    said    that    the    very    noticeable    pale    color- 
ation becomes  darker  after  death,   sometimes  nearly  black, 
which   might  account  for  some  of  the  numerous  "  colour- 
varieties.  "—Dr.     Norman    Joy    e.xhibited    a    specimen    of 
Argynnts  selene,   taken  last  year  in   Berkshire,   showing  a 
remarkable    tendency    to    melanism,    and    rare    Coleoptera 
taken     in     the     same     county     during     1903.— Sir     George 
Hampson   exhibited  a   collection   of   Norwegian   butterflies 
made   by    him    on    the    Dorsefjeld,    on    the   Alten    fiord,    at 
Bossekop,    and   other    localities    this   year,    including   series 
of    Colias   hecla,    Lef.,    Chrysophanus   hippothoe,    and    var. 
stieberi,     Gerh.,     CEneis     noma,     Thnb.,     Melitaea,     var. 
Norvegica.    Auriv.,    the    Norwegian    form    of    M.    aurelia, 
Argynnis  freiga,   and   A.   frigga,   a   Labrador,   Arctic,    and 
North    American    species,     now    found    further    south,     at 
Kongsvold,  for  the  first  time.— Mr.  A.  H.  Jones  exhibited 
examples    of    Erebia    christi,    taken    this    summer    in    the 
Laquinthal,    and   of   the   species  of   Erebia,    to   which   it   is 
allied  ;  a  local  form  of  Satyrus  actaea,   var.   cordula,   from 
Sierre;   and   a   short   series  of   Chrysophanus   dorilis' (tvpe) 
and    C.    var.    subalpina     from    the    Laquinthal,     with'  P. 
hippothoe,    var.    eurybia,    showing   the   strong   resemblance 
on  the  upper  surface     which   the    Q    of  this   latter   species 
bears    to    the    9    subalpina.— Mr.    A.    J.    Chitty    exhibited 
specimens    of    Procto    trupid,    which    he    said    approached 
Poncra    consfricta    in    appearance,    but    might    be    an    Iso- 
brachium.     If  so,   it  was  new  to  the  British  list.— Mr.    H. 
Willoughby  Ellis  exhibited  Criocephalus  polonicus,  Motsch, 
a   longicorn    beetle    new    to    Great    Britain,    from    the    New 
Forest,  and  also  specimens  of  all  stages,   from  the  egg  to 
the  imago,  to  illustrate  the  life-history  of  the  species.     He 
also    exhibited    specimens    of    Asemum    striatum,    L.,    with 
larva    and    pupa,    accounted    heretofore    rare    in    the    New 
Forest,     but     this     year     occurring     in     abundance. — Mr. 
Ambrose  Quail   exhibited  cases  showing  the  life-history  of 
some  Australian    Hepialidae.— Dr.    D.    Sharp,    F.R.S.,"  ex- 
hibited   specimens    illustrative    of    the    egg-cases    and    life- 
histories  of   eight   species   of   South   African    Cassididae,    as 
described    in   a   paper   by    Mr.    F.    Muir   and    himself. — Mr. 
W.  L.  Distant  also  showed  the  pupa  cases  of  some  African 
species  of  Aspidomorpha,  with  the  cast  heads  of  the  larvae. 
— Mr.    Roland    Trimen,    F.R.S.,    exhibited    some    cases    of 
mimicry     between     butterflies     inhabiting     the     Kavirondo- 
Nandi    district    of    the    Uganda    British    Protectorate,    par- 
ticularly that  in  which  Planema  poggei,  Dewitz,  is  imitated 
by  an  apparent  variety  of  Pseudacraea  kiinowii,  Dewitz,  and 
also    by    a    hitherto    undescribed    form    of    the    polymorphic 
Q      Papilio     merope.     Cram.     He     mentioned     that     both 
Planema   poggei  and   Pseudacraea   kiinowii   were  described 
and  figured  by  Dewitz  in  1879  from  single  specimens  taken 
by   Dr.    Pogge   irf  Angola,    and   added   the   interesting   fact 
that  the  oAly  other  example  of  the  undescribed  mimicking 
form  of  the   9    PapiHo  merope  known  to  him — in  the  Hope 
Department  of  the  Oxford  University  Museum — is  ticketed 
"Angola;     Rogers,     1873."       The     president     referred     to 
the     special     interest     attaching     to     an     interpretation     of 
this     remarkable    form     of     the     female     merope ;     at     the 
same     time     he     pointed      out      that      the     interpretation 
so    convincingly    illustrated    that    evening    had    been    made 
out  last   spring  by   Mr.    S.    A.    Neave,    who   exhibited    this 
form  of  the  female  merope,  together  with  Planema  poggei 
as  its  model,  at  both  soiries  of  the  Royal  Society  in   May 
and  June,  a  time  when  Mr.  Trimen's  absence  from  England 
unfortunately  prevented  him  from  seeing  them. — Dr.  T.  A. 
Chapman  exhibited  Coenonympha  oedipus,  Satyrus  dryas, 
and     Heteropterus     morpheus,     taken     last     summer     near 
Biarritz,  and  Erebia  crias  and  E.  stygne,  from  the  Logroflo 
Sierra,  Spain.     These  he  suggested  were  probably  examples 
of   homoeochromatism.     Little   attention   has   been   directed 
to    homoeochromatism    in    European    butterflies,    and    these 
were  certainly  not  examples  of  the  detailed  mimetism   we 
are  now  familiar  with  in  Miillerian  groups  from  the  African 


6i6 


NA  TURE 


[October  22,  1903 


and  neotropical  regions. — Dr.  Chapman  also  exhibited 
living  imagines  of  Crinopteryx  familiella.  These  had  just 
emerged  at  Reigate,  where  they  and  their  parents,  de- 
scended from  pupae  brought  from  Cannes  in  March,  1901, 
had  lived  out  of  doors  during  their  active  existence,  being 
brought  into  the  house  only  during  their  pupal  aestivation. 
This  seemed  noteworthy  in  so  southern  (Mediterranean) 
a  species.  The  experiment  seemed  quite  likely  to  continue 
successful  for  the  next  generation. — Mr.  Ambrose  Quail 
read  papers  on  the  antennae  of  the  Hepialidae  and  on 
Epalxiphora  axenana,  Theyr. — Mr.  Gilbert  J.  Arrow  read 
a  paper  on  the  laparostict  lamelicorn  Coleoptera  of  Grenada 
and  St.  Vincent,  West  Indies. — Mr.  T.  H.  Taylor  com- 
municated notes  on  the  habits  of  Chironomus  (orthocladius) 
sordidellus. — Mr.  F.  Du  Cane  Godman,  F.R.S.,  communi- 
cated descriptions  of  some  new  species  of  Erycinidse. — Mr. 
W.  L.  Distant  communicated  additions  to  the  rhynchotal 
fauna  of  Central  America. — Dr.  D.  Sharp,  F.R.S.,  read  a 
paper  on  the  egg-cases  and  early  stages  of  some  Cassididae. 

Paris. 
Academy  of  Sciences,  October  12.— M.  Albert  Gaudry 
in  the  chair. — The  perpetual  secretary  announced  to  the 
Academy  the  death  of  Prof.  Rudolf  Lipschitz,  correspondant 
for  the  section  of  geometry. — On  the  relations  between  the 
theory  of  double  integrals  of  the  second  species  and  that 
of  the  integrals  of  total  differentials,  by  M.  Emile  Picard. 
— On  the  temperature  of  inflammation  and  on  the  slow 
combustion  of  sulphur  in  oxygen  and  in  air,  by  M.  Henri 
Moissan.  The  temperature  of  inflammation  of  sulphur 
is  282°  C.  in  oxygen  and  363°  in  air,  at  atmospheric 
pressure.  Sulphur  dioxide  can  be  detected  after  twelve 
hours  at  100°  C,  giving  a  distinct  quantity  of  solid  at 
— 186°. — Palaeontological  observations  in  Alaska,  by  M. 
Albert  Gaudry.  The  abundance  of  mammoth  remains  near 
Yukon  leads  to  the  conclusion  that  at  a  far  distant  epoch 
the  climate  was  far  less  severe  than  at  present. — On  the 
new  function  Ea{x),  by  M.  G.  Mittag-Leffler.— The  de- 
tection and  estimation  of  urea  in  the  tissues  and  in  the 
blood  of  vertebrate  animals,  by  M.  Nestor  Grehant.  The 
alcohol  extract  is  evaporated  at  50°  C,  the  residue  treated 
with  nitrous  acid,  and  the  gases  pumped  out,  the  carbon 
dioxide  being  measured.  Both  the  blood  and  muscles  of 
mammals  were  found  to  contain  urea,  of  birds,  none. — On 
linear  equations  of  finite  differences,  by  M.  Alf.  Guldberg- 
— On  the  working  of  coherers,  by  M.  Albert  Turpain, — 
Contact  electrification  and  the  theory  of  colloid  solutions, 
by  M.  Jean  Perrin,  If  a  substance  in  contact  with  water 
takes  a  strong  electrification  and  small  surface  tension,  the 
stable  state  of  the  system  will  be  realised  by  an  emulsion 
of  granules  of  fixed  diameter,  dispersed  in  the  water. — The 
action  of  carbonic  acid  under  pressure  on  metallic  phos- 
phates, by  M.  A.  Barille. — On  a  series  of  bismuth  com- 
pounds, by  MM.  G.  Urbain  and  H.  Lacombe.  From  an 
examination  of  the  double  nitrates,  the  author  concludes 
that  bismuth  stands  in  the  same  relation  to  the  rare  earths 
as  zinc  does  to  magnesium. — On  the  estimation  of  vanadium 
in  metallurgical  products,  by  M.  Em.  Campagne.  The 
metal  is  converted  into  chloride,  the  bulk  of  the  ferric 
chloride  removed  by  ether,  and  the  vanadium  converted  into 
VOCI2  by  evaporation  with  hydrochloric  acid.  This  is 
converted  into  sulphate,  and  titrated  with  permanganate. — 
On  the  nitric  esters  of  the  alcohol-acids,  by  M.  H.  Duval. 
The  preparation  and  properties  of  the  nitrates  of  glycoUic, 
malic,  and  glyceric  acids  are  described. — The  abnormal 
fixation  of  trioxymethylene  on  certain  organo-magnesium 
derivatives,  by  MM.  M.  Tiffenau  and  R.  Delang^e.  The 
compound  obtained  by  the  action  of  magnesium  upon  benzyl 
chloride  behaves  abnormally  with  trioxymethylene,  giving 
orthotolyl  alcohol,  CH3.CeH,.CH^OH,  instead  of  the  phenyl- 
ethyl  alcohol,  C^H-.CHj.CHjOH,  which  might  have  been 
expected.  The  magnesium  compound,  however,  possesses 
the  normal  constitution,  CjHj.CHj.Mg.Cl,  as  is  shown  by 
the  production  of  phenylacetic  acid  by  the  action  of  carbon 
dioxide. — The  action  of  mixed  organo-magnesium  com- 
pounds upon  amides  :  a  new  method  for  the  preparation  of 
ketones,  by  M.  Constantin  Beis.  When  an  amide  is  heated 
on  the  water  bath  with  an  excess  of  an  organo-magnesium 
compound,  and  the  product  treated  with  water,  ketones  are 
produced.       Methyl-ethyl-ketone,      diethyl-ketone,      methyl- 


propyl-ketone,  isobutyl-ethyl-ketone,  acetophenone,  and 
phenyl-ethyl-ketone  have  been  prepared  by  this  method, 
which  appears  to  be  of  general  application. — On  the 
oscillatory  movements  of  Convoluta  roscoffensis,  by  M. 
Georges  Bohn. — On  the  vegetative  apparatus  of  the  yellow 
rust  of  cereals,  by  M.  Jakob  Eriksson. — The  necessity  of 
a  microbial  symbiosis  for  obtaining  a  culture  of  the  Myxo- 
mycetes,  by  M.  Pinoy. — On  a  new  mineral  species,  by 
M.  A.  Lacroix.  The  mineral,  which  is  named  grandi 
dierite,  has  the  composition 

7SiO,.ii(Al,Fe),03.7(Mg,Fe,Ca)0.2(Na,K,H),0, 
and  is  one  of  the  most  basic  silicates  known.     It  was  found 
in    South    Madagascar. — On    the  Turonian   cf   Abou  Roach 
(Egypt),  by  M.  R.  Fourtau. 


DIARY   OF    SOCIETIES. 

FRIDAY,  October  23. 

Physical  Society,  at  5.— The  Bending  of  Magnetometer  Deflection-Bars  : 

Dr   C.  Chree,  F.R.S.— On  the   Magnetism  of  Basalt  and  the  Magnetic 

Behaviour  of  Basaltic  Bars  when   Heated  in  Air  :    Dr.  G.  E.  Allen.— 

Some  Experiments  with  Electrical  Oscillations :  Dr.  W.  Watson, 

SA  TURD  A  V,  OcTOBBR  24. 

Essex    Field    Club.— Annual    Cryptogamic    Meeting    at    High    Beech, 

Epping  Forest ;  Referees  :  Dr.  M.  C.  Cooke  and  Mr.  George  Massee. 

SATURDAY,  October  31. 

Essex  Field  Club,  at  6.30.— Exhibition  of  a  Series  of  Photographs  of 

Fungi,    by    means  of   the    Lantern:     Mr.    Somerville    Hastings. — Seed 

Dispersal :  Prof.  G.  S.  Boulger. 


CONTENTS.  PAGE 

Ancient  Calendars.     By  W.  T.  L 593 

Physiological      Chemistry.       By      Prof.      W.      D. 

Halliburton,  F.R  S 594 

Popular  American  Entomology 595 

Our  Book  Shelf:— 

"  Catalogue  of  Books,  Manuscripts,  Maps,  and  Draw- 
ings in  the  British  Museum  (Natural  History)." — 

R-   L 596 

Mudge  and  Maslen  :  "A  Class  Book  of  Botany"  ,  .  596 
Perrin  :  "Traite  deChimie  physique,  Les  Principes"  .  597 
Timpany:  "The  Arithmetic  of   Elementary  Physics 

and  Chemistry  " 597 

Miron  :     "  Gisements     mineraux.     Stratigraphie     et 

Composition " 597 

Letters  to  the  Editor  :— 

Human  Science  and  Education. — Prof.  P.  Gardner  ,  597 
Uniformity   in    Scientific    Literature. — Prof.    G.  H. 

Bryan,  F.R. S 598 

Expansion  Curves.     {With  Diagram.) — Prof.  Alfred 

Lodge •••...    599 

Rocket     Lightning.       {Illustrated.) — Prof.     J.      D. 

Everett,  F.R.S.  ;  W.  H.  Everett 599 

Our  Winters  in  Relation  to  Bruckner's  Cycle.  ( With 

Diagram.)— PtX^y..  B.  MacDowall 600 

An  Ant  Robbed  by  a  Lizard. — ^J.  W^.  Stack    .    .    .         600 
A  New  Mechanical  Theory  of  the  .ffither.     By  Prof, 

G.  H.  Bryan,  F.R.S 600 

The  Effect  of  Education  and  Legislation  on  Trade, 

By  Dr.  F.    Mollwo   Perkin       602 

Notes 603 

Our  Astronomical  Column  : — 

Search-Ephemeris  for  Comet  1896  v •     ,    ,    606 

A  Novel  Feature  for  Geodetical  Instruments    .    ,    .    ,    606 

The  Path  of  Comet  1894  I.  (Denning) 606 

Observations  of  Mars • 606 

Natal  Government  Observatory      .    .        •     607 

Inheritance  of  Psychical  and  Physical  Characters 

in  Man.     By  Prof.  Karl  Pearson,  F.R.S,  ...    607 

The  Application  of  Low  Temperatures  to  the  Study 

of  Biological  Problems.   By  Dr.  Allan  Macfadyen     608 
Physics  at   the  British  Association.     By  Dr,  C.  H, 

Lees 609 

Chemistry  at  the  British  Association    .        611 

Geology  at  the  British  Association.    By  H,  W,  M,  .    612 

Zoology  at  the  British  Association 614 

University  and  Educational  Intelligence 614 

Societies  and  Academies 615 

Diary  of  Societies 615 


NO.  1773.  'VOL.  68] 


NATURE 


617 


THURSDAY,    OCTOBER    29,     1903. 


VECTORS    AND    ROTORS. 
Vectors  and  Rotors,  with  Applications.    By  O.  Henrici, 
Ph.D.,   LL.D.,    F.R.S.,   and   G.   C.   Turner,    B.Sc. 
Pp.     XV  +  204.     (London  :     Edward    Arnold,     n.d.) 
Price  4s.  6d. 

PROF.  HENRICI  can  always  be  depended  upon  to 
embellish  any  mathematical  subject  which  he 
touches,  because,  with  the  skill  of  the  analyst,  he 
combines  the  keen  perception  of  the  geometer,  which 
ever  seeks  to  render  the  results  of  analysis  in  some 
way  visible  by  spatial  representation — or,  perhaps,  to 
reach  the  results  directly  (and  often  more  simply)  with- 
out any  aid  from  analysis  at  all.  To  a  mathematician 
of  this  kind  the  subject  of  vector  analysis  is  peculiarly 
appropriate.  We  are  therefore  indebted  to  Mr.  Turner 
for  putting  into  systematic  form  the  lectures  delivered 
by  Prof.  Henrici  at  the  City  and  Guilds  Technical 
College,  and  producing  a  very  simple  and  elementary 
work  the  methods  and  ideas  of  which  should  find  a 
very  early  introduction  into  our  ordinary  mathematical 
teaching. 

The  system  here  put  forth  is  non-Hamiltonian.  A 
vector  is  throughout  a  mere  "  carrier."  With  Hamil- 
ton it  was  this  and  more ;  every  unit  vector,  when  em- 
ployed as  a  factor,  said  Hamilton,  is  to  be  regarded 
as  a  quadrantal  versor  the  plane  of  which  is  perpen- 
dicular to  the  vector.  In  the  non-Hamiltonian  system 
the  vector  is  not  in  any  way  associated  with  the  notion 
of  rotation.  Some  vectors  are,  except  as  regards  direc- 
tion and  sense,  absolutely  unrestricted  in  space ;  others 
(such  as  forces  acting  on  a  body)  are  restricted  to 
definite  right  lines  and  are  called  localised  vectors. 
For  these  latter  the  special  name  of  "  rotors  "  has 
been  invented,  and  Prof.  Henrici  must  excuse  an 
adherent  of  the  Hamiltonian  system  for  saying  that 
this  name  seems  to  be  wholly  unjustified  in  a  system 
which  refuses  to  associate  the  notion  of  a  rotational 
operation  with  any  vector.  Assuming  that  a  "  rotor  " 
means,  perchance,  a  "  rotator,"  how  comes  it  that 
such  a  name  is  applied  to  a  mere  "  carrier  "?  There 
is  another  term  also  adopted  by  Prof.  Henrici  the 
justification  of  which  is  at  least  difficult,  viz.  the  term 
"ort. "  A  vector  of  unit  length  is  called  an  "ort," 
which  is  explained  to  be  "  short  for  orientation,"  and 
"  orientation  "  makes  a  dangerous  suggestion  of 
rotation.  The  "  ort  "  is,  of  course,  Hamilton's  unit 
vector.  The  "rotor"  and  the  "ort"  should  be  re- 
garded by  anti-Hamiltonians  as  the  trail  of  the 
serpent.^ 

The  contrast  between  the  two  systems  is  well  illus- 
trated by  the  discussion  of  the  product,  o/3,  of  two 
vectors,  o  and  $,  which  forms  the  subject  of  chapter  iii. 
of  Prof.  Henrici 's  book.  With  Hamilton  the  nature 
of  the  expression  follows  simply  and  naturally;  o/3 
means  a//3-*,  an  operation  implying  rotation — the  con- 
version of  the  vector  /3-'  into  the  vector  o.  It  can 
therefore  be  taken  as  either  a  combined  tensor  and 
versor  operation,  or  a  combined  scalar  and  vector 
operation.     This  at  once  gives  us  the  complete  specifi- 

1  Prof.  A.  Lodge  suggests  the  term  "  locor  "  for  rotor. 

Ho.  1774,  VOL.  68] 


cation  of  the  vector  of  aj3,  and  also  that  of  the  scalar 
of  oj8,  making  the  latter  equal  to  -ab  cos  0,  where  a 
and  h  are  the  tensors  of  o  and  0,  and  e  the  angle 
between  them. 

Prof.  Henrici,  by  a  very  simple  and  consistent  rule, 
specifies  the  vector  part  and  makes  it  identical  with 
Hamilton's  specification,  but  he  makes  the  scalar 
+  ab  cos  6,  by  what,  after  all,  amounts  to  a  perfectly 
arbitrary  and  dogmatic  definition  (p.  95),  its  system- 
atic connection  with  the  mode  of  defining  Vo0  being 
somewhat  strained  and  unconvincing. 

This,  however,  is  a  'matter  of  no  consequence,  since 
he  is  quite  at  liberty  to  lay  down  his  own  definitions^ 
inasmuch  as  he  is  not  hampered  by  the  Hamiltonian 
notion  of  rotation  as  associated  with  a  vector. 

As  regards  notation  in  this  part  of  the  subject,  it 
may  be  pointed  out  that  Prof.  Henrici  uses  [o^]  for 
the  Hamiltonian  Vo/3,  and  (a,/3)  instead  of  So/3,  which 
certainly  does  not  seem  to  be  an  improvement,  especi- 
ally when  we  have  to  write  down  a  long  vector  or 
scalar  equation — such,  for  example,  as  (iii.),  p.  199. 
Again,  the  notation  [a|j3  +  7],  instead  of  Va{fi  +  y),  is 
scarcely  pleasing  to  the  eye,  even  if  it  is  not  calculated 
to  lead  to  slips  in  working. 

The  only  indication  that  Prof.  Henrici  gives  of  his 
view  of  the  quaternion  system  is  found  in  p.  104,  where 
he  dispenses  with  the  operation  of  division  by  vectors. 
"This  operation  is  complicated  and  will  not  be -con- 
sidered at  all.  It  leads  to  the  much  more  complicated 
Theory  of  Quaternions."  It  is,  however,  quite  open  to 
a  Hamiltonian  to  say  nothing  about  division  of  vectors ; 
he  can  treat  his  vectors  as  mere  "  carriers,"  and  claim 
all  the  results  of  a  non-Hamiltonian  theory  as  his 
own  ;  for  a  non-Hamiltonian  is  not  necessarily  an  anti- 
Hamiltonian  theory.  It  remains,  of  course,  quite  true 
that  with  Hamilton  division  is  the  primary  notion,  and 
multiplication  the  secondary. 

The  subjects  selected  by  Prof.  Henrici  for  vector 
treatment  are  geometrical  and  statical.  Almost  all 
the  prominent  results  of  elementary  geometry  are 
shortly  and  neatly  obtained,  and  among  the  illustra- 
tions of  this  subject  are  the  Peaucellier  and  Hart 
mechanisms  for  the  description  of  a  right  line.  There 
is  a  very  full  discussion  of  centres  of  mass,  and  a  plani- 
nietric  method  of  finding  the  centre  of  mass  of  any 
area,  which  method  is  not  so  well  known  as  it  ought 
to  be.  The  determination  of  the  centre  of  parallel 
forces  by  the  use  of  link  (or  funicular)  polygons  is  fully 
explained,  while— to  the  great  advantage  of  the  student 
—Prof.  Henrici  is  very  lavish  of  his  figures. 

So  very  few  elegances  escape  the  watchful  eye  of 
Prof.  Henrici  that  one  feels  a  pleasure  in  pointing  out 
something  that  he  might  have  included  in  his  dis- 
cussion of  force  systems.  The  centre  of  a  parallel 
system  of  forces  is  known  to  everyone,  but  the  astatic 
centre  of  a  system  of  coplanar  forces  has  received  little 
attention.  Yet  it  is  a  striking  entity,  and  one  which 
is  closely  allied  to  the  other  centre.  Its  definition  is 
fairly  well  known ;  perhaps  the  best  specification  of  it 
treats  it  as  the  point  of  intersection  of  the  line  of  no 
moment  with  the  line  of  no  virial. 

The  portion  of  the  book  dealing  with  statics  treats 
largely  of  the  stresses  in  frameworks,  shearing  forces, 
bending  moments,  &c.,  the  treatment  being,  of  course, 

D  D 


6i8 


NATURE 


[October  29,  1903 


all  vectorial,  that  is,  geometrical,  and  marked  by  great 
clearness  of  exposition.  Such  a  treatment  of  statics 
forms  a  most  need'ful  corrective  of  the  methods  of  a 
purely  "analytical  statics,"  which  has  a  strong 
tendency  to  keep  the  subject  aloof  from  reality,  and  to 
obscure  its  physical  nature.  "  One  does  not  find 
figures  in  this  book,"  boasted  Lagrange  in  his 
■*'  M^canique  Analytique,"  but  the  absence  of  geo- 
tnetrical  methods  and  conceptions  is  not  to  the  advan- 
tage of  the  subject. 

In  the  penultimate  chapter  Prof.  Henrici  gives  a 
short,  very  useful,  and  well  explained  account  of  the 
reciprocal  figures  of  graphic  statics,  and  the  last 
chapter  is  a  very  short  one  on  the  deduction  of  the 
elementary  trigonometrical  formulae  from  vector 
methods.  With  all  deference  to  the  author,  however, 
it  is  to  be  feared  that  pupils  will  not,  within  time  at 
the  earth's  disposal,  be  so  much  accustomed  to  think 
in  vectors  as  to  deduce  their  notions  of  a  sine  and  a 
cosine  otherwise  than  by  the  old  method. 

Next  to  the  systematic  teaching  of  the  solution  of 
all  kinds  of  equations  by  graphic  constructions,  the 
wider  employment  of  geometrical  methods  in  dynamics 
Is  our  greatest  desideratum,  and  for  this  reason  we 
have  to  thank  Prof,  Henrici  for  this  elegant  little 
treatise.  George  M.  Minchin. 

THREE    PROTOZOAN   ARTICLES. 
A  Treatise  on  Zoology.     Edited  by  E.  Ray  Lankester, 
LL.D.,     F.R.S.,     &c.     Part    i.     Introduction     and 
Protozoa.    Second  Fascicle.    Pp.  vi  +  451.    (London: 
A.  and  C.  Black,  1903.)     Price  15s.  net. 

THE  erratic  order  in  which  the  various  volumes  of 
Prof.  Lankester's  treatise  are  appearing  is,  from 
the  nature  of  their  subject,  a  matter  of  very  little  con- 
sequence, and  we  are  glad  to  welcome  now  this  instal- 
ment of  the  protozoan  chapter.  It  is  the  second 
fascicle  of  part  i.,  of  which  the  first  fascicle,  contain- 
ing the  introduction  and  the  groups  not  here  included, 
has  still  to  appear.  The  inconvenience  of  the  intended 
arrangement  of  parts  is  clearly  demonstrated,  and  it 
is  very  fortunate  that  it  has  not  resulted  in  the  deten- 
tion at  the  press  of  the  valuable  essays  which  make  up 
this  volume.  A  large  part  of  the  editor's  difficulties 
liave  resulted,  it  is  clear,  from  his  adherence  to  the 
plan  of  producing  bound  volumes  of  nearly  uniform 
size— in  following,  that  is  to  say,  the  mode  of  publi- 
cation of  the  recent  "  Cambridge  Natural  History  " 
and  of  other  similar  works  of  collaboration.  We 
believe  it  would  prove  to  be  in  the  interest  of  authors 
and  readers  alike  if  no  attempt  were  made  by  the 
editors  of  series  of  this  kind  to  produce  periodically 
completed  volumes,  and  if  the  separate  articles  were 
issued  uniformly,  but  unbound,  in  the  style  of  German 
monographs.  The  total  expense  to  the  purchaser  of 
the  whole  series  could  remain  the  same  by  an  obvious 
arrangement,  while  the  gain  tO'  many  specialists  would 
be  immense.  We  have  a  case  in  point  in  the  present 
volume.  Prof.  Minchin 's  valuable  monograph  on  the 
Sporozoa  occupies  about  one-half  of  the  whole  volume, 
and  might,  we  gather,  have  been  already  for  some 
time  in  our  hands  if  it  had  appeared  separately  in  paper 
<5overs.  Its  subject  is  precisely  one  in  which  publica- 
tion might  well  have  been  both  early  and  individual 
NO.    1774,  VOL.  68] 


in  the  interests  of  the  medical  profession,  for  which  it 
has,  perhaps,  its  chief  importance  at  the  present  time. 
The  deliberate  manufacture  of  volumes,  as  such,  while 
we  can  see  nothing  at  all  to  recommend  it,  is  exposed 
at  the  same  time  to  the  serious  objection  of  stimulating 
over-production.  The  publication  of  a  complete 
"Cambridge  Natural  History,"  and  now  of  what  is 
virtually  an  Oxford  treatise,  suggests  inevitably  that 
among  the  whole  body  of  English  zoologists  a  good 
deal  of  research  has  been  recently  sacrificed  to  text- 
book writing,  of  which  a  large  part,  however  conscien- 
tious, has  been  redundant. 

We  can  say  this  now  with  the  greater  assurance, 
because  it  cannot  be  taken  as  applying  to  the  excellent 
articles  on  the  Foraminifera,  the  Sporozoa,  the  Ciliata, 
and  the  Acinetaria  in  the  present  volume.  The  section 
dealing  with  the  Sporozoa,  by  Prof.  Minchin,  takes 
its  place  as  an  admirable  systematic  account  of  the 
group,  prefaced  by  a  general  sketch  of  their  characters 
and  of  the  typical  life-history.  The  recent  develop- 
ments of  our  knowledge  of  sporozoan  parasites  in  con- 
nection with  malarial  disease  give  a  special  import- 
ance, as  we  have  said,  to  this  monograph.  Prof. 
Minchin  provides  in  his  description  of  the  Haemo- 
sporidia  exactly  what  is  now  becoming  essential  know- 
ledge for  the  student  of  disease,  and  it  is  highly  desir- 
able, we  think,  that  medical  men  should  approach  the 
study  of  this  group  from  a  more  general  point  of  view 
than  that  permitted  in  the  restricted  accounts  of  the 
malaria  parasite  written  specially  for  their  use.  In 
the  interests  of  further  developments  of  curative  and 
preventive  treatment  in  new  directions,  it  is  of  the 
first  importance  that  the  morphology  and  life-cycles 
of  the  members  of  this  group  should  be  completely 
determined,  although,  as  the  author  claims,  "  the  life- 
cycle  of  the  malarial  parasite  is  now  thoroughly  known 
in  all  its  features."  The  recent  work  of  Schaudinn, 
who  has  explained  the  occurrence  of  relapse  in  malaria 
without  fresh  infection  as  due  to  a  kind  of  partheno- 
genetic  reproduction  by  resistant  and  long-lived  macro- 
gametocytes,  is  an  example  of  the  value  in  these 
inquiries  of  a  zoological  outlook,  and  it  is  to  be  re- 
membered that  the  "  black  spores  "  of  Ross  have  not 
yet  been  assigned  with  certainty  to  their  place  in  a 
life-cycle.  With  regard  to  the  voluminously  alleged 
connection  between  the  Sporozoa  and  cancer.  Prof. 
Minchin  is  content  to  express  the  hostility  of  most 
zoologists,  but  he  gives  all  the  necessary  material  for 
following  the  discussion  elsewhere.  In  summing  up 
the  affinities  of  the  whole  group  he  decides  against  the 
theory  of  Euglenoid  ancestry  which  Biitschli  advanced, 
and  argues  in  favour  of  a  descent  from  the  Rhizopoda, 
quoting  the  interesting  example  of  parasitism  which 
Schewiakoff  has  found  in  simple  amoeboid  forms.  He 
concludes  his  article  with  a  valuable  compilation  of 
sporozoan  hosts,  including  Labb^'s  list  with  modern 
additions,  and  an  abundant  bibliography  is  appended, 
brought  up  to  the  beginning  of  the  present  year.  It 
would  be  difficult  to  suggest  any  Improvement  in  the 
author's  selection  of  illustrations  or  in  their  execution. 

Prof.  Hickson,  who  has  undertaken  the  Infusoria, 
does  not  include  the  Flagellata,  but  deals  only  with  the 
Ciliata  and  Acinetaria,  grouped  as  the  Corticata 
Heterokaryota.  Here  again  we  can  have  nothing 
but  praise  for  his  admirably  illustrated  account  of  these 


October  29,  1903] 


^t^ATVRE 


619 


classes,  and  can  only  regret  that  it  has  been  necessarily 
rather  compressed.  The  limits  of  space  have  forced  the 
author  to  deal  briefly  with  the  physiological  inquiries 
for  which  the  Ciliata  have  provided  such  a  wonderfully 
fertile  field.  The  work  of  Verworn  and  others  upon 
the  nuclear  functions  by  means  of  "  protozoan  vivisec- 
tion," and  the  studies  of  Miss  Greenwood  in  intra- 
cellular digestion,  are  very  shortly  dealt  with,  while 
the  classical  accounts  by  Maupas  of  the  processes  of 
reproduction  among  the  Ciliata  deserve  more  expansive 
treatment  than  they  receive  in  Prof.  Hickson's  excel- 
lent summary.  Enough  is  given,  however,  of  these 
biological  studies  to  illustrate  the  author's  discussion 
of  the  significance  of  the  heterokaryote  body,  the  in- 
dividuality of  the  Infusoria  after  conjugation,  and 
the  incidence  of  somatic  death  among  them,  with 
which  he  prefaces  his  descriptive  classification  of  the 
whole  group. 

The  Foraminifera  are  dealt  with  in  an  article  of  the 
highest  distinction  by  Mr.  Lister,  whose  powers  of 
lucid  description,  together  with  many  original  draw- 
ings and  photographs  of  first-class  merit,  allow  the 
rt  ader  to  follow,  perhaps  for  the  first  time  with  ease, 
(lie  intricacies  of  skeletal  structure  and  life-history 
found  in  this  group.  A  unique  value  is  given  to  this 
section  by  the  inclusion  within  it  of  Mr.  Lister's  own 
researches  into  the  remarkable  phenomena  of  dimor- 
phism in  the  Foraminifera,  which  he  illustrates  by  a 
complete  account  of  the  alternation  of  the  microspheric 
and  megalospheric  generations  in  the  life-cycle  of 
Polystomella.  This  dimorphism,  with  other  characters, 
i--  followed  through  the  various  groups  of  Foraminifera 
>o  far  as  our  present  knowledge  allows,  and  the  facts 
are  summed  in  a  concluding  survey,  to  which  is 
appended  a  systematic  classification  and  bibliography. 
Mr.  Lister  lays  stress  on  the  importance  of  life-history 
as  evidence  in  the  determination  of  phylogeny  in  this 
i^roup,  and  this  is  becoming  more  and  more  evident  in 
the  case  of  other  groups  also  of  Protozoa.  As  an 
example  of  the  questions  of  fundamental  importance 
u  hich  are  likely  to  arise  in  the  further  study  of  these 
life-histories  may  be  noted  the  occurrence  of  the  multi- 
form condition  especially  in  the  microspheric  gener- 
ation, which  Mr.  Lister  has  ingeniously  compared  with 
the  repetition  of  ancestral  form  seen  in  the  sexually 
produced  larva  of  the  Cladoceran  Leptodora,  but  not 
in  its  parthenogenetically  developed  young.  This 
section  marks  a  brilliant  advance  in  description  of  the 
Foraminifera,  and  Mr.  Lister  is  to  be  heartily  con- 
gratulated upon  it. 

The  earlier  pages  of  the  volume  are  given  to  an 
article  by  Prof.  Farmer  on  the  structure  of  animal 
and  vegetable  cells,  of  which,  short  as  it  is, 
nearly  one-half  is  devoted  to  the  discussion  of 
reducing  divisions  and  to  some  other  physiological 
points.  The  problem  of  the  structure  of  protoplasm 
and  of  the  resting  nucleus  is  dealt  with,  on  the  whole, 
perfunctorily,  and  is  nowhere  illuminated  by  reference 
to  the  results  of  Fischer  and  others  in  connection  with 
the  action  of  fixatives — results  notably  confirmed  and 
extended  in  this  country  by  Hardy — which  already 
promise  to  remove  these  questions  from  the  dust  of  a 
microscopists'  quarrel  and  place  it  on  the  stage  of  exact 
physical  inquiry. 

NO.   1774,  VOL    68] 


PRACTICAL    PHOTOGRAPHY. 

Carbon  Photography  made  Easy.  By  Thos.  Illing- 
worth.  Pp.  150.  (London  :  IlifTe  and  Sons,  Ltd., 
1903.)     Price  IS.  net. 

Portraiture  for  Amateurs  without  a  Studio.  By 
Rev.  F.  C.  Lambert,  M.A,  Part  i.  (Technical)  and 
Part  ii.  (Pictorial).  Pp.  iv+176.  (London:  Hazell, 
Watson  and  Viney,  Ltd.,  1903.)  Price,  each  part, 
is.  net. 

The  Elementary  Chemistry  of  Photographic  Chemi- 
cals. By  C.  Sordes  Elhs,  F.LC,  F.C.S.  Pp.  120. 
(London  :  Hazell,  Watson  and  Viney,  Ltd.,  1903.) 
Price  IS.  net. 

Photography  by  Rule.  By  J.  Sterry.  Pp.  124. 
(London  :  Iliffe  and  Sons,  Ltd.,  1903.)  Price  is. 
net. 

PHOTOGRAPHY  as  now  practised  may  be  re- 
garded  from  so  many  points  of  view,  and  pursued 
for  so  many  dififerent  purposes,  that  it  is  desirable  to 
have  treatises  on  special  branches  of  it,  such  as  those 
now  under  notice.  A  considerable  advantage  of  this 
method  of  setting  forth  the  facts  and  methods  of  photo- 
graphy is  that  each  section  may  be  dealt  with  by  one 
who  has  paid  special  attention  to  it,  and  is  able  to 
speak  upon  it  with  authority. 

Mr.  Illingworth,  for  example,  is  a  man  whose 
business  very  largely  consists  in  the  making  of  carbon 
prints.  His  practical  directions  are,  therefore,  beyond 
criticism,  and  we  put  up  with,  without  a  murmur,  his 
reference  to  "  chloride,  bromide,  platinum,  or  other 
commoner  printing  processes  "  because  of  the  frank 
and  full  way  in  which  he  describes  the  process  in 
which  he  is  a  specialist.  His  book  would  have  been 
better  without  the  chapter  devoted  to  the  "  Chemistry 
of  the  Carbon  Process,"  for  here  he  has  gone 
outside  his  experience  and  his  knowledge,  and  what 
he  has  set  down  tends  to  error  and  confusion.  The 
discriminating  student  will  discover  this  for  himself, 
but  beginners  cannot  always  separate  the  wheat  from 
the  chaff,  and  it  is  for  beginners  that  the  book  appears 
to  be  chiefly  intended. 

In  a  volume  on  the  chemistry  of  photographic 
chemicals  one  looks  for  a  special  knowledge  of  the 
chemicals  used  in  photography,  but  in  the  book  before 
us  there  is  not  much  evidence  of  this.  The  author 
appears  to  go  out  of  his  way  to  say  that  a  "  chemical 
change  theory  "  of  the  developable  image  "  is  the  one 
generally  accepted  at  the  present  day."  We  very 
much  doubt  it.  But  in  the  matter  that  deals  with 
the  subject  as  set  forth  by  the  title,  there  are  many 
statements  that  need  modification,  if  not  correction. 
Silver  nitrate  is  doubtless  the  most  important  of  all 
"photographic  chemicals,"  but  only  little  more  than 
a  dozen  lines  are  devoted  to  its  consideration.  We 
are  told  that  when  prepared  by  dissolving  silver  in 
nitric  acid  hydrogen  is  evolved,  and  that  when  obtained 
in  the  solid  form,  preferably  by  fusion,  it  is  not  likely 
to  be  alkaline.  Now  fused  silver  nitrate  often  is  alka- 
line, and  as  to  the  equation  showing  hydrogen  liber- 
ated from  nitric  acid  by  the  metal,  the  less  said  the 
better.  We  are  told  that  the  oxidation  of  sodium 
sulphite  to  sulphate  by  exposure  to  the  air  "is  easily  de- 
tected by  the  crystals  becoming  powdery  and  opaque," 


620 


NATURE 


[October  29,  1903 


and  that  ammonia,  when  used  as  a  follower  to 
mercuric  chloride  in  intensification,  dissolves  the  silver 
chloride  and  forms  ammonium  dimercurous  chloride, 
while  sodium  sulphite  precipitates  the  mercury  in  the 
metallic  form.  The  word  "  sensitisers  "  is  applied  to 
substances  not  usually  so  called,  such  as  potassium 
bichromate.  We  are  told  that  "  when  toning  takes 
place  with  gold  chloride,  chlorine  is  given  off."  Of 
course  it  is  not  "  given  off  "  as  that  expression  is 
commonly  understood.  Many  other  matters  that  need 
correction  might  be  noted.  Generally,  methods  of 
preparation  are  given,  rather  than  the  'properties  of 
the  things  as  the  photographer  gets  them.  The  latter 
is  what  is  chiefly  wanted,  as  photographers  do  not 
make  their  own  chemicals,  nor,  indeed,  are  the  in- 
structions herein  given  generally  a  sufficient  guide  to 
enable  them  to  do  so. 

Mr.  Lambert,  in  his  two  small  volumes  on  por- 
traiture, writes  from  first  to  last  from  his  own 
experience,  and  not  only  so,  but  in  the  greater  number 
of  cases  demonstrates  by  examples  the  effects  that  he 
states  result  from  certain  procedures.  The  advantage 
of  colour  sensitised  plates  can  be  seen  at  a  glance  in 
the  representation  of  the  clothes,  the  hair,  and  the  face 
or  complexion  of  the  sitter  by  inspecting  the  com- 
parative examples  given.  The  effects  of  different 
lenses,  different  positions  of  the  camera,  different 
methods  of  lighting,  variations  in  exposure,  different 
methods  of  dressing  the  hair  and  of  posing  the  model, 
are  all  demonstrated.  Indeed,  it  Is  hardly  possible 
to  think  of  any  matter  that  bears  upon  the  subject  that 
is  not  dealt  with  and  illustrated.  The  volumes  are 
very  suggestive  to  anyone  interested  in  portraiture, 
and  will  be  specially  useful  to  the  amateur  who  has 
no  studio  at  his  disposal. 

Mr.  Sterry  has  been  a  student  of  photography  for 
a  great  many  years,  and  has  carefully  followed,  and 
often  contributed  to,  the  progress  of  the  science  that 
has  taken  place  during  the  last  decade  or  two.  He 
is  therefore  specially  fitted  to  treat  of  those  methods 
of  photography  In  which  reasonable  methods  take  the 
place  of  mere  empiricism,  and  he  has  set  down  in  a 
clear  manner  a  summary  of  recent  work  so  far  as  it 
affects  the  making  of  negatives  and  prints  on  bromide 
papers,  including  enlargements. 

It  seems  to  be  necessary  to  make  every  book  on 
photography  a  kind  of  manual  for  the  beginner,  and 
we  suppose  that  Mr.  Sterry  has  merely  given  way  to 
the  exigencies  of  the  case  when  he  explains  what  an 
"  equivalent  focus  "  is,  and  what  is  the  size  of  a 
quarter  plate.  However,  there  are  not  many  pages 
devoted  to  this  sort  of  thing,  and  we  judge  that  Mr. 
Sterry  was  heartily  glad  when  he  had  done  with  them. 
Whatever  beginners  ought  to  do,  they  will  not  begin 
by  photographing  *'  by  rule,"  and  we  doubt  whether 
they  can  advantageously  do  so  any  more  than  they 
can  well  perform  a  quantitative  exercise  of  any  kind 
before  they  have  got  an  Idea  as  to  how  the  action  goes 
in  a  merely  qualitative  way.  We  Intend  it  as  a 
compliment  to  the  volume  and  its  author  when  we  say 
that  this  book  is  not  likely  to  appeal  to  the  beginner. 

We  commend  the  courage  of  the  author,  and 
thoroughly  agree  with  him  when  he  says  that  hydro- 
qulnone  and  ferrous  oxalate  are  the  "  least  desirable  " 
NO.    1774,  VOL.  68] 


developers  for  general  use.  He  admits,  too,  that 
different  results  may  be  obtained  with  the  same  ex- 
posures, by  variations  in  development.  Indeed,  Mr. 
Sterry  treats  the  subject  In  a  fair  manner,  and  cannot 
be  accused  of  belonging  to  any  particular  "school." 
We  cannot  endorse  his  statement  that  the  light  intensi- 
ties "  between  deep  shadow  and  bright  sky  in  an 
ordinary  landscape  have  been  conclusively  shown  to 
be  less  than  i  to  32,"  and  his  reference  to  the  proof 
appears  to  be  in  error.  The  statement  that  the 
principal  reason  why  negatives  for  enlargement  should 
be  thinner  than  for  contact  printing  Is  the  reflection 
of  light  from  the  surface  of  the  paper  and  back  to  the 
paper  from  the  surface  of  the  negative  In  the  latter 
case,  Is,  we  think,  founded  on  a  mistaken  supposition. 
The  difference  appears  to  be  due  to  the  loss  of  the 
scattered  light  when  the  sensitive  surface  is  not  In 
direct  contact  with  the  negative.  The  author  Is  mis- 
taken In  saying  that  the  different  methods  of  intensifi- 
cation give  results  that  are  "  practically  proportional 
throughout  the  scale."  But  remembering  that  the 
book  is  among  the  very  first  attempts  that  have  been 
made  systematically  to  describe  the  new  methods  of 
photography.  It  must  be  considered  as  notably 
successful,  though  we  wish  It  had  been  rather  more 
extended.  "  Rules  "  that  have  puzzled  students  for 
years  are  clearly  explained,  and  effects  that  appeared 
to  be  erratic  are  shown  to  be  the  necessary  results  of 
the  procedure. 


OVR    BOOK   SHELF. 

L'Evoluhcfi  cotnpar^e  des  Sahles.     By  Jules  GIrard, 

Membre  de  la  Socldtd  de  Geographic.     Pp.  Iv+124. 

(Paris  :   LIbralrie  sclentlfique  et  litt^ralre,  F.  R.  de 

Rudeval,  1903.)  Price  5  francs. 
It  is  not  clear  whether  this  handsomely  printed  volume 
Is  addressed  to  the  geological  student  or  to  the 
engineer.  We  presume,  indeed,  that  Its  production 
has  been  a  labour  of  love  on  the  part  of  Its  author,  who 
has  brought  together  in  a  continuous  form  a  number 
of  facts  recorded  in  French,  German,  and  English 
publications.  Here  and  there  an  original  observation 
Is  introduced,  like  that  on  the  deposit  of  angular 
blocks  at  Vauvllle  (p.  8),  which  appears  to  present  a 
problem  akin  to  that  of  our  Permian  "  breccias  "  on 
the  coast  of  Devonshire.  The  photographs  of  types 
of  sand-grains  on  pp.  10-13  have  distinct  value;  in 
Fig.  8,.  however,  radlolarlans,  though  mentioned,  are, 
to  say  the  least,  inconspicuous. 

The  erosion  of  the  earth's  surface  by  various  agents 
is  discussed,  as  explaining  the  origin  of  ordinary 
sands,  and  stress  Is  properly  laid  on  the  atmospheric 
currents  as  agents  of  transport  and  accumulation  of 
the  fine  material  produced.  Pp.  46-81  are,  in  fact, 
occupied  by  the  subject  of  blown  sands  and  dunes,  and 
the  various  ways  of  arresting  the  invasion  of  fertile 
areas.  The  horse-shoe  dunes  figured  on  p.  70  are 
surely  not  so  localised  as  the  author  suggests.  They 
have  been  well  discussed  by  Sokol6w  in  a  work  trans- 
lated into  German  in  1894,  and  appear,  if  we  mistake 
not,  in  the  memorable  pages  of  Sven  Hedln's  "  Across 
Asia." 

The  description  of  the  changes  undergone  by  coasv 
lines,  especially  in  historic  times,  contains  many 
interesting  details.  We  miss,  however,  a  compre- 
hensive summary,  such  as  would  be  useful  to  the 
geographer,  showing  how  geological  conditions  and 
movements  of  the  land  have  affected  deposition  along 


October  29,  1903] 


NATURE 


6a  t 


the  coasts.  In  this  matter,  modern  American  authors 
might  have  been  called  on.  As  it  is,  some  such 
generalisation  is  promised  on  p.  ii2,  but  the  volume 
ends  abruptly  nine  pages  later  in  the  midst  of  local 
details  of  the  Netherlands.  M.  Girard  has  certainly 
not  allowed  his  subject  to  lead  him  into  realms  of 
speculation ;  on  the  other  hand,  his  book  lacks  the 
system  and  arrangement  which  so  often  make  a 
French  work,  even  when  its  information  is  incomplete, 
seem  like  a  well  grouped  picture  in  absolute  harmony 
with  its  frame. 

There  are  too  many  misprints  in  personal  names 
throughout  the  book,  the  worst  of  which  is  "  le  baron 
de  Reichtofen  "  on  p.  55.  "  Scottisch  "  on  p.  53  has 
also  a  quaint  aspect.  G.  A.  J.  C. 

Radium  and  other  Radio-active  Substances,  with  a 
Consideration  of  Phosphorescent  and  Fluorescent 
Substances.  The  Properties  and  Applications  of 
Selenium  and  the  Treatment  of  Disease  by  the  Ultra- 
violet Light.  By  William  J.  Hammer.  Pp.  viii  + 
72.  (London  :  Sampson  Low,  Marston  and  Co., 
Ltd.,  1903.)  Price  55.  net. 
Many  will  probably  be  attracted  by  the  first  word  of 
the  title  of  this  book,  and  buy  it  in  the  hope  of  obtain- 
ing light  and  leading  on  the  new  discoveries.  Such, 
we  fear,  are  likely  to  be  sadly  disappointed.  The 
book  is  an  apparently  verbatim  report  of  a  lecture 
delivered  at  a  meeting  of  the  American  Electro- 
chemical Society  and  the  Institute  of  Electrical 
Engineers.  It  is  difficult  to  understand  why  it  was 
reprinted  in  its  present  form,  for  most  of  the  interest 
seems  to  have  centred  in  the  experiments  and  exhibits 
that  accompanied  the  lecture.  For  example,  we  read, 
"  Here  are  a  couple  of  postal  cards  which  I  secured 
in  Europe  showing  the  Blue  Grotto  at  Capri.  They 
are  printed  with  phosphorescent  paints,  and  on  ex- 
posing them  to  the  light  you  will  see  that  they  are 
very  pretty."  Reproductions  are  provided  of  an 
elaborate  ''  stage  setting  "  to  the  lecture,  of  various 
tubes  with  the  word  radium  written  beneath,  but 
which,  so  far  as  the  reader  is  concerned,  might  as  well 
have  contained  sugar,  and  of  some  photographs  taken 
with  the  aid  of  radium.  The  latter,  although  of  more 
general  interest,  are  sometimes  misleading.  Thus 
Fig.  7  is  a  radiograph  of  glass  lenses,  and  is  used 
to  throw  doubt  on  the  generally  accepted  fact  that 
the  radium  rays  cannot  be  reflected,  refracted,  or 
polarised,  whereas  it  is  obvious  that  the  photograph 
is  taken  with  ordinary  light,  either  the  phosphorescent 
light  of  the  radium  itself  not  being  eliminated,  or  else 
by  simple  "  fogging."  With  regard  to  the  text,  the 
part  dealing  with  radium  consists  of  the  collection  of 
a  large  number  of  facts  collected  together  without  dis- 
crimination or  arrangement.  Thus  two  pages  are 
spent  on  Heydweiller's  experiment  on  the  loss  of 
weight  of  radium,  the  opinions  of  various  eminent 
authorities  with  regard  to  this  experiment  are  quoted 
as  obtained  by  the  author,  and  at  the  end  we  learn  that 
the  observation  in  question  has  been  admitted  by  the 
observer  to  have  been  the  result  of  an  accident. 
.Snippets  of  information  are  provided  from  most  of  the 
important  researches  which  would  be  quite  unintelli- 
gible to  those  not  intimately  acquainted  with  the  sub- 
ject and  superfluous  to  those  who  are. 

The   Experiment  Station   Record.       Vol.    xiv.       Nos. 

5-9.     (Washington  :  the  United  States  Department 

of  Agriculture,  1903.) 
The  "  Experiment  Station  Record  "  consists  in  chief  of 
a  series  of  abstracts  of  papers  dealing  with  agricultural 
science  all  the  world  over,  together  with  occasional 
general  reviews  and  summaries.  Abstracts  are  very 
rarely  wholly  satisfactory  to  the  scientific  worker,  but 
there  are  few  subjects  more  in  need  of  work  of  this 

NO.    1774.  VOL.  68] 


kind  than  is  agriculture.  The  recognised  organs  of 
agricultural  science  are  numerous  enough,  but  much 
valuable  work  escapes  their  notice  and  appears  in  the 
irregularly  issued  reports  and  bulletins  of  some  State 
or  institution  or  society,  or,  again,  is  published  in  a 
journal  devoted  to  one  of  the  many  pure  sciences  on 
which  agriculture  touches.  Hence  the  value  of  the 
"  E.xperiment  Station  Record";  so  thorough  is  the 
organisation  of  the  United  States  Department  that 
very  little  escapes  its  net,  and  the  student  with  an 
intelligent  capacity  for  reading  between  the  lines  will 
by  its  help  be  generally  put  on  the  track  of  anything 
which  concerns  him  specially.  Particularly  he  will 
be  saved  the  trouble  of  looking  through  the  very 
numerous  annual  reports  and  bulletins  issued  by  the 
separate  States  in  America;  for  they  are  fully  reported 
in  the  "  Record,"  and  almost  wholly  neglected  by  the 
German  abstractors.  We  believe  our  own  Board  of. 
Agriculture  is  about  to  undertake  a  somewhat  similar 
work  for  the  many  scattered  publications  of  county 
councils  and  colleges  which  have  been  doing  agri- 
cultural experiments  in  this  country  during  the  last 
ten  years  or  so.  We  doubt  if  the  "  Experiment  Station 
Record  "  is  as  well  known  as  it  deserves  to  be;  at  any 
rate,  several  of  our  best  specialist  libraries  in  London 
possess  it  very  partially,  if  at  all,  useful  as  it  is  even 
to  men  engaged  in  pure  science.  Meantime,  it  has 
become  indispensable  to  all  workers  in  agricultural 
science,  and  they  owe  a  debt  of  gratitude  to  the  United 
States  Department  of  Agriculture  both  for  its  publi- 
cation and  for  the  liberality  with  which  it  is  distributed. 

A.  D.  H. 
Jahrbuch  der  Chemie.    Twelfth  Year,  1902.    Edited  by 

R.   Meyer.     Pp.  xii  +  544;  and  General  Register  to 

same,   i.-x.,    1891-1900.     (Brunswick  :   Vieweg  und 

Sohn,  1903.)  Price  155.  and  115. 
Meyer's  "  Jahrbuch  "  is  too  well  known  among 
chemists  to  require  description.  It  aims  at  giving  a 
summary  or  review  of  the  chief  chemical  contributions 
of  the  year.  When  one  considers  that  in  this  com- 
paratively short  period  upwards  of  6000  researches  (the 
number  is  taken  from  the  Centralblatt,  and  does  not 
include  patent  literature)  find  their  way  into  print,  the 
process  of  selection  becomes  a  very  arduous  one,  re- 
quiring on  the  part  of  the  different  collaborators — 
experts  in  their  several  provinces — not  only  much  read- 
ing, but  careful  discrimination. 

This  large  mass  of  material  seems  on  the  whole  to 
be  well  sifted,  but  the  condensed  form  in  which  it  is 
presented  robs  the  book  of  any  literary  merit,  and  gives 
it  the  indigestible  and  fragmentary  character  of  a 
dictionary.  English  chemical  literature  scarcely  re- 
ceives full  justice,  not  that  the  proportion  of  references 
is  small  (out  of  160  papers  published  by  the  Chemical 
Society  28  are  referred  to),  but  these,  it  will  be 
generally  admitted,  do  not  in  all  cases  represent  the 
most  valuable  English  researches  of  the  year. 

The  general  index  for  the  first  decade  is  published 
with  the  "Jahrbuch,"  and  as  a  book  of  reference 
should  be  useful.  J.   B.  C. 

Flowering  Plants :  their  Structure  and   Habitat.     By 

Charlotte  L.  Laurie.     Pp.  x  f  157 ;  with  illustrations 

by  W.  L.  Boys-Smith.     (London  :  Allman  and  Son, 

Ltd.,  n.d.)  Price  2s.  6d. 
This  little  book  is  intended  for  students  who  have 
already  studied  the  elementary  principles  of  botanical 
science.  It  is  divided  into  three  parts,  dealing  with 
respectively,  the  most  general  conclusions  of  ecology 
relating  to  the  habitat  of  plants,  the  minute  structure 
of  the  plant  and  its  adaptations  to  its  habitat,  and 
certain  natural  orders,  regarded  more  particularly 
fiom  the  point  of  view  of  their  ecological  character- 
istics. The  treatment  is  simple,  though  brief,  and  the 
illustrations  are  unusually  good. 


62  2 


NA  TURE 


[October  29,  1903 


LETTERS  TO  THE  EDITOR. 
[The  Editor  does  not  hold  himself  responsible  for  opinions 
expressed  by  his  correspondents.  Neither  can  he  undertake 
to  return,  or  to  correspond  with  the  writers  of,  rejected 
manuscripts  intended  for  this  or  any  other  part  of  Nature. 
No  notice  is  taken  of  anonymous  communications.} 

Heating  Effect  of  the  Radium  Emanation. 

In  connection  with  the  discovery  of  P.' Curie  and  Laborde 
that  radium  continuously  emits  heat  at  a  rapid  rate,  an 
interesting  question  arises  as  to  whether  the  heat  emission 
is  directly  connected  with  the  radio-activity  of  that  element 
or  is  independent  of  it. 

To  settle  this  point  we  have  performed  the  following 
experiments.  The  heating  effect  of  30  milligrammes  of  pure 
radium  bromide  was  first  measured  in  a  differential  air 
calorimeter.  The  radium  bromide  was  then  heated  to  a 
sufficient  temperature  to  drive  off  the  emanation,  and  the 
latter  was  condensed  by  passing  through  a  short  glass  tube 
immersed  in  liquid  air,  and  then  the  tubes  were  sealed  off. 
On  testing  the  de-emanated  radium,  the  heating  effect 
diminished  rapidly  during  the  first  few  hours,  and  fell  to  a 
minimum  corresponding  to  about  30  per  cent,  of  the  original 
value  and  then  slowly  increased  again.  On  substituting 
the  emanation  tube  in  the  calorimeter,  the  heating  effect  at 
first  increased  for  a  few  hours  to  a  maximum  corresponding 
to  about  70  per  cent,  of  the  original  heat  emission  of  the 
radium    and  then  slowly  decayed  with  the  time. 

At  any  time  after  removal  of  the  emanation,  the  sum  of 
the  heating  effect  of  the  de-emanated  radium  anJ  of  the 
emanation  was  found  to  be  the  same  as  that  of  the  Original 
radium.  Experiments  are  still  in  progress  to  determine  the 
rate  of  recovery  and  loss  of  heating  power  of  the  de- 
emanated  radium  and  the  separated  emanation  respectively, 
but  so  far  as  the  observations  have  gone,  the  curves  of 
decay  and  recovery  are  the  same  as  those  for  the  corre- 
sponding o  radiation. 

It  has  been  shown  (Rutherford  and  Soddy,  Phil.  Mag., 
May)  that,  if  the  emanation  is  removed  from  radium,  the 
activity  of  the  radium  decays  in  the  course  of  a  few  hours 
to  about  25  per  cent,  of  its  original  value.  This  residual 
activity  consists  entirely  of  a  rays.  The  solid  radium  com- 
pound regains  its  original  activity  after  the  lapse  of  about 
one  month.  Immediately  after  the  separation  of  the  eman- 
ation the  activity  (tested  in  a  sealed  vessel)  rises  to  about 
twice  its  original  value,  due  to  the  production  of  excited 
activity  on  the  walls  of  the  vessel,  and  then  slowly  decays 
with  the  time,  falling  to  half  value  in  about  four  days. 
At  any  time  after  removal  of  the  emanation  the  sum  total 
of  the  activity  of  the  radium  and  the  emanation  has  a  value 
equal  to  that  of  the  original  radium. 

There  is  thus  an  exact  parallel  between  the  variation  in 
radiating  power  (measured  by  the  o  rays)  and  the  heating 
effect.  In  order  to  be  sure  how  much  of  the  emanation  was 
removed  by  heating,  control  experiments  were  made  on  the 
y  rays  from  the  radium  and  the  separated  emanation.  This 
was  tested  by  observing  the  rate  of  discharge  of  an  electro- 
scope after  the  rays  had  passed  through  5  cm.  of  lead.  In 
some  preliminary  experiments  by  one  of  us  last  year  it  was 
found  that  the  y  rays  from  radium  appeared  at  the  same 
time  as  j8  rays,  and  were  always  proportional  to  them. 
From  these  results  it  was  deduced  that  all  but  6  per  cent, 
of  the  emanation  was  removed  by  the  heating. 

It  is  thus  seen  that  the  heating  effect  of  radium  directly 
accompanies  the  o  radiation  from  it,  and  is  always  pro- 
portional to  it,  and  that  more  than  two-thirds  of  the  heat- 
ing effect  is  not  due  to  the  radium  at  all,  but  to  the  radio- 
active emanation  which  it  produces  from  itself.  This 
result  accounts  for  the  variation  of  heat  emission  with  age 
observed  by  the  Curies,  an  account  of  which  was  given  by 
Prof.  Dewar  at  the  British  Association. 

The  amount  of  emanation  from  30  milligrammes  of 
radium  bromide,  when  collected  in  the  tube,  was  sufficient 
to  cause  a  bright  phosphorescence  in  the  tube,  but  it  was 
too  small  either  to  measure  or  weigh.  The  amount  of  heat 
emitted  from  the  radium  emanation  is  thus  enormous  com- 
pared with  the  amount  of  matter  involved.  It  seems  prob- 
able that  the  greater  part  of  the  heating  effect  of  radium 
13  a  direct  consequence  of  the  expulsion  of  o  rays.     It  still 

NO.   1774,  VOL.  68] 


remains  to  be  shown  in  what  proportion  the  radiated  energy 
is  distributed  between  the  projected  o  particles  and  the 
systems  from  which  they  are  expelled. 

The  results  given  here  are  at  once  explained  on  the  dis- 
integration hypothesis  (Rutherford  and  Soddy,  Phil.  Mag., 
May),  in  which  the  heat  is  considered  to  be  derived  from 
the  internal  energy  of  the  atom.  On  the  view  held  by  some 
that  radium  gains  its  heat  from  an  external  source,  it  would 
be  necessary  to  suppose  that  less  than  a  third  of  the  heat 
is  due  to  the  radium  itself,  and  that  the  other  two-thirds 
are  due  to  the  radium  emanation  which  is  being  con- 
tinuously produced,  and  the  power  of  which  of  absorbing 
energy  from  an  external  source  decays  with  the  time. 

E.  Rutherford. 
H.  T.  Barnes. 

McGill  University,  Montreal,  October  16. 


Papers  and  Procedure  at  the  British  Association. 

At  the  recent  meeting  of  the  British  Association  at  South- 
port  I  heard  numerous  complaints  (repetitions  of  those  I 
have  heard  at  not  a  few  previous  meetings)  by  the  general 
public,  members  of  the  Association,  on  the  too  technical 
character  of  the  papers  read  before  it.  These  complaints 
referred  to  all  the  sections  except,  perhaps,  those  of  anthro- 
pology, geography,  and  educational  science.  One  over- 
heard too  often  to  be  pleasant  such  remarks  as  "  I  am 
interested  in  zoology,  but  what  is  the  good  of  coming  to 
listen  to  such  a  paper  as  this?  I  have  no  idea  what  the 
speaker  is  talking  about  " — the  paper,  in  one  specific  in- 
stance, was  cytological,  and  of  great  value  undoubtedly ; 
and,  "  I  have  not  gained  much  by  becoming  a  member  of 
the  Association;  the  papers  are  all  over  my  head."  These 
complaints  are  being  made  by  well  educated  men  and  women 
interested  in  science,  but  not  versed  in  its  technicalities. 

Believing  that  this  feeling  in  reference  to  the  subjects 
brought  before  the  various  sections  is  growing,  and  is, 
moreover,  not  ill-founded,  I  venture,  as  a  member  of  twenty 
years'  standing,  to  direct  serious  attention  through  your 
columns  to  its  existence,  and  to  advocate  some  change  in 
the  character  of  the  papers  accepted  for  reading  before  the 
Association,  so  that  the  objects  for  which  this  great  society 
was  founded  may  be  more  fully  attained  as  regards  the 
general  public  of  the  town  visited,  on  the  support  of  which 
the  Association  is  so  largely  dependent. 

Purely  technical  papers  which  appeal  only  to  the  specialist 
in  chemistry,  biology,  engineering,  or  physics,  are  out  of 
place  before  an  audience  the  majority  of  whom  are  not 
specialists,  but  who  have  become  members  for  the  occasion 
in  the  hope  of  listening  to  an  understandable  exposition  of 
the  subject  by  the  men  who  have  contributed  to  making 
that  section  of  science.  Such  purely  technical  papers  should 
be  reserved  for  the  societies  which  exist  for  the  cultivation 
of  that  particular  subject.  The  British  Association  should 
either  become  a  purely  scientific  society  or  become  more 
what  it  was  established  for,  an  association  for  the  advance- 
ment of  science  among  the  people,  at  which  the  results  of 
the  investigations  of  the  year  are,  as  it  were,  summed  up 
and  presented  to  the  members,  both  specialists  and  those  of 
the  general  public  interested  in  science,  in  language  which 
the  whole  audience  can  understand.  An  author,  instead  of 
going  into  the  details  of  the  various  intricate  investigations 
and  experiments  he  has  made — which  can  often  enough  be 
followed  fully  only  by  his  fellow-workers  in  that  particular 
section  of  his  subject — should  far  more  than  heretofore  deal 
broadly  with  the  results  obtained,  indicating  their  value  to 
the  particular  subject,  and  their  bearing  on  his  own  or  other 
departments  of  knowledge.  The  general  public  have  really 
some  cause  for  complaint  that  their  subscription  has  been 
obtained  from  them  on  a  misunderstanding.  If  the  Associ- 
ation is  to  become  more  and  more  a  purely  scientific  society, 
then  the  fact  should  be  made  more  widely  known,  so  that 
disappointment  may  not  be  needlessly  caused  to  those  who 
join  it.  In  that  case,  moreover,  there  would  be  no  need 
of  the  publicity  with  which  the  Association  meets  at  the 
various  towns  it  visits.  It  might  quietly  assemble  at  the 
chosen  town  in  rooms  hired  or  lent  for  the  purpose,  and 
associate  itself  only  with  the  specialists  of  the  place. 

Liverpool,   October  20.  Henry  O.   Forbes. 


October  29,  1903] 


NATURE 


623 


A  Little-known  Peculiarity  of  the  Hamadryad  Snake. 

A  STRUCTURAL  peculiarity  of  the  "  king  cobra  "  which  I 
have   recently   ascertained   while   studying   the   anatomy   of 
the  Ophidia    seems  to  me  to  be  so  rernarkable    that  it  must 
have  been  noticed  in  such  comprehensive  works  as  Bronn's 
"  Thierreich  "  and  Dr.  Gadow's  account  of  serpents  in  the 
"  Cambridge  Natural  History  "  were  it  known.     I  venture, 
therefore,    to   give  a   short   account  of   the  matter   without 
professing  to  have  made  an  exhaustive  survey  of  the  liter- 
ature of  the  group.     The  windpij>e  of  this  snake  opens,  as 
usual,  not  far  from  the  heart  into  the  lung,  which  presents 
no  remarkable  divergencies  from  the  lungs  of  other  snakes ; 
it  is  in  the  same  way  functional  as  a  lung  for  the  first  half, 
and     becomes     a    mere     thin-walled     air    bag    posteriorly. 
Before  opening  into  the  lung,  however,  the  trachea  is  con- 
nected  with   a  long   series  of   approximately   equi-sized   air 
sacs  in  the  neck,   which  follow  close  upon  each  other,  and 
entirely   occupy   the   neck   down   to   the   region   where   the 
heart  lies.       These  sacs  are  so  closely   adpressed   that  the 
appearance  given  is  that  of  a  series  of  septa,  dividing  the 
space    surrounding    the    windpipe    and    gullet    into    meta- 
merically   arranged    compartments.     I    thought   at   first,    in 
fact,  that  I  had  been  able  to  observe  a  segmentation  of  the 
coelom  in  this  region  quite  analogous  to  that  of  an  annelid. 
Each  cavity,  however,  is  continuous  with  the  interior  of  the 
windpipe  by  an  oval  and  clearly  defined  orifice  on  its  lower 
surface.     These  apertures   are   regular  and   of   fairly   equal 
size,   and   give   to   the  windpipe  quite   the  appearance  of  a 
fiute.     There  are  a  large  number  of  them,   thirty  to  forty. 
There  is  no  question  here  of  pathological  conditions  or  of 
accidental  cuts.     The  regularly  disposed  series  of  sacs  into 
which  they  open  negatives  anything  of  the  kind.     They  are, 
I   suppose,  an  extreme  modification  of  what  the  late'Prof. 
Cope  termed  the  "  tracheal  lung  "  in  Chersydrus  and  other 
snakes.     The   most   obviously   comparable   structure   that    I 
can  think  of  for  the  moment  is  the  ventral  slit  in  the  wind- 
pipe of  the  emu,   which  similarly  opens  into  a  thin-walled 
sac.       This   is  believed   to  be  connected   with   the   singular 
"  drumming  "  sound  emitted  by  that  bird.     Perhaps  some 
of  your  readers  who  are  acquainted  with  the  Hamadryad  can 
inform   me   as    to   a   possible   "voice,"   or   whether    it   can 
produce  a  varied  or  especially  prolonged  hiss.     I  propose  to 
offer  a  more  detailed  account  of  the  structure  of  the  wind- 
pipe and  other  organs  of  this  snake  to  the  Zoological  Society 
as  soon  as  possible,  Frank  E.  Beddard.  ' 


weather,  the  ring  is  distinct,  and  measurements  made  here 
some  time  ago  gave  26°  as  the  radius  of  the  whitish  haze 
and  5°  more  for  the  reddish  border,  indicating  that  its 
visible  extension  was  greater  even  than  on  Mont  Blanc. 

M.  Forel  states  that  he  has  seen  a  coloured  circle 
surrounding  the  sun  since  the  first  of  last  August.  The 
fact  of  it  not  having  attracted  notice  previously  in  Europe 
would  seem  to  show  either  that  the  clearer  atmosphere  of 
the  United  States  favours  its  perception,  or  that  the  micro- 
scopic dust  in  the  upper  air,  which  is  supposed  to  produce 
the  diffraction  phenomenon,  preponderates  above  this 
country.  The  last  hypothesis  is  supported  by  the  fact  that, 
from  the  proximity  of  the  West  Indian  volcanoes,  the  fine 
dust  ejected  by  them  during  the  eruptions  that  year  may 
have  drifted  northward,  before  making  a  circuit  of  the 
globe,  and  a  larger  quantity  may  still  remain  suspended 
in  the  rarefied  atmosphere  above  the  eastern  United  States 
than  exists  over  Europe.  A.   Lawrence  Rotch. 

Blue   Hill    Meteorological   Observatory,    Massachusetts, 
U.S.A.,   October   14. 


The  New  Bishop's  Ring. 
Regardi.vg  M.  Forel's  suggestion  (see  Nature,  p.  396) 
that  persons  ascending  to  considerable  altitudes  should 
observe  whether  the  ring  around  the  sun,  which  was  so 
noticeable  a  phenomenon  after  the  diffusion  of  the  volcanic 
dust  from  the  Krakatoa  eruption  in  1883,  is  again  visible, 
I  beg  to  say  that,  before  reading  his  letter  in  La  Gazette 
dc  Lausanne,  I  had  noted  the  ring  on  August  20  from 
the  Montanvert,  near  Chamonix,  at  an  altitude  of  6300  feet. 
The  day  was  exceptionally  clear,  and  when  a  peak  hid  the 
sun  itself,  the  whitish  glare  fringed  with  reddish  brown 
that  surrounded  it  attracted  my  attention.  Being  upon  the 
summit  of  Mont  Blanc  (15,780  feet)  on  September  i,  in  clear 
weather,  f  again  observed  the  ring,  which,  however,  was 
no  better  defined  than  lower  down  on  the  mountain,  not- 
withstanding the  circumstance  that  the  dark  blue  sky 
furnished  an  excellent  background.  Angular  measurements 
there  showed  that  the  radius  of  the  visible  outer  limit  of 
the  reddish  ring  was  between  20°  and  25°. 

While  the  phenomenon  was  not  again  seen  by  me  last 
summer  m  Europe,  it  has  often  been  observed  during  the 
past  year  here  at  my  observatory,  elevated  only  640  feet 
above  the  sea,  and  an  article  in  Science  of  January  23 
by  my  assistant,  Mr.  Clayton,  describes  the  reappearance 
of  this  second  "  Bishop's  ring  "  and  the  accompanying 
brilliant  sunsets  during  the  early  part  of  last  winter.  Sub- 
sequently, the  ring  was  observed  in  January  and  February 
and  also  in  May,  June,  and  July,  when  highly  coloured 
and  prolonged  afterglows  followed  the  sunsets  towards  the 
close  of  the  latter  month.  During  the  first  part  of  August 
the  ring  was  seen  on  clear  days,  and  during  September  the 
vivid  yellow  colour  of  the  western  sky,  persisting  some- 
times more  than  an  hour  after  sunset,  was  frequently  re- 
corded. To-day  (October  14),  after  a  period  of  rainy 
NO.    1774,  VOL.  68] 


The  Nervous  System  of  Anodonta  cygnea. 

The  supra-oesophageal  ganglion  of  Anodonta  is  usually 
regarded  as  representing  both  the  cerebral  and  pleural 
ganglia,  and  is  commonly  spoken  of  as  the  "  cerebro- 
pleural."  Prof.  Howes  mentions  in  his  "  Atlas  "  that  Prof. 
M.  Hartog  has  occasionally  observed  a  ganglionic  swelling 
on  one  or  both  of  the  cerebro-visceral  connectives  in  front 
of  the  pericardium,  but  that  he  himself  has  failed  to  find 
any  such  enlargement.  In  view  of  the  doubt  that  exists,  it 
seems  to  be  worth  recording  that  yesterday  one  of  my  pupils, 
A.  C.  Roxburgh,  while  dissecting  an  Anodonta  in  the 
Charterhouse  laboratory,  exposed  a  well-developed  ganglion 
of  the  usual  orange  colour,  upon  the  left  connective  in  the 
e.xact  position  mentioned  by  Prof.  Hartog.  Microscopical 
examination  removed  all  doubt  as  to  the  nature  of  the  swell- 
ing, for  numerous  ganglion-cells  were  easily  recognised  in 
the  teased  preparation.  It  is  thus  probably  more  correct 
to  term  the  anterior  ganglion  "  cerebral  "  rather  than 
cerebro-pleural.  Perhaps  some  of  those  who  are  better 
equipped  for  research  than  is  possible  or  advisable  for  those 
engaged  in  elementary  laboratories  might  find  it  worth 
while  to  examine  series  of  sections  of  the  connective  at 
this  region.  It  is  possible  that  the  pleural  ganglion  may 
in  most  cases  be  represented  by  but  a  few  ganglion  cell's 
the  presence  of  which  is  not  discernible  to  the  unaided  eye. 

May  I,  as  I  am  writing  about  this  animal,  direct  atten- 
tion to  an  error  that  is  universal  in  text-books?  The 
muscles  always  spoken  of  as  retractors  and  protractor  of 
the  foot  have  not  the  function  that  their  titles  imply.  The 
protrusion  of  the  foot  is  due  to  vascular  turgescence,  and  its 
withdrawal  to  relief  of  the  turgid  condition  and  contrac- 
tion of  the  intrinsic  pedal  muscle  fibres.  The  muscles  in 
question  move  the  shell,  the  foot  being  the  fixed  point. 
Thus  the  so-called  anterior  and  posterior  retractors  of  the 
foot  should  be  styled  the  protractors  of  the  shell,  and  the 
protractor  of  the  foot  the  retractor  of  the  shell.  I  may 
mention  that  I  have  often  seen  Anodonta  go  backwards 
when  its  deliberate  movements  have  led  it  into  a  cul-de-sac 
in  the  aquarium.  Oswald  H.  Latter. 

Charterhouse,  Godalming,  October  24. 


LORD   KELVIN  AND   HIS   FIRST   TEACHER 

IN  N.ATURAL  PHILOSOPHY. 
COME  interesting  early  recollections  were  related 
•^  by  Lord  Kelvin  on  October  17,  on  the  occasion 
of  the  unveiling  of  a  stained  glass  window,  by  Henry 
Holiday,  in  the  Bute  Hall  of  the  University  of  Glas- 
gow in  memory  of  John  Pringle  Nichol,  LL.D., 
professor  of  astronomy,  1836-1859,  and  his  son  and 
daughter,  John  Nicho'l,  LL.D.,  professor  of  English 
language  and  literature,  1862-1889,  and  Mrs.  Jack, 
who  was  born  in  1837,  in  the  University,  and  died 
there  in  190 1.  Prof.  J.  P.  Nichol  was  the  author  of 
numerous  valuable  works,  including  the  famous  book 
on  the  "  Architecture  of  the  Heavens."  The  account 
which   Lord  Kelvin  gave  of  his  own  young  days  at 


624 


NA  7  URE 


[October  29,  1903 


Glasgow  College  is  full  of  interest,  and  his  testimony 
to  the  impulse  he  received  from  his  early  teacher  will 
be  an  enduring  tribute  to  Nichol's  memory. 

In  the  course  of  his  remarks,  Lord  Kelvin  said  : — 
Principal  Story,  You  recall  to  my  mind  the  happy 
days  of  long  past  years,  1836,  when  John  Pringle 
Nichol  came  to  be  professor  of  astronomy  in  the  Uni- 
versity of  Glasgow.  From  the  time  he  first  came 
among  us — I  say  among  us,  because  I,  as  a  child, 
was  not  then  a  member  of  the  university,  but  an  in- 
habitant of  the  university — when  Dr.  Nichol,  as  we 
then  called  him,  came  among  us,  he  became  a  friend 
of  my  father,  and  that  friendship  lasted  to  the  end  of 
my  father's  life.  I  may  also  claim  that  I  became  a 
student  of  Dr.  Nichol's  from  the  time  he  first  came  to 
Glasgow.  Year  after  year  passed,  and  I  still  re- 
member his  inspiring  influence.  The  work  on  which 
I  am  engaged  at  this  day  is  work  to  which  I  was 
initiated  In  the  years  1837,  1838,  and  1839,  when  I  was 
a  child.  The  summer  of  1840  is  for  me  a  memorable 
summer,  a  year  of  brightness  In  my  memory.  I  had 
been  for  one  session  a  student  In  the  natural  philosophy 
class  of  the  university  conducted  by  Dr.  Nichol.  From 
beginning  to  end,  with  the  exception  of  a  few  days, 
when  my  predecessor,  Dr.  Meikleham,  began  the 
course  which  he  could  not  continue  on  account  of  his 
health,  the  class  of  natural  philosophy,  In  the  session 
1839-40,  was  taught  by  Dr.  Nichol.  He  came  on  short 
notice  to  occupy  the  post,  and  he  did  it  in  a  most  admir- 
able manner.  I  lately  had  the  opportunity  allowed  me 
by  my  friend  and  colleague,  Prof.  Jack,  to  see  a  manu- 
script book  of  John  Pringle  Nichol's,  a  book  of 
exercises  and  preparations  for  the  natural  philosophy 
class.  I  was  greatly  struck  with  It,  and  much  In- 
terested to  see  In  black  and  white  the  preparations  he 
made  for  the  splendid  course  of  natural  philosophy  that 
he  put  us  through  during  the  session  1839-40.  In  his 
lectures  the  creative  Imagination  of  the  poet  Impressed 
youthful  minds  in  a  way  that  no  amount  of  learning, 
no  amount  of  mathematical  skill  alone,  no  amount  of 
knowledge  in  science,  could  possibly  have  produced. 
For,  many  years  afterwards,  one  of  the  most  Important 
affairs  I  have  ever  had  to  do  with  began  with  what 
I  learned  in  the  natural  philosophy  class  In  that 
session.  I  remember  the  enthusiastic  and  glowing 
terms  in  which  our  professor  and  teacher  spoke  of 
Fourier,  the  great  French  creative  mathematician  who 
founded  the  mathematical  theory  of  the  conduction  of 
heat.  I  was  perfectly  astonished.  I  remember  how 
my  youthful  imagination  was  fired  with  what  I  heard 
from  our  teacher.  I  asked  him,  "  Do  you  think  I 
could  read  it?  "  He  said,  "  The  mathematics  is  very 
difficult."  At  the  end  of  the  session  I  got  hold  of  the 
book  ("  Th^orie  analytlque  de  la  Chaleur  ")  out  of  the 
university  library,  and  in  the  first  half  of  the  month  of 
May,  1840,  I  had,  I  will  not  say  read  through  the  book, 
I  had  turned  over  all  the  pages  of  It.  Then  we  started 
out  from  Glasgow  for  Germany,  the  joint  families  of 
my  father,  my  brothers  and  sisters,  and  our  friend 
Dr.  Nichol  and  Mrs.  Nichol,  and  John  Nichol  and 
Agnes  Jane  Nichol.  The  two  families  made  together 
a  tour  in  Germany,  and  during  two  months  or  six 
weeks  in  Frankfort,  Mrs.  Nichol  and  her  two  children 
were  with  my  father  and  his  family  every  day  whUe 
their  father  went  on  tour  to  the  Tyrol.  Excuse  me  for  i 
speaking  of  those  old  times.  I  am  afraid  I  have 
trespassed  on  your  patience.  These  recollections  may 
be  nothing  to  you,  although  they  are  dear  to  me. 
They  are.  Indeed,  closely  connected  with  the  subject 
of  the  present  meeting. 

While  we  were  encamped  for  a  time  in  Bonn,  Dr. 
Nichol  took  me  and  my  elder  brother  on  a  walking 
tour  in  the  volcanic  region  of  the  Elfel.  We  had  four 
days  of  intense  enjoyment,  and  the  benefit  of  what  we 
learned  from  him,  and  saw  around  us,  In  that  interest- 
NO.    1774.  VOL.   6Z'\ 


ing  region  remained  with  my  brother  all  his  life,  and 
remains  with  me. 

I  have  to  thank  what  I  heard  in  the  natural  philo- 
sophy class  for  all  I  did  in  connection  with  submarine 
cables.  The  knowledge  of  Fourier  was  my  start  in 
the  theory  of  signalling  through  submarine  cables, 
which  occupied  a  large  part  of  my  after  life.  The  in- 
spiring character  oT  Dr.  Nichol's  personality  and  his 
bright  enthusiasm  lives  still  In  my  mental  picture  of 
those  old  days. 

The  old  astronomical  observatory — the  Macfarlane 
Observatory — was  situated  in  the  upper  part  of  the  old 
collep-e  green,  or  garden,  as  we  used  to  call  it,  behind 
the  college,  off  the  High  Street.  I  do  not  suppose  any 
person  here  ever  saw  the  old  college  green,  but  you  have 
all  read  of  it  in  "  Rob  Roy,"  and  of  the  duel  between 
Osbaldistone  and  Rashlelgh.  I  do  not  remember  the 
details  of  the  duel,  but  I  remember  it  was  appointed 
to  be  fought  In  the  upper  part  (at  least  I  have  always 
assumed,  In  my  mind.  It  was  in  the  upper  part)  of  the 
college  garden  of  the  University  of  Glasgow.  The 
garden  was  in  two  parts,  the  lower  on  the  near  side 
of  the  Molendlnar,  the  upper  on  the  higher  ground 
beyond  the  stream,  which  we  crossed  by  a  bridge. 
Has  any  person  here  ever  seen  the  Molendlnar?  There 
used  to  be  mills  on  it,  I  assume,  from  the  name.  It 
Is  now  a  drain  !  Before  we  left  the  old  college  it  was 
covered  In.  We  had  still  the  upper  and  lower  green, 
but  the  Molendlnar  flowed  unseen  for  many  years  after 
the  university  left  the  old  site.  I  remember  In  the 
Macfarlane  Observatory  beautiful  experiments  on  light 
shown  us  In  the  most  delightful  way  by  Dr.  Nichol, 
Grimaldi's  fringes  by  sunlight,  and  prisms  showing 
us  splendid  solar  spectra,  and  telescopes,  and 
brilliant  colours  on  a  white  screen  produced  by  the 
passage  of  polarised  light  through  crystals.  He  gave 
us  firmly  the  wave  theory  of  light,  and  Introduced  us 
to  Fresnel's  work.  As  he  appreciated  Fourier,  so  he 
appreciated  Fresnel,  two  of  the  greatest  geniuses  in 
science,  and  fired  the  young  imagination  with  the 
beautiful  discoveries  of  those  men.  In  that  old  observ- 
atory in  the  high  green,  and  In  the  natural  philosophy 
class-room  of  the  old  Glasgow  college,  was  given  to 
me  the  beginning  of  the  fundamental  knowledge  that 
I  am  most  thoroughly  occupied  with  to  this  very  day, 
and  I  am  forcibly  obliged  to  remember  where  and  when 
my  mind  was  first  drawn  to  that  work  which  is  a 
pleasure  to  me,  and  a  business  to  me  just  now,  and 
will,  I  hope,  be  so  for  as  long  as  I  have  time  to  work. 
You  can  imagine  with  how  much  gratitude  I  look 
upon  John  Pringle  Nichol  and  upon  his  friendship  with 
my  father.  His  appointment  as  professor  of  astronomy 
conferred  benefit,  not  only  upon  the  University  of 
Glasgow,  but  also  upon  the  city  and  upon  Edinburgh, 
and  the  far  wider  regions  of  the  world,  where  his 
lectures  were  given  and  his  books  read.  T^e  benefit 
we  had  from  coming  under  his  inspiring  influence, 
that  creative  influence,  that  creative  Imagination,  that 
power  which  makes  structures  of  splendour  and  beauty 
out  of  the  material  of  bare  dry  knowledge,  cannot  be 
overestimated. 


FLOW    OF  STEAM    FROM    NOZZLES. 

IT  is  well  known  that  when  a  gas  is  flowing  from  a 
vessel  by  an  orifice,  If  the  outside  pressure  Is  less 
than  sp,„  p^'he'ing  the  pressure  In  the  vessel  where  the 
gas  is  at  rest,  the  pressure  in  the  throat  of  the  orifice 
is  never  less  than  sp^,    if  s  is 

where  7  is  the  ratio  of  the  specific  heats,     s  is  0527 
for  air.     It  is  also  known  that,  with  fair  accuracy,  we 


October  29,  1903] 


NATURE 


625 


may  assume  steam  which  is  dry  and  just  saturated  to 
behave  as  if  it  were  a  gas  the  7  of  which  is  1.13,  and 
steam  with  25  per  cent,  of  moisture  as  if  it  were  a  gas 
the  7  of  which  is  1-113.  It  results  that  the  velocity  in 
the  throat  delivering  steam  is  never  greater  than  the 
velocity  of  sound  in  such  steam  as  exists  in  the  throat, 
and  the  pressure  in  the  throat  is  never  less  than  58  per 
cent,  of  the  pressure  inside  the  vessel,  however  low  the 
pressure  of  the  outside  space  may  be. 

Mr.  Napier's  experiments  first  directed  attention  to 
this  phenomenon,  and  Prof.  Osborne  Reynolds,  in 
1885  ("  Collected  Papers,"  vol.  ii.  p.  311),  gave  the 
explanation. 

Students  are  still  too  much  influenced  by  their  know- 
ledge of  flowing  water;  they  cannot  help  thinking 
that  the  flow  of  a  gas  is  analogous,  whereas  in  all 
important  particulars  the  flow  of  a  gas  is  entirely 
different  from  the  flow  of  a  liquid.  After  much  un- 
belief among  students  of  this  subject,  it  is  now  be- 
coming known  that  when  there  is  a  divergent  mouth- 
piece outside  the  throat,  the  velocity  of  a  compressible 
fluid  may  become  very  much  greater  than  the  velocity 
of  sound ;  speeds  of  3000  or  4000  feet  per  second  seem 
to  be  possible  at  the  ends  of  the  divergent  orifices  used 
in  the  Laval  turbine.  Some  years  ago  I  framed  a 
theory  of  the  injector  which  seemed  reasonable,  and 
yet  I  found  it  wrong  in  its  application  to  experimental 
results.  I  now  know  that  it  was  really  a  good  work- 
ing theory.  It  seemed  to  be  wrong  really  because  I 
could  not  imagine  a  velocity  of  steam  greater  than  that 
found  by  Napier,  the  velocity  of  sound. 

I  wish  to  show  that  the  reasoning  of  Prof.  Osborne 
Reynolds  leads  to  an  explanation  of  what  occurs  in 
an  expanding  mouthpiece.  The  motion  is  steady  in 
the  vessel  until  the  narrowest  part  or  throat  is  reached ; 
in  the  expanding  mouthpiece  the  motion  is  turbulent, 
but  perhaps  I  may  be  allowed  to  consider  the  motion 
as  steady  throughout,  as  this  will  illustrate  what  occurs 
well  enough,  and  turbulent  motion  mathematics  is 
quite  beyond  my  powers. 

If  W  is  the  weight  of  gas  passing  along  a  stream 
tube  the  cross  section  of  which  is  A,  then  at  a  place 
where  the  pressure  is  />  we  know  from  the  usual 
reasoning  that 


W: 


^Ax/y?^«'oAp'-.«")^ 


■  Awv 


if  w  is  the  weight  of  unit  volume  of  the  gas,  being 
Wg  where  p  is  />,    and  if  o  stands  for  p/p^- 

Now  let  us  keep  \V  constant,  and  we  are  able  to 
calculate  the  cross  section  of  the  stream  at  any  place 
where  p  is  known. 

I  sometimes  ask  the  individuals  of  a  class  of  students 
to  calculate,  each  of  them,  a  part  of  such  a  table  as 
the  following  : — 

Imagine  steam  in  a  vessel  at  />j=  14400,  or  100  lb. 
per  square  inch,  to  flow  towards  a  throat  with  an  ex- 
panding orifice  outside ;  at  the  following  pressures  I 
give  the  corresponding  cross  sections  A  of  a  stream 
tube  and  the  velocity  there.  It  will  be  seen  that  where 
the  tube  is  narrowest  the  pressure  is  57-85  lb.  per  square 
inch ;  this  is  near  the  narrowest  part  of  the  orifice. 
Beyond  this  in  the  expanding  part  A  increases,  the 
pressure  falls,  and  the  velocity  becomes  greater  and 
greater. 

I  take  a  stream  tube  in  which  the  flow  is  i  lb.  per 
second,  or  W=i.  These  numbers  deserve  study.  It 
is  evident  that  to  get  very  high  speeds  the  mouthpiece 
must  be  much  enlarged  from  the  throat,  but  as  rapid 
enlargement  must  lead  to  greater  turbulence,  veloci- 
ties much  greater  than  3000  feet  per  second  ought 
hardly  to  be  expected. 

If  we  double  all  the  pressures  in  the  table,  the  values 
of  A  and  v  there  given  are  right  for  the  case  of  flow 
of  steam  from  a  vessel  where  Pg  is  200  lb.  per  square 

NO.    1774,  VOL.  68] 


inch ;  about  two  pounds  of  steam  per  second  now  flows 
along  the  tube. 

An  expanding  mouthpiece  increases  the  flow  of 
water,  and  velocities  are  less  where  cross  sections  are 
greater;  but  in  the  case  of  air  or  steam,  the  total 
quantity  flowing  is  not  increased,  and  velocities  are 
greater  where  cross  sections  are  greater. 


p 

A 

V 

.  / 

A 

V 

lb.i>er 
sq.  in. 

sq.ft. 

ft.  per  sec. 

X'S. 

•q-ft. 

ft.  per  sec 

100 

00 

0 

40 

0-00524 

1963 

90 

0  007 32 

658 

30 

0-00599 

2252 

80 

000541 

994 

20 

0-00743 

2654 

70 

0-00489 

1245 

IS 

0-00889 

2910 

60 

0  •00483 

1456 

10 

0  OII70 

3220 

57-85 

0*00481 

1512 

5 

0-01430 

3So6 

55 

0-00484 

1573 

2i 

0  03306 

4214 

50 

0-00488 

1708 

John  Perrv. 


PROGRESS    OF    GEOLOGICAL   SURVEY    OF 
THE    UNITED    KINGDOM. 

IT  would  be  impossible  to  give  on  one  page  an 
epitome  of  the  work  done  in  a  year  by  the  Geo- 
logical Survey,  but  it  may  be  possible  to  explain  the 
arrangement  of  the  official  summary  of  progress  and 
to  indicate  the  character  and  range  of  the  information 
contained  in  it. 

By  far  the  greater  number  of  persons  who  consult 
it  want  first  of  all  to  learn  whether  anything  new  has 
been  published  about  their  own  district.  We  find, 
therefore;  that  the  information  is  arranged  geo- 
graphically under  the  heads  England  and  Wales,  Scot- 
land and  Ireland,  and  that  subordinate  to  these  there 
is  a  reference  to  districts,  not  well  defined  physical  or 
political  divisions  of  permanent  importance,  but 
divisions  arbitrarily  chosen  for  the  purpose  of  easy 
reference  to  the  areas  over  which  the  work  of  the  year 
has  been  carried  on. 

The  descriptions  are  further  classified  under  the 
names  of  the  geological  formations  found  in  each 
district. 

The  most  important  part  of  the  work  deals,  of 
course,  with  the  observations  made  in  the  field  and 
recorded  on  the  maps  and  sections,  or  described  in 
memoirs  and  explanations,  but  the  palaeontological, 
petrological  and  chemical  work  all  receive  special 
notice,  as  do  the  products  of  economic  value  and  the 
excellent  museum  connected  with,  and  largely  brought 
together  by,  the  Survey. 

All  who  are  engaged  in  geological  teaching  or  re- 
search, or  the  practical  application  of  the  science,  must 
watch  the  results  obtained  by  the  Survey,  whether  they 
involve,  as  proved  by  Mr.  Thomas,  a  correction  of  the 
section  across  the  Towy  Valley,  or  throw  light  on  the 
relation  of  the  Devonian  to  the  Old  Red,  as  rnay  be 
seen  in  Mr.  Strahan's  work,  or  furnish  material  for 
determining  the  exact  "  geological  equivalents  "  of 
the  coal-bearing  strata  in  several  distinct  and  isolated 
areas,  as  shown  by  Mr.  Kidston,  or  data  for  discuss- 
ing with  Mr.  Clement  Reid  the  conditions  which  pre- 
vailed when  the  deposits  were  laid  down  in  which 
man's  remains  first  appear. 

The  practical  man,  who  has  always  met  with  so 
much  courtesy  and  assistance  in  the  Survey  Office, 
whether  he  seeks  how  he  may  find  water  or  in  which 
direction  he  might  hope  to  pick  up  again  a  lost  seam 
of  coal  or  vein  of  metal,  has  always  turned  to  the 
publications  of  the  Survey  for  the  results  of  the  latest 
and  most  careful  examination  of  the  district  in  which 
he  is  interested. 


^62^6 


NA  TURE 


{October  59,  1903 


It  is,  however,  difficult  for  a  man  of  small  leisure  to 
search  through  the  maps,  sections,  explanations,  and 
memcnrs  to  see  whether  there  is  anything  which 
immediately  concerns  him.  In  the  annual  report  of 
progress  such  men  find  a  short  account  of  what  has 
been  done  and  often  a  forecast  of  what  line  of  research 
it  is  proposed  to  follow  next — as,  for  example,  in  the 
description  of  the  coal-bearing  strata  in  the  basin  of 
the  Amman. 

It  would,  however,  be  a  mistake  to  suppose  that  the 
results  achieved  are  of  interest  to  geologists  only. 
From  the  summary  of  progress  just  issued,  it  may  be 
seen  that  the  work  appeals  to  a  much  wider  public 
than  would  at  first  appear.  It  contains  a  record  of 
accurate  observations  on  the  relation  to  one  another  of 
the  great  masses  of  which  the  earth's  crust  is  made 
up — very  different  from  the  a  priori  reasoning  as  to 
how  they  ought  to  behave  with  which  we  have  so 
often  had  to  be  content.  If  we  turn  to  the  very  first 
page  of  the  introduction,  in  which  the  able  director  of 
the  Survey  gives  a  sketch  of  what  he  and  his  men 
have  done,  we  read  that  they  have  demonstrated  that 
the  arrangement  of  the  different  kinds  of  rock  proves 
that  there  have  been  movements  by  which  slices  of 
sedimentary  and  igneous  matter,  of  heavy  basic  and 
lighter  acidic  rock,  have  been  thrust  in,  so  that  they 
now  appear  in  alternating  layers  over  large  areas,  and 
further  that  these  earth  movements  have  crushed  and 
kneaded  and  drawn  out  the  constituents  of  the  rock  so 
that  its  structure  is  quite  different  from  that  which 
they  have  reason  to  infer  it  once  had  from  the  changes 
observed  as  they  trace  each  mass  across  the  country. 

The  physicist  and  astronomer  will  find  in  the  survey 
publications  the  results  of  observations  on  earth  move- 
ments recorded  by  a  man  like  Mr.  Harker,  who  Is 
not  only  one  of  the  highest  authorities  in  petrography, 
but  also  a  mathematician  of  the  first  order ;  while  geo- 
graphers will  note  with  Interest  the  Inferences  which 
are  forced  upon  clear-headed  and  experienced  observers 
like  Mr.  Strahan,  who  are  trained,  as  few  ordinary 
travellers  are,  to  watch  every  indication  of  change  of 
rock  structure,  and  to  trace  the  guiding  influence  of 
systems  of  displacement  upon  the  rivers  and  other 
denuding  agents  which  have  moulded  the  surface  of 
the  land. 

In  the  Survey  memoirs  biologists  will  find  treatises, 
by  men  like  Woodward,  Clement  Reid,  and  Lamplugh, 
dealing  with  ancient  climatal  and  physical  conditions 
which  have  varied,  as  Inferred  from  the  flora  and 
fauna  as  well  as  from  other  indications,  with  the  great 
geologic  changes  of  the  earth's  crust. 

On  the  staff  of  the  Survey  are  many  men  of  world- 
wide reputation  who  are  approaching  these  large 
questions  from  many  different  poirtts  of  view,  and  fully 
realise  what  large  superstructures  may  be  built  up  on 
the  facts  which  they  lay  down.  Carping  critics  talk 
of  the  ''uncertainties  of  geology";  that  is  because 
the  public  is  sometimes  told  what  working  hypothesis 
is  suggested  by  evidence  which  is  known  to  be  in- 
complete. It  is  not  necessary  for  pioneers  to  be  always 
repeating  the  certainties,  and  the  Summary  of  Progress 
lets  the  public  follow  the  work  as  It  is  going  on. 


NOTES. 

The  council  of  the  Royal  Meteorological  Society  has 
awarded  the  Symons  gold  medal  to  Prof.  Julius  Hann,  of 
Vienna,  in  recognition  of  the  valuable  work  which  he  has 
done  in  connection  with  meteorological  science.  The  medal 
will  be  presented  at  the  annual  meeting  of  the  Society  on 
January  20,    1904. 

A  BUST  of  John  Dalton,  presented  to  the  Manchester 
Literary  and  Philosophical  Society  by  Sir  Henry  E.  Roscoe 

NO.   1774,  VOL.  68] 


on  the  occasion  of  the  centenary  of  the  announcement  of  the 
atomic  theory,  was  unveiled  on  October  20.  The  secretary 
read  the  following  letter  from  Sir  Henry  Roscoe : — "  I 
desire  to  present  to  the  Literary  and  Philosophical  Society  of 
Manchester  a  bronze  bust  of  Dr.  Dalton,  as  a  memento  of 
the  many  years  of  pleasant  intercourse  which  I  have  in  past 
days  spent  in  converse  with  its  members,  and  as  a  recogni- 
tion of  the  honour  which  the  Society  has  done  me  by  elect- 
ing me  as  an  honorary  member,  and  in  bestowing  upon 
me  its  Dalton  Medal.  The  bust  is  the  work  of  a  dis- 
tinguished sculptress,  Miss  Levick,  and  I  believe  that  all 
those  who  have  seen  it  agree  with  me  in  esteeming  it  a 
powerful  and  lifelike  work  of  art.  It  will  give  me  great 
satisfaction  to  hear  that  the  Society  accept  my  gift,  and 
that  they  value  the  bust  as  a  work  of  art  and  as  a  reminis- 
cence of  the  donor."  The  president,  in  formally  unveiling 
the  bust,  observed  that,  it  was  a  happy  coincidence  that  this 
meeting  took  place  on  the  anniversary  of  the  date  when 
Dalton  communicated  to  the  Society  his  paper  on  the 
absorption  of  gases  by  water,  in  which  was  given  the  first 
hint  of  the  atomic  theory. 

The  zebra  stallion  Matopo,  which  has  been  described  and 
figured  by  Prof.  Cossar  Ewart  in  his  book  "  The  Penycuik 
Experiments,"  and  was  the  sire  of  some  interesting  zebra- 
horse  hybrids,  is  dead.  This  zebra  was  purchased  some 
time  ago  by  Mr.  Assheton-Smith,  Vaynol  Park,  Bangor, 
who  was  hopeful  that  he  might  find  it  possible  to  repeat 
some  of  Prof.  Ewart 's  experiments,  but  unfortunately  his 
expectations  have  not  been  realised.  Whilst  retaining  the 
skin,  he  has  presented  the  skeleton  of  the  zebra  to  the 
University  College  of  North  Wales,  where  it  will  form 
a  handsome  addition  to  the  zoological  collection.  It  may 
also  be  noted  that  to  this  college  Prof.  W.  A.  Herdman, 
F.R.S.,  of  Liverpool,  recently  made  a  donation  of  some 
fishes  from  Ceylon  and  Indo-Malaya  which  he  collected 
when  in  the  East  investigating  the  pearl  fisheries  of 
Ceylon.  Prof.  D'Arcy  Thompson,  C.B.,  Dundee,  has  also 
presented  a  skeleton  of  the  somewhat  rare  sea  otter 
(Enhydra)  from  Alaska.  By  presentation  and  purchase  a 
valuable  zoological  collection,  which  is  under  the  care  of 
Prof.  Philip  J.  White,  has  gradually  been  formed  at  the 
college. 

Dr.  Dawson  Turner  has  been  awarded  a  Keith  prize 
by  the  Royal  Scottish  Society  of  Arts  for  papers  upon  im- 
proved Rontgen  apparatus  and  other  electrical  matters. 

At  an  auction  sale  of  rare,  valuable  and  standard  books 
by  Messrs.  Hodgson  and  Co.,  Chancery  Lane,  on  October 
21.  a  complete  set  of  Curtis's  Botanical  Magazine,  from  the 
commencement  in  1787  to  the  present  month,  realised  the 
sum  of  120Z. 

The  opening  meeting  of  the  Institution  of  Electrical 
Engineers  will  be  held  on  November  12,  when  the  premiums 
awarded  for  papers  read  or  published  during  the  session 
1902-1903  will  be  presented,  and  the  president,  Mr.  Robert 
Kaye  Gray,  will  deliver  his  inaugural  address. 

Mr.  Marconi,  in  company  with  Captain  H.  B.  Jackson, 
has  gone  to  Gibraltar  to  carry  out  further  experiments 
for  the  Admiralty.  It  is  hoped  to  be  able  to  open  com- 
munication with  Gibraltar  before  losing  touch  with  Ports- 
mouth. 

According  to  the  daily  papers,  the  Post  Office  authorities 
are  about  to  make  experiments  with  the  de  Forest  system 
of  wireless  telegraphy.     Dr.   Lee  de  Forest  has  come  over 


October  29,  1903] 


NATURE 


637 


(rom  America  to  superintend  the  experiments;  the  system, 
in  which  an  electrolytic  conductor  is  used  in  place  of  the 
ordinary  coherer,. is  in  considerable  u§e  in  America. 

A  FORTNIGHT  ago  we  were  able  to  record  the  fact  that  a 
speed  of  125^  miles  an  hour  had  been  attained  by  the 
Siemens  car  in  the  high-speed  trials  Which  are  being  carried 
on  at  Berlin.  Last  Friday  this  record  was  beaten,  and  a 
speed  of  1305  miles  an  hour  attained.  It  is  said  that  a  higher 
speed  than  this  is  not  desired.  The  passing  of  the  car  at  full 
speed  seems  to  have  created  a  strong  impression  on  a  large 
crowd  of  sightseers  who  witnessed  the  experiments  from 
Dahlwitz  Station. 

We  regret  to  see  the  announcement  of  the  death  of  Dr. 
C  T.  Hudson,  F.R.S.,  president  of  the  Royal  Microscopical 
Society  from  1888  to  1890,  and  joint  author  of  Hudson  and 
Gosse's  "  Rotifera."  Dr.  Hudson  was  born  in  1828,  and 
was  fifteenth  wrangler  in  the  mathematical  tripos  of  1852. 
From  1855  to  i860  he  was  headmaster  of  Bristol  Grammar 
School,  and  from  1861  to  1881  of  Manilla  Hall,  Clifton. 
He  was  elected  a  fellow  of  the  Royal  Society  in  1889,  chiefly 
on  account  of  his  work  on  Rotifers,  concerning  which  he 
was  the  chief  authority.  The  genus  Pedalion,  discovered 
and  described  by  him,  was  a  very  remarkable  and  important 
contribution  to  animal  morphology  ;  Dr.  Hudson  was  also 
the  discoverer  of  numerous  other  new  genera  and  species  of 
Rotifera,  described  in  the  publications  of  various  scientific 
societies. 

An  announcement  is  made  in  a  Government  resolution 
on  the  annual  report  of  the  Survey  of  India  for  1901-2  that 
the  necessity  for  effectively  revising  and  keeping  up  to  date 
the  maps  now  in  existence,  as  well  as  of  providing  fresh 
ones,  has  been  forced  upon  the  Government  of  India.  "  We 
can  only  hope,"  says  the  Pioneer  Mail,  "  that  there  may 
be  no  half  measures,  and  that  the  reform  may  be  thorough, 
for  assuredly  the  need  is  more  crying  than  most  can  have 
any  idea  of." 

According  to  the  Westminster  Gazette,  Mr.  F.  du  Cane 
Godman  has  recently  presented  to  the  British  Museum  (of 
which  he  is  a  trustee)  a  collection  of  nearly  30,000  speci- 
mens of  beetles,  following  on  a  previous  donation  of  50,000. 
The  present  collection  consists  mainly  of  representatives  of 
the  family  Elateridae,  or  "  ship-jacks,"  the  bulk  being  from 
Central  America.  The  collection  in  the  Museum  is  now 
the  firtest  in  the  world,  and  housing  space  is  a  problem. 
Our  contemporary  makes  a  curious  mistake  in  referring 
to  the  fact  that  150,000  specitnens  of  beetles  are  already 
described,  and  that  the  annual  addition  to  the  British 
Museum  collection  averages  400  specimens  ;  in  both  cases, 
of  course,  species  are  meant. 

A  Reuter  telegram  from  Wellington,  dated  October  25, 
states  that  the  Antarctic  relief  ship  Morning  has  left  Lyttel- 
ton  to  join  the  Terra  Nova,  the  relief  ship  for  the  Discovery, 
at  Hobart.  In  connection  with  the  relief  of  the  Nordens- 
kiold  Antarctic  Expedition,  the  limes  reports  that  the 
Swedish  vessel  Frith jof,  the  French  steamer  Le  Franfais, 
and  the  Argentine  gunboat  Uruguay  will  meet  at  Ushnaia 
on  November  i,  and  will  then  proceed  to  Seymour's  Island, 
and  from  thence  to  Snowhill,  Dr.  Nordenskiold's  proposed 
base. 

A  correspondent,  referring  to  Prof.  W.  H.  Everett's 
letter  on  rocket  lightning  in  our  last  issue,  directs  attention 
to  .a  closely  similar  phenomenon  observed  in  London 
between  2  and  3  a.m.  on  the  morning  of  October  16.     From 


the  south-eastern  horizon  of  a  clear  sky,  a  "  wriggling 
stream  "  of  bluish-white  light  shot  up  in  a  vertical  direction 
and  broke  off  short  without  spreading.  It  would  be  interest- 
ing to  know  if  any  other  observer  witnessed  this  display, 
and  if  a  thunderstorm  occurred  that  night  anywhere  to  the 
south-east  of  London  within  twenty  or  thirty  miles. 

Commander  R.  E.  PearV  has  been  granted  leave  of 
absence  in  order  to  make  one  more  attempt  to  reach  the 
North  Pole.  In  a  letter  to  the  Secretary  of  the  U.S.  Navy, 
published  in  the  National  Geographic  Magazine  for  this 
month,  Mr.  Peary  outlines  the  plan  he  proposes  to  adopt. 
He  intends  to  make  his  winter  camp  fully  one  hundred 
miles  north  of  his  previous  winter  quarters,  so  that  when 
he  is  ready  to  start  in  spring  he  will  be  a  hundred  miles 
nearer  his  goal.  The  distance  from  Peary's  proposed 
winter  camp  near  Cape  Joseph  Henry  to  the  North  Pole 
and  back  again  is  less  than  the  average  distance  of  four 
sledging  trips  which  he  has  made.  Mr.  Peary  proposes  to 
start  in  July,  1904,  to  reach  Cape  Joseph  Henry  with  his 
vessel  in  the  fall  of  that  year,  and  to  make  his  dash  for  the 
Pole  in  1905.  In  case  he  does  not  reach  the  proposed 
winter  camp  in  1904,  he  will  spend  1905  in  reaching  it,  and 
attempt  to  reach  the  North  Pole  in  1906. 

The  fourteenth  International  Congress  of  Americanists 
will  be  held  at  Stuttgart  on  August  18-23,  1904,  under  the 
presidency  of  Prof.  Karl  von  den  Steinen.  The  congress  is 
concerned  with  the  history,  culture,  linguistics,  and  myth- 
ology of  the  various  aboriginal  races  of  America,  and 
generally  with  the  archaeology  and  ethnography  of  the  New 
World.  Correspondence  referring  to  anthropology  and 
ethnography  should  be  addressed  to  Prof.  Karl  von  den 
Steinen,  Berlin-Charlottenburg,  Hardenbergstrasse  24,  and 
that  referring  to  archaeology,  discovery,  and  Central 
America  to  Prof.  Eduard  Seler,  Steglitz  bei  Berlin,  Kaiser 
Wilhelmstrasse  3.  The  general  secretary  is  Prof.  K. 
Lampert,  Stuttgart,  Archivstrasse  3. 

The  volume  referred  to  in  the  foregoing  note  affords  con- 
vincing evidence  of  the  interest  shown  in  scientific  subjects 
in  New  Zealand,  and  it  is  not  unnatural  to  find  that  men 
of  science  in  that  colony  are  beginning  to  ask  that  scientific 
principles  may  influence  the  national  system  of  education. 
Mr.  Hill,  in  a  paper  on  technical  education,  read  before 
the  Hawke's  Bay  Institute,  rightly  maintained  that  "  the 
study  of  natural  science  should  be  fostered  even  beyond  the 
public  school  course,  and  this  can  readily  be  done  by  the 
introduction  of  botany,  geology,  agricultural  chemistry,  and 
other  cognate  subjects  into  the  advanced  or  secondary- 
course.  The  maintenance  by  the  Government  of  technical 
schools  and  schools  of  science  and  agriculture  would  give 
prestige  to  such  institutions,  and  these,  with  the  university- 
colleges,  should  supply  all  the  academic,  scientific,  and 
technical  training  that  is  wanted  for  the  professions  and 
the  pursuit  of  every  specialised  form  of  industrial  work." 

The  council  of  the  Royal  Society  will  proceed  on 
November  5  to  the  election  of  a  Joule  student  for  the  period 
1903-5.  The  studentship  will  be  awarded  for  investigations 
in  those  branches  of  physical  science  more  immediately  con- 
nected with  Joule's  work.  Applications  from  candidates 
will  be  received  by  the  Assistant  Secretary,  Royal  Society, 
Burlington  House,  London,  W\ 

The  first  number  of  vol.  ix.  of  the  Bulletin  issued 
by  the  Society  Sismologica  Italiana  gives  the  rules  of 
that   Society,    a   list  of   its   members^    and   a   continuation. 


NO.  I  774.  VOL.  68] 


628 


NATURE 


[October  29,  1903 


up  to  the  end  of  1901,  of  the  well-known  earthquake  register 
compiled  at  the  Central  Meteorological  Office  in  Rome. 
The  late  appearance  of  this  publication  arises  from  the  fact 
that  with  the  Italian  records  there  are  incorporated  corre- 
sponding records  which  have  been  collected  from  seismo- 
logical  stations  throughout  the  world.  In  this  publication 
we  therefore  have  not  only  entries  relating  to  disturbances 
confined  to  the  Italian  peninsula,  but  also  of  practically  all 
the  large  earthquakes  of  the  world. 

We  have  received  from  the  Cambridge  Scientific  Instru- 
ment Company  its  new  catalogue  of  Duddell  oscillo- 
graphs. These  instruments  were  described  in  detail  in 
Nature  of  December  6,  1900  (vol.  Ixiii.  p.  142).  Since  that 
time  several  improvements  have  been  made  in  their  con- 
struction which  have  the  effect  of  making  them  more  trust- 
worthy instruments,  and  better  able  to  withstand  the  some- 
what rough  usage  which  they  are  likely  to  meet  with  in 
engineering  work.  We  note  also  that  a  double  permanent 
magnet  oscillograph  is  now  on  the  market ;  this  instrument 
has  two  sets  of  strips,  and  is  thus  able  to  show  the  wave- 
forms of  current  and  P.D.  simultaneously;  hitherto  the 
portable  instrument  has  only  been  made  with  one  set  of 
strips.  Amongst  the  illustrations  to  the  catalogue  are  a 
number  of  excellent  reproductions  of  oscillograph  records, 
which  serve  to  show  the  variety  of  purposes  for  which  the 
instrument  is  suited.  One  has  only  to  turn  to  any  of  the 
more  recent  papers  dealing  with  alternate  current  working 
to  see  how  important  a  part  the  oscillograph  is  now  play- 
ing and  is  destined  to  play  in  the  future  in  this  branch 
of  electrical  engineering. 

We  have  also  received  from  the  Cambridge  Scientific 
Instrument  Company  a  pamphlet  describing  Prof. 
Callendar's  apparatus  for  measuring  the  mechanical  equiva- 
lent of  heat,  which  was  recently  described  before  the 
Physical  Society,  and  a  second  pamphlet  relating  to  the 
application  of  electric  resistance  thermometry  to  meteor- 
ology. This  latter  paper  sets  forth  some  of  the  cases  in 
which  the  use  of  resistance  thermometers  is  peculiarly  suit- 
able, as,  for  example,  the  measurement  of  water  tempera- 
tures or  underground  temperatures.  The  method  can  be 
used  with  much  advantage  for  measuring  or  recording 
temperatures  at  some  distance  from  the  observatory,  and 
has  the  additional  recommendation  that  the  thermometer 
itself  need  not  be  disturbed  or  approached  when  the  reading 
is  taken.  We  pointed  out  some  of  the  other  uses  of  these 
thermometers  in  these  columns  a  few  weeks  ago. 

In  a  recent  number  of  the  Bulletin  de  la  SocUti 
d' Encouragement  pour  I'Industrie  nationale.  M.  Charies 
Henry  has  an  interesting  paper  on  the  luminous  efficiency 
of  oil  lamps  and  flames  generally.  He  shows  that  the 
efficiency  increases  with  the  intensity,  at  first  very  rapidly, 
as  the  intensity  rises  from  i  to  2  carcels,  and  then  more 
slowly,  becoming  practically  constant  at  3  carcels.  The 
same  has  been  shown  to  be  true  for  arc  lamps,  the  law  of 
variation  being  neariy  the  same  in  both  cases,  only  the 
arc  lamp  naturally  varies  over  a  much  wider  candle-power 
range;  the  efficiency  does  not  become  a  maximum,  in  fact, 
until  about  600  carcels.  If  the  efficiencies  at  their  re- 
spective maxima  are  compared,  the  arc  lamp  is  found  to  be 
approximately  five  times  as  good  as  an  oil  lamp,  one  carcel- 
second  being  obtained  for  an  expenditure  of  70  watts  in 
the  one  case  and  of  320  in  the  other ;  this  is  allowing  for 
the  losses  in  the  boiler,  engine  and  dynamo  generating  the 
current,  and  represents,  therefore,  the  actual  superiority 
of  the  arc  over  the  oil  lamp.  If,  however,  the  efficiencies  at 
equal  candle-power  are  compared,  the  oil  lamp  is  three 
NO.    1774,  VOL.  68] 


times  as  good  as  art  arc — but,  of  course,  an  arc  of  3  candle- 
power  is  never  used  in  practice.  The  efficiency  of  the  oil 
lamp  may  be  improved  25  to  40  per  cent,  by  surrounding 
the  lower  portion  of  the  flame  with  a  copper  ring  to  prevent 
loss  of  heat  by  convection. 

In  the  Field  of  October  17,  Mr.  G.  Renshaw  announces 
that  he  has  found  in  the  museum  of  the  Royal  College  of 
Surgeons  a  skull  of  the  extinct  South  African  blaauwbok 
{Hippotragus  leucophaeus),  which  is  believed  to  be  the  only 
known  specimen  in  existence. 

The  Proceedings  of  the  Royal  Irish  Academy  for  May 
contain  an  important  paper  by  Dr.  G.  H.  Carpenter  on 
the  relationships  between  the  classes  of  Arthropods.  The 
author  considers  that  group  to  have  been  derived  from  a 
single  stock,  and  since  typical  insects,  crustaceans,  and 
arachnids  possess  the  same  number  of  segments,  the 
ancestral  type  must  likewise  have  been  definite  in  this 
respect.  Consequently,  millepedes  and  the  like  must  be 
aberrant  types  in  which  the  segmentation  has  been 
abnormally  increased.  Probably  the  ancestral  forms  were 
naupliform  {i.e.  larval)  crustaceans,  and  not,  as  commonly 
believed,  well-developed  annelid  worms. 

The  Illustrated  London  News  of  last  week  (October  24) 
contains  a  special  supplement  devoted  to  the  first  part  of  an 
account,  illustrated  by  reproductions  from  original  photo- 
graphs, of  Major  Powell-Cotton's  recent  hunting  expedition 
in  Eastern  Equatorial  Africa.  One  of  the  objects  of  the  ex- 
pedition was,  we  believe,  to  obtain  specimens  of  the  okapi, 
but  although  the  celebrated  traveller  and  big-game  hunter 
has  been  unsuccessful  in  this  respect,  he  has  succeeded  in 
mapping  out  an  extensive  tract  of  hitherto  unexplored 
country,  and  has  likewise  acquired  much  valuable  inform- 
ation with  regard  to  the  natives  and  the  fauna.  It  was 
during  this  expedition  that  the  two  fine  giraffes  now 
mounted  in  the  Natural  History  Museum  were  obtained. 
Special  interest  attaches  to  the  traveller's  discovery  of  a 
spot  to  which  elephants  resort  when  about  to  die,  the  habit 
on  the  part  of  these  animals  of  having  a  "  dying  ground  " 
being  paralleled  in  the  case  of  the  South  American  guanaco. 
The  cave-dwellers  of  Mount  Elgon  appear  to  have  made  a 
more  favourable  impression  on  Major  Powell-Cotton  than 
they  did  on  their  discoverer.  Sir  Harry  Johnston.  One  of 
the  photographs  shows  a  native  stalking  hartebeests  behind 
an  ass  on  the  head  of  which  has  been  fixed  the  scalp  and 
horns  of  one  of  these  antelopes.  The  conclusion  of  the 
account  will  appear  in  this  week's  issue. 

At  Rossitten,  in  eastern  Prussia,  large  numbers  of  crows 
and  rooks  are  caught  alive  in  nets  every  year  during  the 
two  migration  seasons.  The  director  of  the  station  of  the 
German  Ornithological  Society  at  Rossitten  proposes  to  try 
a  curious  experiment  with  these  birds.  Small  metal  rings 
bearing  a  number  and  date  will  be  attached  to  one  foot  of 
each  of  them,  after  which  they  will  be  liberated  and  per- 
mitted to  proceed  upon  their  own  paths  of  migration. 
Notices  have  been  sent  all  over  Germany  requesting  that 
when  any  of  these  birds  are  shot  the  foot  and  the  ring 
attached  to  it  may  be  returned  to  the  director  of  the  "  Vogel- 
warte  "  at  Rossitten.  It  is  quite  possible  that  some  of 
them  may  stray  even  as  far  as  the  shores  of  Great  Britain, 
and  if  this  should  happen  it  is  hoped  that  the  director's 
request  may  be  attended  to.  An  accurate  record  will  be 
kept  at  Rossitten  of  the  dates  of  the  liberation  of  every  bird 
and  of  the  locality  whence  its  foot  is  returned,  and  it  is 
expected  that  some  interesting  deductions  will  be  made  from 
the  information  thus  obtained. 


October  29,  1903] 


NATURE 


629 


The  small,  but  well-ordered,  zoological  garden  at  BSle 
is  well  worthy  of  a  visit.  It  is  situated  in  the  new  quarter 
of  the  city  beyond  the  railway  station,  and  has  the  advan- 
tages of  a  good  soil  and  a  clear  stream  of  water  running 
thiough  it.  The  new  licn-house,  which  will  shortly  be 
ready  for  occupation,  is  planned  on  an  extended  scale,  but 
will  not  be  quite  so  large  as  those  of  London  and  Berlin. 
There  will  bf  a  set  of  external  cages  for  the  animals  on  the 
south  side,  but  the  interior  of  the  building  on  the  north 
side  will  be  appropriated  to  the  exhibition  of  reptiles. 
There  is  a  fine  herd  of  the  American  bison,  which  has 
frequently  bred  in  this  garden,  and  very  good  examples  of 
the  elk  and  reindeer,  neither  of  which  seem  to  do  well  in 
England.  The  special  pet  of  the  director,  Dr.  Hagmann. 
is  a  young  female  orang,  which  has  been  living  at  Bale  in 
good  health  for  more  than  three  years,  and  is  remarkably 
tame  and  intelligent.  She  obeys  orders  given  in  German, 
but  has  not  yet  learned  to  reply  to  them  in  that  language. 

The  geology  of  the  country  near  Chichester  is  described 
f  in  a  memoir  of  the  Geological  Survey  by  Mr.  Clement  Reid, 
F.R.S.,  with  contributions  by  Mr.  G.  W.  Lamplugh  and 
Mr.  A.  J.  Jukes-Brown.  The  memoir,  which  is  accom- 
panied by  a  colour-printed  map  (sheet  317),  deals  with  a 
portion  of  the  South  Downs  in  Sussex,  with  the  picturesque 
regions  of  Midhurst,  Petworth  and  Pulborough  on  the 
north,  and  the  low-lying  fertile  tracts  of  drift  gravel  and 
brick-earth  on  the  south.  The  formations  described  range 
from  the  Wealden  to  the  London  Clay,  together  with  Clay- 
with-flints,  certain  marine  gravels,  and  other  superficial 
deposits.  The  price  of  the  memoir  is  one  shilling,  and  of 
the  map  one  shilling  and  sixpence.  Both  may  be  obtained 
from  any  agent  for  the  sale  of  Ordnance  Survey  maps,  or 
through  any  bookseller  from  the  Ordnance  Survey  Office, 
Southampton.  For  educational  purposes  this  and  other 
memoirs  in  the  same  series  are  invaluable. 

The  second  part  of  the  general  report  and  statistics  for 
1902  relating  to  mines  and  quarries,  edited  by  Prof.  C.  Le 
Neve  Foster,  F.R.S.,  and  published  as  a  Home  Office  Blue- 
book,  deals  with  questions  of  labour.  It  gives  the  facts  re- 
lating to  persons  employed  and  accidents  at  mines  and 
quarries  in  the  United  Kingdom,  and  to  the  enforcement 
of  the  Mines  and  Quarries  Acts.  In  1902,  1061  separate 
fatal  accidents  occurred  in  and  about  the  mines  and  quarries 
of  the  United  Kingdom,  causing  the  loss  of  1172  lives. 
Compared  with  the  previous  year,  there  is  a  decrease  of 
fourteen  in  the  number  of  fatal  accidents  and  of  fifty-seven 
in  the  number  of  lives  lost.  Three-fourths  of  the  fatal 
accidents  by  explosions  of  fire-damp  or  coal-dust  were  due 
to  naked  lights,  the  illegal  use  of  matches,  or  the  illegal 
opening  of  a  safety-lamp.  The  worst  disaster  of  the  year 
was  the  explosion  at  MacLaren  Colliery,  Abertysswg,  Mon- 
mouthshire, where  sixteen  persons  lost  their  lives  and 
eighteen  were  injured.  In  connection  with  this  explosion. 
Prof.  Le  Neve  Foster  remarks,  "  fortunately  the  roads 
were  well  watered,  or  otherwise  the  loss  of  life  would  prob- 
ably have  been  very  much  larger  " ;  and  in  this  contention 
he  is  supported  by  Mr.  Martin,  one  of  H.M.  Inspectors  of 
Mines  who  reported  on  the  disaster,  and  concluded  his 
report  with  the  following  words  : — "  This  is  perhaps  the 
first  practical  proof  of  artificial  watering  limiting  the  effects 
of  what  would  otherwise  have  proved  a  widespread  and 
much  more  disastrous  affair.  It  is  certainly  an  object  lesson 
for  all  colliery  managers."  Owing  to  the  large  number  of 
accidents  occurring  at  quarries  from  the  use  of  explosives 
containing  nitro-glycerin  when  in  a  solid  or  frozen  state,  it 
has  been  thought  desirable  to  circulate  special  notices  to  be 
posted  up  on  the  door  of  the  magazine  or  store  from  which 
NO.    1774,  VOL.  68] 


the  men  fetch  their  explosives.  The  notice  directs  that  all 
cartridges  made  of  dynamite,  gelignite,  blasting  gelatin, 
and  other  explosives  containing  nitro-glycerin  must  always 
be  thawed  (in  a  properly  designed  warming  pan)  before  use 
during  the  months  of  December,  January,  February,  and 
March,  and  also  at  any  other  times  if  the  cartridges  are 
not  in  a  soft  or  pasty  condition. 

A  PECULIAR  form  of  the  basidiomycetous  fungus  Lentinus 
lepideus  is  described  by  Mr.  W.  G.  Smith  in  the  Journal 
of  Botany  (October),  in  which  numerous  clavaria-like 
branches  spring  from  a  central  club-like  portion.  Mr. 
E.  G.  Baker  completes  in  this  number  his  systematic 
arrangement  of  the  Indigoferas  of  tropical  Africa. 

The  current  number  (October)  of  the  Reliquary  and 
Illustrated  Archaeologist  contains  some  notes  by  Mr.  W.  R. 
Prior  on  an  image  of  the  sun  found  last  autumn  at  Trund- 
holm,  in  northern  Zeeland,  and  two  pictures  of  the  object, 
one  of  which  is  here  reproduced  on  a  reduced  scale,  by  per- 
mission of  the  publishers,  Messrs.  Bemrose  and  Sons,  Ltd. 
The  image  is  i  foot  ij  inches  broad  and  8  inches  high,  and 
was  found  in  fragments  about  six  inches  under  the  surface 
of  the  ground.  It  was  easily  reconstructed  by  Dr.  Sophus 
Muller,  director  of  the  National  Museum  at  Copenhagen, 
and  a  full  description  of  the  object  has  appeared  in  Danish. 


Sua  linage  lountl  at   iiuiidboiin,  Denmark, 


"  It  has  been  clearly  proved,"  says  Mr.  Prior,  "  an  image 
of  the  sun  being  dragged  round  on  a  chariot  as  an  object 
of  worship,  an  idol  of  the  sun-worship  dating  from  about 
1000  B.C.,  and  the  best  of  its  kind  found  anywhere,  both 
as  regards  design  and  execution.  In  Egyptian  and  Oriental 
mythology,  as  well  as  in  Grecian,  the  sun  was  represented 
as  a  round  disc,  often  inlaid  with  gold.  Several  pictorial 
representations  of  the  sun  are  known  from  the  same  period, 
but  none  that  has  any  close  resemblance  to  this  find. 
Everything  seems  to  indicate  that  the  find  belongs  to  the 
older  Bronze  age,  and  is  of  purely  Scandinavian  origin  in 
its  rich  ornamental  style  and  artistic  workmanship,  which 
appear  in  northern  bronzes  of  that  period." 

In  order  to  obtain  flowers  out  of  their  natural  season,  it 
is  possible  to  retard  their  growth  at  an  early  stage  by 
placing  the  plants  in  cold,  dry  houses,  and  then  to  force 
them  later  under  the  influence  of  heat  and  moisture,  or  it 
is  possible  to  stimulate  the  young  buds  into  premature  de- 
velopment by  subjecting  them  to  the  effects  of  ether.  M. 
A  Maumen^,  a  strong  advocate  of  the  etherisation  system, 
discusses  its  scientific  and  practical  aspects  in  the  Revue 
scientifiquc.  He  maintains  that  not  only  do  plants  develop 
more  quickly  after  being  etherised,  but  that  development  is 
more  regular  and  complete. 


630 


NATURE. 


[October  29,  1963 


|r, In. Japan  the  custom  prevails  of  burning  down  yearly, 
tri-yearly,  or  at  longer  intervals  the  tracts  of  ground  known 
as  "  hara, "  this  name  being  applied  to  the  bare  hillsides 
which  have  been  denuded  of  trees.  One  of  the  first  pro- 
ducts on  these  lands  is  a  grass  known  as  "  kaya," 
Miscanthus  sinensis,  and  it  is  with  the  idea  of  increasing 
this  crop  that  the  lands  are  burnt.  This  fallacy  is  com- 
bated by  Mr.  O.  Shishido  in. the;  Bulletin  of  the  College  of 
Agriculture,  Tokio,  where  he  points  out  that  the  hara, 
although  favourably  situated,'  are  how  practicially  unpro- 
ductive areas.  In  the  same  journal  Mr.  H.  ShiraWasa 
indicates  the  development  of  the  oil  in  the  camphor-tree 
which  crystallises  out  into  camphor. 

A  USEFUL  little  book  has  been  published  by  the  Royal 
Geographical  Society  entitled  "Hints  oh  Outfit  for 
Travellers  in  Tropical  Countries,"  by  Dr.  Charles  F.  Har- 
ford. The  hints  are  of  just  the  practical  kind  that  intend- 
ing travellers  will  find  serviceable. 

A  SIXTH  edition  of  Prof.  W.  H.  Burr's  "  The  Elasticity 
and  Resistance  of  the  Materials  of  Engineering  "  has  been 
published  by  Messrs.  John  Wiley  and  Sons,  of  New  York, 
and  Messrs.  Chapman  and  Hall,  of  London.  More  than 
half  the  book  is  new,  and  the  advanced  matter  relating  to 
the  general  theory  of  elasticity  in  amorphous  solid  bodies, 
and  the  theories  of  torsion  and  flexure,  have  been  placed 
at  the  end  of  the  book  as  an  appendix. 

The  Bureau  of  American  Ethnology  has  published  a 
Natick  dictionary  compiled  by  the  late  Dr.  James  H.  Trum- 
bull. In  an  introduction  Dr.  Edward  E.  Hale  explains 
that  the  dictionary  is  published  as  it  was  left  by  Dr.  Trum- 
bull, whose  widow  presented  the  MS.  to  the  American 
Antiquarian  Society.  The  manuscript  was  passed  to  the 
late  Major  Powell,  who  placed  it  in  the  hands  of  Dr. 
Gatschet,  of  the  ethnologic  staff  of  the  Bureau,  who  has 
superintended  its  publication.  It  is  hoped  that  the  book 
will  form  the  first  volume  in  a  series  of  vocabularies  of  the 
native  languages. 

It  has  been  shown  recently  that  the  composition  of  the 
surface  layers  of  a  solution  differs  to  a  slight  extent  from 
the  composition  of  the  solution  as  a  whole.  Experiments 
made  by  Miss  C.  C.  Benson  with  very  dilute  amyl  alcohol, 
which  readily  gives  rise  to  a  durable  foam  on  shaking, 
show  that  this  foam  is  also  different  in  composition  from 
the  main  solution,  the  proportion  of  alcohol  being  slightly 
greater  in  the  foam  than  in  the  rest  of  the  liquid.  The 
composition  of  the  solutions  was  determined  by  surface 
tension  measurements  by  the  drop  method. 

The  problem  of  turning  to  practical  use  the  free  nitrogen 
of  the  atmosphere  for  the  purposes  of  agriculture  and 
industry  is  one  which  has  excited  attention  for  many  years 
past.  According  to  a  recent  communication  of  Dr.  Frank, 
of  Charlottenburg,  the  fixation  of  atmospheric  nitrogen  on 
a  technical  scale  can  be  effected  through  the  agency  of  the 
carbides  of  the  alkaline  earth  metals.  Barium  carbide  is 
especially  suitable  for  the  purpose,  and  by  the  absorption 
of  atmospheric  nitrogen  is  converted  directly  into  barium 
cyanide.  The  reaction  with  calcium  carbide  proceeds 
differently,  the  product  obtained  being  calcium  cyanamide, 
which,  however,  by  heating  with  water  under  high  pressure 
is  easily  converted  into  calcium  carbonate  and  ammonia. 
Experiments  have,  moreover,  shown  that  the  calcium 
cyanamide  can  be  used  directly  as  a  means  of  supplying 
nitrogen  to  the  soil. 

Although  the  analogy  between  asymmetric  carbon  and 
nitrogen  in  regard  to  optical  rotation  is  assured  by  the  fact 
that  the  activity  of  the  nitrogen  compounds  can  be  explained 
by   a   simple   extension   of   the  theory   of   van    't    Hqff   and 

NO.  1774,  VOL.  68] 


Le  Bel,  yet  previous  experiences  seem  to  point  to  the 
analogy  being  very  incomplete.  The  instability  and  the 
tendency  of  the  active  forms  to  undergo  spontaneous  race- 
misation  are  conspicuously  characteristic  of  the  nitrogen 
compounds.  These  properties  no  doubt  depend  upon  the 
readiness  with  which  nitrogen  passes  from  the  pentavalent 
into  the  trivalent  form,  a  transformation  which  at  once 
destroys  the  spacial  asymmetry.  An  interesting  paper  deal- 
ing with  the  subject  is  published  by  Dr.  Wedekind  in  the 
current  number  of  the  Zeitschrift  fUr  physikaliscke  Chemie. 

An  investigation  of  the  best  conditions  for  the  electrolytic 
refining  of  copper  has  recently  been  carried  out  by  Messrs. 
F.  J.  Schwab  and  I.  Baum,  an  account  of  which  is  given 
in  the  October  number  of  the  Journal  of  Physical  Chemistry. 
The  factors  which  have  been  taken  into  consideration  are 
the  cost  of  the  power  necessary  to  precipitate  a  tank  of 
copper  with  different  current  densities  and  at  different 
temperatures,  the  cost  of  heating  the  tank,  the  deterioration 
of  the  electrolyte,  the  interest  charge  on  the  copper  in  the 
tank,  and  the  quality  of  the  copper  deposited.  As  the  result 
of  a  large  number  of  series  of  experiments,  in  which  the 
influence  of  these  factors  and  their  correlation  were  ex- 
amined, the  authors  come  to  the  conclusion  that  in  order 
to  operate  a  plant  most  economically  and  to  secure  the  best 
financial  returns,  copper  should  be  refined  in  covered  tanks 
at  a  temperature  of  70°  C,  with  a  current  density  of  3^-3! 
amperes  per  square  decimetre. 

The  additions  to  the  Zoological  Society's  Gardens  during 
the  past  week  include  two  Chestnut-breasted  Finches 
(Donacola  castaneothorax),  a  Bicheno's  Finch  (Estrelda 
bichenovii),  fourteen  Banded  Grass  Finches  {Poephila 
cincta),  eight  Gouldian  Finches  {Poephila  gouldiae)  from 
Queensland,  two  Modest  Grass  Finches  {Amadina  modesta)^ 
fourteen  Chestnut-eared  Finches  {Amadina  castanotis),  two 
Undulated  Grass  Parrakeets  {Melopsittacus  undulatus),  a 
Peaceful  Dove  {Geopelia  tranquilla),  a  Graceful  Ground 
Dove  {Geopelia  cuneata)  from  Australia,  presented  by  Mrs. 
Alfred  H.  Houlder ;  an  American  Bittern  {Botaurus  lenii- 
ginosus),  captured  at  sea,  presented  by  Mr.  Yeo ;  two 
Chameleons  {Chamaeleon  vulgaris)  from  North  Africa,  pre- 
sented by  Mr.  G.  T.  Coleman  ;  a  Hocheur  Monkey  {Cerco- 
pithecus  nictitans)  from  West  Africa,  a  Grey  Seal  {Hali- 
choerus  grypus)  from  the  West  Coast  of  Ireland,  a  Red- 
fronted  Lemur  {Lemur  rufifrons)  from  Madagascar,  an 
Adelaide  Parrakeet  {Platycercus  adelaidae)  from  Australia, 
deposited  ;  two  Great  Kangaroos  {Macropus  giganteus)  from 
Australia,  a  Banded  Cotinga  {Cotinga  cincta)  from  Brazil, 
purchased  ;  a  Hybrid  Waterbuck,  between  {Cobus  unctuoscf. 
S  and  Cobus  ellipsiprymnus   Q ),  born  in  the  Gardens. 


OUR  ASTRONOMICAL   COLUMN. 

Astronomical  Occurrences  in  November:  — 
Nov.    3.     3h.  45m.  to  7h.  2m.     Transit  of  Jupiter's  Sat.  III. 
(Ganymede). 
7,     iih.  23m.     Minimum  of  Algol  (3  Persei). 
9.     8h.  43m.  to  9h.  28m.     Moon  occults  \  Geminorum 

(Mag.  36). 
10.     7h.  26m.  to  loh.  44m.     Transit  of  Jupiter's  Sat.  III. 

(Ganymede). 
,,      8h.  12m.     Minimum  of  Algol  (^  Persei). 
14-16.     Epoch  of  Leonid  Meteors  (Radiant  1 50° +  22°). 

15.  ih.     Venus  in  conjunction  with  the  Moon.     Venus 

0°  55'  N. 
,,      Venus.     Illuminated  portion  of  disc  =o'429. 

16.  6h.  Iim.  to  9h.  53m.     Transit  of  Jupiter's  Sat.  IV. 

(Callisto). 

17.  iih.  12m.     Transit  (ingress)  of  Jupiter's  Sat   TIL 

(Ganymede). 
27.     23h.     Venus  at  great ^t  elongation  (46°  44' W.}. 
30.     9h.  55m.     Minimum  of  Algol  (3  Persei). 


October  29,  1903] 


NATURE 


631 


Recent  Spectrographic  Observations  of  Nov^. — 
Using  the  slitless  spectrograph  recently  attached  to  the 
Crossley  reflector,  Prof.  Perrine  has  obtained  photographs 
of  the  recent  spectra  of  various  novze. 

A  spectrogram  of  Nova  Aurigae,  taken  with  a  total  ex- 
posure of  5  hours  on  August  29  and  30,  shows  that 
important  changes  have  taken  place  in  the  spectrum  of 
this  star  since  190 1,  when  the  spectrum  was  photographed 
by  Mr.  Stebbins.  At  that  time  the  chief  nebular  line  at 
A  501  was  equal  in  intensity  to  the  lines  at  A  462,  A  434,  and 
H5,  but  in  the  recent  photographs  it  is  entirely  absent ; 
the  other  lines  are  relatively  the  same,  but  all  appear  to 
have  decreased  in  intensity  with  regard  to  the  continuous 
spectrum.     This  Nova  is  now  of  the  fourteenth  magnitude. 

In  the  case  of  Nova  Persei,  a  spectrum  obtained  on  July 
30,  with  an  exposure  of  2  hours  3  minutes,  shows  that 
striking  changes  have  taken  place  since  March,  1902.  H3 
has  decreased  greatly  in  brightness  during  the  interval,  and 
the  condensation  at  A  434  has  also  become  less  marked, 
whilst  H8  has  only  suffered  the  normal  diminution  in  bright- 
ness. The  lines  at  A  339  and  A  346  show  the  greatest 
changes,  the  former  having  entirely  disappeared,  whilst  the 
latter  is  barely  distinguishable  on  the  latest  spectrogram  ; 
the  chief  nebular  line  does  not  appear  to  have  changed 
relatively  to  the  general  spectrum.  On  July  30  the  magni- 
tude of  Nova  Persei  was  about  11-5  or  12. 

Even  in  the  more  recent  Nova  Geminorum  important 
changes  are  already  noticeable  ;  photographs  were  secured 
on  August  28,  31,  and  September  2,  and  when  compared 
with  the  observations  of  ^iay  11  it  was  seen  that  during 
the  interval  of  3J  months  the  whole  spectrum  had  become 
much  weaker ;'  the  chief  nebular  line  had  become  much 
stronger,  whilst  H/3  had  greatly  decreased  in  relative  in- 
tensity. The  line  at  A  434  is  by  far  the  strongest  in  the 
whole  spectrum,  and  that  at  A  463  is  much  broadened  and 
probably  composite ;  there  are  also  indications  of  the  higher 
hydrogen  lines  on  the  background  of  continuous  spectrum. 
On  a  number  of  spectrograms  obtained  between  April  2 
and  8  a  condensation  at  A  350  was  a  remarkable  feature, 
on  .April  18  no  indications  of  this  condensation  were  present, 
whilst  on  April  26  there  was  a  strong  condensation  at  A  346, 
but  nothing  at  all  at  A  350 ;  later  observations  confirm  this 
interesting  phenomenon. 

Visual  observations  of  the  spectrum  of  Nova  Geminorum, 
made  by  .Mr.  H.  D.  Curtis  on  August  17  and  18  with 
spectrograph  No.  i  attached  to  the  36-inch  refractor,  showed 
the  three  chief  nebular  lines  well  developed,  H)3  faint,  the 
line  at  A  4959  rather  stronger,  and  the  line  at  A  5007,  into 
which  the  greater  part  of  the  Nova's  light  seemed  to  be 
concentrated,  very  much  more  intense,  whilst  D  and  Ho 
were  not  visible.  The  change  of  this  star  into  one  of  the 
nebular  tvpe  is  apparently  now  complete  (Lick  Observatory 
Bulletin,  'No.  48). 

OccuLTATioN  OF  A  Star  BY  JupiTER. — A  communication  to 
the  Kiel  Centralstelle,  published  in  No.  3903  of  the  Astrono- 
mische  Nachrichten,  announced  that  Mr.  T.  Banachiewicz, 
of  the  Warsaw  University,  had  observed  an  occultation  of 
the  star  B.D.  — 6°.6i9i  (mag.  =6-5)  by  Jupiter  at  about 
7h.  lom.  (Berlin  M.T.)  on  .September  19. 

Several  observers  recorded  their  observations  of  this 
phenomenon  in  No.  3906  of  the  Nachrichten,  amongst 
others  Herr  Kostinsky,  of  the  Pulkowa  Observatory,  who 
gave  the  times  of  immersion  and  emergence  as 
2oh.  lom.  21s.  ±is.  and  2ih.  52m.  4s  ±is.  (Pulkowa  S.T.) 
respectively. 

In  a  letter  to  the  October  number  of  the  Observatory,  Mr. 
Denning  gives  the  details  of  his  observations  of  the 
phenomenon  about  half  an  hour  after  the  probable  reappear- 
ance of  the  star,  when  it  was  situated  at  about  10*  from 
the  S.S.E.  limb  of  the  planet.  He  states  that  the  same 
star  will  be  about  20'  south  of  Jupiter  on  December  29  at 
approximately  loh.  G.M.T. 

Rotational  Velocity  of  Venus. — Bulletin  No.  3  of  the 
Lowell  Observatory  contains  a  description,  by  Mr.  V.  M. 
Slipher,  of  some  experiments  made  at  that  observatory  in 
order  to  determine,  by  the  Deslandres  spectrographic 
method,  whether  Venus  has  a  short  rotational  period  or 
not. 

The  instrument  used  was  the  new  Lowell  spectrograph, 
made  by  Brashear,  which  gives  an  angular  dispersion  of 
46'-5  for  one  tenth-metre  when  set  for  the  minimum  devi- 

NO.   1774,  VOL.  68] 


ation  of  A  4270.  The  spectrograph  is  so  attached  to  the 
adapter  that  it  may  be  rotated  about  the  optical  axis  in 
order  to  obtain  spectrograms  with  the  slit  in  various  relative" 
positions;  the  plates  used  were  fine-grain  Seed's  "23" 
brand,  and  were  exposed  for  about  8  minutes  during  the  hour 
immediately  succeeding  sunset,  whilst  the  air  currents  were 
most  quiescent.  For  purposes  of  measurement  an  iron 
spectrum  was  photographed  on  the  same  plate,  and  twelve 
of  the  finest  iron  lines  were  used  as  fiducial  lines.  The 
results  obtained  show  very  small  probable  errors,  ax^  in- 
dicate that  Venus  does  not  possess  a  short  period  of  rota- 
tion. A  period  of  twenty-four  hours  would  cause  an  inclin- 
ation of  the  lines  amounting  to  one-ihird  of  a  degree,  and 
similar  experiments  performed  on  the  planet  Mars,  and 
published  in  Bulletin  No.  4,  show  that  a  longer  period  than 
this  would  be  clearly  indicated  by  the  apparatus  and  method 
used. 


THE   STANDARDISATION    OF    ELECTRICAL 
PRESSURES    AND    FREQUENCIES. 

WE  have  received  a  copy  of  the  resolutions  of  the 
Engineering  Standards  Committee  with  reference  to 
standard  pressures  for  direct  current  and  standard  fre- 
quencies. In  view  of  the  importance  of  the  subject  to  the 
electrical  industry  at  large,  the  document  is  reprinted  below 
in  full.  

Standard  Direct  Current  Pressures  and  Standard 
Frequencies. 

The  standardisation  of  electrical  pressures  and  frequencies 
was  the  first  portion  of  the  important  work  entrusted  to 
the  subcommittee  on  generators,  motors  and  transformers 
by  the  electrical  plant  committee.  The  subcommittee 
consists  of  the  following  gentlemen  :— 

Colonel  R.  E.  Crompton,  C.B.    chairman.  „,„<,„ 

Colonel  H.  C.  Holden.  R.A.,  Captain  A.  H.  Dumaresq, 
R.E.,  representing  the  War  Office. 

Commander  G.  L.  Sclater,  R.N.,  Mr.  L.  J.  Steele,  re- 
presenting the  Admiralty.  Anr«„tc 

Mr.    Llewellyn    Preece,    representing   the   Crown   Agents 

^^DnV^^T^Tazebrook,  representing  the  National  Physical 

^  m'^'^'^b'^^H.  Antill,  Mr.  W.   B.   Esson,  nominated  by  the 
Electrical  Engineers'  Plant  Manufacturers'  Association. 

Mr.  A.  C.  Eborall. 

Mr.  S.  Z.  de  Ferranti. 

Mr.  Robert  Hammond. 

Captain  H.   R.  Sankey. 

Mr.  C.  H.  Wordingham. 

Mr.  Leslie  S.  Robertson,  secretary. 

Mr.  C.  le  Maistre,  electrical  assistant  secretary. 

At  an  early  stage  in  their  deliberations,  the  subcom- 
mittee decided  that  the  most  advantageous  method  ot 
approaching  this  problem,  beset  as  it  is  with  so  many 
difficulties,  would  be  from  the  point  of  v-iew  of  those  most 
affected,  namely  the  users  of  lamps  and  of  motors  for  power 
purposed.  It  was  therefore  agreed  that  the  standard 
pressures  to  be  suggested  should  be  measured  at  the  con- 
sumers' terminals  as  settled  by  Act  of  i899- 

At  the  present  time  there  exist  many  different  pressures 
declared  by  the  various  lighting  and  power  authorities.  In 
view  of  the  great  desirability  of  obviating  this  unsatis- 
factory state  of  affairs  it  was  deemed  advisable  to  suggest 
the  minimum  number  of  standard  pressures  which  would 
best  meet  present  commercial  requirements  and,  at  the 
same  time,  utilise  to  the  fullest  extent  the  consumers  exist- 
ing appliances.  -j     ..  *     ♦u     o,.k 

After  careful  consideration,  it  became  evident  to  the  sub- 
committee that  the  direct  current  pressures  of  no,  220,  440, 
and  soo  volts  would  best  meet  the  requirements,  because 
carcases  built  for  these  standard  pressures  could  be  utilised 
for  pressures  10  per  cent,  above  or  below  the  suggested 
standards,  without  any  alteration  whatever  in  the  castings 
or  mechanical  components,  by  merely  altering  the  windings 
and  excitation. 

It  is  to  be  hoped  that  now  these  direct  current  pressures 
have  been  fixed  as  standards  by  the  committee,  they  will 
in  future  be  universally  adopted  by  the  engineers  advising 


63^ 


NA  TV  RE 


[October  29,  1903 


corporations  and  others  distributing  electrical  energy.  In 
course  of  time  the  benefits  to  the  electrical  industry  at  large, 
which  will  certainly  follow  the  adoption  of  these  standard 
pressures,  must  become  more  and  more  apparent. 

A  circular  was  drafted  embodying  the  suggestions  of  the 
subcommittee,  and  this  was  submitted,  first  to  the  manu- 
facturers for  their  consideration,  and  secondly  to  the  lead- 
ing consulting  engineers  and  users  of  motors. 

The  information  so  courteously  placed  at  the  disposal  of 
the  subcommittee  by  the  consulting  engineers  and  manu- 
facti^rers  was  most  carefully  weighed  and  considered  by 
the  subcommittee,  and  certain  definite  conclusions  were 
arrived  at,  the  circular  being  sent,  in  the  first  instance,  to 
the  manufacturers,  as  they  were  the  people  most  directly 
interested.  Replies  were  received  from  all  the  leading 
firms,  who  expressed  themselves  unanimously  in  favour  of 
the  recommendations  of  the  subcommittee.  The  consulting 
engineers  similarly  gave  their  adherence  to  the  proposals 
of  the  subcommittee. 

Before  coming  to  their  final  decision  the  subcommittee  on 
generators,  motors  and  transformers  conferred  with  the  sub- 
committee on  electrical  tramways,  of  which  Mr.  A.  P. 
Trotter  is  chairman,  and  a  joint  meeting  took  place,  with 
the  result  that  the  pressure  of  500  volts,  which  most  con- 
cerned the  latter  subcommittee,  was  agreed  to,  and  in 
addition  to  the  pressures  already  agreed  to  600  volts  was 
decided  upon  as  the  standard  pressure  for  electrical  rail- 
ways. 

The  question  of  the  adoption  of  standard  frequencies, 
although  of  equal  importance  with  that  of  standard 
pressures,  was  not  surrounded  with  the  same  difficulties. 
It  was,  however,  deemed  advisable  to  fix  upon  the  standard 
frequencies  at  the  earliest  possible  stage  of  the  work,  as 
no  progress  could  be  made  in  the  standardisation  of  prime 
movers  for  driving  alternate  current  machinery  until  such 
time  as  the  frequencies  had  been  settled  upon.  On  this 
question  there  appeared  to  be  a  great  preponderance  in 
favour  of  frequencies  of  25  and  50.  The  only  point  upon 
which  any  serious  difference  of  opinion  appeared  to  exist 
was  the  advisability  of  the  adoption  of  a  third  frequency 
of  40  or  42,  to  enable  rotary  converters  to  be  used  to  the 
fullest  advantage.  All  the  arguments  in  favour  of  this 
third  frequency  were  fully  discussed,  but  after  carefully 
weighing  the  pros  and  cons  the  subcommittee  decided  not 
to  rp'-ArnmenH  \\\p  adoption  of  more  than  two  frequencies, 
namely,  25  and  50. 

The  recommendations  of  the  subcommittee  were  then  sub- 
mitted to  the  electrical  plant  committee,  the  publication 
committee,  the  main  committee,  and  the  Board  of  Trade 
for  their  approval. 

This  having  been  obtained,  it  was  deemed  advisable,  in 
the  interests  of  the  electrical  industry  of  the  country,  that 
the  findings  on  the  questions  of  direct  current  pressures 
and  frequencies  should  be  published  at  an  early  date,  with- 
out waiting  for  the  completion  of  the  entire  report  to  be 
issued  at  a  later  date. 

The  following  are  the  resolutions  on  standard  direct 
current   pressures   and   standard   frequencies  : — 

(i)  That  the  standard  direct  current  pressures,  measured 
at  the  consumers'  terminals,   be  :  — 

no,  220,  440,  500  volts. 

(2)  That  the  standard  direct  current  pressures,  measured 
at  the  terminals  of  the  motors,  be  : — 

For  tramways  500  volts. 
For  railways  600  volts. 

(3)  That  25  periods  per  second  be  the  standard  frequency 
for  : — 

(a)   Systems  involving  conversion   to  direct  current  by 

means  of  rotary  converters. 
{h)  Large  power  schemes  over  long  distances, 
(c)   Three   phase   railway   work,    where   motor   gearing 

and  the  inductive  drop  on  the  track  rail  have  to  be 

considered. 

(4)  That  50  periods  per  second  be  the  standard  frequency 
for  : — 

(a)  Mixed  power  and  lighting  on  town  supply  mains. 
(h)  Ordinary  factory  power  plant. 

(c)  All  medium  size  power  plant  where  rotary  converters 
are  not  employed. 

NO.  1774.  VOL.  68] 


GEOGRAPHY  AT  THE  BRITISH 
ASSOCIATION. 
^PHE  present  transitional  phase  of  geographical  thought 
•*•  and  activity  was  faithfully  mirrored  in  the  proceedings 
of  Section  E.  The  majority  of  the  papers  revealed  the 
wide  range  of  geographical  interests  rather  than  any  great 
advance  in  geographical  coordination.  In  this  they  are 
typical ;  for  while  there  are  many  workers  at  geographical 
problems,  few,  if  any,  would  put  forth  the  claim  of  being 
complete  geographers.  There  are  indications  of  many 
geographical  specialisms  being  recognised.  Their  ex- 
ponents are,  however,  at  one  disadvantage  when  compared 
with  other  specialists.  An  organic  chemist  usually  has  had 
a  thorough  training  in  chemistry  before  he  specialises  in 
organic  chemistry.  Few  geographical  specialists  have  had 
any  training  as  geographers.  Each  makes  his  own  con- 
tribution, but  it  is  often  an  isolated  one,  and  does  not  fit 
into  a  general  plan  of  the  subject.  The  unity  of  geography 
and  the  relation  of^ts  parts  are  very  gradually  being  eluci- 
dated. The  want  of  this  coordination  is  strongly  felt  by 
most  geographical  workers.  At  the  conclusion  of  the 
Southport  meeting  one  wished  for  a  summary  coordinating 
the  communications  discussed.  Perhaps  this  is  felt, 
though  to  a  less  extent,  in  other  sections,  and  it  would  be 
useful  if  the  presidential  duties  were  made  to  conclude  by 
the  giving  of  a  brief  review  of  the  work  done  at  the  section. 
The  address  of  the  genial  president,  Captain  Creak,  was 
the  onlv  one  which  surveyed  the  whole  world.  It  was  on 
terrestrial  magnetism,  and  has  already  been  printed.  Dr. 
Vaughan  Cornish's  researches,  summarised  in  the  report 
of  the  committee  on  terrestrial  surface  waves,  are  on  world- 
wide phenomena,  which  he  illustrated  on  this  occasion 
mainly  by  beautiful  views  of  the  wave  forms  of  Niagara, 
from  which  he  has  recently  returned,  and  by  pictures  of 
wave  forms  in  snow  and  on  quarry  roads  caused  by  heavy 
sledge  traffic. 

The  section  was  also  privileged  to  hear  an  address  from 
Prof.  Pettersson,  of  Stockholm,  who  spoke  for  an  hour  in 
excellent  English,  on  the  effect  of  ice  melting  on  oceanic 
circulation.  Prof.  Pettersson  has  long  insisted  that  the 
thermodynamic  cycle  of  latent  heat,  consisting  of  ice  form- 
ation in  polar  regions  and  of  ice  melting  in  sea-water  in 
lower  latitudes,  was  a  potent  cause  of  oceanic  currents. 
H-  has  calculated  that  the  ice  melting  between  Iceland  and 
Jan  Mayen  generates  about  400,000  horse-power  annually, 
which  is  expended  in  accelerating  the  water  movements  of 
th^  east  Iceland  polar  current.  The  energy  set  free  on  ice 
melting  in  sea-water  maintains  a  kind  of  inverted  water- 
fall, an  upwelling  of  bottom  water  to  the  surface. 
Warm  currents  follow  the  trend  of  deepest  isobaths,  ice 
currents  exist  only  in  shallow  seas,  where  no  warm  current 
can  melt  them.  Ice  currents  and  warm  currents  meet 
between  Iceland  and  Jan  Mayen,  west  of  Spitsbergen,  south- 
east of  Newfoundland,  and  round  the  margin  of  the  ice- 
girdled  Antarctic.  The  "  outbursts  "  of  Antarctic  ice- 
bergs which  carry  them  to  low  latitudes  m  the  Indian 
Ocean  may  influence  the  climate  of  India  and  Australia. 
The  latest  Antarctic  outburst  and  series  of  great  droughts  in 
India  occurred  between  1891-98.  Prof.  Pettersson^  con- 
sidered that  regular  surface  observations  between  60  and 
100°  E.  and  a  few  series  of  deep-sea  soundings  would 
reveal  hydrographical  variations  with  important  meteor- 
ological bearings.  He  also  pointed  out  that  current 
measurements  at  depths  of  800-4000  metres  in  the  Atlantic 
were  needed  to  ascertain  the  significance  of  the  currents 
generated  by  ice  attraction.  At  the  conclusion  of  his  paper 
Prof.  Pettersson  showed  in  miniature  an  experiment  to 
illustrate  the  effect  of  melting  ice  in  causing  currents  in 
salt  water  carried  out  by  Mr.  J.  W.  Sandstrom,  assisted  by 
Miss  A.  Palmquist,  who  have  made  a  series  of  useful  calcu- 
lations from  the  data  obtained  from  this  experiment. 

Travellers'  tales  were  few,  but  full  of  human  interest.  No 
one  who  heard  Lieutenant  Shackleton  will  forget  the  vivid 
and  racy  account  he  gave  of  the  National  Antarctic  Ex- 
pedition. Dr.  Tempest  Anderson's  slides  and  descriptions 
of  the  volcanic  phenomena  of  St.  Vincent  and  Martinique 
were  equally  effective.  Lieut. -Colonel  Manifold  described 
his  journeying  from  India  across  China,  and  back  over 
different  routes  through  the  heart  of  the  Empire.  In  his 
paper  were  many  hints  of  the  great  activity  of  other  Powers 


October  29,  1903] 


NATURE 


^Z'h 


than   Britain   in  pushing  on  railway  construction  and  pro- 
moting the  expansion  of  their  commerce.     Dr.  H.  O.  Forbes 
ad   a   report   on    the   work  of   his   expedition   to   Sokotra. 
T.  J.  P.  Thompson,  the  energetic  Queensland  geographer, 
uitributed   a  comprehensive   account  of   the  geography   of 

,         the  State. 

[  Exploration  is  now  no  longer  confined  to  foreign  lands, 

\  and  some  of  the  younger  botanists  have  shown  us  what  can 
be  done  when   the  plant   world   at   home   is   regarded   geo- 

\  graphically.  From  the  point  of  view  of  pure  science  they  are 
making  an  important  contribution  to  the  study  of  the  re- 
lationship between  organisms  and  environment,  and  com- 
piling part  of  the  data  necessary  for  the  study  of  macro- 
organisms — the  complex  associations  of  rock,  air,  water, 
and  organic  life  considered  as  a  whole,  which  are  the 
subject-matter  of  the  geographer.  From  the  point  of  view 
of  applied  science  they  are  carrying  out  an  equally  valuable 
work,  for  a  knowledge  of  the  characteristics  and  distribution 
of  the  different  plant  associations  is  the  best  clue  to  the 
possibilities  and  limits  of  their  profitable  exploitation  for 
the  production  of  economically  important  plants  and 
animals.  Such  botanical  surveys  might  well  be  subsidised 
by  the  Board  of  .Agriculture.  The  example  of  the  Canadian 
Geological  Survey  might  be  followed,  and  the  work  be 
entrusted  to  teachers  of  botany  who  would  carry  it  out  in 
their  vacations. 

Dr.  Otto  Darbishire,  of  Owens  College,  discussed  the 
general  problem  of  the  relations  of  botany  and  geography, 
and  insisted  on  the  necessity  for  modern  travellers  having 
a  knowledge  of  ecology.  Dr.  W.  G.  Smith,  of  the  York- 
shire College,  who  has  carried  on  the  work  of  his  deceased 
brother,  who  planned  a  botanical  survey  of  Great  Britain, 
also  urged  the  importance  of  the  observation  and  mapping 
of  vegetation  features  in  geographical  exploration,  and 
illustrated  his  thesis  by  reference  to  the  maps  already  made 
for  Britain.  The  maps  made  of  the  plant  associations  of 
the  Eden,  Tees,  Tyne,  and  Wear  basins  by  Mr.  F.  J. 
Lewis,  of  University  College,  Liverpool,  were  shown  and 
described,  and  Mr.  Moss  discussed  the  age  and  origin  of  the 
peat  moors  of  the  southern  Pennines. 

One  of  the  applications  of  botanical  geography  to  practical 
affairs  was  well  illustrated  in  a  valuable  paper  by  the  chief 
engineer  of  the  Liverpool  Waterworks,  Mr.  Parry,  who  has 
been  the  pioneer  in  the  afforestation  of  the  catchment  areas 
of  water  reservoirs,  which  has  been  proved  to  increase  the 
purity  of  the  water  supplied  to  the  citizens  and  to  protect 
their  pockets.  Mr.  E.  D.  Morel  also  discussed  a  problem 
in  applied  geography.  He  pointed  out  the  value  of  West 
.'\frica  for  the  production  of  raw  cotton,  and  the  results  that' 
ha.J  been  obtained  by  appealing  to  the  commercial  instincts 
of  the  natives  instead  of  having  recourse  to  coercion.  The 
importance  of  a  study  of  native  land  and  administrative 
systems  was  emphasised. 

Mr.  E.  A.  Reeves  read  a  timely  paper  on  the  nature  of 
geographical  surveying  suited  to  present  requirements,  when 
route  charts  must  be  replaced  by  maps  based  on  surveys 
planned  on  scientific  lines,  while  not  so  elaborate  or  accurate 
as  large  trigonometrical  surveys.  Mr.  E.  Heawood  con- 
tributed the  one  paper  on  the  history  of  geography.  He 
discussed  the  newly  discovered  maps  of  Henricus  Glareanus, 
who  first  described  a  convenient  method  for  constructing 
the  gores  of  a  globe.  One  of  his  maps  is  the  earliest  known 
which  shows  a  hemisphere  on  an  equidistant  polar  pro- 
jection. 

The  geography  and  education  sections  held  a  joint  sitting 
to  discuss  geographical  education.  Mr.  H.  J.  Mackinder 
opened  with  an  eloquent  exposition  of  the  regional  method 
of  teaching  geography  and  of  the  possibility  of  weaving 
into  the  regional  treatment  so  much  as  is  needed  of  other 
sciences  by  taking  these  one  at  a  time  in  the  successive 
staees  of  the  strictly  geographical  argument.  He  sub- 
mitted that  geography  could  be  placed  in  its  rightful  position 
only  by  the  simultaneous  application  of  a  four-fold  policy  : — 
(()  The  encouragement  of  university  schools  of  geography 
where  geographers  should  be  made,  of  whom  many  would 
become  secondary  teachers ;  (2)  the  appointment  of  trained 
geographers  as  teachers  in  our  secondary  schools,  either  for 
geography  alone  or  for  geography  and  general  help  in 
other  subjects  ;  (3)  the  general  acceptance  of  a  progression 
of  method  in  the  subject,  not  expressed  in  detailed  syllabuses 
issued  by  the  State  or  other  dominant  authority  which 
would  tend  to  stereotype  teaching,  but  in  a  tradition  similar 
NO.    1774.  VOL.  68] 


to  that  which  at  different  times  has  governed  the  teaching 
of  language  and  mathematics ;  (4)  the  setting  of  examin- 
ations by  expert  geographical  teachers. 

Mr.  Hugh  Richardson  gave  a  valuable  account  of  how 
he  taught  his  pupils  from  thirteen  to  seventeen  years  of 
age  the  use  of  maps  and  books,  and  insisted  on  the. value 
of  laboratory  work  on  which  their  books  gave  little  help. 
Mr.  Hewlett  spoke  of  aims  and  difficulties  in  the  teaching 
of  geography,  and  Mr.  Cloudesley  Brereton  of  geography 
in  secondary  education. 

In  the  discussion  which  followed,  the  main  objections 
urged  against  Mr.  Mackinder's  ideas  were  that  sullicient 
time  was  not  allowed  for  carrying  them  out,  and  that  it 
was  impossible  to  adopt  his  suggestion  that  pupils  should 
be  grouped  in  special  sets  for  the  geography  lessons.  The 
need  for  teachers  who  have  had  a  training  in  geography, 
and  the  value  of  geography  as  a  coordinating  subject  in 
the  curriculum,   seemed  to  be  recognised  by  all. 

A.  J.   H. 


ENGINEERING    AT    THE    BRITISH 

ASSOCIATION. 

'T'HE  section  had  a  lengthy  programme  to  work  through 

■*■      at  Southport,  but  it  must  be  confessed  that  there  were 

but  few  papers  of  outstanding  importance. 

On  Thursday,  September  10,  after  Mr.  Hawksley's  presi- 
dential address,  which  naturally  dealt  mainly  with  the 
problem  of  the  supply  of  water  to  cities  and  villages,  a 
paper  was  read  by  Mr.  C.  A.  Brereton  on  the  new  King 
Edward  VTL  bridge  over  the  River  Thames,  at  Kew.  The 
author  showed  some  interesting  lantern  slides  to  explain 
more  clearly  the  method  of  construction  adopted  in  previous 
bridges  which  crossed  the  river  at  this  site,  and  also  in 
the  case  of  the  new  structure.  It  was  not  until  1892  that, 
induced  by  the  increase  in  the  traffic  and  the  inconvenience 
caused  by  the  narrowness  of  the  old  bridge  and  the  steep- 
ness of  its  gradients,  the  County  Councils  of  Surrey  and 
Middlesex  decided  to  take  steps  to  replace  the  bridge  by  a 
new  one  ;  the  necessary  Act  of  Parliament  was  eventually 
obtained  in  1898,  the  contract  was  then  let  to  Mr.  Gibb, 
and  the  work  was  begun  at  once. 

The  bridge  consists  of  three  elliptical  arches,  the  centre 
one  being  of  rather  longer  span  than  the  two  side  arches  ; 
it  has  a  span  of  133  feet,  and  a  headway  of  20  feet  above 
Trinity  high-water  mark,  while  the  two  side  spans  are  only 
116  feet  6  inches  in  span,  with  a  headway  of  17  feet.  The 
piers  from  which  these  three  arches  spring  are  carried  down 
into  the  solid  London  Clay  at  a  depth  of  18  feet  below  the 
bed  of  the  river.  The  width  of  the  carriage  way  is  36  feet, 
and  there  are  9  feet  6  inch  footways  on  either  side;  the 
maximum  gradient  is  only  i  in  40.  The  whole  of  the 
arches,  and  the  exterior  of  the  piers,  is  constructed  of  solid 
granite,  chiefly  Cornwall  and  Aberdeen,  many  of  the  big 
stones  weighing  as  much  as  8  tons  each.  To  provide  for 
the  traffic  during  the  construction  of  the  new  bridge,  a 
temporary  timber  bridge  was  put  up  alongside  the  old  one ; 
this  was  completed  in  the  remarkably  short  time  of  six 
months.  The  cofferdams  for  the  piers  of  the  new  bridge 
were  started  in  December,  1899,  and  but  little  difficulty 
was  met  with  in  their  construction.  All  three  arches  were 
constructed  simultaneously,  and  therefore  it  was  necessary 
for  all  the  stones  for  the  arches  to  be  brought  on  to  the 
ground  before  the  turning  of  the  arches  was  commenced  ; 
every  stone  was  numbered  and  placed  in  the  receiving  yard 
ready  to  take  its  place  in  the  work.  The  masonry  of  the 
arches  was  commenced  in  May,  1902,  and  completed  in 
December  of  that  year — an  extremely  expeditious  piece  of 
work.  The  total  length  of  the  bridge  proper;  is  502  feet, 
the  approaches  on  the  Middlesex  and  Surrey  sides  bringing 
the  overall  length  to  1182  feet.  The  bridge  was  opened  by 
His  Majesty  the  King  on  May  20  last,  having  taken  about 
three  and  a  half  years  to  construct ;  one  year  was  occupied 
in  the  construction  of  the  temporary  bridge  and  the  removal 
of  the  old  bridge. 

The  only  other  paper  dealt  with  on  the  Thursday  was  an 
interesting  contribution  by  Mr.  J.  Harrison — illustrations 
of  graphical  analysis.  The  author  gave  an  account  of  a 
simple  graphical  method  of  obtaining  equations  for  the  dis- 
placement of  the  valve,  and  for  the  sliding  of  the  block  in 
the  link  in  an  ordinary  Stephenson's  link  gear.     In  fact,  it 


634 


NATURE 


[October  29,  1903 


was  a  graphical  method  of  analysing  a  Fourier  series,  the 
author's  methods  being  exceedingly  neat  and  handy,  but 
requiring  very  exact  and  careful  draughtsmanship. 

The  first  paper  taken  on  Friday,  September  ii,  was 
specially  written  in  order  to  prepare  members  for  the  visit 
of  the  section  on  Saturday  to  the  new  Manchester  Municipal 
Technical  Institute.  Principal  J.  H.  Reynolds  gave,  with 
the  aid  of  a  number  of  lantern  slides,  an  interesting  account 
of  the  construction  and  equipment  of  this  great  technical 
institute.  The  author's  paper  was  practically  a  defence  of 
the  methods  which  have  been  adopted  in  connection  with 
the  equipment  of  the  engineering  and  other  departments  of 
this  Institute  ;  the  authorities  have  been  attacked  for  fitting 
up  their  laboratories  with  unnecessarily  complicated 
apparatus,  probably  beyond  the  capacity  of  the  class  of 
students  they  are  likely  to  have,  and  it  must  be  admitted 
that  there  is  some  justification  for  this  criticism.  Members 
of  the  section  were  better  able  to  form  their  own  opinion 
on  this  controversy  after  the  visit  on  Saturday.  As  regards 
the  strength  of  materials  laboratory,  the  machines  are  those 
ordinarily  employed,  with  the  addition  of  a  very  powerful 
appliance  for  compression  purposes,  but  as  it  happens  to  be 
extremely  simple  in  construction,  being  nothing  more  or 
less  than  a  modified  cotton  press,  it  can  be  used  as  easily 
by  students  (though  its  capacity  runs  into  hundreds  of 
tons)  as  if  it  were  a  machine  of  only  a  few  tons  capacity. 
In  the  steam  engine  laboratory,  however,  there  is  no 
doubt  that  the  experimental  engine,  a  fine  piece  of  design 
due  to  Prof.  Nicolson,  is  on  too  big  a  scale  for  teaching 
purposes ;  it  may  be  an  admirable  instrument  for 
research  in  the  hands  of  Prof.  Nicolson,  and  therefore  the 
authorities  of  the  college  may  be  justified  in  the  expendi- 
ture which  must  have  been  incurred  both  in  the  original 
purchase  of  this  engine  and  in  its  working  expenses,  but 
for  the  instruction  of  the  students  likely  to  frequent 
such  a  technical  institute,  it  would  have  been  far  better  to 
have  provided  half  a  dozen  engines,  each,  say,  of  lo  to 
15  horse-power,  and  each  of  a  different  type.  The  changes 
in  essential  points  in  the  design  of  prime  movers  of  all 
kinds,  and  in  fact  of  most  machinery,  come  so  rapidly, 
that  if  a  college  is  to  keep  its  equipment  up  to  date,  it 
should  not  be  of  too  expensive  a  character,  as  it  will  be 
necessary  pretty  frequently  to  scrap  apparatus,  and  replace 
it  by  newer  plant  more  in  accordance  with  the  practice  and 
design  of  the  day.  Another  criticism  which  might  be 
offered  upon  the  equipment  of  the  whole  college  is  that 
too  much  apparatus  has  been  put  in  at  once ;  it  would  have 
been  undoubtedly  wiser  to  have  arranged  for  the  equipment 
to  be  gradually  and  steadily  increased  year  by  year  as  the 
number  of  students  increased,  and  the  demand  for  such 
increased  apparatus  arose. 

At  the  conclusion  of  this  paper,  and  after  a  brief  dis- 
cussion, the  report  of  the  committee  on  the  resistance  of 
road  vehicles  to  traction  was  taken,  and  the  committee 
was  reappointed  for  another  yean  The  work  of  this  com- 
mittee is  of  such  great  importance  that  it  will  be  desirable 
to  direct  attention  to  this  report  and  the  work  carried  out 
by  the  committee  a  little  later  on  in  a  special  article. 

Mr.  T.  Clarkson's  paper  on  improvements  in  locomobile 
design  was  then  read.  The  author  is  a  strong  supporter 
of  steam-driven  cars ;  he  claimed  that  there  was  greater 
trustworthiness  in  the  case  of  steam,  more  certainty  in 
action,  more  reserve  power,  that  it  would  to  a  great  extent 
render  unnecessary  expensive  change  speed  gears,  and  that 
by  the  use  of  liquid  fuel,  burnt  in  scientifically  designed 
furnaces,  there  was  no  smoke  and  no  trouble  from  the  smell 
produced  during  the  process  of  combustion.  The  paper  was 
full  of  descriptions  of  exceedingly  clever  details,  such  as 
an  ingenious  method  of  automatically  controlling  the  feed 
when  going  down  or  up  hill,  the  pumping  of  oil  under 
pressure  to  lubricate  every  bearing  and  every  moving  part, 
the  use  of  metallic  packing,  necessary  on  account  of  super- 
heated steam  being  used  in  the  cylinders,  and  other  in- 
genious devices.  If  the  steam  car  is  ever  to  be  a  formidable 
rival  of  the  oil-driven  car,  it  will  certainly  be  due  to  the 
labours  of  such  indefatigable  scientific  workers  as  Mr. 
Clarkson. 

The  remainder  of  the  day  was  devoted  to  a  discussion, 
opened  by  Lieut. -Colonel  Crompton,  on  the  problem  of 
modern  street  traffic.  Unfortunately  the  discussion  came 
on  so  late  that  many  had  gone  away  for  the  day  who 
might  otherwise  have  taken  part  in  it,  and  no  very  practical 
NO.    1774,  VOL.  68] 


suggestions  were  made  by  any  of  the  speakers  except  that 
further  attention  should  be  paid  to  the  regulation  of  slow, 
heavy  tratBc.  It  is,  however,  after  all  a  moot  question 
whether  there  is  so  much  street  obstruction  or  so  much 
difficulty  with  the  control  of  modern  street  traffic  as  the 
daily  Press  would  make  us  believe.  Apart  from  a  few  of 
the  main  thoroughfares  in  London  itself,  there  is  very  little 
delay  in  our  cities  caused  by  congestion  of  traffic,  except  in 
exceptional  circumstances  and  on  exceptional  days.  Colonel 
Crompton  alleged  that  electric  trams  were  as  slow  as  the 
old  horse  omnibuses ;  if  so,  his  experience  of  such  trams 
must  be  very  unfortunate  ;  certainly  this  is  not  the  experience 
of  most  people,  and  in  towns  like  Glasgow,  Manchester, 
and  Liverpool,  the  introduction  of  electric  traction  has 
certainly  much  increased  the  speed  at  which  one  can  pass 
from  one  part  of  the  town  to  another,  and  in  these  cities  the 
problem  of  street  traffic  is  not  complicated  as  it  is  in  a  few 
of  the  leading  thoroughfares  in  London  by  the  crawling  cab 
nuisance.  Probably  without  inconvenience  to  the  general 
public  many  of  the  cabs  in  London  might  be  withdrawn,  and 
certainly  by  a  judicious  arrangement  of  underground  tube 
railways,  and  by  the  extension  of  the  electric  tramway 
service,  the  greater  part  of  the  cumbersome,  slow-moving, 
obstructive  omnibuses  might  be  driven  from  the  streets, 
and  it  is  in  this  direction,  rather  than  in  expensive  widen- 
ings  and  overhead  bridges,  that  the  problem  of  congestion 
in  the  central  streets  of  London  will  have  to  be  met. 

Monday,  September  14,  was  devoted  almost  entirely  to 
electrical  papers.  The  first  of  these  was  one  by  Mr.  W.  B. 
Woodhouse  on  protective  devices  for  high  tension  electrical 
systems.  The  author,  who  has  had  considerable  experience 
in  work  of  this  nature,  briefly  described  the  necessary  pro- 
tective appliances,  such  as  circuit  breakers  and  the  devices 
for  preventing  or  relieving  excessive  rises  of  pressure,  which 
are  required  in  high  tension  electrical  power  systems.  He 
described  several  fuses  and  switches  and  overload  relays 
which  had  been  found  effective  in  actual  practical  operation  ; 
as  regards  switches,  he  was  of  opinion  that  the  oil-break 
switch  did  break  circuit  at  the  moment  of  zero  current,  and 
that  for  this  reason  it  was  the  one  which  should  be  generally 
adopted.  This  paper  led  to  an  interesting  discussion,  in 
which  Mr.  G.  Kapp  and  Prof.  Ayrton  were  the  chief 
speakers. 

Then  followed  two  papers  on  aluminium  as  an  electrical 
conductor,  one  by  Mr.  J.  B.  C.  Kershaw  and  the  other  by 
Prof.  Wilson.  Both  authors  have  been  experimenting  on 
the  effects  produced  by  exposure  of  aluminium  wires  and 
rods  to  atmospheric  influence.  Mr.  Kershaw's  experiments 
have  been  conducted  on  the  Lancashire  coast,  just  south  of 
Southport,  and  Prof.  Wilson's  in  London,  on  the  roof  of 
King's  College.  Both  experimenters  found  that  the 
aluminium  had  suffered  considerably  ;  Mr.  Kershaw  found 
serious  corrosion  due  to  the  sea  air,  especially  on  the  under 
side  of  the  wires,  where  drops  of  water  had  hung  for  a 
long  time.  Prof.  Wilson's  experiments  were  a  continuation 
of  an  earlier  series  of  tests  which  were  described  at  a 
previous  meeting,  and  dealt  with  the  effect  of  atmospheric 
corrosion  on  the  conductivity  of  the  metal  ;  the  later  experi- 
ments confirm  the  results  obtained  in  the  earlier  ones, 
namely,  that  an  alloy  of  aluminium  with  copper  alone  was 
inadvisable  for  electrical  purposes  when  exposed  to  the 
atmosphere,  as  its  conductivity  diminished  steadily,  though 
more  slowly  after  a  time. 

Of  the  other  papers  taken,  the  most  important  was  that 
by  Mr.  B.  Hopkinson  on  the  parallel  working  of  alter- 
nators ;  the  paper — a  highly  technical  one — it  is  impossible 
'to  Summarise.  The  author  dealt  with  the  practical  problem 
of  keeping  the  oscillations,  with  their  accompanying  fluctu- 
ations in  the  flow  of  energy  to  or  from  the  main  or  'bus  bars, 
within  moderate  limits,  and  he  treatfd  the  matter  both 
from  the  mathematical  point  of  view  and  in  its  practical 
applications. 

On  Tuesday,  September  15,  a  lengthy  programme  was 
dealt  with,  and  we  can  only  refer  to  a  few  of  the  papers. 
Mr.  W.  F.  Goodrich,  in  a  paper  on  twenty-five  years'  pro- 
gress in  final  and  sanitary  refuse  disposal,  gave  some  valu- 
able figures  as  to  the  progress  which  has  been  made  in 
this  branch  of  sanitary  engineering.  No  less  than  180 
towns  are  now  using  destructors  ;  in  63  of  these  the  steam 
generated  is  used  in  electricity  works,  and  in  40  in  con- 
ftection  with  the  pumping  plants  of  the  town  sewage  works, 
while  in  3   cases  the  power  available  is  utilised  by  water- 


October  29,  1903] 


NA  TURE 


635 


works  pumping  engines.  As  a  result  of  numerous  tests  it 
might  be  roughly  estimated  that  every  ton  of  refuse  burnt 
generated  about  one  ton  of  high  pressure  steam,  and  that 
with  the  modern  high  temperature  destructor  cells  the  smell 
and  dust  nuisances  were  practically  banished. 

Liquid  fuel  was  the  subject  of  Mr.  A.  M.  Bell's  communi- 
cation ;  much  information  was  given  as  to  the  various 
sources  of  supply  and  also  as  to  the  best  types  of  oil-burn- 
ing apparatus,  and  the  author  quoted  some  striking  figures 
obtained  in  recent  tests.  In  a  test  at  Messrs.  John  Brown 
and  Co.'s  works,  ib.09  lb.  of  water  were  evaporated  per 
pound  of  Texan  oil  burnt,  the  boiler  having  an  efficiency 
of  84  per  cent.  ;  of  course  a  certain  proportion,  the  author 
sajs  never  more  than  3  per  cent.,  of  the  steam  is  needed 
for  spraying  the  oil ;  with  a  Stirling  boiler,  which  had  an 
evaporation  at  standard  conditions  of  10-55  lb.  of  water 
per  pound  of  Welsh  coal  burnt,  the  evaporation  had  been 
increased  to  1542  lb.  per  pound  of  Texan  oil,  when  the 
furnace  was  suitably  modified  for  oil  consumption.  It  was 
pointed  out  in  the  discussion  that  still  more  economical 
results  could  be  obtained  when  this  oil  was  used  in  internal 
combustion  engines. 

Dr.  H.  R.  Mill  gave  the  section  some  interesting  data  as 
to  the  rate  of  fall  of  rain  at  Seathwaite,  and  pointed  out 
that  in  these  west  coast  regions  of  heavy  annual  fall  the 
maximum  rate  of  fall  was  nothing  like  so  great  as  may 
occur  during  heavy  summer  thunderstorms  in  drier  parts 
of  the  country,  where  it  may  equal  at  times  3  inches  in 
the  hour. 

The  last  paper  of  the  day  was  one  by  Mr.  R.  Pearson  on 
natural  gas  in  Sussex,  and  it  will  astonish  most  persons  to 
learn  what  a  large  amount  of  gas  is  now  obtained  in  this 
district.  At  Heathfield  some  eighty  houses  are  using  it  for 
lighting  and  heating  purposes,  and  gas  engines  utilising 
it  develop  a  horse-power  on  a  consumption  of  about  fifteen 
cubic  feet  of  the  natural  gas  per  hour.  With  the  develop- 
ment of  the  Kentish  coal-fields  and  the  Sussex  gas  and  oil- 
fields, both  by  no  means  improbable  in  the  early  future, 
there  is  no  doubt  that  the  south-eastern  corner  of  England 
would  undergo  an  industrial  revolution  ;  much  as  one  might 
regret  to  see  its  lovely  rural  and  pastoral  character  dis- 
appear, everyone  would  welcome  the  advent  of  manufactur- 
ing industry  into  this  somewhat  sleepy  corner  of  the 
kingdom. 

The  section  had,  in  consequence  of  its  lengthy  pro- 
gramme, to  sit  on  the  morning  of  Wednesday,  September 
16,  when  a  number  of  very  interesting  communications  were 
dealt  with.  Members  of  the  staff  of  Messrs.  Willans  and 
Robinson  contributed  two  papers — Mr.  C.  H.  Wingfield  de- 
scribed experiments  on  the  permanent  set  in  cast-iron  as 
bearing  on  the  design  of  piston-ring  springs,  and  Mr.  Izod 
a  piece  of  apparatus  for  testing  the  brittleness  of  steel. 
Both  papers  are  the  outcome  of  the  constant  experimental 
research  going  on  in  the  modern  up-to-date  engineering 
workshop,  and  are  a  sufficient  answer  to  the  reproaches  of 
those  who,  knowing  little  or  nothing  of  what  they  write 
about,  are  constantly  declaring  that  trade  is  leaving  the 
country  owing  to  the  apathy  and  stupid  conservatism  of 
our  manufacturers.  Both  communications  should  be  care- 
fully studied  by  those  engaged  in  the  study  of  the  strength 
of  materials. 

Mr.  W.  Odell  described  some  experiments  he  had  carried 
out  to  determine  the  power  wasted  by  the  windage  of  fly- 
wheel and  dynamo  armatures,  and  he  stated  that  a  o-foot 
disc  running  at  500  revolutions  a  minute  would  absorb 
about  10  H.P.  Mr.  W.  Cramp  read  a  paper  on  single 
phase  repulsion  motors,  a  matter  of  great  practical  import- 
ance in  electric  tramway  work  ;  he  claimed  that  the  problem 
had  been  solved,  and  that  a  single  phase  alternating  current 
motor  had  been  designed  quite  equal  to  a  direct  current 
motor. 


ANTHROPOLOGY  AT  THE  BRITISH 
ASSOCIATION. 
HTHE  anthropological  section  met  in  the  Town  Hall, 
•*•  Southport,  under  the  presidency  of  Prof.  Johnson 
Symington,  F.R.S.,  of  Queen's  College,  Belfast,  and,  as 
usual,  attracted  large  audiences.  The  programme  was  a 
full  one,  and  the  principal  communications  were  in  the 
department  of  Egyptian,  Mediterranean,  and  British  archae- 


NO.    1774,  VOL.  68] 


ology,  a  fact  which  is  partly  attributable  to  the  widespread 
feeling — very  clearly  expressed  by  the  President  of  the 
Association  in  the  course  of  one  of  the  discussions — that  the 
human  sciences,  in  the  older  and  more  academic  sense,  fall 
properly  within  the  scope  of  the  Association's  work,  and 
merit  scientific  recognition. 

Most  important,  perhaps,  among  these  new  accessions  to 
the  section's  programme  was  the  group  of  papers  on  work 
in  Roman  Britain,  an  area  where  a  subject,  which  else- 
where can  be  treated  in  the  full  light  of  written  history,  has 
to  be  explored  almost  wholly  by  the  methods  of  prehistoric 
archaeology  ;  and  the  appointment,  with  a  small  grant,  of 
a  committee  of  the  Association  "  to  cooperate  with  local 
effort  on  Roman  sites  in  Britain  "  cannot  fail  to  strengthen 
both  the  subject  and  the  section  at  large. 

The  president's  address,  which  dealt  with  the  relations 
between  brain  and  skull,  and  with  the  problems  which 
result,  has  been  already  printed  in  full  (October  i,  p.  539), 
and  gave  a  broad  and  philosophic  tone  to  the  opening  dis- 
cussion ;  but  the  subsequent  papers  on  points  of  anthropo- 
graphy  dealt  almost  wholly  with  detailed  work  of  a  some- 
what specialist  kind.  Dr.  Wm.  Wright's  account  of  the 
skulls  from  round  barrows  in  east  Yorkshire,  now  in  the 
Mortimer  Museum  at  Driffield,  led  to  the  conclusion  that 
the  old  dictum  enunciated  by  Thurnam — "  round  barrow, 
round  skull  " — is  not  even  approximately  accurate  for  this 
area,  for  the  cephalic  index  ranges  from  69  to  92,  and 
almost  all  the  European  varieties  of  cranial  shape  are  re- 
presented. A  marked  resemblance,  however,  was  frequently 
noted  between  the  skulls  from  any  one  barrow. 

Mr.  W.  L.  H.  Duckworth's  investigation  of  the  physical 
anthropology  of  Crete  and  Greece,  though  still  incomplete, 
has  brought  together  a  large  mass  of  new  material  of  many 
periods  for  the  reconsideration  of  the  ethnology  of  the 
yEgean  area.  The  bones  from  the  pre-Mycenaean  ossuaries 
of  Palaeokastro,  in  eastern  Crete,  show  a  purely  Mediter- 
ranean type,  which  is  shared  by  those  from  Mycenaean  inter- 
ments on  the  Greek  mainland  ;  whereas  even  in  Crete,  and 
universally  on  the  mainland,  the  modern  population  betrays 
by  its  brachycephaly  a  large  admixture  of  Albanian,  Venetic, 
or  Slav  intruders.  Eastern  Crete,  however,  is  more  brachy- 
cephalic  now  than  the  central  districts,  and  this  Mr.  Duck- 
worth is  inclined  to  attribute  to  intrusions  from  Asia  Minor. 
A  further  grant  made  by  the  Association  will,  it  is  hoped, 
enable  Mr.  Duckworth  to  continue  this  very  promising 
inquiry. 

Dr.  E.  J.  Evatt's  observations  on  the  pad*  and  papillary 
ridges  on  the  palm  of  the  hand  showed  that  the  foetal 
disposition  of  these  pads  resembles  that  in  the  mouse  and 
some  other  lower  animals,  which  is  probably  morpho- 
logically equivalent.  In  the  adult  the  pads  are  to  be  re- 
garded as  vestigial.  The  papillary  ridges  are  produced  by 
the  invasion  of  the  corium  by  the  underlying  layer ;  the 
interlocking  of  the  two  probably  serves  to  connect  them 
more  strongly  ;  and  the  patterns  are  due  to  the  stresses  of 
prehension  acting  on  ridges  which  originally  lay  trans- 
versely. 

Mr.  N.  Annandale,  in  describing  a  collection  of  skulls 
from  the  Malay  Peninsula,  noted  the  great  development  of 
the  cerebellar  part  of  the  occiput,  and  a  widespread 
abnormality  of  growth  of  the  third  molar. 

The  committees  on  a  pigmentation  survey  of  the  school 
children  of  Scotland,  and  on  anthropometric  investigations 
among  the  native  troops  of  the  Egyptian  Army,  presented 
interim  reports  of  a  formal  character.  In  the  latter  case 
the  17,000  measurements  already  taken  cannot  apparently 
be  worked  up  for  publication  without  expert  clerical  assist- 
ance, and  it  is  much  to  be  hoped  either  that  this  may  be 
provided  without  undue  delay,  or  that  the  committee  may 
see  its  way  to  hand  over  its  data  to  one  or  other  of  the 
biometrical  centres  which  have  such  assistance  at  their 
disposal. 

The  committee  appointed  to  organise  anthropometric  re- 
search presented  a  short  but  very  useful  report.  A  single 
year's  work  has  sufficed  to  collect  and  collate  the  experience 
of  practically  all  the  centres  at  which  anthropometric  work 
is  being  carried  on,  as  to  objects  of  research,  methods, 
instruments,  schedules,  and  the  like,  and  it  is  next  pro- 
posed to  inquire  under  what  conditions  of  rhaintenance  and 
administration  a  collection  of  anthropometric  statistics 
could  be  established  as  the  nucleus  of  more  systematic 
investigations.     The  preface  to  the  report,  by  Prof.  Cleland, 


636 


NATURE 


[October  29,  1903 


the  chairman  of  the  committee,  is  a  valuable  summary  of 
the  objects  and  methods  of  anthropometric  work. 

The  president's  brief  account  of  Grattan's  craniometric 
methods  illustrates  well  the  need  for  some  such  coordin- 
ation of  inquiry  as  the  above-named  committee  proposes  to 
supply.  Grattan's  work  in  radial  craniometry,  and  his  very 
ingenious  craniometer,  which  is  now  in  Prof.  Symington's 
keeping,  remained  unpublished  and  unknown  until  long 
after  similar  methods  had  been  rediscovered  independently 
by  other  workers. 

In  general  ethnography  the  papers  were  also  few  and  of 
various  quality.  Dr.  W.  H.  R.  Rivers 's  researches  on  the 
psychology  and  sociology  of  the  Todas  formed  the  subject 
of  a  committee  report,  which  was  supplemented  by  two 
papers  on  special  points  by  the  investigator.  By  the  same 
genealogical  method  as  he  employed  in  Torres  Straits,  Dr. 
Rivers  has  succeeded  in  unravelling  the  complicated  scheme 
of  kinship  and  marriage  restrictions.  This  system  is  of  the 
kind  known  as  "  classificatory, "  every  male  of  an  in- 
dividual's clan  being  either  his  grandfather,  father,  brother, 
son,  or  grandson,  and  so  forth.  Marriage  is  regulated  by 
kinship,  being  prohibited  between  the  children  of  brothers 
and  between  the  children  of  sisters,  but  being  customary 
between  children  of  brother  and  sister,  and  when  a  girl 
becomes  the  wife  of  a  boy  she  is  understood  to  become  also 
the  wife  of  his  brothers.  Infanticide  certainly  was  prac- 
tised formerly,  but  it  is  strenuously  denied  now. 

In  a  separate  paper  Dr.  Rivers  described  the  elaborate 
ritual  of  the  Toda  dairy,  in  which  the  dairyman  is  the 
priest,  and  the  whole  industry  endued  with  a  religious 
<:haracter. 

The  account  of  the  ancient  monuments  of  northern 
Honduras,  &c.,  presented  by  Dr.  T.  W.  Gann,  described  a 
large  number  of  temples,  pyramids,  fortifications,  under- 
ground buildings,  monoliths,  and  ancient  enclosures  for 
various  purposes,  and  also  the  pottery,  implements,  and 
ornaments  attributable  to  their  builders  ;  with  notes  on  the 
burial  customs  and  general  civilisation  of  the  ancient  in- 
habitants, and  observations  on  the  modern  ethnography  and 
of  the  influence  of  European  civilisation  on  the  aborigines. 

Dr.  J.  E.  Duerden  communicated  a  note  on  a  type  of 
wooden  image  which  is  widely  distributed  in  cave  deposits 
in  the  West  Indian  islands. 

Miss  Pullen  Burry's  account  of  the  rapid  evolution  of  the 
Jamaica  black  gave  a  favourable  picture  of  the  social  con- 
dition of  the  negro  population.  Obeah-worship  is  practi- 
cally extinct,  peasant-proprietorship  has  inspired  a  taste  for 
agriculture,  and  life  and  property  are  safe  even  in  the 
remoter  districts. 

Mr.  C.  Hill  Tout  and  Mr.  David  Boyle  sent  papers  on 
the  ethnology  of  the  Siciutl  Indians  of  British  Columbia 
and  on  the  Canadian  Indians  of  to-day,  but  the  committee 
on  an  ethnographical  survey  of  Canada,  of  which  they  are 
members,  presented  no  report  this  year. 

An  account  of  the  legends  of  the  Dieri  and  kindred  tribes 
-of  Australia,  by  Messrs.  A.  W.  Howitt  and  Otto  Siebert, 
contained  much  new  and  valuable  matter,  but  did  not  lend 
itself  to  presentation  in  full.  It  will  be  published  shortly 
in  the  Journal  of  the  Anthropological  Institute. 

Other  papers,  of  a  more  or  less  ethnographical  character, 
raised  questions  of  general  importance,  and  provoked  useful 
discussion. 

Mr.  W,  Crooke's  examination  of  the  progress  of  Islam 
in  India  and  its  causes  laid  stress  on  the  successful 
Mohammedan  propaganda,  which,  together  with  the  higher 
social  status  of  the  caste-free  Mohammedan,  has  resulted 
in  considerable  conversion  of  Hindus  to  Islam,  and  also  on 
the  circumstance  that  hereditary  vigour,  maturer  marriage, 
and  more  varied  and  invigorating  diet  tend  to  make  the 
Mohammedan  individual  more  fertile  and  more  long-lived 
than  the  Hindu. 

Prof.  R.  S.  Conway,  in  discussing  the  ethnology  of  early 
Italy  and  its  linguistic  relations  with  that  of  Britain,  dealt 
almost  wholly  with  the  linguistic  evidence  of  early  Italian 
place-  and  tribe-names,  recurring  thus,  after  a  considerable 
interval,  to  a  department  of  anthropological  inquiry  which 
has  been  overmuch  neglected  in  this  section.  He  dis- 
tinguished two  main  sets  of  ethnics,  one  ending  in  -CO 
the  other  in  -NO.  The  occurrence  of  ethnics  in  -CINO 
{i.e.  -NO  superimposed  upon  -CO)  shows  that  the  -NO 
stratum  is  the  later,  and  its  geographical  distribution  leads 
Prof.  Cqnway  to  connect  it  with  the  irruption  of  the 
NO.    1774,  VOL.   68] 


northern  group  of  peoples  into  Peninsular  Italy,  who  had 
knowledge  of  iron  and  buried  their  dead.  To  these,  con- 
trary to  the  view  of  Mommsen  and  his  school.  Prof.  Conway 
holds  that  the  Romani,  or  at  all  events  their  aristocracy, 
belonged,  and  he  explains  the  peculiar  geographical  dis- 
tribution of  the  Italic  dialects  of  Umbria  and  the  Volscian 
area  by  the  probable  effects  of  this  northern  invasion,  co- 
inciding, as  he  supposes,  in  point  of  time  with  the 
Tyrrhenian  colonisation  of  Etruria.  He  compares  the 
linguistic  contrasts  which  separate  the  -CO  and  -NO  folk 
in  Italy  with  those  which  distinguish  Goidels  and  Brythons 
in  north-western  Europe,  and  suggests  that  the  westward 
and  the  southward  movements  which  can  be  traced  are  to 
be  referred  to  the  same  centre  of  disturbance. 

Mr.  D.  MacRitchie  argued,  from  the  survival  of  the  use 
of  skin-covered  canoes  in  N.W.  Europe,  to  the  existence  of 
a  racial  type  of  Mongoloid  E^'iropeans.  It  should  be  noted, 
however,  that  one  might  sit  in  a  skin-covered  canoe  without 
having  Mongoloid  physique. 

In  contrast  with  the  somewhat  meagre  output  in  ethno- 
graphy, the  archaeological  communications  were  unusually 
numerous  and  attractive. 

Mr.  Llewellyn  Treacher's  paper  on  the  occurrence  of 
stone  implements  in  the  Thames  Valley  between  Reading 
and  Maidenhead  (read  also  in  Section  C),  and  Mrs.  Stopes's 
account  of  her  late  husband's  collections  from  implement- 
iferous  gravels  at  Swanscombe,  in  Kent,  summarised  much 
useful  work  on  limited  areas.  Mrs.  Stopes's  other  paper, 
on  saw-edged  palaeoliths,  submitted  a  wide  induction  from 
copious  data;  so  copious  and  varied,  indeed,  that  the  pre- 
liminary question  intruded  itself  whether  nature,  as  well 
as  man,  had  not  some  hand  in  their  preparation. 

Mr.  Annandale  was  on  safer  ground  in  his  collection  of 
survivals  of  primitive  implements  in  the  Faroes  and  Ice- 
land, and  exhibited  a  great  variety  of  types.  Their  distri- 
bution is  by  no  means  uniform,  those  found  in  the  Faroes 
being  generally  absent  from  Iceland,  and  vice  versd.  Mr. 
Annandale  suggests  that  this  may  be  due  to  differences  in 
the  history  of  the  original  settlers  in  the  two  areas. 

A  paper  by  Mr.  G.  Clinch  described  the  megalithic  monu- 
ment of  Coldrum,  in  Kent,  which  comprise  a  central  crom- 
lech, without  capstone,  but  with  a  double  chamber,  and  an 
irregular  line  of  large  blocks  of  stone  on  the  western  side, 
with  traces  of  a  tumulus.  No  excavation  has  been 
attempted  as  yet,  and  the  monument  is  partly  destroyed 
by  a  cart-way,  but  the  author  compares  it  with  a  larger 
megalithic  structure,  of  Neolithic  date,  at  Sievern,  in 
Hanover,  and  concludes  in  favour  of  a  late  Neolithic  date 
for  Coldrum.  He  lays  stress  on  points  of  similarity  which 
he  detects  between  Coldrum  and  Stonehenge.  Discussion 
and  criticism  were  impaired  in  this,  as  in  some  other  cases, 
by  the  absence  of  the  author. 

Mr.  H.  Balfour  gave  an  account  of  a  model  of  the  Arbor 
Low  stone  circle,  which  had  been  prepared  by  Mr.  H.  St.  G. 
Gray  as  the  outcome  of  the  recent  excavation  of  this  monu- 
ment by  a  committee  of  the  Association.  It  would  be  well 
if  every  such  excavation  were  so  conducted  as  to  permit  a 
similar  reproduction  for  convenient  reference  hereafter. 

Prof.  W.  Ridgeway  offered  a  suggestive  theory  of  the 
origin  of  jewellery,  namely,  that  mankind  was  led  to  wear 
such  objects  by  magic  rather  than  by  aesthetic  consider- 
ations. 

All  peoples  value  for  magical  purposes  small  stones  of 
peculiar  form  or  colour  long  before  they  can  wear  them  as 
ornaments ;  e.g.  Australians  and  tribes  of  New  Guinea  use 
crystals  for  rain-making,  although  they  cannot  bore  them. 
So,  in  Greece,  the  crystal  was  used  to  light  sacrificial  fire, 
and  was  so  employed  in  the  Church  down  to  the  fifteenth 
century.  The  Egyptians  under  the  twelfth  dynasty  used  it 
largely,  piercing  it  along  its  axis.  From  this  bead  came 
the  artificial  cylindrical  beads  made  later  by  the  Egyptian, 
from  which  modern  cylindrical  glass  beads  are  descended. 
The  beryl,  a  natural  hexagonal  prism,  lent  itself  still  more 
readily  to  the  same  form,  and  the  cylinders  found  without 
any  engraving  on  the  wrists  of  the  dead  in  early  Babylonian 
graves  had  a  similar  origin.  The  Orphic  Lithica  gives 
a' clear  account  of  the  special  virtue  of  each  stone,  and  it 
is  plain,  that  they  acted  chiefly  by  sympathetic  magic.  The 
Greeks  and  Asiatics  used  stones  primarily  as  amulets,  and 
to  enhance  the  natural  power  of  the  stone  a  device  was  cut 
on  it.  The  use  of  the  stone  for  sealing  was  simply 
secondary,  and  may  haye  arisen  first  for  sacred  purposes. 


October  29,  1903] 


NA  TURE 


^n 


Shells  are  worn  as  amulets  by  modern  savages,  e.g. 
cowries  in  Africa ;  red  coral  is  a  potent  amulet  worn  by 
travellers  by  sea  ;  pearls  are  a  potent  medicine  in  modern 
China  ;  seeds  of  plants  are  medicine  everywhere ;  and  the 
claws  of  lions  are  worn  as  amulets  all  through  Africa,  and 
are  "  great  medicine,"  and  imitations  of  them  are  made. 

When  gold  becomes  first  known  it  is  regarded  exactly 
like  the  stones  mentioned.  Thus  the  Debae,  an  Arab  tribe, 
who  did  not  work  gold,  but  had  abundance  in  their  land, 
used  only  the  nuggets,  stringing  them  for  necklaces  alter- 
nately with  perforated  stones. 

Magnetic  iron  and  haematite  were  especially  prized,  the 
power  of  attraction  in  magnetic  iron,  as  in  the  case  of 
amber,  causing  a  belief  that  there  was  a  living  spirit  within. 
Hence  iron  in  general  was  regarded  with  peculiar  vener- 
ation, and  not  because  it  was  a  newer  metal,  as  is  commonly 
stated. 

In  a  paper  on  the  origin  of  the  brooch,  and  the  probable 
use  of  certain  rings  at  present  called  "armlets,"  Mr.  E. 
Lovett  suggested,  as  the  prototype  of  the  ring-and-pin  con- 
trivance for  fastening  a  cloak,  the  use,  by  a  hunting  people, 
of  the  mammalian  Os  innominatum  and  Os  calcis.  He 
noted,  further,  that  very  many  rings  of  early. date,  usually 
described  as  "  armlets,"  are  too  small  to  allow  the  entrance 
of  a  hand.  .'\s  such  rings  are  frequently  found  associated 
with    pins    of    similar    materials,    commonly    regarded    as 

hair-pins,"  and  as  ring  and  pin  are  sometimes  found  in 
sttti  on  the  breast  of  a  skeleton,  he  infers  that  they  repre- 
sent a  simple  ring-and-pin  fastening  of  the  kind  described 
above.  An  apron-fastener  of  this  type,  composed  of  an 
iron  ring  and  a  horse-shoe  nail,  is  still  worn  in  some  of  the 
blacksmith's  shops  in  Scotland.  The  next  step  of  develop- 
ment follows  when  the  pin  is  perforated  at  the  thick  end 
and  attached  to  the  ring  by  a  fibre  to  prevent  it  from  being 
lost.  This  stage  is  actually  represented  in  China.  A 
furtlier  step  is  taken  when  the  pin  itself  is  hinged  upon  the 
ring,  for  security,  by  bending  its  flattened  head  round  the 
ring,  a  form  which  is  abundant  in  Celtic  times.  The  in- 
convenience which  accompanies  the  ring-and-pin  brooch, 
that  the  fabric  must  be  drawn  so  far  through  the  ring,  was 
remedied  by  leaving  a  gap  in  the  ring ;  the  "  penannular  " 
brooch  results. 

Miss  Bulley  exhibited  a  number  of  examples  of  crosses, 
chiefly  Celtic,  and  traversed  familiar  ground  in  inferring 
from  them  the  existence  of  a  distinct  type  of  symbol  in 
which  a  circumscribed  circle  is  of  equal  importance  with 
the  cross  itself.  Coptic  and  Syrian  crosses  show  the  same 
type  as  the  Celtic,  though  not  so  markedly.  The  subject, 
if  treated  at  all,  needs  much  more  thorough  examination. 

Mr.  John  Garstang's  account  of  Egyptian  burial  customs 
summarised  the  results  of  his  discovery  of  a  necropolis  of 
the  Middle  Empire  (about  2200  B.C.)  at  Beni-Hasan,  in 
Upper  Egypt,  which  contained  buryingf  places  of  minor 
officials  and  distinguished  women,  and  illustrated  the 
funeral  ritual  of  the  middle  classes  of  the  locality.  These 
tombs  are  not  large  enough  for  mural  decoration,  but  they 
are  furnished  with  numerous  wooden  models — boats, 
granaries,  and  men  and  women  engaged  in  field-work  and 
household  duties — which  explain  manv  points  connected 
with  the  burial  of  the  dead.  The  objects  seem  to  have 
borne  no  relation  to  the  profession  of  the  deceased,  but  are 
simply  of  religious  motive — the  elaborate  provision  for  a 
future  journey. 

Dr.  C.  S.  Myers  described  the  antiquities  of  Kharga  in 
the  Great  Oasis,  which  include  a  well-preserved  temple  of 
Hibis,  which  is  one  of  the  most  important  monuments  of 
the  Persian  dynasty  in  Egypt,  and  an  early  Nestorian 
necropolis,  with  streets  of  tombs  and  funeral  chapels  of 
unburnt  brick,  plastered  and  frescoed  with  symbolic  orna- 
ment and  Biblical  scenes. 

Prof.  Flinders  Petrie  summarised  the  principal  results  of 
his  recent  excavations  at  Abydos  in  two  demonstrations 
entitled  "  The  Beginning  of  the  Egyptian  Kingdom  "  and 
"The  Temples  of  Abydos."  The  discovery  of  the  pre- 
historic age  of  Egypt,  and  its  division  into  regular 
sequences  of  remains,  fills  up  a  period  of  more  than  2000 
years  before  the  establishment  of  the  dynastic  rff^imc,  and 
reveals  a  wealthy  and  elaborate  civilisation  which  was 
already  decadent  when  it  was  overthrown  by  the  dynastic 
conquerors.  Five  different  types  of  man  can  be  dis- 
tinguished in  pre-dynastic  times,  one  of  which  Prof.  Petrie 
is  inclined  to  identify  as  Libyan,  and  akin  to  a  characteristic 
NO.    1774,  VOL.   68] 


type  in  early  Greece.  The  connection  of  the  close  of  the 
prehistoric  scale  of  sequences  with  the  early  kings  has  been 
closely  settled  by  the  pottery,  and  its  history  shown  in  the 
stratified  ruins  of  the  earliest  town  of  Abydos  ;  four  of  the 
ten  kings'  names  have  been  found  of  the  dynasty  which 
preceded  that  of  Menes,  and  also  the  names  of  all  the  eight 
kings  of  the  dynasty  of  Menes  himself.  The  growth  of  the 
use  of  writing  can  be  traced  on  the  seals,  and  the  aesthetic 
revolution  which  accompanied  the  estiblishment  of  the 
dynastic  kingdom  is  seen  to  lead  directly  to  the  fixed  artistic 
types  which  dominate  Egypt  thenceforward.  The  Royal 
tombs  likewise  are  traced  in  sequence  of  elaboration  from 
the  prehistoric  pit  grave,  first  to  the  brick  mustaba,  and 
then  to  the  stone-built  pyramid  of  the  third  dynasty. 

At  Abydos,  on  the  site  of  the  Osiris  temple,  ten  successive 
shrines  of  earlier  dates  have  been  unearthed  through  a 
depth  of  20  feet  of  soil ;  the  latest  is  that  of  Amasis,  of  the 
twenty-sixth  dynasty,  and  the  earliest  that  of  the  first.  The 
principal  results  were  of  the  last-named  period,  and  included 
a  remarkable  school  of  fine  ivory  carving,  and  striking  ex- 
amples of  two-colour  glazing. 

The  liberal  support  which  the  Association  has  given 
throughout  to  British  exploration  in  Crete  was  more  than 
justified  by  the  reports  of  the  last  season's  work.  Mr. 
Duckworth's  anthropographic  inquiry  has  been  noted 
already  ;  Dr.  Arthur  Evans  gave  a  full  account  of  his  latest 
discoveries  in  the  Palace  of  Knossos,  and  Messrs.  Bosanquet 
and  Myres  described  the  excavation  of  a  pre-Mycenzean  town 
and  sanctuary  at  Palaikastro,  in  eastern  Crete,  conducted 
by  the  British  School  of  Archaeology  in  Athens,  and  sup- 
ported, like  the  work  at  Knossos,  by  the  Cretan  Exploration 
Fund. 

At  Knossos  the  year's  campaign,  which  was  expected  to 
conclude  the  excavation,  took  a  wholly  unlooked-for  de- 
velopment, in  the  discovery,  first,  of  a  north-west  wing  of 
the  palace,  including  a  rudimentary  theatre  formed  by  con- 
verging staircases,  not  unlike  that  found  already  in  the 
Palace  of  Phaestos  ;  second,  of  a  detached  house  to  the  north- 
east, with  much  fine  pottery,  and  a  remarkable  columnar 
hall  with  a  tribuna  and  apse  at  one  end,  which  appears 
to  anticipate  the  features  of  the  later  basilica ;  third,  of 
many  scattered  deposits  between  and  below  the  floor  levels  of 
the  palace,  which  serve  to  elaborate  and  explain  the  detailed 
chronology  of  the  whole  mass  of  buildings.  One  of  these 
deposits,  found  near  the  east  pillar-room,  contained  a  quite 
unparalleled  accumulation  of  native-made  figurines  in  a 
kind  of  Egyptian  glaze-ware,  the  d6bris  of  a  sanctuary 
dedicated  to  a  snake-goddess.  In  the  same  deposit  occurred 
also  a  remarkable  marble  cross,  which  seems  to  have  been 
the  central  aniconic  object  of  the  shrine,  and  examples  of 
a  fresh  form  of  linear  script.  In  view  of  these  important 
results,  it  becomes  necessary  to  complete  the  investigation 
of  the  ground  below  the  later  floors  throughout  the  palace, 
as  well  as  to  continue  the  search  for  the  Royal  tombs,  which 
has  hitherto  only  led  to  the  discovery  of  a  late  and  much 
plundered  necropolis  to  the  northward. 

At  Palaikastro  the  settlement  discovered  in  1902  proves 
to  be  a  considerable  town  of  regular  plan,  dating  from  the 
later  Minoan  period,  with  extensive  Mycensean  rebuildings. 
The  detailed  finds  indicate  widespread  commerce  from  Egypt 
to  Lipari,  and  considerable  prosperity  and  comfort  at  home. 
The  preponderance  of  submarine  subjects  in  the  decorative 
art  suggests  that  the  persistent  Cretan  sponge  industry 
was  already  of  importance,  and  a  visit  paid  by  Mr. 
Bosanquet  to  the  island  of  Kouphonisi,  off  the  south-east 
coast  of  Crete,  proved  the  existence  of  an  extensive  and 
clearly  pre-Phoenician  purple  fishery,  going  back  into 
Minoan  times.  The  pre-Mycenaean  sanctuary  explored  by 
Mr.  Myres  on  the  hill  overlooking  Palaikastro  yielded  a 
remarkable  series  of  votive  terra-cottas,  and  much  new 
evidence  as  to  pre-Mycenaean  costume. 

The  papers  on  Roman  Britain,  already  mentioned,  were 
as  follows  : — 

Mr.  T.  Ashby,  jun.,  gave  a  retrospect  of  excavations  at 
Caerwent,  in  Monmouthshire  (1800-1003),  on  the  site  of 
the  Romano-British  citv  of  Venta  Silurum,  which  a  recently 
discovered  inscription  shows  to  have  been  the  administrative 
centre  of  the  Silures  in  Roman  times.  The  external  walls 
are  clearly  traceable,  with  three  gates  partially  preserved, 
and  an  inner  earthwork  which  seems  to  have  been  the 
original  fortification.  The  buildings  within  are  chiefly 
private  houses,   sometimes  wholly   enclosing  a  rectangular 


638 


NA  TURE 


[October  29,  1903 


courtyard,  an  arrangement  whjcb  is  unique  in  England. 
Sbme  interesting  mosaics  have  been  found,  and  near  the 
north  gate  the  remains  of  an  amphitheatre  within  the  city 
walls. 

Mr.  John  Garstang  described  the  Roman  fortress 
Bremettenacum  (Ribchester),  to  which  an  excursion  was 
made  in  the  course  of  the  meeting.  Excavations  made  in 
1898-q  have  shown  that  this  station  was  one  of  a  series 
of  fortresses  which,  with  the  wall  of  Hadrian,  formed  the 
northern  frontier  defences  of  Roman  Britain.  It  is  entirely 
of  the  earlier  character,  severely  rectangular,  with  internal 
buttresses,  mural  towers,  and  double-arched  gates,  and 
filled  within  with  rows  and  streets  of  stone-built  barracks 
and  stables. 

Mr.  Garstang  also  gave  a  preliminary  account  of  the 
Roman  fort  at  Brough,  where  exploratory  excavations  have 
been  made  quite  recently.  Like  Ribchester,  it  belongs  to 
the  earlier  type  of  fort,  and  was  situated  in  the  favourite 
position  at  the  junction  of  two  streams.  In  clearing  a 
deep  enclosure  within  the  walls,  two  inscribed  altars  were 
found,  and  portions  of  a  large  inscribed  tablet  set  up  by 
a  Praefect  of  the  First  Cohort  of  Aquitani  under  Julius 
Verus,  Governor  of  Britain  in  the  time  of  Antoninus  Pius. 

The  committee  on  excavations  on  the  Roman  site  at 
Gellygaer,  near  Cardiff,  reported  that  the  work  was  now 
completed,  the  results  published,  and  the  movable  finds 
installed  in  the  Cardiff  Museum. 

The  convnittee  appointed  to  report  on  the  excavations  at 
Silchester  summarised  the  last  season's  work,  and  strongly 
urged  that,  in  the  small  part  of  the  site  which  remains  to 
be  explored,  special  care  should  be  taken  to  secure  accurate 
registration  of  the  stratification  (if  any  exists)  of  the 
smaller  finds,  and  to  investigate  the  relation  in  which  the 
rectangular  street  plan  stands  to  the  irregular  trapezium 
of  the  town  wall. 

As  a  result  of  this  and  similar  recommendations,  the 
Silchester  committee  of  the  Association  has  been  recon- 
stituted as  a  committee  "  to  cooperate  with  local  effort  on 
Roman  sites  in  Britain,"  and  starts  work  anew  with  a 
small  grant,  to  be  expended  in  facilitating  special  researches 
of  the  kind  suggested  at  Silchester,  on  sites  where  local  or 
other  subscriptions  are  already  providing  the  funds  for 
a  general  exploration.  The  opportunities  for  work  already 
offered  at  Silchester  on  the  plant-remains,  the  frequent 
occurrence  on  Roman  sites  of  animal  or  human  bones  which 
need  special  precautions  and  expert  examination,  and  the 
necessity  for  more  detailed  and  accurate  registration  of  the 
smaller  finds  than  has  been  customary  hitherto,  even  in 
the  best  conducted  excavations,  are  examples  of  classes  of 
observation  which  are  only  too  liable  to  be  neglected  by 
local  explorers,  and  the  committee  will  be  doing  good  service 
if  it  can  secure  for  them  the  attention  which  they  deserve. 


UNIVERSITY    AND    EDUCATIONAL 
INTELLIGENCE. 

Oxford. — An  examination  in  mathematics  and  physics 
will  be  held  at  St.  John's  College  on  March  i6,  1904,  for 
the  purpose  of  electing  a  fellow  in  those  subjects.  Candi- 
dates will  be  given  an  opportunity  of  showing  their  know- 
ledge of  experimental  physics.  All  persons  are  eligible  who 
shall  have  passed  all  the  examinations  required  for  the 
degree  of  Bachelor  of  Arts  on  the  day  of  election  (April  20). 

Cambridge. — The  general  board  of  studies  has  issued  a 
report  proposing  a  more  comprehensive  organisation  of 
geographical  studies  and  examinations  in  the  university. 
The  proposals  include  the  establishment  of  a  board  of  geo- 
graphical studies,  a  geographical  education  fund,  to  which 
the  university  and  the  Royal  Geographical  Society  each 
contribute  200I.  a  year,  a  special  examination  in  geography 
for  the  ordinary  B.A.  degree,  and  a  diploma  in  geography 
for  advanced  work  in  the  subject.  The  stipend  of  the 
reader  in  geography  is  fixed  at  200/.,  and  his  lectures  and 
those  of  the  other  teachers  to  be  employed  will  be  under 
the  direction  of  the  board,  on  which  the  council  of  the 
Royal  Geographical  Society  will  be  represented. 

A  memorial  urging  the  desirability  of  some  similar 
organisation  of  anthropological  study  has  been  presented 
by  thirty  members  of  the  senate,  and  is  at  present  under 
the  consideration  of  the  council. 


Twenty-two  candidates  have  passed  the  half-yearly  ex- 
amination in  sanitary  science,  and  have  thus  become  entitled 
to  the  imiversity  diploma  in  public  health. 

On  October  21,  886  freshmen,  including  13  "advanced 
students,"  were  matriculated.  The  corresponding  number 
for  last  year  was  868. 

Mr.  F.  F.  Blackman,  St.  John's,  has  been  appointed 
deputy  for  the  reader  in  botany,  Mr.  F.  Darwin,  F.R.S. 

The  Ven.  E.  H.  Gifford,  D.D.,  senior  classic  and  fifteenth 
wrangler  in  1843,  has  been  elected  an  honorary  fellow  of 
St.  John's  College. 

The  grace  for  the  establishment  of  the  Stokes  lecture- 
ship and  the  Cayley  lectureship  in  mathematics,  for  which 
a  temporary  endowment  was  recently  offered  to  the  uni- 
versity by  certain  anonymous  donors,  will  be  offered  to  the 
senate  to-day  (October  29). 


Mr.  R.  J.  T.  Bryant,  Ley  ton  Technical  Institute,  has 
been  appointed  organiser  of  higher  education  to  the  Borough 
of  Lowestoft. 

It  is  stated  in  the  Petit  Journal  that  Harvard  University 
has  come  into  possession  of  a  legacy  of  about  5,000,000/., 
the  whole  of  the  estate  of  the  late  Mr,  Gordon  Mackay. 

On  the  invitation  of  Yale  University,  Prof.  Sherrington, 
F.R.S.,  of  Liverpool  University,  has  undertaken  to  deliver 
the  second  series  of  Silliman  memorial  lectures  next  year. 

Prof.  H.  S.  Hele-Shaw,  F.R.S.,  has  been  appointed, 
through  the  Colonial  Office,  to  organise  technical  educa- 
tion in  the  Transvaal  and  the  Orange  River  Colony,  and 
to  consider  the  future  university  scheme  of  these  colonies. 
The  appointment  is  not  a  permanent  one,  and  Prof.  Hele- 
Shaw  has  been  granted  leave  of  absence  by  the  council  of 
the  University  of  Liverpool  until  September  next. 

The  County  of  Essex  Education  Committee  announces  that 
an  elementary  course  of  instruction  in  dairy  bacteriology 
will  be  given  in  its  biological  laboratories  at  Chelmsford. 
The  course  will  commence  on  Thursday,  November  5,  and 
will  be  continued  on  the  ten  succeeding  Thursdays.  The 
course  seems  to  be  a  comprehensive  one,  and  should  be  of 
considerable  value.  Normal  classes  for  the  training  of 
teachers  in  natural  and  experimental  science  have  also  been 
instituted  by  the  committee  at  Chelmsford.  These  classes 
are  intended  for  the  practical  instruction  and  training  of 
persons  resident  in  Essex  who  desire  to  qualify  themselves 
to  teach  under  the  County  Council.  The  classes  meet  on 
Saturdays  from  10  to  5  o'clock  during  the  winter  months. 

The  inaugural  address  to  the  students  of  the  medical  de- 
partment of  University  College,  Sheffield,  was  delivered  by 


Sir   Michael   Foster,   K.C.B.,   on   October 


He  directed 


NO.    1774,  VOL.  68] 


attention  to  the  variety  and  complexity  of  the  studies  con- 
sidered necessary  for  medical  students  ;  and  he  remarked  that 
the  question  whether  the  burden  was  becoming  too  great 
for  the  student,  and  what  things  in  the  curriculum  could 
with  advantage  be  thrown  on  one  side,  must  be  considered, 
for  the  least  important  subjects  would  have  to  give  way  in 
the  future. 

The  Home  Counties  Nature-Study  Exhibition  will  be 
opened  in  the  offices  of  the  Civil  Service  Commission, 
Burlington  Gardens,  W.,  to-morrow,  October  30,  at  3  p.m. 
Lord  Avebury  will  preside.  Admission  tickets  at  special 
rates  can  be  obtained  by  teachers  and  pupils  by  application 
to  the  honorary  secretary,  Mr.  W.  M.  Webb,  20  Hanover 
Square,  W.  The  programme  includes  conferences  for 
teachers  on  practical  methods  of  nature-study  in  elementary 
and  secondary  schools.  The  latest  scientific  developments 
of  the  Urban-Duncan  microbioscope  will  be  shown  on  the 
evenings  of  Friday  and  Saturday,  and  well-known  lecturers 
on  natural  history  subjects,  such  as  Mr.  Douglas  English, 
Mr.  Richard  Kearton,  Mr.  R.  B.  Lodge,  and  Mr.  Oliver 
Pike  will  give  addresses  from  time  to  time,  and  exhibit 
their  slides  during  the  exhibition.  Special  meetings  of  the 
Middlesex  Field  Club  and  Nature-Study  Society  and  of 
the  Selborne  Society  will  be  held  at  the  exhibition  on 
Monday  and  Tuesday. 

We  have  received  an  admirably  illustrated  booklet  de- 
scribing the  Montefiore  Electrotechnical  Institute  of  the 
University  of  Li^ge,  and  containing  a  programme  of  the 
courses  of  instruction.     In  glancing  through  the  illustra- 


October  29   1903J 


NATURE 


^39 


tions,  one  is  struck  by  the  fexcellence  of  the  equipment  of 
the  laboratories  and  workshops.  We  reproduce  on  a  re- 
duced scale  an  illustration  showing  the  installation  for  the 
study  of  synchronous  motors  and  problems  connected  with 
the  paralleling  of  alternators.  The  character  of  the  wiring 
is  a  noticeable  feature ;  the  switchboard  looks  more  like  a 
diagram  than  an  actual  board,  having  all  the  leads  plainly 
visible  and  easily  accessible,  which  must  prove  a  consider- 
able advantage  in  teaching  and  experimental  work.  The 
apparatus  and  machinery  installed  cover  practically  the 
whole    field    of    flcn-dtrThnicMl     iii.'.isurcnipnts,    a    separate 


installation,  complete  in  itself,  being  provided  for  the  study 
of  each  branch.  In  addition  to  these  "  industrial  labor- 
atories "  there  are  well-equipped  standardising  laboratories, 
chemical  and  photometric  laboratories,  drawing  oflices,  and 
lecture  theatres.  Altogether  the  institution  appears  to  be 
thoroughly  equipped  for  teaching  electrical   technology. 


SOCIETIES     AND     ACADEMIES. 

Manchester. 
Literary  and  Philosophical  Society,  October  6. — Prof. 
W.  Boyd  Dawkins,  president,  in  the  chair. — Dr.  Henry 
Wilde,  F.R.S.,  read  a  paper  on  the  resolution  of  elementary 
substances  into  their  ultimates  and  on  the  spontaneous 
molecular  activity  of  radium.  The  author  referred  to  several 
of  his  papers  published  by  the  Society  on  the  genesis  of 
elementary  substances  and  on  the  multiple  proportions  of 
their  atomic  weights,  wherein  certain  gaps  appeared  in  the 
several  series  in  his  tables,  which  have  since  been  filled  up 
by  scandium,,  germanium,  helium,  argon,  neon,  krypton 
and  xenon.  The  remarkable  properties  of  radium  were  held 
to  represent  further  realisations  of  the  predictions  made  in 
the  author's  earlier  papers.  The  author  had  previously 
indicated  the  interruption  in  the  regularity  of  his  multiple 
series  H2n  through  the  absence  of  elements  of  atomic 
weights  i6o  and  184  respectively.  As  there  is  only  one  place 
vacant  higher  in  this  series  for  an  analogue  of  calcium, 
strontium  and  barium,  radium  was  identified  by  the  author 
as  the  tenth  elementary  condensation  of  H2«,  with  an 
atomic  weight  of  184,  and  a  specific  gravity  of  48,  as  shown 
in  his  tables.  The  authoj  had  shown  in  former  papers  that 
helium  was  the  unknown  typical  molecule  of  the  same 
series,  with  an  atomic  weight  of  2,  and  had  previously  in- 
dicated the'  probability  of  the  resolution  of  the  higher 
members  of  each  series  into  their  elementary  typical  mole- 
cules. The  production  of  helium  from  radiurn  by  Profs. 
Rutherford,  Soddy  and  Ramsay  confirmed  the  author's  pre- 
vision in  the  case  of  the  series  H2n,  and  this  result  may 
lead  to  the  resolution  of  the  higher  members  of  other  series 
into  their  ultimates. — Fossil  plants  from  the  Ardwick  series 
of  Manchestef,  by  Mr.  E.  A.  Neville  Arber.  The  author 
has  carefully  reinvestigated  the  fossil  plants  from  the  Ard- 
wick series  of  rocks  collected  by  the  late  Mr.  Binney,  and 
^        which   are  now   in   the   University   Museum   of  Cambridge. 

iHe  has  also  examined  the  numerous  fossil  plants  from  this 
Series  in  the  Manchester  MuSeum,  and  has  come  to  the  con- 
NO.    1774,  VOL.   68] 


elusion  that  the  Ardwick  series  of  rock  does  not  belong,  as 
stated,  to  the  Upper  Coal-measures,  but  forms  a  definite 
transition  series  between  the  Upper  and  Middle  Coal- 
measures  of  Lancashire.  Such  a  transition  series  has  been 
already  recognised  in  the  Coal-measures  of  South  Wales, 
Somerset,  and  Staffordshire. 

October  20. — Prof.  W.  Boyd  Dawkins,  president,  in  the 
chair. — Mr.  Henry  Sidebottom  read  a  paper  on  recent 
Foraminifera  from  the  coast  of  the  island  of  Delos,  in  which 
he  enumerated  some  seventy  species  of  Miliolidae,  including 
four  new  species  and  several  interesting  variations.  The 
new  species  and  variations  were  fully  described,  and  draw- 
ings both  of  the  specimens  and  their  sections  exhibited. 
Mr.  Sidebottom  stated  that  the  dredgings  from  this  locality 
were  extraordinarily  rich  in  Foraminifera. 

Paris. 
Academy  of  Sciences,  October  19.— M.  Albert  Gaudry 
in  the  chair. — On  the  state  of  vaporised  carbon,  by  M. 
Derthelot.  At  a  temperature  of  i200°-i500°,  carbon 
possesses  an  appreciable  vapour  pressure,  which  is  so  small 
that,  even  after  several  hundred  hours  in  a  vacuum,  the 
amount  vaporised  amounts  only  to  a  few  milligrams.  This 
carbon  is  amorphous,  and  contains  no  trace  either  of 
diamond  or  graphite. — On  the  periods  of  double  integrals 
and  their  relations  with  the  theory  of  double  integrals  of 
the  second  species,  by  M.  Emile  Picard. — On  the  estim- 
ation of  argon  in  atmospheric  air,  by  M.  Henri  Moissan. 
Pure  metallic  calcium,  prepared  by  a  method  previously 
described  by  the  author,  is  used  to  absorb  the  nitrogen  ; 
this  metal  also  absorbs  the  traces  of  hydrogen  which  are 
always  present  if  a  mixture  of  lime  and  magnesium  powder 
has  been  used  in  the  preliminary  treatment.  Samples  of 
air  from  various  sources  gave,  with  one  exception,  very 
concordant  figures  between  0-931  and  0-938  per  cent,  by 
volume,  the  exception  being  a  sample  of  air  taken  on  the 
Atlantic,  which  gave  o  949  per  cent. — On  the  products  of 
condensation  of  tetramethyldiamidophenyloxanthranol  with 
benzene,  toluene,  and  dim'ethylaniline,  by  MM.  A.  Haller 
and  A.  Guyot. — On  the  acclimatisation  and  culture  of 
pintadines,  or  true  pearl  oysters,  on  the  coasts  of  France, 
and  on  the  forced  production  of  fine  pearls,  by  M.  Raphael 
Dubois.  Successful  experiments  have  been  carried  out 
with  Margaritifera  vulgaris,  which  has  been  acclimatised 
and  made  to  yield  pearls  which,  although  small,  are  of 
good  quality. — On  linear  equations  of  finite  differences,  by 
M.  Alf.  Guldberg^. — On  a  reflection  refractometer,  by 
M.  Th.  Vautier.  An  interference  refractometer  composed 
of  three  mirrors  is  described,  allowing  of  the  complete 
separation  of  the  two  interfering  light  bundles. — On  the 
composition  of  zinc  peroxide,  by  M.  Kuriloff.  The  only 
definite  peroxide  of  zinc  appears  to  be  Zn03.Zn(OH)2.-^ 
The  phagocyte  organ  of  the  crustacean  decapods,  by  M.  L. 
Cudnot. — On  the  phases  of  folding  in  the  French  intra- 
alpine  zones,  by  M.  W.  Kilian. — The  part  played  by  com- 
pression in  the  localisation  of  the  tendons,  by  M.  R. 
Anthony. — On  the  relations  existing  between  the  Surra 
and  the  Nagana,  according  to  an  experiment  of  Nocard,  bv 
MM.  Valine  and  Carrtf.  The  authors  confirm  the  view's 
of  M.M.  Laveran  and  Mesnil  as  to  the  non-identity  of  Surra 
and  Nagana. — Parthenogenesis  and  treatment  of  rheuma- 
tism, by  M.  L.  P«ni6re». — Experimental  researches  on  the 
sense  of  smell  in  the  old,  by  M.  Vaschide.  In  old  people 
the  sense  of  smell  is  better  preserved  in  women  than  in 
men,  but  in  all  cases  there  is  a  marked  diminution  in 
olfactory  sensibility  due  to  age. 

New  South  Wales. 
Royal  Society,  August  5.— Mr.  F.  B.  Guthrie,  president, 
in  the  chair. — The  economic  effects  of  sanitary  works,  by 
.Mr.  J.  Haydon  Cardew.  The  principal  object  of  the  paper 
was  to  give  municipal  and  health  authorities  some  basis  to 
work  upon  in  devising  sanitary  services  and  forecasting 
I  their  economic  effects. — On  the  protection  of  iron  and  other 
metal-work,  by  Mr.  William  M.  Hamlet.  The  author 
dealt  with  an  investigation  of  the  causes  of  the  rapid  rust- 
ing away  of  the  iron  casing  at  one  of  the  Australian  artesian 
bores,  where  abundance  of  carbonic  acid  gas  was  evolved  at 
100°  F.  ;  the  water  also  contained  alkaline  carbonates  and 
bicarbonates  with  sodium  chlorides,  silica,  &c.,  amounting 
to  between  thirty  and  forty  grains  of  total  solid  nriatfer  to 
the  gallon.     Probably  a  specially  hard  and   resistant  ^lloy 


640 


NA  TURE 


[October  29,  1903 


will  be  required  to  stand  the  prolonged  and  severe  action 
of  the  water  in  question. — On  the  elastic  radial  deform- 
ations in  the  rims  and  arms  of  flywheels,  and  their  measure- 
ment by  an  optical  method,  by  Mr.  A.  Boyd.  In  this  paper 
actual  measurements  of  the  deflections  of  the  rims  during 
rotation  were  given,  so  that  the  shape  of  the  rim  at  any 
speed  within  the  elastic  limit  of  the  material  could  be  seen. 
The  flywheels  tested  were  of  different  design.  The  curves 
for  a  curved  armed  wheel  showed  a  large  inflection  between 
the  arms,  the  maximum  deflection  being  close  to  the  arms. 
The  tests  on  four  armed  wheels  showed  very  clearly  the  great 
advantage  of  having  the  joint  along  the  arms,  tiie  effect  of 
the  joint  in  a  four-armed  wheel,  jointed  along  the  arms, 
being  in  fact  almost  negligible. — The  aboriginal  fisheries 
at  Brewarrina,  by  Mr.  R.  H.  Mathews. 

September  2. — Mr.  F.  B.  Guthrie,  president,  in  the  chair. 
— The  following  papers  were  read  : — The  separation  of 
iron  from  nickel  and  cobalt  by  lead  oxide  (Field's  method), 
by  Mr.  T.  H.  Laby.  An  inquiry  into  the  accuracy  of  Field's 
method,  as  it  has  distinct  advantages  over  methods 
commonly  in  use,  viz.  a  single  precipitation  of  the  iron, 
and  the  absence,  after  the  removal  of  added  lead,  of  all 
reagents,  such  as  sodium  or  ammonium  salts.  Combined 
with  the  electrolytic  determination  of  nickel  or  cobalt,  the 
method  becomes  rapid.  Standard  solutions  of  carefully 
purified  iron,  nickel,  and  cobalt  nitrates  were  prepared. 
With  these  solutions  twenty-two  analyses  were  made,  show- 
ing a  recovery  of  more  than  qq  per  cent,  of  nickel  and 
cobalt. — Pot  experiments  to  determine  the  limits  of  en- 
durance of  different  farm-crops  for  certain  injurious  sub- 
stances, part  ii.,  maize,  by  Messrs.  F.  B.  Guthrie  and 
R.  Helms.  The  authors  communicated  the  results  of 
experiments  having  for  their  object  the  determination  of  the 
tolerance  of  maize  for  sodium  chloride,  sodium  carbonate, 
ammonium  sulphocyanide,  sodium  chlorate,  and  arsenious 
acid. — Bibliography  of  Australian  lichens,  by  Mr.  E.  Cheel. 
— On  the  Narraburra  meteorite,  by  Prof.  Liversidge,  F.R.S. 
A  general  account  of  the  characteristics  of  this  metallic 
meteorite,  weighing  more  than  70  lb.,  which  was  discovered 
in  185!;  on  the  Yeo  Yeo  Creek,  twelve  miles  east  of  Temora, 
N.S.  Wales. 

Linnean  Society,  August  26. — Dr.  T.  Storie  Dixson,  presi- 
dent, in  the  chair. — Studies  in  Australian  entomology.  No.  xii. 
New  Carabidae  (Panageini,  Bembidiini,  Platysmatini,  Platy- 
nini,  Lebiini,  with  revisional  lists  of  genera  and  species,  some 
notes  on  synonymy,  &c.),  by  Mr.  T.  G.  Sloane. — Revision 
of  the  Australian  Curculionidae  belonging  to  the  subfamily 
Cryptorhynchides,  part  vi.,  by  Mr.  A.  M.  Lea. — Notes  on 
Byblis  gigantea,  Lindl.  [N.O.  Droseraceae],  by  Mr.  Alex. 
G.  Hamilton. 


DIARY   OF   SOCIETIES. 

SATURDAY,  October  31. 
Essex  Field  Club,  at  6.30.— Exhibition  of  a  Series  of  Photographs  of 
Fungi,    by    means  of   the    Lantern:     Mr.    Somerville    Hastings. — Seed 
Dispersal :  Prof.  G.  S.  Boulger. 

MONDAY,  November  2. 

Society  of  Chemical  Industry,  at  8.— On  the  Application  of  the  X-Rays 
to  the  Examination  of  "Safety  Fuses":  C.  Napier  Hake.— Scarlet 
Phosphorus — A  New  Chemically  Active  Variety  of  Red  Phosphorus,  and 
its  Use  in  the  Manufacture  of  Matches  :  Drs.  Marquart  and  Schulz. — 
New  Compound  of  Phosphorus  for  the  Production  of  Matches  :  F.  Bale. 
—Densities  of  Concentrated  N  itric  Acid  at  different  Temperatures  : 
Prof.  V.  H.  Veley,  F.R.S.,  and  J.  J.  Manley.— On  a  Comparison  of 
Different  Types  of  Calorimeters  :  J.  S.  S.  Brame  and  Wallace  A.  Cowan. 
TUESDAY,  November  3. 

Zoological  Society,  at  8.30.— On  some  New  Species  of  Aquatic 
Oligochaeta  from  New  Zealand:  Prof  W.  B.  Benham.— List  of  the 
Mammals  collected  by  Mr.  A.  Robert  at  Chapada,  Matto  Grosso.  (The 
Percy  Sladen  Expedition  to  Central  Brazil):  Oldfield  Thomas,  F.R.S.— 
List  of  the  Coleoptera  collected  by  Mr.  A.  Robert  at  Chapada,  Matto 
Grosso.  (The  Percy  Sladen  Expedition  to  Central  Brazil)  :  C.  J.  Gahan 
and  G.  J.  Arrow. 

WEDNESDAY,  November  4. 

Geological  Society,  at  8.— Metamorphism  in  the  Loch  Lomond 
District:  E.  H.  Cunningham-Craig.— On  a  New  Cave  on  the  Eastern 
Side  of  Gibraltar  :  Henry  Dyke  Acland. 

Entomological  Society,  at  8.— On  some  Aberrations  of  Lepidoptera  : 
Percy  L  Lathy. 

Society  of  Public  Analysts,  at  8.— On  the  Salinity  of  Waters  from  the 
Oolites  :  W.  W.  Fisher.— Notes  on  (1)  Some  Indian  Oils  ;  (2)  Differentia- 
tion of  Linseed  Oil  from  Boiled  Oils:  Dr.  J.  Lewkowitsch. — Note  on  the 
Purification  of  Hydrochloric  Acid  and  Zinc  from  Arsenic:  Dr.  L.  T. 
Thorne  and  E.  H.  Jeffers. 


NO.    1774,  VOL.  68] 


Royal    Geographical    Society,     at    8.30.— Northern    Nigeria:     Sir 

Frederick  D.  Lugard,  K.C.M.G. 
Entomological  Society,  at  8. 

THURSDAY,  November  5. 
Chemical  Society,  at  8.— Conductivity  of  Substances  Dissolved  in 
Certain  Liquefied  Gases.  Preliminary  Notice  :  B.  D.  Steele  and 
D.  Mcintosh.— The  Reduction  of  Hydrazoic  Acid  :  W.  T.  Cooke.— The 
Behaviour  of  Metallic  Oxides  towards  Fused  Boric  Anhydride  :  C.  H. 
Burgess  and  A.  Holt,  Jun.— Some  Reactions  of  Vanadium  Tetrachloride: 
B.  _D.  Steele.— Studies  on  Comparative  Cryoscopy.  Part  I.  :  The  Fatty 
Acids  and  their  Derivatives  in  Phenol  Solution:  P.  W.  Robertson. — 
The  Vapour  Pressures  of  Sulpturic  Acid  Solutions.     Preliminary  Note: 

B.  C.  Burt. — The  Viscosity  of  Liquid  Mixtures.  Preliminary  Note: 
A.  E.  Dunstan  and  W.  H.  C.  Jemmett. — Additive  Compounds  of 
i  Trinitrobenzene  and  Alkylated  Arylamines  :  H.  Hibbert  and  J.  J.  Sud- 
borough.— A  Contribution  to  the  Study_  of  the  Reactions  of  Hydrogen 
Peroxide:    J.     McLachlan. — The    Constitution     of     Certain     Silicates: 

C.  Simmonds. — Constitution   of    Ethyl   Cyanacetate.     Condensation  of 


Ethyl  Cyanacetate  with  its  Enolic  Form:  P.  Remfry  and  J.  F.  Thorpe. 
—  Interaction  between  Chloric  and  Hydriodic  Acids :  J.  McCrae.— 
3:5:  -Dichloro-i  :  i  :  2-Trimethyldihydrobenzene.  A  Correction  :  A.  W. 
Crossley. — The  Estimation  of  Hydroxylamine  :  H.  O.  Jones  and  F.  W. 
Carpenter. — A  Study  of  the  Isomerism  and  Optical  Activity  of  Quin- 
quevalent  Nitrogen  Compounds:  H.  O.  Jones. — The  Action  of  Wate- 
and  Dilute  Caustic  Soda  Solutions  on  Crystalline  and  Amorphous 
Arsenic  :  W.  T.  Cooke.— The  Union  of  Carbon  Monoxide  and  Oxygen, 
and  the  Drying  of  Gases  by  Cooling  :  A.  F.  Girvan. 

RoNTGEN  Society,  at  8.30. —President's  Address. 

Linnean  Society,  at  8.— On  the  Structure  of  the  Leaves  of  the  Bracken, 
Pteris  aquilina,  in  relation  to  environment  :  L.  A.  Boodle. — On  the  Life- 
history  of  a  New  Mi.nophlebus  from  India,  with  a  Note  on  that  of  a 
Vedalia  predaceous  upon  it ;  with  Remarks  on  the  Monophlebinae  of  the 
Indian  Region  :  E.  P.  Stebbing. 

FRIDA  Y,  November  6. 
Geologists'  Association,  at  8.— Conversazione  at  Universitv  College. 


CONTENTS.  PACK 

Vectors  and  Rotors.    By  Prof.  George  M.  Minchin, 

F.R.S 617 

Three  Protozoan  Articles 618 

Practical  Photography 619 

Our  Book  Shelf:— 

Girard  :     "  L'Evolution     comparee     des    Sables." — 

G.  A.  J.  C 620 

Hammer  :  "  Radium  and  other  Radio-active  Sub- 
stances, with  a  Consideration  of  Phosphorescent 
and  Fluorescent  Substances.  The  Properties  and 
Applications    of  Selenium  and    the   Treatment   of 

Disease  by  the  Ultra-violet  Light" 621 

"  The    Experiment     Station     Record,"    vol.     xiv. — 

A.  D.  H 621 

Meyer:  "  Jahrbuch  der  Ghemie."— J.  B  .C 621 

Laurie :    "  Flowering    Plants :    their    Structure  and 

Habitat" 621 

Letters  to  the  Editor  : — 

Heating  Effect  of  the  Radium  Emanation. — Prof.   E. 

Rutherford,  F.R.S.  ;  Prof.  H.  T.  Barnes  ...    622 
Papers   and   Procedure  at   the  British  Association. — 

Dr.  Henry  O.  Forbes 622 

A  Little-known  Peculiarity  of  the  Hamadryad  Snake. — 

Frank  E.  Beddard,  F.R.S 623 

The  New  Bishop's  Ring.— Dr.   A.  Lawrence  Rotch    623 
The  Nervous  System  of  Anodonta  cygtiea.—Os'w&ldi 

H.  Latter 623 

Lord   Kelvin   and   bis  First   Teacher    in    Natural 

Philosophy 623 

Flow  of  Steam  from  Nozzles.     By  Prof.  John  Perry, 

F.R.S 624 

Progress    of    Geological    Survey    of    the    United 

Kingdom 625 

Notes,     [Illustrated.)      626 

Our  Astronomical  Column  : — 

Astronomical  Occurrences  in  November 630 

Recent  Spectrographic  Observations  of  Novae    ....    631 

Occupation  of  a  Star  by  Jupiter 631 

Rotational  Velocity  of  Venus 631 

The    Standardisation   of  Electrical  Pressures  and 

Frequencies 631 

Geography  at  the  British  Association.  By  A.  J.  H,  .    632 

Engineering  at    the    British    Association 633 

Anthropology  at  the  British  Association    .        ...    635 
University   and    Educational    Intelligence.     [Illus- 
trated.)            638 

Societies  and  Academies 639 

Diary  of  Societies 640 


Q  Nature 

1 

N2 

v,68 

cop. 2 

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