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NEW ANATOMICAL
NOMENCLATURE*
Printed by John Brown,?
Anchor Close, Edinburgh, J
NEW ANATOMICAL
NOMENCLATURE,
RELATING TO
THE TERMS WHICH ARE EXPRESSIVE OF
POSITION AND ASPECT
IN THE
ANIMAL SYSTEM.
By JOHN BARCLAY, M.D.
LECTURER ON ANATOMY, AND
HONORARY MEMBER OF THE ROYAL PHYSICAL SCCIETYj
EDINBURGH.
QVTi Ti^yrif ovTt coftv) iq.iy.rov, it /u.y /u.y.$y Tig.
AHMOKPAT. OIAOXO*. rNflM. XFT2.
(EfchtSurgfj t
PRINTED FOR ROSS AND BLACKWOOD, SOUTH BRIDGE STREE"
AND T. N. LONGMAN AND O. REES, LONDON.
l80 2,
TO
Da THOMAS THOMSON,
V
LECTURER ON CHEMISTRY, EDINBURGH.
Dear Sir,
I could not hefitate a moment
about the Perfon to whom I {liquid dedicate
the following EfTay. Our long and intimate
friendfhip, with our frequent conventions up-
on the advantages that might be derived from
a New Anatomical Nomenclature, led me
unavoidably to think of You. Whether the
Public will approve or condemn the attempt I
have made, or whether they will even deign
to take notice of it, I pretend not to fay. But
be that as it will, the favourable opinion of
a Friend whom I highly refpect, of one fo
generally
vi Dedication.
generally known as You are, and of one fo
eminently diftinguifhed for learning, fcience,
and accurate obfervation, will, I can aflure
You, ever be a fource of inward fatisfadion
to.
My Dear Sir,
Your's very lincerely,
JOHN BARCLAY.
Edinburgh, "I
April 20. 1803. J
CONTENTS.
CONTENTS,
Introduction Page i
CHAP. I.
On Language and its Kinds • • * * 47
CHAP. II.
On the changes of Language ......... 62
CHAP. III.
Technical Language fhould be diftincT: from
the Language of the People ....;... 86
CHAP. IV,
Technical Language of Anatomy ...... 94
CHAP. V.
On Terms relating to Pofition and Afpect 112
CHAP. VI.
New Terms relating to Pofition and Af-
pecl 1 19
CHAP.
V1U CONTENTS.
CHAP. VII.
The New Terms enumerated .<.».... i6l
Sect. i. By a change of Termination may-
be ufed Adverbially . 165
Sect. 2. By another Change may exprefs
Connection . 16S
Sect. 3. By another Change may be made
to enter into Compoiition • . . 174
Sect. 4. Divifion of the Sanguiferous Sy-
llem into two Parts, and new
Names . 176
Explanation of the Plates .„.,.. 179
NEW
INTRODUCTION.
r-p
1 he chemical analyfis of the fprings, wheels,
and pivots of a watch, never can explain its
movements, nor its ufes; nor the chemical an-
alyfis of the bones, mufcles, blood-veffels, and
nerves, their functions in the animal. Many
of the functions depend evidently on mechani-
cal caufes, and many more originate in a caufe
which feems to be neither chemical nor me-
chanical.
In every living organifed ftructure, there
is plainly a power that preferves, regulates,
and controls the whole ; directing at firft the
different procerTes in forming one part of the
organs, afterwards employing the affiftance of
the organs which it has formed to produce
more, till at laft it completes the whole of the
fyftem in fuch a manner as to fuit its future
conveniences and wants. In thefe operations
wre fee it obferving determinate proportions,
A mag-
2 INTRODUCTION.
magnitudes, forms, numbers, &c. ; marking the
times, feafons, and circumftances for every
change in ftru&ure or function ; daily conti-
nuing to fupply the parts in proper time and
in due proportion with the vigour of life; and
carefully repairing their waftes and their inju-
ries, till the period fixed for their final diflblu-
tion. This power, or rather this agent, phyfio-
logiils have named the vital principle; though
not a few are inclined to fuppofe it, to be the
effecT:, rather than the caufe, of the organization.
They adopt an hypothefis fimilar to theirs, who3
finding a chemift always in his laboratory, are
led to imagine that it could not be he who
formed the laboratory, but the laboratory, on
the contrary, that formed him. At the fame
time, we mould err egregioufly if we afcribed
the plan of the fyftem to this vital principle.
In conftru&ing the body, it acls, not like the
chemift, with any defign or forefight of its
own ; but, in all operations that are per-
formed without either volition or confciouf-
nefs, appears fubordinate to a much high-
er Power — to that almighty and omnifcient
Being,
INTRODUCTION. 3
Being, who difpenfes his laws to the boundlefs
univerfe, and whofe laws, except by Himfelf,
can never be improved, altered, nor abrogated.
As in every fpecies of living body, the indi-
viduals are, bating the ufual differences of fex,
all conftructed in the fame way ; and the vi-
tal principle always confined in its operations
to fpecific forms, ftructures, and organs, and
fpecific modes of connection and arrange-
ment-— it neceffarily follows, that there muft
be as many vital principles, fpecifically di-
ftinct, as there are fpecies of organifed ftruc-
tures. The various phenomena in which they
agree, and in which they differ, are to be
learned in fludying their functions, manners,
and habits, and in examining and compa-
ring the ftructures which they produce : For,
like to oxygen, hydrogen, and azot, which
act fo very important. a part in the economy
of Nature, they are known only from their ef-
fects ; and however anxious thofe may be, who
can trull only to the evidence of fenfe, to fee,
handle, tafte, and fmell them, they have ne-
ver yet been detected nor examined in a fepa-
A 2 • rate
4 INTRODUCTION.
rate ftate, and probably never will, unlefs the
belief and conviction of mankind, in this re-
fpecl, appear an object of greater importance
to the Author of Nature than they feem to
have been hitherto.
With a knowledge of fuch different caufes
operating within us, we, in all phyfiological in-
vestigations, mould carefully diftinguifh between
what is chemical, mechanical, and vital ; and
endeavour to afcertain, by due experiment and
obfervation, the part which each acts in the fyf-
tem, and how they ufually oppofe, affift, and
regulate one another for the general good. But
to make thefe experiments and obfervations, we
ftiould likewife know how to examine and
accurately defcribe organifed ftructures. This
information we are naturally led to ex peel from
anatomy ; while, unfortunately, anatomy has
not always in its power to give what we look
for. A curfory glance muft demonftrate to any
one, that thefe ftructures are complex and va-
ried ; that much depends on pofition and di-
rection, on relative fituation, connection, and
afpedfc ; and that no clear or accurate defcrip-
tion
INTRODUCTION. 5
tion can poffibly be given, where a language
is wanting to exprefs thefe circumftances. Such
a language, it is much to be regretted, is not
at prefent known in anatomy ; although the
want of it has often been felt, often complain-
ed of, and partial attempts frequently made
to remedy the evil.
The vague ambiguity of fuch terms asfupe-
rior, inferior, anterior, pojlerior, &c. has been
felt and acknowledged by every perfon the lead
verfant in anatomical defcription. Vicq D'A-
zyr, who faw the confufion with which they
were attended in comparative anatomy, had
refolved to reject them as definite characleriftic
expreffions ; and perhaps had he ferioufly
thought of their confequences, would have re-
jected them as occasional adjuncts. But with
all refpect for fo great a man, he faw more
clearly to point out the error than to remove
it. His terms occipital, fyncipital, and fron-
tal, to denote three afpects of the head, are
borrowed from bones, none of which are ever
confined to a fingle afped \ and his ufe of
A 3 com-
6 INTRODUCTION.
compounds, in which prepoiitions, with a fenfe
equivalent to our under, above, and before, enter
as parts, was fcarcely more than exchanging an
old error for a new. His divifion of the body
into numerous regions different from thofe ex-
preffed by fuperior, inferior, &c. and with the
intention to get quit of thefe terms, has been
equally unfuccefsful. The divifion on which
they are founded is natural; and fhown, by
experience, to be not only convenient and ufe-
ful, but even necefTary. It was not therefore
the divifion that was faulty, but the expref-
fion ; and D'Azyr, notwithstanding his new
arrangement, is often obliged to recur to the
old, and make ufe of the language which he
had condemned.
Chauffier, in his Tabular View of the Ske-
leton, exprefTes pofition by a reference to the
parts in vicinity or contact. Thus the two
extremities of the clavicle axejlernal and aero-
mial; the two of the humerus, fcapular and
ulnar ; the two of the ulna, humeral and car-
pal; the rows of the carpus, radial and meta-
carpal; and the two extremities of the meta-
carpus,
INTRODUCTION. 7
carpus, carpal and digital. When he comes,
however, to the digital phalanxes, and wants
the neceflary terms of diftinction, he is forced to
invent for the firft, fecond, and third, or what I
would call the proximal, medial, and diftal
phalanxes, the terms phalange, phalangine, and
phalangette. This method of expreffing pofi-
tion by a reference to the parts in vicinity or
contact, has long been known, though hither-
to too fparingly employed. It is attended with
peculiar advantages in minute defcription, and
is a part of the general plan which is recom-
mended in the following Effay. But though
ufeful in its place, it muft be obvious that it
does not fuperfede the general divilion into
thofe regions denoted by the words fuperior, in-
ferior, &c. We defcribe not a country by enu-
merating all thofe that furround it ; we wifh
to know how each part lies with refpecl to the
eaft, weft, fouth, and north, and all their fub-
ordinate divifions in the compafs ; and to fa-.
tisfy the mind, muft alfo be informed of what
is its general fituation on the globe. Although
I be told that one extremity of the clavicle is
A 4 Jlernal
8 INTRODUCTION.
Jlernal and the other acromial, I may Hill whir
to know what is the afpecl: of thefe two with
regard to the trunk, and what are the afpecls
of its other four fides. More general divifions
here become neceffary ; and Chauffier therefore,
as well as D'Azyr, who found the neceffity of
fuch divifions, is likewiie obliged to have re-
courfe to the old terms fuperior, inferior, he. ;
or to ufe compounds of which prepofitions e-
quivalent to before, under, above, conftitute a
part.
In the following EfTay I have retained the
ufual divifions, and ventured only to change
their nomenclature: the intelligent reader muft
decide on the merits of the change propofed.
The general views by which 1 was guided are
explained in fome preliminary difcuflions on
the nature of language and of nomenclatures,
particularly the nomenclature of anatomy. And
fhould what I have done be compared to a
building, it may be faid that the general plan of
the fabric is new, the feveral apartments more
regular and uniform, more convenient, and ex-
tenfively ufeful ; at the fame time that mofl
of
INTRODUCTION. 9
of the materials, and fome fubordinate parts
of the work, were already prepared, and are
only new-modelled and arranged, to fuit the
defign and outline of the ftructure. The terms
indeed which are here fuggeiled are chiefly
confined to the expreflion of pofition and af-
pect ; but are fo contrived as to form an inde-
pendently diflincl nomenclature for general de-
fcription in all the different branches of anato-
my, and may be ufed while the other names
continue as they are. Should they fortunate-
ly meet with the approbation of the public, I
(hall afterwards (how their application in de-
tail ; and add, on a general and connected plan,
the nomenclatures of the Bones, Muscles,
Blood-vessels, Nerves, Ligaments, &c.
In the names of the Bones few changes will
be introduced : there is no good or rational
objection to their ufual arrangement into bones
of the head, trunk, and extremities-; and tho'
fome of their names might have had originally
different meanings, yet as they have long ceafed
to convey them, and are now entirely appropria-
ted
10 INTRODUCTION.
ted to anatomy, it would anfwer no reafonable
end to run back to the aeras of antiquity, and
to conjure up ghofts and fpe&res from obli-
vion to confound and embarrafs them in their
prefent office. The depreflions and procefTes of
the different bones may probably require fome
kind of arrangement, as thofe of different forms
and ufes are at prefent exprefled by the fame
term,
In the names of the Muscles it will eafily be
forefeen that more changes will be found ne-
cefTary. Some are diftinguifhed by fuch epi-
thets as fuperior, inferior, anterior, pofterior ;
fome by the epithets oblique and flraight ; fome
by the epithet ferraius or ferrate 'd ; fome by e-
pithets defcriptive of their form, which, if they
be ufed as arbitrary terms, and have cealed to
convey any allufion, are harmlefs enough ; but
if they happen to convey an allufion, or refer to
characters that are found only in the human
body, they naturally become a fource of am-
biguity, and when limited in fenfe can feldom
be extended to comparative anatomy.
Some
INTRODUCTION- II
Some names are a kind of defcriptions,
pretending to explain ufes and functions,
which thofe who impofed them did not un-
derftand. In all cafes thefe defcriptions are
extremely imperfect ; often are falfe ; and
fhould we creduloufly receive them as com-
plete, and proceed to reafon upon them as
data, they muft always lead to erroneous
conclufions. On this principle fome mufcles
are named pronators and fupinators of the ra-
dius; fome flexors and extenfors of the car-
pus ; as if thefe were the only mufcles con-
cerned in performing fuch movements. Now
every anatomift certainly knows, that all the
digital flexors and extenfors that arife from the
humerus or fore- arm, muft like wife be flexors
and extenfors of the carpus ; that the fublimis,
the radial flexor, and palmaris longus, affift
in pronation ; that the fupinator radii longus
brings the arm to the middle pofition, be-
tween pronation and fupination, and then
adls as a flexor of the fore- arm ; that the bi-
ceps, attached to the fcapula and radius, is
an
12 INTRODUCTION.
an extenfor of the humerus, a flexor of the ra-
dius, and one of the moil powerful of its fupi-
nators; while other mufcles, as the extenfor ter-
tii internodii pollicis, although indirectly, occas-
ionally affifts it, in that office. From the variety
therefore of functions, in which mufcles attached
to the bones are ufually concerned, every name
impofed with a view to denote thefe functions
muft either be uncommonly long, or extreme-
ly imperfect, with regard to defcription ; and
if any fuch be retained in anatomy, it ought to
be intimated that the function implied is mere-
ly the function that characterifes it, and not
the only one it performs.
Of all the names that have been hitherto im-
pofed on the mufcles, the beft are thofe which
are made to diftinguilh them by their origin
and infertion, or the attachments at their op-
pofite extremities. This was certainly demon-
ftrated by Window ; although the great and
accurate Albinus, who had the writings of
Window before him, feems to have thought
fctherwife. Moft anatomifts are pleafed with
fuch
INTRODUCTION. . 13
fuch names as flylo-gloflus ■, ftylo-hyoideus, fly-
lo-pharyngeus ; and have often regretted that
all other mufcles were not named- and diftin-
guifhed in a fimilar manner. It was to com-
ply with this general wifh, and their own opi-
nions upon the fubjec% that Chauflier and Du-
mas have, each on thefe principles, given us a
new nomenclature for the mufcels ; although,
in the execution of their plan, they perhaps
have not fully anfwered expectations. Unfor-
tunately imagining, that a principle, if right,
could not be carried too great a length, they
feem to have forgotten the old, though juft, ob-
fervation of the poet, that
Eft modus in rebus; funt certi denique fines,
Ultra citraque nequit confiftere re6tum.
Such names are admirably calculated for muf-
cles that have only a fimple origin and a fimple
infertion ; but where the origins and infer-
tions are numerous, the name that pretends to
enumerate the whole muft often run out to the
length of a fentence. It will therefore be dif-
ficult to reconcile the anatomift to fuch names
as
14 INTRODUCTION.
as, Sterna- cofto-clavio-humeral, Pterigo-fyndef*
mO'ftaphili-pharyngien, Sus-fpini-fcapulo-trochi-
terien, Sus-optico-fpheri-fcloroticien, Occipiti-
dorfo-clavi-fus-acromien #.
As names were intended to mark objects in a
general way, with a view to fuperfede the tedi-
oufnefs of defcription, to accelerate intercourfe,
and to make our language keep pace with our
ideas; any attempt to reverfe the procedure, to
check the natural ardour of the mind, to retard
its operations, and increafe the difficulty of lite-
rary intercourfe, appears to be rather a retro-
grade flep in the way of improvement. Birth,
marriage, funeral, and triumph, are four words
each of them denoting a group of circumftances.
Now fuppofe we intended to inform our hear-
ers that we had been witneffing fuch groups
of ceremonies ; and that, inftead of the gene-
ral
* Pe&oralis Major; the Pterigo pharyngeus, the Syndef-
mo pharyngeus, the Staphyle pharyngeus, or including all
under one name, Con ftrictor fuperior ; Suprafpinatus; the
Rectus fuperior, or Levator oculi ; Trapezius,
INTRODUCTION". 15
ral names, we made ufe of minute and parti-
cular defcriptions, the day would fail before
we could inform them that we had been wit-
neffing a birth, a marriage, a funeral, and a
triumph.
Many names in Dumas are liable alfo to an-
other objection: Beiides admitting fuch words
as intus, extus, intra, extra, fus, and fous, he has
often founded his names on circumftances that
are peculiar to the human fpecies. Mufcles of
limilar fituations and functions have not the
like origins and infertions in all animals; and
if we mould always vary the name with the
varying circumftances on which it is founded,
we (hould often imagine things to be different
which in all effential points are the fame.
In many cafes a different arrangement would
exhibit the origin and infertion of mufcles
without the affiftance of long names. Sup-
pofe that one genus of mufcles were the muf-
cles attached to the humerus by infertion, it
would furely be unneceifary to mention this
circumftance in the name of every individual
mufcieo
i6 Introduction.
mufcle. Suppofe, again, that thefe mufcles of
the humerus were fubdivided, according to
their origins, into mufcles of the fpine, fternwn,
clavicle, and fcapula, it would be equally un-
necessary, after knowing what mufcles origi-
nate in the fcapula and terminate in the hume-
rus, to repeat the information in the name of
each mufcle. Would it not be fufficient, after
knowing where they originate and terminate, to
mark them by fome individual diilindion, which
would not require a very long name? nor would
it be neceffary to mark every individual diftinc-
tion, but the moil obvious and chara&eriftic,
leaving all the reft to be noticed in the hiftory
and the defcription. Thus fterno-humeral, or
fterno-uumeren, could poffibly lignify no other
mufcle than the pecloralis major ; although
this mufcle, upon examination, would be found
to originate, not only from the fternum, but
ribs and clavicle ; two origins, which might
be omitted at leaft in the name, as they
are common to fome other mufcles inferted in
the humerus, to the deltoid for inltance, which
arifes
INTRODUCTION. 17
arlfes from the clavicle, and latiffimus dorfi,
part of which arifes from the ribs.
The mufcles have been clafTed according to
their flrata, and according to the different re-
gions which they occupy for the purpofe of
diffection ; they have alfo been clafTed, by Cow-
per and others, according to the bones in
which they are inferred; while Winflow, to
fhow a more general connection, has, in regu-
lar order, enumerated the bones, with their
mufcular attachments, whether by origin or
by infertion. This method, if the mufcles
which originate and the mufcles which termi-
nate in every bone had been feparately arran-
ged, would have fuperfeded the neceffity of
Cowper's, and would itfelf have been greatly
improved, had the remaining attachments of
the mufcles been exhibited according to their
origin and infertion in lateral columns. To
illuflrate the idea which I mean to convey,
fuppofe that we took the mufcles of the hume-
rus by way of example, I would form, in the
firft place, three diftincT: columns, as reprefent-
ed in the following Scheme.
B MUSCLES
It
INTRODUCTION-
MUSCLES OF THE HUMERUS.
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The
INTRODUCTION. 19
The middle column to contain all the mufcles
belonging to the humerus by infertion or origin :
the mufcles inferted to be placed firft, and the
mufcles originating to follow next, and their
names to be printed in a different character, the
more readily to ftrike the eye. — The column on
the left to contain the origins of the mufcles in-
ferted, and the other origins which the mufcles
originating may happen to poffefs beiides the
humerus. — The column on the right to contain
the terminations of all the mufcles that originate
in the humerus partially or wholly ; and any
terminations, mould there be fuch, that they
chance to pofTefs in common with the hume-
rus.— In all the columns the connections by ori-
gin to be printed in one character, and thofe
by termination to be printed in another ; but
with this truth always in view, that the origin
of a mufcle means nothing more than what is in
general its molt fixed point; and that the part
in which it terminates may, by the action of
other mufcles, be occalionally made the mofl
fixed of the two: thus the fcapula, for inftance,
B 2 by
20 INTRODUCTION*
by reverfing the order, may fometimes b£
made to move on the humerus, and the hume-
rus on the fore-arm, by the fame mufcles that
made the fore- arm to move on the humerus,
and the humerus on the fcapula.
A tabular view of this kind would exhibit a
very general connection and mutual depen-
dence of various movements, though it would
not be fufficient to explain the motions of the
animal fyftem. In this Eflay I have given fome
idea of the numerous combinations into which
the mufcles are capable of entering ; although
thefe Combinations are not fo numerous as the
various pofitions which they produce : For fup-
pofe that the fore-arm, during its flexion, fhould
defcribe, by the points of the fingers extended,
the fegment of a circle, of which the elbow-
joint is the centre, that fegment may be di-
vided into more than a hundred thoufand parts,
eaiily diftinguifhable by the naked eye : Now
at each of thefe parts the flexor and extenfor^
by acting with equal degrees of force, can ar-
reft the motion, and retain the arm in as many
thoufand
' / INTRODUCTION. 21
thoufand different poiitions. From this we may
be able to form fome idea, though vague and
general, of the immenfe variety of poiitions
which a fmall number of mufcles can produce,
that are capable of entering into fome millions
of different combinations ; feeing that two,
confined entirely to the fimple motion of flexion
and extenlion, on the fame plane, can produce
fo many.
The names which allude to the functions of
mufcles, and thofe which diftinguifh them by
origin and infertion, have, from an opinion
that they were data, which, with little addi-
tion, were fufficient to explain the animal mo-
tions, been generally deemed of more im-
portance than they really are. An accurate
knowledge of their feveral attachments is cer-
tainly neceffary; but as moil of the motions are
in the diagonal of different forces, and per-
formed by a number of mufcles at a time, to
underftarid thefe motions completely, we mould
know all the organs concerned, the joints and
the ligaments, as well as the mufcles ; and of
B 3 the
22 INTRODUCTION.
the mufcles, not only their names, their origins,
and infertions, but their relative ftrength, poll-
tion, and direction, and efpecially how they
combine and co operate ; and if we undergo
all this trouble, in order to explain the animal
motions, we ought furely to know what we are
in fearch of, and be able to fay what thefe mo-
tions are. The firft thing then to be done is
to find out the motions ; to clafs, arrange, and
diftinguifh them by names, from our remarks
on the living body, where they are bed obfer-
ved and afcertained. The anatomift and phy-
fiologift, in examining the fubject, have then to
point out, in their demonstrations, how each is
produced, and by what organs. The head, to
make ufe of the common language, moves for-
wards, backwards, to each fide, and in all the
intermediate directions ; I would a&here, How
thefe different motions are performed, and by
what mufcles ? Let us take, for example, the mo-
tion forwards; and not to confufe the defcrip-
tion with too minute an inveftigation, let us fup-
pofe that the fterno-rnaftoids alone perform that
motion.
INTRODUCTION, 23
motion. The fternal extremities of the clavicles,
to which they are attached, muft firft be fixed
by the intercoftals and abdominal mufcles; and
the fcapular extremities by the mufcles of the
fcapula, humerus, and thetwofubclavii. Suppofe
now that the fterno-maftoids are ready to act,
and to bring the head in the diagonal between
their forces, What are the mufcles employed to
prevent the lateral and rotatory motions of the
neck ? What are the mufcles oppofed to the
action of the fterno-maftoids, and to limit their
effects, if it be necefiary to fix the pofition ?
What are the mufcles if we ftand erect that
balance the body upon thus changing the pofi-
tion of the head ? and, What is the manner
in which they co-operate in order to produce
what is intended? Were we accuftomed to
put fuch queftions frequently to ourfelves with
regard to the motions and pofitions of the fyf-
tem, and to ftudy their anfwers, we might foon
acquire a more perfect knowledge of mufcular
action than we have at prefent ; be better pre-
pared to treat cafes of luxations and fractures ;
B 4 and
24 INTRODUCTION.
and to place the parts in eafier attitudes after
reduction. Our progrefs, too, would be great-
ly facilitated by a tabular view of the principal
politions and motions of the fyftem, exhibiting
Under each the feveral mufcles that act- as fix-
ers, motors, antagoniils, directors; and leaving
the manner in which they combine to produce
their diagonal or compound motions; the man-
ner in which their levers are lengthened or
fhortened * ; and the manner in which mem-
branes, ligaments, articulations, and cartilages,
by their ftrength, flrudture, elafticity, or gra-
vity,
* The variation of the centre of motion between two
antagonift mufcles ; the confequent change that necefTarily
takes place in the relative length of their two levers ; the
manner in which their mechanical power is thereby either
increased or diminifhed ; and the manner in which their
contra&ile power is made to undergo a fimilar change by
the convexity or concavity of the joints over which they
pafs to the place of their infertion — are all curious fubje&s
of inquiry, and if underftood might illuftrate many interefK
ing phenomena in the animal ceconomy.
INTRODUCTION. Jg
vity, confpire to limit, regulate, or antagonife
them, to be explained in a feparate defcrip*-
tion.
The celebrated Winflow had a general idea
of fuch a plan, when he divided the motions
of the fyftem into thofe of the head, trunk, &c.
and under each enumerated the feveral muf-
cles concerned, with their attachments. But
although he knew, he has not exprefTed the
neceflary connection between diflant motions
in preferving the equilibrium and poiition ;
nor has he divided the motions of the parts in-
to different kinds, nor mown how the mufcles
combine and co-operate in performing each,
by producing their effects in various diago-
nals.
In the Vascular System comparatively few'
changes will be neceffary, with refpect either to
names or arrangement. Many of the vefTels are
well named from their fituation, or from the or-
gans on which they are ramified ; but improperly
diftinguifhed by fuch epithets asfuperior, infe-
rior,
2,6 INTRODUCTION.
rior, anterior, poflerior% &c. and fometimes not
diftinguifhed at all by fuch epithets as humeral
and femoral, that occafionally are employed to
exprefs two very different relations. Thus an
artery is humeral when it runs along the courfe
of the humerus, and likewife humeral when it
enters the bone to fupply it with nourifh-
ment.
When they are diftinguifhed by the epithet
of the organ on which they are ramified, it
often happens when the organ has, or has had,
two names, that the name of the artery alludes
to the one which is leaft in ufe, or to one that
is obfolete. Thus the arteries and nerves of the
diaphragm are called phrenic, containing an
allufion to its old name phren. The arteries
of the flomach are all gaftric, and thofe of
the omentum all epiploic, referring to the
names gafler and epiploon. In the fame way,
a mufcle of the tongue, one of the branches
of the fifth pair of nerves, and the large ar-
tery, are all lingual, from an allufion to its
Latin name lingua; while its other mufcles-
and
INTRODUCTION. 2J
and nerves are gloffal, from an alluiion to its
Greek name glojfa.
To remove this redundancy of language, eve-
ry organ mould have one name, and but one
only ; and to that name the a-llufions contain-
ed in the names of its mufcles, nerves, arteries,
&-c. ought to refer. In determining, however,
which of the names ought to be retained, fome
difcretion will certainly be requifite. For my
own part, I would always prefer that name
which, ceteris paribus, is likely to be attended
with the feweft changes in the prefent nomen-
clature. Thus I would prefer glojfa to lingua,
as mod of the references there are to the Greek,
and exprefled in compounds of the Greek lan«
guage, none of whofe parts would fo readily
unite with the word lingual as they do with
gloffal, a, union to which the eye and the ear
have both been accuftomed : on the other hand,
lingual enters into no compound ufed in ana-
tomy, and the term gloffal might be fubftitu-
ted for it, with few changes and no inconve-
niency.
Another
28 INTRODUCTION.
Another objection to the prefent nomen-
clature of the vafcular fyftem is, that ma-
ny of the trunks, confidered as wholes, have
no names by which they are or can be diftin-
guifhed; while the feveral parts of which they
are compofed are regularly defcribed as diftinct
veffels. Thus we have gotten a fubclavian ar-
tery, an axillary artery, and a humeral artery,
all parts of the fame trunk, which has not it-
felf received any name. We have alfo a com-
mon iliac artery, an external iliac artery, a fe-
moral artery, and a popliteal, all continuations
of another trunk, which likewife, as a whole,
ftill remains namelefs. This defect is the lefs
excufable, as the nomenclature is already over-
loaded with a number of names belonging to
trifling and irregular branches ; as may be feen
in Murray's defcription of the fmaller branches
of the cceliac, ophthalmic, the fubclavian, in-
ternal iliac, &c. In thefe defcriptions, it muft
be confeffed, he has imitated Haller ; a name
whofe influence muft always be great while
anatomy is regarded or fludied as a fcience.
But
INTRODUCTION. »9
But Haller, though poffefled of all the learn-
ing of the ancients and moderns ; though igno-
rant of nothing belonging to anatomy ; though
he added many difcoveries of his own; was
never furpalTed, and feldom been equalled, in
collecting facts, and defcribing them minute-
ly— yet was little intent on their general claf-
lification and arrangement ; and provided he
could enumerate all that was known,*was little
difpofed to eftimate the difference between re-
gular and irregular appearances, or things of
importance and of fmall value.
In the Nervous System flill fewer changes
will be necefiary, if we retain their numerical
names ; and to thefe names no forcible ob-
jection has been made. They exprefs not in-
deed the origin, termination, or functions of
nerves ; but they mark out the place of the fe-
ries in which they pafs through the holes or
interftices of the different bones ; and as that
feries is clear and diflindt, they are ealily found
out on dhTection. A few varieties occur in the
mode
J5 INTRODUCTION.
mode of enumeration ; but they are triflingj
and the inconvenience eafily removed. The
qireftion here is, Whether or not fliould
we begin to enumerate the cervical, dorfal,
lumbar, and facral pairs, above or below the
firft of the vertebrae in thefe regions ? Say above
or below, and tbe bufinefs is fettled ; or let every
one follow his own method, the inconveniency
will not be great. The feries, taken as a whole,
is regular, and we know where it commences
and terminates; the only difference is about the
commencement and the termination of thefe di-
viiions. Dumas, in writing upon this fubject,
has confounded two things that are perfectly
diftincl. It is not with the nerves as it was
with the mufcles, when they were diftinguifh-
ed by numerical names : in that cafe there
was no feries or order of fucceffion but what
was arbitrary; and every anatomift, unlefs
when occalionally a little affifted by the ltrata
or layers, was left to begin and end the feries
of his own creation wherever he pleafed. Af-
ter knowing the feries in which the primary
trunks
INTRODUCTION. 31
trunks of the nerves fucceed one another, no
names can be more definite than the numeri-
cal, they never fail to direct the anatomift to
the very fpot where the nerve is to be found ;
whence he may afterwards trace it to its ori-
gin, or follow its branches to their termina-
tion.
I agree with this excellent phyfiologift, that
names, founded upon the fuppofed functions of
nerves, would be apt to miflead, and be the
means of propagating error rather than fcience;
but hardly can fee how the trunks of nerves
could be named from their origin and termi-
nations. The fpecimen he has given in the
new name of the olfactory nerve, is no flatter-
ing recommendation of his plan. He propofes
to diflinguifh the trunk by the tzxmjlriato-na-
rinal; the divifion which terminates at the
ethmoidal bone by the term Jiriato-narinal-etb-
moidien; and the part which is ramified on the
pituitary membrane by the tevm Jlriato-narinat-
pituitaire. This tirefome repetition of the name
of the trunk, in the names of all the divifions
and
32 INTRODUCTION.
and branches, would not only be exceedingly
cumbrous, but unneceffary. In the fyftem of
Linnaeus, man belongs to the genus homo, to the
order of primates, and the clafs of ma?nmalia ;
but did it ever enter the mind of that naturalift
to fuppofe that the genus would be better ex-
prefTed by the term mammale primus homo, than
by fimple homo taken by itfelf. A name is one
thing, claffification another, and defcription a
third. From riot making this neceffary diftinc-
tion, Dumas, in trying to impofe names, is
conftantly labouring at a fort of claffification
and defcription ; fo that his defcriptions are
often bad names, and his names more frequent-
ly worfe defcriptions.
In the nervous fyftem, if the trunks retain
their numerical names, the branches, like
thofe of the vafcular fyftem, might be na-
med from pofition, or from the organs on
which they are ramified. To diftinguifti at
leaft fome of the trunks by the name of their
origin, and the terminations of their different
branches, would fill a page ; or fuppofe that
one
introduction. 33
one termination were preferred, and the reft
excluded, this new name could not poffibly
convey any idea of the general diftribution
and ramification more than the prefent.
To anfwer the purpofes of the medical prac-
titioner, and fometimes phyfiologift, the nerves
Ihould likewife be claffed in a manner different
from that which is ufed by the diffe&or. The
difle&or, if he follow a regular method, be-
gins at their origin, and then proceeds to their
ramifications, where he often finds a number
of branches entering and mixing in the fame
organ ; a number of branches proceeding from
trunks, which are placed at a diftance with re-
fped to their origin, and which, in regular
anatomical defcription, are not made to follow
in the order of fucceffion. On the other hand,
the phyfiologift and medical pra&itioner, in
treating of the fundtions or difeafes of an organ,
muft begin where the anatomift ended ; and in
their recollection trace the nerves from their ra-
mifications back to their origin, Suppofe the
tongue the fubjedl of inquiry, they will try to
C recol-
34 INTRODUCTION.
recoiled, What are the nerves with which
it is fupplied ? What are the other parts of
the fyftem on which thefe are ramified ?
What are the other connections which they
form? and, What is the refult of thefe con-
nections in health and difeafe ? A tabular view,
therefore, of the nerves, beginning at their ori-
gin, and exhibiting their branchings and an-
aftomofes ; and another, commencing at the
different organs, afpects, or regions, and retra-
cing their connections back to their origin —
would be highly ufeful to the medical practi-
tioner, the phyfiologift, and comparative ana-
tomift. It is true that fomething of this kind
has frequently been done in books of anatomy,
but not on the fame general plan that is here
recommended. The nomenclator, from fuch
tables, might alfo derive confiderable advan-
tage ; and would fee the -danger of claflifying
objects, and of founding names upon a con-
tracted view of the fubjedt.
In treating of the Ligaments, fome other
divifion
• INTRODUCTION. 35
divifion feems to be neceffary befides that in-
to ligaments of the hard and ligaments of the
foft parts ; while a fubdivifion merely, ac-
cording to the regions which they occupy,
confounds together things that are different,
not only in form, but in ftruclure and func-
tion ; though if an arranged and general view
were flrft given of the different kinds belong-
ing to the bones, mufcles, and vifcera, a de-
fcription of each, according to the feveral re-
gions which they occupy, would then be not
only natural but proper. Thus plants and ani-
mals, in the fyftem of Linnaeus, are firft arran-
ged by fome common properties; and then the
climates, countries, or places which they in-
habit, are ufually mentioned if they be known.
But in treating of the general connections of
the fyfcem, the viewT is imperfect, if we do not
likewife confider how far, and in what man-
ner, the fkin, the cellular fubftance and muf-
cles, the nerves, the blood- velTels, and the ab-
forbents, contribute their fhare in fupporting
and forming the general union ; nor is it only
C 2^ this
3& INTRODUCTION.
this fpecies of union, but every connection or
relation whatever among the organs, that we
ought to ftudy and carefully examine, if we
mean to explain the fymptoms of difeafe, and
many of the lingular phenomena of fympathy.
Connection, or at leafi a degree of relation,
arifes from mere fituation and attachment;
from being concerned in the fame motions or
the fame pofitions; from being fupplied by
the fame nerves, the fame arteries, the fame
veins, or the fame abforbents ; from being en-
veloped in the fame membrane ; from having
fomewhat of a fimilar ftru&ure, or fimilar pro-
perties, with regard to external or internal a-
gents ; and not unfrequently from being con-
cerned in the fame functions. Thus the fkin,
the internal furface of the lungs, the inteftinal
canal, and the kidneys, befides performing
their peculiar offices, all co-operate in difchar-
girig a noxious fluid from the fyftem ; and
when one of them ceafes to perform its fhare,
a greater proportion of the bufinefs or labour
falls upon the reft, till every one, communica-
ting
INTRODUCTION. 37
ting as it were its diftrefied fituation to the
parts conne&ed, and thefe to the parts con-
nected with them, the alarm becomes general ;
all feel and all act as if interefted in a com-
mon caufe ; and all co operate in refilling the
difeafe, or in their attempts to reftore health.
Thefe ideas of extended connexion ihould
prevent the nomenclator from impofing names
that allude to limited or partial functions ; and
ihould naturally lead to this obfervation, that
can hardly be too often repeated, that we
want, not merely terms in anatomy, but gene-
ral and connected views, a diftinct claffification
and arrangement ; and that the nomenclature
ought to be fo formed as beft to promote and
facilitate the attainment of thefe objects. In
our prefent nomenclature, to give but an in-
ftance of this inaccuracy in claffification, what
a llrange variety of organs, differing in form,
ftructure, and ufes, is exprefled by the words
ventriculus and Jinus.
Partial attempts to amend this nomencla-
ture? and with a view to particular objects,
C 3 have,
3B INTRODUCTION.
have, inflead of improving it, been only the
means of loadening it with fynonymes that
were, already by far too numerous. Every
intentional change in a language ought to
be made with caution and care, and on
general principles that regard the whole :
thefe principles ihould likewife be fully ex-
plained to the public, that they may be able to
judge of their importance: " for however de-
lirabie it might be, fays Degerando, to pofTefs
a language perfectly methodical, it would be
an event exceedingly deplorable if, under eve-
ry frivolous pretext, we were to be infefted v
with the reftlefs mania of making nomencla-
tures. If every profelfor, for inftance, in his
lectures, or every author in his writings, mould,
on flight occanons, think himfelf intitled to in-
troduce a new language of his own creation ;
from fuch a mixture of different idioms, the
confequence would be, that, inftead of having
a methodical language, wTe at laft mould have
no language at all. The diffulion of know-
ledge, from being accelerated, would be retard-
ed
INTRODUCTION. 39
ed or entirely interrupted ; difputes would
originate on every fide ; and the literary world
foon become a prey to all the confufion of dif-
trefsful anarchy*."
I am fully fenfible, and will readily ac-
knowledge, that no changes in our prefent
nomenclature ought to be made without
weighty and important reafons; and that thefe
changes fhould never be extended beyond
what are its errors and defe&s. It were to be
wifhed that even the mod weighty and impor-
tant reafons had influence fufficient to remove
thefe : for the fame Degerando, who faw that
Reafon was often vanquifhed in its contefts
with Prejudice, proceeds to obferve — " That
whatever the merits of a language may be, if
it once has received the fan&ion of time and
the fuffrages of mankind, the philofopher will
find it no eafy matter to change or improve it.
He may, if he choofe, demonftrate its faults
G 4 and
* Des Signes et de l'Art de Penfer confideres dans leur
Rapports rautuels. 3d Vol. p. 196.
4<D INTRODUCTION.
and its imperfections ; but if he prefume to of-
fer to the world the model of another, though
more regular and fyftematic, there is no quar-
ter from which he has not to expedt, oppoli-
tion. He will have, in this daring and hardy
attempt, to combat at once the prejudices of
the vulgar and pretenfions of the learned. The
former will bring in a phalanx againft him ;
all thofe ftrong and facred regards that are due
to old and eftablifhed cuftoms ; cufloms flip-
ported by the conduct of thoufands who have
gone before him, and the tacit approbation of
illuftrious names who are univerfally held in
efteem and high veneration. The leaf! reflec-
tion is fufficient to convince us, that their re-
collections and their ideas mud reft upon
names ; and although erroneoufly, they will
aimoft unavoidably, draw the conclufion, that
it is impoffible to change the one without like-
wife changing the other, and throwing the
whole into diforder.
" The learned, on the contrary, will diflike a
reform that may appear to confer on its author
a fort of dominion over the fcience. They will
grant,
INTRODUCTION. 41
grant, perhaps, that the language propofed is
preferable to that already in ufe ; but before
they adopt it, they will require a demonftra-
tive proof that it is likewife the bed poffible.
We ought not, they will fay, to reject a lan-
guage already eftablifhed, unlefs we be aflured
that the one which is to be fubftituted for it is
liable to no fort of objection; or that it will in
future preclude the neceflity of new innova-
tions. If it Ihould happen to proceed on a
fyftem, and that fyftem in any refpecl owe its
fupport to difputed facts or contefted opinions,
the oppofition will be ftill more violent. Thofe
who find their opinions overlooked, or the de-
cifion given againft them, will naturally be
difpofed to reprobate the whole, and watch
opportunities to treat it with invectives. Even
former habits with the learned themfelves, if
they yield at all, will yield with reluctance ;
for there is evidently in the nature of man a
ftrong predilection for all thofe means which
he has found inflrumentally ufeful in promo-
ting his fchemes : and we find the learned, as
well
42 INTRODUCTION.
well as the vulgar, attached to the words
which they have long been accuftomed to ufe,
and very often in proportion to the labour which
they have beftowed on their acquifition.
" Nor are thefe the only fources of difficulty
which a new nomenclature has to overcome,
or of difappointments which it has to look for.
Be they learned or unlearned, the indifferent
will treat it with coldnefs and neglect ; the in-
decifive will doubt and hefitate, and withhold
their opinion till its fate be determined : and
although it fhould anfwer the purpofes intend-
ed, the invidious will naturally feel hurt at
feeing others attaining their object at a lefs
expence than they did themfelves ; for in their
eftimation, fcience, like a diamond, fhould de-
rive its value from its rarity, its price, and the
difficulty of procuring it; add to this, that the
timid and defponding will, without the trouble
of making the diftinction, exprefs a diftrufl in
all innovations, and the indolent fee nothing in
fuch an improvement but the grievous trouble
of learning new terms ; while the man of
words
INTRODUCTION. 43
words will be indignant at the thoughts of a
language whofe clearnefs and precifion may
check the flow of his loofe declamations, or be
the means of detecting his ignorance."
From fuch a concourfe of difpofitions, interefts,
and habits, all combining to oppofe the introduc-
tion of a new nomenclature, Degerando thinks
that its own merit will have little influence in
recommending it to notice and attention; and
therefore imagines that nothing almoft but the
magical power of a celebrated name ; a name
infpiring confidence and awe, and whofe very
found can filence the paflions, gain prejudices
over to its fide, and lead the judgment as it
were in chains, will ever be fufficient to fecure
to it any thing like a general reception among
thofe of the profeflion. But though I muft
confefs my high refpect for fuch an authority,
I am far, however, from being of opinion that
men are fo much the dupes of envy, prejudice,
and meannefs, as this author feems to infinuate.
— I know well the numerous difficulties which
the great difcovery of the circulation had to
encounter ;
44 INTRODUCTION.
encounter \ and what oppofition was for fonie
time made to the doctrine of abforbents. But
the difference between thefe important difco-
veries and a new nomenclature is immenfe.
Thefe difcoveries were not forefeen ; the
want of them was not felt nor complained
of; men were fatisfied with what they knew
of the courfe of the blood ; and abforption by
the veins was an opinion which they confider-
ed as almoft capable of demonftratibn. — A new
nomenclature is not to be claffed with thefe
important and brilliant difcoveries. In com-
parifon with them, it ranks low in the regiflers
of Fame. As a work of mere patience and
induftry, it afpires to no luftre or eclat, it
proinifes no immortality to its author, nor fe-
cures to his name any enviable marks of di-
ftin£tion ; it is nothing more than what anato-
mifts have long wifhed for, a defideratum
which they have often attempted to fupply by
partial amendments ; and if a whole or com-
plete fyftem be ftill wanting, it is probably be-
eaufe no anatomift of rank or eminence would
fub.
INTRODUCTION. 45
fubmit to a talk where the drudgery was fo great
and the profpect of reputation fo fmall. — This
nomenclature is not to be compared with that
of Lavoifier ; it eftablifhes no aera in fcience,
it announces no great revolution, nor is form-
ed with a view to perpetuate any illuftrious
difcoveries. — To compare a fmall thing with a
great, it bears a much nearer refemblance to
the claffification and arrangements of Linnaeus;
which though they have greatly facilitated the
improvement of every branch of natural hif-
tory, yet imply fo little of that enviable cha-
racter of genius, that thofe who have impro-
ved and enlarged his fyftem, have feemingly
thought it no facrifice of their own reputation
to allow their large and numerous additions to
pafs with the public under his name. But
fmall as that credit may be which is attached
to a work of mere labour and induftry, the
claims of a new anatomical nomenclature can-
not be great, even in this view. It cannot pre-
tend to inftrucl: the learned, or to give them
new ideas of the animal ftru&ure; its in-
fluence
0
46 INTRODUCTION,
fluence extends to what mud appear only a
fpeck in the map of fcience ; and yet even
there, if it fhould facilitate the progrefs of ftu-
dy, and remove only a part of the rubbifh that
obftruct-s the journey, the author will coniider
his object, as attained*
NEW
NEW
ANATOMICAL NOMENCLATURE.
PART I.
Relating to the Terms intended to exprefs Posi-
tion and Aspect, in the Animal Syjlem.
CHAP. I.
ON LANGUAGE AND ITS KINDS.
1 he technical terms of an art or fcience are
what is meant by a nomenclature. The no-
menclature peculiar to anatomy forms the fub-
jedfc of the following treatife ; where the merits
of that nomenclature are examined, fome im-
portant changes propofed, and fome of the ge-
neral principles of language previoufly confi-
dered,
48 NEW ANATOMICAL
dered, with a view to illuftrate fome of the
reafons on which the propofed changes are
founded.
In its primary fenfe, language is a word fy-
nonymous with Jpeecb; in a general fenfe, any
fpecies of ligns employed as expreffions of our
thoughts or fenfations, in the glowing imagery
of poetic figure, it is any phenomena prefented
by Nature, fpeaking as it were to intelligent
minds, and fuggefting ideas which they had
not before.
Every language employed by man is one or
other of two kinds — it is either natural or ar-
tifical. We call it natural, when its figns and
meanings are phyfically connected ; when we
perceive the force of it by inftinct, and under-
ftand it without explanation : We call it arti-
ficial, when its figns and meanings have no-
thing of this phylical relation ; when the two
are conne&ed by fome accidental affociation?
or by fome affbciation founded on previous
agreement and contract. '
Man, if he chofe, might have five langua-
ges.
NOMENCLATURE. 49
ges, correfponding in number to the five fen-
fes ; although there be few perhaps who have
thought of making a language out of fmells
and taftes.
Smells and taftes indicate feveral important
properties in animal, mineral, and vegetable
fubftances ; and more of fuch properties might,
doubtlefs, be difcovered, wrere the fenfes to
which thefe figns are addrefTed more gene-
rally or ftudioufly cultivated. But both fenfes
being rather paflive in the exercife of their
functions, the figns addrefTed to them are very
little under our management ; and thofe impref-
lions which they happen to make on the fentient
organs are fo various in various perfons]; fo faint,
fo permanent, or fo powerful, that they rather
deter than invite curiolity to make the attempt.
They are fometimes fo violent as even to affect
the ftructure of their organs; and generally raife
fo flrong prepoffeflions for or againft them, that
the fenfes, under the ftrong influence of afTocia-
tion, are forced reluctantly to contract habits by
D which
5© LANGUAGE ANB
which the primary impreffions are blunted, and
objects made to give pleafure or difguft which
formerly excited an oppofite feeling. The
fenfes, too, from being contiguous, are in dan-
ger of having their impreffions confounded,
particularly when the objects prefented exhi-
bit both an odour and tafte. For thefe reafons,
odours and taftes, however fufceptible of com-
bination and variety, and however expreffive
of certain diftinctions, have feldom been em-
ployed as the vehicles of thought; and the two
fenfes, by which they are perceived, feldom
cultivated for any noble or valuable purpofe.
The figns of touch, though few in number,
and likewife imperfect, have attracted more
general attention. At Mecca, and fome other
places of the Eaft, merchants employ them
as a medium of intercourfe ; thrufting their
hands into one another's ileeves, and by means
of the ringers converfing together beyond the
poffibility of being feen or heard. The deaf
employ them by laying their hands on the lips
of
ITS KINDS. 51
of their friends, feeling what is meant, and then
returning an anfvver to the touch inftead of
the eye, when they wifh to hold converfation
in the dark. The cafes, however, are extreme-
ly rare where they can be ufed with any ad-
vantage : when thofe who converfe are remo-
ved to the diftance of a few feet, they become
ufelefs ; they, befides, are fo few, fo indiftincl,
fo complex, and fo difficultly learned, that
mankind, even in the clofeft intercourfe, fel-
dom refort to them, unlefs when impelled by
the ftrong motives of intereft or neceflity.
The vifible iigns have a much ftronger claim
to our notice ; they are of a more elevated na-
ture; are more numerous, diftindt, and varied;
and, independent of their elegance and beauty,
are better calculated to exprefs the modifica-
tions of fentiment. They furpafs all others in
conveying intelligence to a diftance ; and, ow-
ing to the fenfe by which they are difcerned,
their entering in groups produces no confu-
fion in perception. The eye, w7hich receives
them, marks inftantaneoufly the boundaries of
D 2 the
5 2 LANGUAGE AND
the whole ; affigns to each its relative iitua-
tion, its colour, its form, and its proportion ;
performing its office with lingular difpatch,
and in general with accuracy.
If vifible figns be not therefore commonly ufed
as a language, the fault is not in the organs of
vifion ; like thofe of fmell, tafle, and of touch,
they are not fufficiently fubjecled to our power;
we cannot collect, tranfport, nor appropriate
them at pleafure ; we cannot imitate them with-
out much labour and ftudy ; and even when the
power of imitation is acquired, we cannot fe-
parate, combine, and vary the number, the
colour, the form* and proportions of their dif-
ferent pictures, readily and with eafe. — Gef-
tures, indeed, are natural expreffions, but fa-
tiguing and tirefome ; depend too much on
feeling, on fancy, or the art of mimickry ; and
would be, even in a Rofcius or Garrick, too
few in number, and too little fufceptible of that
variety which is requifite in language.— Ano-
ther objection to vifible ligns is, that aim oft
all of them, with the exception of thofe that
are
ITS KINDS. 53
are luminous, are imperceptible in the dark,
and can only be ufeful during the day, or when
artificial light is employed. For thefe reafons
vifible figns have been alfo rejecled as a me-
dium of intercourfe in the more ordinary oc-
currences of life ; fo that of the five fpecies of
figns, the audible only have been received in-
to general ufe.
As phyfical caufes, audible figns never pro-
duce, like odours and taftes, pain, naufea, or vo-
miting ; and feldom are fo loud as to injure the
organs to which they are addreffed. They are
not confined, like the tangible figns, to imme-
diate contact; and are not, like the vifible, de-
pendent on light ; at the fame time no figns
are more numerous, difiincl:, and varied, or fo
much under management. We poffefs even a
fyftem of organs conftrudied intentionally upon
their account ; a fyftem which imitates, cre-
ates, combines, feparates, lengthens, fhortens,
raifes, lowers, and varies them at pleafure ; a
fyftem which, through nervous communica-
tions, is made fublervient, and in fome meafure
D 3 obedient,
54 IANGUAGE AND
obedient, to the ear ; and a fyftem, therefore,
which is prompt to furnim it, not only with the
objects of its perception, but to furnifh them
likewife of any kind, and in any order, arrange-
ment, or variety that fuits its tafte. Nay, what is
more, the hands and the feet, which under its
directions produce founds in rythmus and mea-
fure, would, in cafes of neceflity, prove no im-
perfect: inftruments of its language ; but very
feldom has it occafion for their affiftance. Its
vocal organs are fully adequate for every kind
of audible expreffion ; while the power it has
of thus procuring founds at its pleafure, does
not prevent it from deriving much curious in-
formation from the founds emitted by various
objects difperfed throughout Nature. By thefe
it is often able to diftinguiih the fpecies of an
animal, its paffions, and its feelings ; by thefe
it often diilinguillies likewife the mineral and
vegetable ; and by attending to their nicer
fhades and varieties of tone, minute differen-
ces, that depend on lingular and abflrufe pro-
perties. We then need not wonder that the
ear.
ITS KINDS. 55
car, poffeffing fuch fuperior advantages, fhould
form a language more copious, varied, and ex-
tenfive, than any addreffed to the other fenfes.
Even written language is the language of
the ear ; none of its figns are directly and im-
mediately the figns of our ideas, but the figns
of founds, to which our ideas are linked and
affociated. And here, might I venture on a
bold figure, I would almofl fay that written
languages are nothing more than the fhadows
of the vocal ; for while vocal languages are in
that ftate which we call living, their written
languages are obferved to follow them flep by
flep % to afTume their varying and Proteus
forms; and whether ftationary, progreffive, or
retrograde, to undergo correfponding changes.
Even the written language of China, which
did originally, and does flill, in a few cafes,
anfwer the purpofes of a pictured language, is,
upon the whole, more frequently employed as
a fymbol of fpeech : for allowing it to poffefs
no fewer than 80,000 different characters, yet
that number would be very inefficient to ex-
D 4 prefs
56 LANGUAGE AND
prefs all the varieties of historical occurrence^
with the circumftances of time, place, and per-
fons ; and would dill lefs be fitted to record
the tranfient millions of fleeting generations, as
they pafs in fucceffion from the cradle to the
grave. Let us only conlider, Where could each
period of time, each lake, river, and mountain,
and each individual of the human fpecies, find
a diftind and appropriate picture among 80,000,
or even * 80,000 ? The truth is, each picture
Hands for a word ; and the fame picture, like
the fame name, may anfwer a million. Nor
need we here have recourfe to hypothecs ;
we are pofitively allured that thefe charac-
ters have gradually become the fymbols of
founds ; that occafionally they are ufed like let-
ters and fy llables in fpelling words*; that
they are made to exprefs rhimes, and are read
audibly, juft as the written characters of Eu-
rope ; with this difference, that, retaining
fomething of their ancient privilege as pictu-
red
* Vide Theophili Sigefridi Bayeri, Mufeum Sinicums
iPetrepoli editum, 1730. Vol. I. p. 116.
ITS KINDS. 57
red characters, many of them, under a different
name, continue to indicate the fame thing in
China and Japan.
Some, in tracing the progrefs of writing
from pictures to letters, and endeavouring anxi-
oufly to fill up the gap, have, after labouring,
and labouring in vain, fuppofed, that the lad
mufl have been the difcovery of Divine Infpi-
ration. This ancient fable of the Egyptians
has milled numbers in their refearches. If we
look at the pictured records of Mexico*, or afk
how fome of the native Americans write their
fubfcriptions, we fhall foon be convinced that
mod of their pictures reprefented founds ; that
the picture of the flower, the plant, and the ani-
mal, flood for its name; and-that if a man bore
the name of the flower, the plant, or the animal,
the picture of the object whofe name he bore
was made to reprefent him in writing, but di-
ftinguifhed by fome particular mark, to fhow
that it was not to be read literally. If he
bore the name of two or three objects, all their
pictures
* See Clavigero's Hiftory of Mexico.
58 LANGUAGE AKD
pictures were joined together, and a word com-
pofed as of fo many fyllables. A fimilar prac-
tice is followed in China ; a great part of their
primary words are monofyllabic. All of thefe
fyllables have pictures, or rather what were
originally pictures; and when you mean to
write a word of fo many fyllables, you have
only to write the pictures of the fyllables of
which it is compofed. Some of thefe fyllables
approach near to the elementary founds of our
alphabets ; fo that words are fpelt and written
in China by the mutilated fragments of the
ancient pictures, nearly as we write and fpell
them in Europe by means of fyllabic charac-
ters and letters.
The firft ffcep therefore in picture or icono-
graphical writing was to make the figure ftand
for the name of what it reprefented ; the fe-
cond, to felecl: thofe names which were mono-
fyllabic, and out of their pi&ures to compofe
words \ the third, to mark and recollect thofe
names which approached near to elementary
founds, and out of their piclures to form fyl-
lables.
• Ail
ITS KINDS. 59
All thefe fteps, doubtlefs, required much
time, and a great deal of labour : But nations
live for feveral centuries gradually improving;
and as every nation, in the leaft civilized, en-
deavours to preferve written records of fome
kind or other*, the regular ftudy, the fteady
perfeverance, and united efforts of feveral thou-
fands for fucceffive generations in the bufinefs
of ftate or affairs of commerce, muft have done
much in improving an art that was capable of
improvement ; while lucky accidents occafion-
ally occurring, and the fortunate thoughts of
inventive geniufes, muft at times have rapidly
accelerated its progrefs until it arrived at fome-
thing like perfection. Indeed it is almoft im-
poffible to conceive how pictured figures, iig-
nificant of founds, could have been prevent-
ed, in the hands of an ingenious and induf-
trious
* Notwithftanding the tenets of the Druids, and their
prohibition with regard to writing, Caefar informs us, that
the Greek letters were in certain cafes ufed by the Gauls
ef particijjar provinces.
60 LANGUAGE AND
trious people, from ending gradually in fome
alphabet, literal or fyllabic.
Thofe who are fond of traditionary ftories,
who ranfack the fabulous records of antiquity
to find out the inventors of love, of food, and
of clothing, and who have difcovered that
beafts and birds were among the contrivers of
our arts and manufactures, will not be pleafed
to find that writing mould thus have a kind
of natural origin. Even fpeech itfelf, though
the Author of Nature has generoufly befiwed
organs for the purpofe, given us a ilrong incli-
nation to ufe them, and an ear to liften to the
founds which they utter, would never, in their
opinion, have exifted unlefs for fome particular
revelation ; for it does not follow in their way
of reafoning, that although a man may chance
to have gotten a brain and a flomach, hands
and feet, and a number of fenfes, he therefore
mould know, without being told, what are
their natural and appropriate functions.
If writing, they will fay, be a human inven-
tion, how comes it that all alphabets feem to be
derived
ITS KINDS. 6l
derived from a common origin ? Should not each
nation, on that hypothefis, have formed a di-
ftinct alphabet for itfelf ? It certainly mould, and
would actually have done fo, had it tried the ex-
periment, and not been anticipated in the dif-
covery by one more enlightened and early civi-
lized. But granting that each had invented
an alphabet, and feveral nations lay claim
to the honour, the elementary founds of their
characters would have been very nearly the
fame ; and to an antiquarian or etymologift
might appear to have fprung from a com-
mon fource : for it is very feldom confidered
that ten or a dozen radically diftinct elemen-
tary founds conftitute all the fyllables of lan-
guage ; that theie fyllables are neceflarily li-
mited to a few hundreds ; and, excluding va-
rieties, are found to be the fame in every Dic-
tionary of whatever country. The general re-
femblances arife from caufes that are unavoid-
able ; but too often claffed with thofe that are
arbitrary, to favour the ideas of learned an-
tiquarians and etymologifts in tracing the ori*
gin of nations, languages, and cuitoms.
CHAP,
62 THE CHANGES
CHAP. II.
ON THE CHANGES OF LANGUAGE.
.Having fhown the clofe and intimate connec-
tion between a fpoken and a written language,
and mentioned that both are fubjed to changes,
it becomes a fort of neceffary precaution, in pro-
pofing terms for a nomenclature, to inquire in-
to the caufes of fuch changes, and to prevent
as much as poffible their operation upon the
terms of which we make choice. That fuch
changes are daily, infennbly, and gradually
taking place, is a fact too generally acknow-
ledged to require proof ; and writers of tafle,
who value themfelves upon the beauty and ele-
gance of their diction, mull often reflect, with
painful apprehenlion, on the inftability and
tranfient nature of the perifhing founds with
whiqh their literary fame is connected. But
how-
OF LANGUAGE. 63
however great their apprehenfions may be, the
effects which they dread cannot be prevented.
New climes, produce, employments, mull
neceflarily fuggeft new ideas \ of new ideas,
the neceflary confequence is new words, or the
old taken in a new fenfe ; of new words, or a
new fenfe, another confequence is, a new phra-
feology ; in a new phrafeology, caprice and
fafhion, the pride of innovation, the deiire of
improvement, colloquial inaccuracies, with
other caufes ; fuch as the varieties which
commerce, conqueft, and intercourfe with fo-
reigners bring in their train — muft all affect
the liability of language, and vary the action
of the vocal organs.
Yet, independent of all thefe caufes, lan-
guage, befides, has the feeds of change in
its very nature; each individual has a voice
of his own, and a manner of fpeaking that di-
ilinguifties him from others ; and this diffe-
rence would be Hill more confpicuous, were
it not for the influence of imitation. This imi-
tation, where all are aiming at the fame orU
ginal,
64 THE CHANGES
ginal, preferves a fort of general refemblance
in the varied language of the individuals of
the fame nation. But where each has not ac-
cefs to the general ftandard, and where mod
are obliged to take copies for their model, the
language feparates, almoft irrefiftibly, into dif-
ferent diale&s ; and each province, or each
group into which the feveral inhabitants are
clafTed, acquires a tone, accent, and manner
peculiar to itfelf : or fhould the province be-
come independent, and all its connection with
the nation be dhTolved, its dialect haftens to
aiTume the form of a different language. So
ftrong is this tendency to change, that in ma-
ny provinces of no great extent their dialects
are fub divided into dialects; each diftric~t, vil-
lage, and hamlet, fecluded from a regular and
frequent intercourfe, exhibits fome peculiari-
ties of fpeech ; and would feemingly in time,
if intercourfe were ftopt, acquire a diftinct lan-
guage of its own.
What can be the caufe of all thefe changes,
where nothing appears to induce them from
without?
OF LANGUAGE. 65
without? If any choofe to inveftigate the mat-
ter, he will find it in the number, the varied
ilru&ure, the diverfified functions, and com-
plex movements of the organs employed to pro-
duce and articulate the human voice.
It is well known that the more complex any
piece of machinery is, whether the work of na-
ture or of art, the more it is expofed to varied
action, deviation, and error. Apply this ob-
fervation to the vocal mufcles, and in one fenfe
their number is not great \ but if we confider
the various combinations of which they are ca-
pable, and the varied effects which they pro-
duce, their lingular powers mull appear afto-
nithing to thofe not acquainted with their
compound action. Of this action the ordinary-
books written on the fubject fcarcely afford
any idea. They feem to imply, that a mufcle
only acts by itfelf, in conjunction with its fel-
low, or againft an antagonift : And the young
anatomift, after fludying for months, and fome-
times for years, one of the moft curious pieces
of mechanifm to be found in Nature, and after
E fondly
66
THE CHANGES
fondly nattering himfelf that he knows every
thing interefting or ufeful in the animal fyftem,
is feldom able to explain fatisfactorily a lingle
movement of his own body, or of any of its
limbs.
Suppofe that A, B are two muf-
cies forming a pair, he is told that
A and B perform each a feparate
movement, and that AB acling to-
gether perform a third* This is
nearly all that he learns concern-
ing the functions of a mufcle and
its fellow ; but this is a very im-
perfeft idea of the part which they
generally act in the fyftem. If
another mufcle, as C, had been
added, the number of movements
would have been feven ; and a
fourth mufcle, as D, would have raifed the
number to fifteen. Thus every additional muf-
cle, befides giving a feparate movement, may
double the number of all the preceding when-
ever the part to which they are attached is ca-
pable
I
A
2
B
3
Ba
4
C
5
Ca
6
Cb
7
Cab
8
D
9
Da
IO
Db
n
Dab
12
Dc
13
D c a
*4
Deb
*5
Dcab
OF LANGUAGE. 67
pable of moving in every direction. — Where
indeed it is limited t» the two motions of
flexion and extenfion, it can vary only the force
and the velocity; — but, again, where a number
of moveable parts conftitutes an organ deilined
to fome particular function, and where this
function is varied and modified by every change
in the relative iituation of the moveable parts,
it mud be evident that the number of changes
producible on the organ muft equal at leaft the
number of mufcles and all the combinations in-
to which they can enter.
E2 The
68 THE CHANGES
The following Table will Jhow the fpecific and
diftindl Movements which, independent of Va-
rieties, are producible by any number of Muf-
cles,from i to 50.
1 1
2 ... • 3
3 7
4 • *5
5 3i
6 63
7 I27
8 255
9 5"
10 1023
11 2047
12 4095
13 8l9I
14 l63%3
15 32767
16 65535
17 i3*°7l
18 262143
19 524287
20 1048575
21 2097151
22 ... 4r943°3
23 8388607
24 16777215
25 3355443*
OF LANGUAGE. 69
Table continued.
26 67108863
27 134217727
28 268435455
29 536870911
30 1073741823
31 .. . . . .2147483647
32 4294967-95
33 8589934591
34 ••• 17179869183
35 • • • 34359738367
36" 687i9476735
37 13743895347*
38 274877906943
39 549755813887
40 1099511627775
41 2199023255551
42 43980465 1 1 103
43 8796093022207
44 i7592*86o444i5
45 35i84372°8883i
46 7°368744* 77663
47 i40737488355327
48 281474976710655
49 562949953421311
50 1 125899906842623
E 3 On
70 tKZ (fHANGES
On thefe principles, which can hardly be
denied, let us here try to form fome idea of
the number of changes of which the organs of
voice are fufceptible. The mufcles proper to
the five cartilages of the larynx, fuppofing the
tranfverfe and oblique arytenoid to eonftitute
but one, are feven pairs*. Now fourteen muf-
cles, that can act feparately or in pairs, in
combination with the whole, or with any
two or more of the reft, are capable of pro-
ducing 16,383 different movements; not reck-
oning as changes the various degrees of
force and velocity, nor the infinitely varied
order of fucceffion by which they may occa-
fionally be brought into action. The num-
ber appears almoft incredible ; but to leffen
the furprife, it muft be recollected that I fpeak
not here of the powers pofTefTed by any indi-
vidual,
* Cricothyroideus, Cricoarytenoideus pofticus, Cricoary-
tenoideus lateralis, Thyreoarytenoideus, Arytenoideus ob*
liquus, Arytenoideus tranfverfus, Thyreoepiglottideus, A-
rytenoepiglottideus.
OF LANGUAGE* J I
vidual, which will depend on habits and cir-
cumftances, but of the powers of the vocal
organs, confidered in the abftract, free from all
the influence of cuftom, equally indifferent,
and equally difpofed to ad in any order of
fucceffion, in any combination, and with any
degree of force and velocity of which their
original powers were fufceptible.
If the powers I have mentioned appear afto-
nifhing, and able to account for many thou-
fands of thofe varieties obferved among the
voices of the human fpecies, I have further to
add, that the mufcles alluded to are only the
proper mufcles of the larynx, or the mufcles
reftridted in their attachments to its five carti-
lages. Thefe are but a few of the mufcles of
voice. In fpeaking we ufe a great many more*
Fifteen pairs* of different mufcles, attached to
E4 the
* Sternohyoidei, Omohyoidei, Sternothyroidei, Thyro-
hyoidei, Stylohyoids, Mylohyoidei, Geniohyoldei, Digaf-
trics, Geniohyogloffi, Stylopharyngei, Palatopharyngei,
Crico-
72 THE CHANGES
the cartilages, or os hyoides, and acting as
agents, antagonifts, or directors, are conftantly
employed in preferving the cartilages of the
larynx fteady, in regulating the place of their
fituation, or moving them as occafion requires,
upwards and downwards, backwards and for-
wards, and in every way, directly and oblique-
ly, according to the courfe of the mufcular fi-
bres, or in the diagonal between different forces.
Thefe mufcles, independent of the former, are
fufceptible of 1,073,741,823 different combi-
nations \ and co-operating with the feven pairs
of the larynx, of 17,592,186,044,415, exclu-
sive of the changes which muft arife from the
different degrees of force and velocity, and the
infinitely varied order of fucceflion in which
they may be brought into action.
But thefe are not all that co-operate with
the larynx, either in forming or changing the
voice : the diaphragm, the abdominal mufcles,
the
Cricopharyngel, Thyropharypgei, Syndefmopharyngei, My-
lopharyngei.
OF LANGUAGE. 73
the intercoftals, and all that directly or indi-
rectly act on the air, or on the parts to which
the chondral and hyoidal mufcles are attached,
contribute their fliare. The os hyoides could
not be raifed unlefs the inferior maxillary bone
were previoufly fixed by the temporals, mafTe-
ters, and internal pterygoids; and a fimilar af-
fiftance is likewife furnifhed by feveral other
auxiliary mufcles that fix the head, fternum,
and fcapula ; to thefe we muft add fome pairs
belonging to the pharynx and ifthmus fauci-
um, and fome alfo belonging to the tongue ;
which, combining with others, give to that or-
gan an inconceivable variety of movement ;
and fo quickly that, in rapid utterance, they
change its ftate three thoufand times in the
fpace of a minute^.
Yet all thefe mufcles, whether they affift to
infpire or expire, to enlarge or diminim the
cavity of the pharynx, to fliorten, lengthen, to
relax
* Haller articulated 1500 letters in a minute, which ne-
cefiarily required 1500 contractions and as many relaxation*
of the lingual mufcles.
74 THE CHANGES
relax or render tenfe the trachea, to change
or fix the fituation of the larynx, to alter the
relative pofition of its cartilages, to enlarge or
diminifh the aperture of the glottis, to give
the necefTary tenlion to its ligaments, or arti-
culate the voice as it paiTes through the mouth
— can neither feparately, nor in combination,
produce an audible impulfe on the air with-
out a certain degree of elafticity and vibratory
motion of the trachea, laryngeal cartilages,
and glottal ligaments. Now this elafticity,
though it partly depend on the action of the
mufcles, yet it partly depends, at the fame
time, as we learn from catarrh, on the ftate of
the membranes and glandular fecretions, and
partly, too, as we alfo learn, from fome other
cafes on the ftate of the larynx and of the. tra-
chea ; and fuppofe thefe, as well as the muf-
cles, were perfectly fitted to perform their
functions, and to produce the audible impulfe,
yet this impulfe is apt to be varied by the ftate
of the nofe, fauces, and palate, as we learn
from feveral of their morbid affections. Pro-
bably, too, by the fize and form of the frontal
fphe-
OF LANGUAGE. J5
fphenoidal and maxillary antres ; and mod
certainly by the fecretion, or rather abforption
of the feminal fluid, as we may fee in the con-
fequences of caftration.
Another fource of this fpecies of variety is
the ear, which fuperintends and dire&s the
whole of the vocal fyftem, and without which
the voice would be conftantly harih and unhar-
monious, as may be obferved in the fpeech of
the deaf. To the ear we muft add the feveral
pafiions, each of which lays claim to peculiar
tones and cadences and to modes of utterance,
differing widely in loudnefs and rapidity, and
in many other fpecific varieties not eafily de-
fcribed.
If we turn our attention to the manner in
which the voice is articulated, we mail find
Hill more fources of variety ; we (hall find
that, befides the tongue, the pendulous ve-
lum of the palate, the palate itfelf, the alveo-
lar procefTes, the teeth, and the lips, are
all concerned in the pronunciation of words;
and if we examine the human lips, compare
them with thofe of inferior animals, obferve
their
j6 THE CHANGES
their free and extenfive motion, with their nu-
merous mufcles *, capable of entering into
524,287 different combinations, we can hardly
avoid being of opinion that the human lips,
befides being calculated to anfwer a variety of
other purpofes, were alfo intended by the Au-
thor of Nature to be organs of fpeech.
I have no doubt that here the reader's fur-
prife will recur at this immenfe variety of
power in the vocal organs ; and more particu-
larly when he reflects that the number of pofi-
tions which they produce is infinitely greater
than that of their movements f. But however
great his wonder may be, he will furely recol-
lect that thefe combinations are not deduced
from fpeculative opinions, but by fair calcula-
tion from fads that are acknowledged ; and that
having no intention whatever to excite any
thing
* Levator anguli oris, Levator labii fuperloris, Depref-
for labii fuperioris, DeprefTor labii inferioris, DeprefTor an-
guli oris, Levator labii inferioris, Zygomaticus major, Zy-
maticus minor, Buccinator, Orbicularis.
f See Introduction, p. 20, 21.
OF LANGUAGE. 77
thing like marvelling aftonifhment, I have pur-
pofely omitted the incalculable varieties that
neceffarily refult from the degrees of force and
velocity, and the infinitely varied order of fuc-
ceffion in which the mufcles may be brought
into action. He may affert, and afiert with
juftice, that no individual of the human fpecies
can throw his mufcles into one thoufandth part
of the combinations of which I have fuppofed
them fufceptible. But he mould remember
at the fame time, that this reafoning, as has
been acknowledged, was never intended to
fhow what are the effects of mufcles in par-
ticular perfons, but to fhow their capacity and
original powers ; and from what an exhaufl-
lefs fund of variety in tone and voice they are
able to furnifh each individual of the countlefs
millions of fucceflive generations with charac-
teriflic marks of diflinction.
Perhaps even in the fingle individual the
combinations of the vocal mufcles are more nu-
merous, and more obvious than is generally be-
lieved. Who, from theory, would have ven-
tured
78 THE CHANGES
tured to predict, what now is a well authenti-
cated fact, that the deaf, by attention, may
learn to fpeak, and diftinguifh all the words of
a language by their vifible changes in the or-
gans of voice ? Who that has felt the varied
and powerful exprefiions of the eyes, would have
imagined that fuch a number could have been
produced by a few mufcles ? and, Who has
not wondered, and wondered again, at the va-
ried appearances of all the paflions, and of all
their fhades, in the countenance of a Garrick ?
And yet all thefe inftances muil fall fhort of
conveying even the mod diftant idea of the
powers I allude to.
To form any thing like an adequate notion
of the lingular contrivance of the mufcular
fvftem, and of the movements of which it is
capable, we mud not confine our examinations
to what is exhibited in two or three prrticular
perfons ; we muft recollect that all the mufcles
are living powers ; that in early life they are
apt to contract habits with facility, and after-
wards to retain them with fuch inveteracy as
to
OF LANGUAGE. 79
to be incapable of any exertion inconfiftent
with thofe in which the previous habits had
been formed. We fee this daily exemplified
in the ufes of the right and left arm ; and may
often obferve, that thofe who have long been
accuftomed to one language find it difficult,
and fometimes impoflible, to articulate proper-
ly the founds of another. In thefe cafes we
fee the mufcles inactive from difufe, or fetter-
ed under the conllraints of habit ; the habit,
too, of particular fituations. In fuch circum-
ftances, it is impoflible they can furnifh a cri-
terion of what had been their primary powers.
To form a juft eftimate of thefe, we muft look
back to the more early periods of life, view
them in every diverfity of fhade, in every per-
fon, in every fituation, conftitution, and cli-
mate ; we fhall then find that whatever thefe
be in the adult, they were very different at the
commencement of life's career.
All children acquire the tones, accents, and
articulations of thofe countries in which they
are educated \ an evident proof that, prior to
the
8o THE CHANGES
the formation of habits, the vocal mufcles may
be brought to act in any one of the numerous
millions of combinations that have ever been
adopted by any tribe, family, or nation of the
human race, and be made to acquire the habit
of pronouncing with readinefs and eafe any
one of the almofl infinite variety of languages
that have been, that are, or that ever Ihall be,
on the face of the globe. Even this wonder-
ful diverfity of power is daily prefented to our
dbfervation ; for when we coniider that the
mufcular fyftem is, with the exception of a
very few trifling varieties, nearly the fame in
all individuals, having the number, form,
ftru&ure, fituation, direction, and attachment
of its mufcles in every inflance, regular and
uniform — we muft certainly conclude that, un-
like to any thing we have ever feen, it has the
power of diverfifying its actions in a moll ex-
traordinary and uncommon manner; and whdn
we fee it exhibit the flrongly marked and pe-
culiar differences in the features of the coun-
tenance, in the voice, the gait, and the hand-
writing
OF LANGUAGE. 8 I
writing of each individual in the countlefs mil-
lions of paffing generations; when we fee it
the organ in all their different fpecies of exer-
cife, and every exercife like their tone of voice
marked by iome difcriminating character ; in
fhort, when we fee the number, variety, the
ftrength, the velocity, and continuance of its
motions, in fome of the more remarkable cafes
of running, leaping, dancing, riding, fencing,
wreftling, vaulting, tumbling, balancing the
body, and performing feats of legerdemain — in
the name of wonder, what mull we think!
We muft furely think, with the credulous
and vulgar, that it is affifted by the power
of magic ; or, with the more enlightened and
coniiderate, that it pofTefTes powers and re-
fources, of which, after all our iludy and in-
quiry, we are frill ignorant.
With refpect to characleriftic diftin&ions, I
have mentioned feveral fources of variety in the
tone and articulation of voice, befides mufcles;
but fuppofe that mufcles, acling as motors, fix-
ers, antagonifts, or directors, were the only
F fource,
$2 THE CHANGES
fource, and that thefe mufcles were 50 inrtiim-
ber* although I have enumerated 63, exclu^
five of others which might have been named,,
thefe 50 mufcles are capable of entering into
1,125,899,906,842,623 combinations, and the
numerous effects of thefe combinations may be
infinitely diverfified by the various degrees of
force and velocity, and the orders of fuccefiion
in which they are formed — is it likely, then,
that, amidft this countlefs and almoft inconcei-
vable variety, any two individuals fhould of-
ten, or naturally, adopt exactly the fame com-
bination, bring their mufcles to act: in the fame
order of fucceffion, or employ them with the
fame force and velocity in uttering found or
articulating words ? I mould think not. Even
that mimicry of the tone and voice, which ex-
tends only to the general outlines or promi-
nent characters, is very rare, and would feldom
deceive an ordinary ear, if prfcviouily warned
or allowed time to make the comparifon and
to difcriminate. The mufcles of the hand are
but kw in number; and yet what immenfe
difficulty
OF LANGUAGE. 83
diff^cu'ty and labour does it cod many to coun-
terfeit the hand-writing of another.
It feems to be owing to the conftant opera-
tion of fuch caufes, whofe influence can nei-
ther be checked nor prevented, that no acci-
dent ever has occurred, no art ever been difco-
vered, to preferve the (lability of vocal lan-
guage, to calm the forebodings of literary ge-
niufes, and remove the apprehenlions that their
laboured eloquence in a few centuries mud re-
quire an interpreter, and the beauties of their
diction pafs unnoticed without a commentator.
In our own country claffical flandards have
been eftablifhed, their excellency acknowled-
ged, their elegance defined, a variety of ex-
preffion copioufly fupplied, dictionaries com-
piled, fenfes determined, pronunciation afcer-
tained, but without hopes or aprofpect of fuc-
cefs. No nation at this day can fpeak the lan-
guage of its diftant anceftry; and the language
of Offian, were it norw extant, we have reafon
to believe would be as different from the mo-
dern Gaelic as the Gaelic from the Welch, or
£ 2 either
84 THE CHANGES
either of the two from the parent Celtic. The
languages of the Bible, Bedas, and Koran, are
all dead, though millions were concerned in
their prefervation, and employed officially to
keep them alive *.
* The preternatural interpofition of Heaven therefore to
divide language into different dialects, does not appear to
have ever been neceffary ; and the pafTage of Scripture where
that fact feems to be afferted, I mould rather imagine is
mifunderflood.
Delighted with the beauty of the plains of Shinar, man-
kind there, as the Scripture informs us, had projected a
fcheme of building a capital, and preventing their difperfion.
Nor had this thought originated with one ; all were equally-
enamoured of the fancy, and bent on the defign ; every one
was fpurring another, faying go to, let us make bricks, let
us burn them thoroughly. As the object was popular, and
the zeal univerfal, all of them fpoke of it achadim dalrim,
mia phone*, eifdem verbis, in the fame words; in (hort, at
the time the whole earth, or the men that were in it,
had but Jape achat, cheilos enf, unum os, or but one voice
concerning the matter. And yet as nothing was then fo
oppofite
* Dsn3i D*inx, fit* taw. f nrtK nair, xuKo* £¥-
OF LANGUAGE. 85
gppofite to Heaven's intention as their living together ; as
luxury on the one hand, and oppreffion on the other ; as
fedentary labour and debauched lives would all have been
the confequence of an opulent city ; and as all thefe events,
had they taken place, with their firm refolution not to be
difperfed, would have been dangerous in a high degree to
a rapid population — the Almighty, in his wifdom, faw it
expedient to reprobate their conduct, and frufirate their in-
tentions. With this view he defcended from heaven — he
threw confufion into all their counfels ; in fcriptural phrafe,
he confounded their language ; or, ufing its metaphor, to
fow diffenfion, peleg fefunim*, he divided their tongues.
* OSlrcb ab£, Pf. lv. 9. he divided their opinions ; for, to fpeak with
the na "iriN, or the one mouth, is to be of the fame opinion or fenti-
ments, or, as our tranflators choofe to exprefs it, of one accord. See
Join. ix.%.
F 3 CHAP.
86 TECHNICAL LAN GUAGE
CHAP. III.
TECHNICAL LANGUAGE SHOULD BE DISTINCT
FPvOM THE LANGUAGE OF THE PEOPLE.
X rom the preceding obfervations upon lan-
guage, the following inferences may naturally
be drawn : That the language of fcience, if
meant to be either permanent or general, mould
be diftin6r. from the language of the country ;—
that it mould not be entrufted to the manage-
ment of the ear, whofe tafte is variable ; nor
its fate committed to the organs of voice, which,
varied and irregular in their own actions, are
at all times under its influence ; — that it mould
be a language primarily or principally addref-
fed to the eye, which has, not like the ear,
the fame power of new-modelling and chan-
ging its objects ; — and mould be a language
con-
SHOULD BE DISTINCT, &C. 8/
conftrucled on purpofe, or a written language,
whofe vocal archetype is already dead, and no
longer capable of creating difturbance or in-
novation : — in (hort, a language as much as pof-
lible placed beyond the vortex of fafhion and
the reach of change ; where the (trained ana-
logies of fimile and metaphor, or other forced
and unnatural applications, have little chance
of rendering it vague.
Some have imagined that a written lan-
guage, conftructed on purpofe, would be pre-
ferable to any of our dead languages \ but in
what refpedt is not ealily demonstrated. In all
languages where fciences are treated, it is ac-
knowledged that there are, or ought to be,
two kinds of terms, perfectly diitinct: ; one a-
dapted to general ufe,|and the other divided in-
to many fpecies peculiarly appropriated to the
purpofes of fcience. The part adapted to ge-
neral ufe cannot poflibly have a reference to
any particular fpecies of fcience, as every fci-
ence mult have a feparate language of its own;
nor can it have a reference to the fciences at
F 4 large,
88 TECHNICAL LANGUAGE
large, and therefore mud be equally indiffe-
rent to all of them. It is true indeed, if a
general language, artificially conftrucled, were
generally adopted, and generally underftood,
it might fave the trouble and prevent the er-
rors arifing from tranflation ; but not more
fo than a dead language, generally adopted
with a fimilar view. At the fame time, nei-
ther one nor the other would compenfate for
the eafe with which we write in our own
language ; nor for the precilion, clearnefs, and
readinefs with which we perceive the force of
its expreffion. It is therefore fufficient in
every fcience that its technical terms mould be
kept diftind from the language which is fpo-
ken ; that all its terms fhould have a certain and
determinate meaning, fhould remain unalter-
ed in every tranflation, and mould be the fame
in every country where the fcience is either
known or cultivated. With refpecl to the
origin of fuch terms, it will be indifferent whe-
ther they be mere upftarts of yefterday, or li-
neal defcendants from the ancient families of
Pagan
SHOULD BE DISTINCT, &C. §9
Pagan antiquity; only if defcended in that
way, they muft not fhine by a borrowed light,
they muft ftand or fall by their own merit ;
and mould they be now in a different capa-
city from what they were formerly, their ori-
ginal confequence mould entirely bea forgot-
ten. Every thing in fcience ought to be
real, ingenuous, and open ; and every expref-
lion that indicates duplicity or equivocation,
refervation, wavering, or inconfiftency, is a re-
proach to it.
The Greek and Latin, the two dead langua-
ges moft generally known, particularly in Eu-
rope, furniih moft of the terms of our prefent
nomenclatures. The only inconvenience of
thefe terms is that, often being ufed in a fecon-
dary fenfe, which has a faint or diftant analo-
gy to the original, they are very apt to convey
double meanings ; and thus create a confufion
of ideas in thofe acquainted with their prima-
ry import. All, however, are not of this de-
fcription. Many of them now have the fame
effecl as arbitrary names ; and as for the reft,
wLen
90 TECHNICAL LANGUAGE
when fome time accuftomed to their fecondary
meaning, we gradually forget that they ever
had another.
In choofing terms, the tafte, doubtlefs, may
be confulted ; though on no pretext mould
it be allowed to direct the judgment, and de-
cide on matters of convenience and utility.
In the choice and invention of new words, fo
far as refpects the length and the found, let it
difplay its whole ingenuity ; but where a no-
menclature is already eftablifhed, it ought to
give place to a higher authority. In anatomy,
for inftanee, it has no right from either its na-
tural or acquired feelings to determine the quef-
tions, What are the terms that ought to be re-
jected ? or, Whether thofe which we mean to
retain ought to be derived all from the Greek,
all from the Latin, or partly from both ? It is
one thing to form a new fyftem of laws for an
infant colony, and another to make a general
reform in an ancient government.
If the words of only one of the languages
were to be retained, we indeed might produce
a
SHOULD BE DISTINCT, &C. pf
a fort of uniformity to pleafe the grammarian ;
but what is that to the anatomift ? Will the
dictates of reafon or of common fenfe ever in-
duce him to facrifice his convenience and in-
tereft for fuch an object ? and if he did, what
idea muft be formed of the mind that would
leave ferious and important fludies to amufe
itfelf in gazing at the fhadows of antiquated
words ? for nothing befides the mere fhadows
of ancient vocables are in general to be ex-
pected among the terms of our nomenclatures.
They may have fomething of a learned found,
but they cannot poilibly retain much of a claf-
ilcal fenfe, when applied to objects of which the
ancients were entirely ignorant.
The Greek and Latin are both fan&ioned
in our prefent nomenclature : to difpoffefs one
of them entirely, would necefTarily cccafion the
introduction of many new terms and the rejec-
tion of many old ones. Suppofefor a moment
that the change has taken place, and the ques-
tion put, What improvements have we added
to fcience, or what advantages have we acqui-
red
92 TECHNICAL LANGUAGE
red by it ? Why the pleafure, and nothing but
the pleafure, of feeing the terms of our nomen-
clature all derived from the fame language.
Our tafte may be gratified, and we probably
may feel fomething like his fatisfadtion who,
regardlefs of the other qualities of his fervants,
is anxious only to have them all from the fame
country. His favourite object, fuch as it is,
may be one that he would not eafily renounce ;
but can it be the object of a wife man ? And
when he has got it, is it his reafon or his hu-
mour that is gratified ?
This fpecies of motive, and I know no
better for adhering flrictly to one of the lan-
guages of our prefent nomenclature, can have
little influence on a cool reflecting philofophic
mind. He who confiders the fluctuating na-
ture of vocal language, will not pay a high de-
ference to words, either on account of the age
or the country in which they have flourifhed ;
and he who is eager in the purfuits of fcience,
will feldom enquire whether they have come
from Athens or Rome : he will cheerfully wel-
come
SHOULD BE DISTINCT, &C. 93
come the natives of both, provided that, by
their united affiflance, he is brought more
fafely or more expeditioufly to the end of his
journey. I fhould therefore be inclined, not-
withftanding the opprobrium attached by fome
to certain connections and intermarriages among
harmlefs vocables, not to reject the co-operation
of the two languages in any form, where ex-
perience mows it to be convenient, ufeful, or
neceflary.
CHAP,
94 TECHNICAL LANGUAGE
CHAP. IV.
THE TECHNICAL LANGUAGE OF ANATOMY,
HOW TO BE IMPROVED.
Jl rom the above preliminary difcuffions upon
languages in general and nomenclatures, we
proceed now to the more immediate fubjedl of
the Effay, the Nomenclature of Anatomy.
In this nomenclature we mean to propofe fome
alteration? ; but as every alteration is not an
improvement, it becomes a fair and reafonable
queftion, What is to be their nature and ob-
ject, ai:d what advantages are likely to arife
from the execution of fuch a defign ?
On the cooler! and mod impartial inquiry,
it appears that many of the prefent terms con-
vey falfe or erroneous ideas; — -that many are
fuperfluous, and of the fuperfluous many fuper-
numerarv :
or an at o mt, &c. i 95
numerary ;i — that many allude to antiquated
names, which are but feldom or no longer
ufed ;— that many have a vague indeterminate
meaning, and are cohfequently ufed in various
fenfes \ — and that feveral parts have received
names, while thofe wholes of which they are
parts have received none. From this view it
has been fuppofed, that we-re the falfehoods
and errors corrected, the fuperfluities retrench-
ed, the troublefome and unneceflary allufions
dropt, the ambiguities removed, and the feve-
ral deficiencies properly fupplied, the nomen-
clature would not only be improved, but the
ftudy of anatomy greatly facilitated.
As confufed expreffion is too often a natural
confequence of confufed ideas, fo ambiguities,
in the language of fcience, may often be tra-
ced to the want of a clear and diftinct arrange-
ment. And mould it afterwards be found that
feveral vague terms in anatomy derive their
origin from this fource, a new and improved
claffification, where the circumflances require
it, will alfo, it is thought, be attended with
advantage.
$5 TECHNICAL LANGUAGE
It was certainly the clear arrangement of
Linnaeus, comparatively fpeaking, that ena-
bled him to give fuch precifion to his Ian*
guage ; and that precifion has greatly contri-
buted to promote the fcience, as being a fure
and unerring guide to the different objects
which it prefented ; objects which, in confe-
quence of his arrangement, have received a de-
finite and fixed ftation, where the ftudious in-
quirer may readily find it. For this purpofe
Linnaeus arranged them into different groups,
which he called claffes ; fubdividing thefe
claffes into orders, the orders into genera, and
the genera into fpecies ; always taking care
that thefe belonging to the fame clafs fhould
have one or more properties in common, thofe
belonging to the fame order two or more, thofe
of the fame genus three or more, and thofe of
the fame fpecies four or more. To each of
thefe groups, which were comparatively few
in number, he gave names, annexing a fhort
defcription of the characters by which they
were diftinguifhed. It was by adopting a fi-
milar
OF ANATOMY, &C 97
milar methoctthat Lavoifier improved the fci-
ence of chemiftry ; and therefore it is furely an
error to fuppofe that thefe two celebrated men
confined themfelves merely to changes upon
language. Their merits were of a fuperior
kind. A change of nomenclature, had that
been all, would, by introducing a new fet of
terms, have only retarded the progrefs of fci-
ence. Their ciaffification was that which ad-
vanced it : it collected the fcattered materials
together, exhibited the wThole in a ftate of con-
nection, brought them within the fphere of
our vifion, and placed them at once under the
eye in a proper light ; while their nomencla-
tures ferved as mediums through w7hich they
were feen more clearly and distinctly ; or ra-
ther were a kind of fymbolical pictures, repre-
fenting to the mind the ftate of the fciences,
with the changes or improvements that had
been introduced.
From viewing the rapid progrefs of chemiftry
that followed immediately on the change of its
language, fome have been led to confider the two
G as
98 TECHNICAL LANGUAGE
as caufe and effect: ; overlooking thofe impor-
tant difcoveries to which the fcience was prin-
cipally indebted for its advancement, and even
miftaking the merits of Lavoiiier in thofe la-
bours for which he is celebrated. The genius
of this illuftrious perfon was attracted chiefly
by the great and the fublime : he felt little
pleafure in partial remarks, or in noting mi-
nutely the infulated phenomena that take place
in the dark corners of a laboratory. As his
mind led him to general obfervations, and to
be delighted with extenlive views, it embraced
in its wide comprehenfive grafp a variety of
objects, faw at a glance their agreements and
difcordancies, arranged them in a clear and
luminous order, and thence drew concluiions
that fhot light through every department of
chemical fcience hidden or remote.
From what he had obferved, he believed
that empyreal or vital air was the caufe of
acidity in all bodies, and he named it oxygen ;
he faw that oxygen entered into various com-
pounds with metals, and gave to thefe com-
pounds
OF ANATOMY, &C. 99
potinds the title of oxides. Directing his atten-
tion to the acids which it forms, he found them
more numerous than had been fuppofed ; di-
flinguifhed each by a certain change on the
name of the fubftanCe from which it was ob-
tained \ faw many of them widely diffufed over
Nature, and everywhere entering into various
compounds with the feveral metals, alkalies,
and earths— to thefe compounds he gave no
general or common name denoting a elafs, like
the word oxide ; but according to the acid
which they contained, arranged them into ful-
phats, nitrats, muriats, and fo on. In thefe
labours his claffification and fublime difcove-
ries were of more real eonfequence to chemif*
try than his nomenclature ; and yet his no-
menclature was not without its merits : It
i
ferved to communicate the grand ideas which
he had formed ; and expreiTed them with a
clearnefs, concifenefs, and flmplicity, that had
not till then been witnefTed in the fcience : it
was happy particularly in the names of com-
pounds, as fulphat, carbonat, or muriat of fo-
G 2 da;
XOO TECHNICAL LANGUAGE
da \ denoting at once the nature of the fab-
fiances of which they were compofed : and
even went farther, attempting occaiionally, as
in the words oxygen and hydrogen, to convey
a defcription in the appellations of fimple fub-
ftances.
The defcriptive terms in this nomenclature
have been much admired, and many have wim-
ed that the like were introduced into fome of
the other languages of fcience. With a view
to this improvement, many of the prefent terms
of anatomy have been condemned for not ex*
preffing fome quality or circumftance of the
objects which they fignify, and others, /con-
taining a kind of mort definition or defcrip-
tion, been fubftituted for them. As it may
be both withed and expected that the new
terms brought into anatomy were all of this
fort, a previous inquiry into their nature,
ufes, and peculiar advantages, will not be im-
proper* The French have lately adopted fuch
terms in their modern calendar : The words
nivofe, pluviofe, and thermidor, are intended to
ihow
OF ANATOMY, &C. IOI
fhow the fpecies of weather which prevails at
certain periods of the year. Let us fee the im-
provement : The weather being variable even
in France, and the rain and fnow not hap-
pening to fall always at the time foretold in
the calendar, thefe terms become fo many ly-
ing predictions ; and in countries where the
feafons and climate are different, are an abfurd
unintelligible jargon. But what are the defcrip-
tive terms in anatomy ? Not a great deal bet-
ter. Many of thefe, as fphenoides, ethmoides,
aftragalus, cuboides, which are founded on vague
and remote analogies, fcarcely convey the moft
diftant idea of the forms which they were meant
to exprefs ;— many which contain alluiions to
functions, and feem to communicate fomething
of importance, deceive thoufands of the indo-
lent and credulous, who trull to their lame
and imperfect information ; — -fome, again, as
levator fcapula and fupinator radii longiu, arc
almoft unavoidable fources of error, from di-
rectly iniinuating what is not true ; — and fome,
as it were taking advantage of a partial and
Q 3 err©-
102 TECHNICAL LANGUAGE
erroneous claffification, pretend to inform us
of what belongs to this or that function, ex*»
eluding, by a kind of fecret refervation, fome
of the principal organs employed i this is
evident in our diftin&ion and arrangement of
mufcles into flexors, extenfors, pronators, and
fupinators.— But by no means the leaft nume-
rous clafs are thofe which allude to frivolous
circumftances ; fome of which, like fella tur-
cica, and the word hippocampus, feem intended
to illuflrate the things which we fee, and
which we may handle, by comparing them to
objects which we either have not feen or have
feldom an opportunity of obferving. Much
difcernment, therefore, and caution are highly
requisite in the ufe and application of fuch
terms ; for wherever their defcriptions are fri-
volous or vague, or wherever they are falfes
whether founded on ignorance, error, or hy-
pothefis, they can hardly fail, if ufed in their
primary and original fenfe, to be hurtful to
fcience : nay, even when true and accurately
juft, they cannot be admitted unlefs when con-
cife; for be their defcriptive powers what they
will.
OF ANATOMY, &C. IO3
will, they become ridiculous when they run
out to the length of fentences.
Are all fuch terms, then, to be rejected from
the language of anatomy ? and ought there to
be a complete revolution in its nomenclature ?
To anfwer thefe queftions, it may be obferved,
that no where perhaps is prudence more necef-
fary than in our attempts to innovate on ha-
bits and eftablifhed cuftoms. — Thofe terms may
furely be retained which are juft and accurate,
and not too long ; — thofe which affift us in dif-
criminating objects;—- and thofe likewife, how-
ever abfurd their original allufions, that, in
courfe of time, have laid afide their primary
fenfe, and begun to be ufed as arbitrary names.
With refpecl to the lait, the bufy genealogift
may fometimes be tracing them to what they
have been ; and mould he not find them ho-
nourably connected, may endeavour to raife
prejudices againft them ; but few who are deep-
ly interefled in fcience will pay much atten-
tion to his furmifes. A genius for minute and
accurate inveftigation is highly commendable,
G 4 and
104 TECHNICAL LANGUAGE
and has frequently led to fublime fpeculations ;
but wherever it gets into a wrong path, and
allows itfelf to be occupied with trifles, it be-
comes contemptible.
The learned philologift indeed may chace
A panting fyllable through time and fpace 5
Start it at home, and hunt it in the dark
To Gaul, to Greece, and into Noah's ark * :
But if his object be not of importance,
The folemn trifler, with his boafted fkill,
Toils much, and is a folemn trifler ftillf .
The words inkhorn, pofthorn, candle/lick, have
all been retained in a fenfe different from the
original ; but fince they have dropt that ori-
ginal meaning, they are found as expreffive,
and as feldom the caufes of niiftake, as any
other words in the Englifh language. Even
in chemiflry, the words oxygen, hydrogen, azot,
are now ufed as arbitrary terms, and only with
a few fugged an idea of Lavoilier's hypothe-
cs.
Nor
* Cowper's Retirement. f Cowper's Charity*
Or ANATOMY, &€. I©5
Nor is it perhaps difficult to explain how
many words, from being defcriptive, fhould
thus become arbitrary. Suppofe that five dif-
ferent perfons faw each a different fet of expe-
riments on one of the gafes whofe name was
unknown, and that each mould afterwards ex-
plain to the reft what he had feen ; it would
be impoffible for them to know that they all
were defcribing but different phenomena of
the fame gas.
Suppofe, again, that during the experiments
each had been told that the gas was oxy-
gen, the word oxygen would have with each
a different meaning ; and mould it be after-
wards pronounced in their prefence, would
ferve as a fignal of general rendezvous for all
their ideas on the nature of the gas. Upon hear-
ing the word oxygen pronounced, each would
recal and marfhal in his memory his quota of
phenomena ; every quota would differ from
another, but every one of them would belong
to oxygen ; and they now would perceive, up-
on each relating what he had feen, that the
properties and phenomena of this fubftance
were
IC6 TECHNICAL LANGUAGE
were more numerous than what any of them
had previoufly imagined.
Suppofe farther, that all its various pro-
perties and phenomena are known to the
five, and that each now were deli red to men-
tion a few of the moil obvious and chara&e-
riftic, it is probable that each, if any room
were left for fele&ion, would mention thofe
which had made the deepeft and moft lively
impreffion on his own mind; an impreffion
which evidently would depend upon taile, fan-
cy, and judgment, and a variety of other cir-
cumftances, not ealily enumerated. Allowing,
however, the fele&ion to be made, and that
each were required to give to the gas a de-
fcriptive name alluding to the property which
he conceived the moft obvious and chara&e-
riftic, every name would differ from another,
all would be limited in their fignification, and
each pointing out a particular property exclu-
five of others ; none of them would, while in
that capacity, ferve as a fignal of general ren-
dezvous for our ideas on the fubjecl of oxygen.
A
OF ANATOMY, &C. IO7
A defcriptive name is therefore inferior, in
certain cafes, to an arbitrary name. The for-
mer recals particular ideas, the latter makes
no diftin&ion whatever, but fummons every
idea on the fubject ; and when they are all
collected together, arranged, and examined,
prefents us with a general view of the whole.
From this it appears that the arbitrary name
is the fymbol of a clafs, genus, or fpecies,
which every one defines or defcribes accord-
ing to the notions which he has collected
from among the individuals ; and that the
defcriptive is the fymbol only of a certain
character belonging to this clafs, genus, or
fpecies, which, when it difcriminates con-
cifely and accurately, is convenient and ufe-
ful, but otherwife obtrudes the author's con-
ceit, folicits our attention to fome particular
fancy or whim, and prefumes to recommend
it as the guide or the object of our refearches.
If oxygen, hydrogen, and azot, exhibit a
variety of different characters befides thofe
implied in their names, every man, as well
as
I©8 TECHNICAL LANGUAGE
as Lavoifier, will feel he has a right to fix
on his own marks of diftin&ion, and will na-
turally prefer his own to another's : fo that fuch
words muft at lad be ufed in an arbitrary fenfe,
or be laid afide; for no man in a matter of in-
difference will fubmit to the tyranny of being
unneceffarily reftridted in his choice. A de-
fcriptive word is fomewhat like a picture: Now
if a picture be meant for a likenefs, it mould
either exhibit every character of the original,
or at lead thofe that are unavoidably obvious
to all ; for different pecfons will diflinguifh an
object by different marks and different por-
tions, and thofe will never difcover the refenj-
blance who fee not the features by which they
were wont to know the original; though others,
accuftomed to know it by the traits which the
painter has copied, may be furprifed at their
want of penetration, and pronounce the figure
an admirable likenefs.
Indeed Lavoifier has not extended his de-
scriptive language through the whole nomen-
clature ; he has confined it to thofe fubftan-
ces
Or ANATOMY, &C IO9
ces that in his time were but newly difcovered,
and to that part of chemical fcience where he
found it necefTary, for the fake of arrangement.
Exclufive of a few of the fimple fubftances, he
has confined it to the combinations of oxygen
with metals, and the combinations of acids with
rnetals, alkalies, and earths. His partiality for
thefe acids, the caufe of whofe diftinguifhing
property he found to be oxygen, has made him
divide the lafl combinations into fulphats, ni-
trats, muriats, and fo on, as if the acids were
fo many fpecies or modifications of the different
metals, alkalies, and earths. Thus under calx,
which fignifies lime, we find the divifions to
be fulphats, nitrats, muriats, acetats, &c. ; in-
Head of calx vitriolata, nitrata, muriata, ace-
tata ; the more fimple and natural divifions of
the ingenious ever memorable Bergman. Yet
Lavoifier's method has alfo its advantages ; and
at this time of day, where no real inconvenien-
cy is felt, any alteration could only proceed
from mifguided ignorance, or a fpecies of ma-
nia for nomenclaturing.
Linnaeus,
110 ' TECHNICAL LANGUAGE
Linnaeus, as well as Lavoifier, adopted a new
claflifieation ; and the clufters or groups into
which he has divided natural objects were^ fo
far at leaft as arrangement is concerned, entirely
a work of his own creation* Thefe neceiTarily
required new names ; and thefe names are fome-
times defcriptive, expreffing the characters by
which the clufters or groups are diftinguifhed 5
at the fame time he gave new names to the in-
dividual objects which had none ; fixed upon
one particular name where there were many 5
rejected thofe which had double meanings 5
reftricted the fenfe of thofe which were vague 5
and in fhort employed every precaution to a-
void whatever in the nature of language tend-
ed to miflead, retard, or obftruct the ftudious
mind in the progrefs of knowledge. Thro' the
whole of this tedious and arduous talk he was
other wife employed than in the puerile fhift*
ing of names with a view to improvement. To
change one name for another was rather the
bufinefs of a tranflator thanaphilofopher; and
he feems not fo much to have aimed at chan-
ging
OF ANATOMY, &C. Ill
ging the language of fcience, as at rendering it
clear, concife, and accurate, by his lucid and
correct mode of arrangement.
If we therefore imitate him and Lavoifier, a
new fet of terms in the language of anatomy
will neither be our fole nor our principal ob-
ject; we muft likewife attend to that kind of
claffification which is belt fuited to the nature
of the fcience, and is bed calculated to give
clearnefs, precifion, and effect, to its nomen-
clature. Belides, as we often muft have re-
courfe to comparative anatomy to iliuftrate ma-
ny of the human functions, we ought to con-
trive many, at leaft, of the general terms in
fuch a way as to apply equally to man and the
lower animals, from whom thefe illuftrations
are borrowed.
CHAP.
112 TERMS RELATING TO
CHAP. IV,
OK THE TERMS RELATING TO POSITION
AND ASPECT.
JuLaving feen how much the effential merits
of every nomenclature muft depend on the pre-
vious arrangement of its objects, it may here
be obferved, for the fake of order, that the ani-
mal fy (terns, for which we principally intend this
nomenclature, are compofed of a great variety of
organs, differing in appearance, flructare, and
function ; that thefe organs conftitute fo many
fubordinate fyftems, arranged under the va-
rious names of Bones, Mufcles, Arteries, Veins,
Lymphatics, Nerves, Organs of Refpiration,
Digeftion, Generation, Senfe, 8cc. ; that fub-
fervient to thefe are different kinds of connect-
ing fubftances which act as ligaments ; diffe-
rent
POSITION AND ASPECT. II3
rent kinds of fecreting organs, which are call-
ed Glands ; different kinds of membranous webs
which envelope them ; and a common cover-
ing of different layers, called the Integuments,
which furrounds the whole.
As in a fyftem fo complex and varied, an accu-
rate knowledge of fituation and pofkion mull
ever be a matter of the firft importance, anato-
mifts have long been in the practice of confider-
ing every organ as poffeffing eight different af-
rjecls, which point in as many different direc-
tions ; upwards, downwards, backwards, for-
.wards, outwards, inwards, to the right, and to
the left; while the epithets ufually employed to
diftinguifh them zvefuperior, inferior, pojlerior^
anterior, external, internal, right, and left. Now
as one or other of thefe terms happens to occur
in almoft every anatomical defcription, it is pro-
per that they mould be weighed and exami-
ned before we proceed to the names and ar-
rangements of fubordinate fyftems.
Thefe terms, and m oft others which have a
reference to the different afpec~ts, are in every
H writer
214 TERMS RELATING TO
writer borrowed from the common language
of the country, where they are ufed in a vague
fenfe both in their literal and figurative accep-
tation. From the various directions, lituations,
and pofitions to which they are applied, not
being accurately clafYed and defined, they are
carelefsly transferred, on the flighted analogy,
from one to another, with fcarcely any fort of
difcrimination. They may indeed be occafion-
ally defined ; but, in general, what iignifies a
definition? No definition can eafily break the
ilrong aifociation between them and their ideas ;
an aifociation which has been gradually forming
for years, and which continues to be fupported
daily by the public fancftion. Their ambiguous
meaning will be conftantly recurring whenever
they are uttered ; and while that recurs, or is
apt to recur, we may venture to fay that they
cannot with propriety be retained in anatomy.
On this fingle objection alone they ought to be
rejected ; but unfortunately there are others
which are lefs furmoun table, and which will
appear on a more particular inveftigation,
SUPERIOR
POSITION AND ASPECT. Xlg
Superior and Inferior.
These terms, in their primary fenfe, con-
tain an allufion to the fituation of different ob-
jects, as they ftand with refpect to the heavens
and the earth ; and that they may regularly
carry this allufion to the fame parts in the lan-
guage of anatomy, the body is fuppofed always
to remain in the fame pofition. The parties
lar pofition which anatomifts have chofen is
the erect ; but this pofition being rather un-
natural for the lower animals, we call in the
affiftance of fancy* and in fpite of the fenfes
fet them bolt upright on the point of their
tail, or their hind legs ; or, difregarding the
primary fenfe of fuperior and inferior, we ap-
ply them, without any reference to afpect, to
parts that correfpond in form, ufe, or fyflematic
connection*
H 2 Anterior
Il6 TERMS RELATING T6
Anterior and Posterior,
Like thelaft, fuppofe the ereft pofition, and
denote the parts before and behind. In the
lower animals^ when allowed to remain in their -
natural attitude, they fignify the parts below
and above ; and thus ufed as a fort of arbitrary
terms, exprefs correfponding parts of the fyf-
tem.
External and Internal
Are more vague than the preceding. The
parts of generation are external or internal with
refpecl: to the general furface of the body.
The parts of an organ are external or inter-
nal with refpecl: to the furface of the organ
itfelf. :
The angles of the eye are external and in-
ternal with refpecl; to the lateral parts of the
face and the middle fuperficial line that divides
them.
The
POSITION AND ASPECT. II7
The parts of the leg are external and inter-
nal with refpect to its furface, or with refpect.
to the nearnefs and diftance of the line that
paffes through the axis of the body. Thus all
parts of the leg are external if fuperficial; and
all parts likewife external, however deep, if
they happen to be fituated in what we exprefs
by the outer fide.
While the arm is in a (late of extenfion, and
parallel to the trunk, the fide next the trunk is
internal ; but as the radius rolls on its axis, it
becomes a queftion, which is the fide next to the
trunk? The thumb, the palm, and the little fin-
ger, may in fucceffion all afiume thatfituation.
Accordingly thofe who defcribe the hand in a
(late of pronation, make the thumb internal ;
thofe who defcribe it in a Rate of fupination, make
the finger external ; while Albinus, preferring
the middle pofition, makes the palm internal.
Thus each of thefe words in the upper extre-
mity, adding the fenfe fuperficial and deep,
have no lefs than four different meanings; and
three of thefe extended to the bones, mufcles,
H 3 blood-
Il8 TERMS RELATING TO'
blood-veffels, and nerves. And as if the eon*
fufion were ftill incomplete, Innes, in defcri*
bing the interoffei, takes one of the fenfes, where
he fpeaks of their origin ; and another, where
he talks of their infertion.
Right and Left
Can never be applied with any propriety to
parts of the extremities. As the right fide of
the one leg or arm correfponds in form, ftruc-
ture, and functions to what is the left fide of
the other ; they are therefore applied to the
extremities only as wholes, and to parts of the
vifcera in the great venters, where they fome-
times attempt to denote fituation with little
fuccefs, particularly when applied to the car*
diac ventricles, finufes, and auricles.
CHAP.
POSITION AND ASPECT. MQ
CHAP. VI.
NEW TERMS RELATING TO POSITION AND
ASPECT.
1 he numerous miftakes that daily refult from
the ambiguity and frequent occurrence of thefe
terms, is furely a reproach to our nomencla-
ture ; and few will deny that they ought to be
rejected if better ones could be fubftituted for
them. With all fubmiffion to the judgment
of others, I fhall mention fome which are cer-
tainly more determinate in meaning, and not
more difficult in their application ; and as the
Trunk and Extremities feem to require
different kinds, I mail begin with thofe for
:the trunk,
H 4 Terms
120 new terms relating to
Terms for the different Aspects of the
Trunk.
Anatomists know that in defcribing the
vertebral column, we call the bone which is
neareft to the head the Atlas, and the mafs
of vertebras at the oppoiite extremity the Sa-
crum. In fyrlematic connection thefe occupy
correfponding regions in all animals in which
they are found. Inftead of the words Superior
and Inferior, I would therefore propofe At-
lantal and Sacral.
The bread and the back exprefs likewife
correfponding regions in all animals ; and there-
fore, inftead of Anterior and Pofierior, we might
adopt Sternal and Dorsal.
When External and Internal fignify what is
fuperficial and deep, we might, in their place,
employ the words Dermal and Central, de-
noting what points to the fkin and what to the
centre : or if we happen to be fpeaking of an or-
gan, Peripheral and Gen tral ; the term Peri-
pheral
POSITION AND ASPECT. 121
pheral being derived from the Greek word
that fignifies " circumference."
When they lignify the fide and middle of a
furface, fuppofe a plane, to pafs along the mid-
dle of the neck, the mediaftinum, and linea alba,
and to dividing the neck and the trunk into
fimilar halves from the fternum to the dorfum,
and let this plane be denominated Mesion ;
Lateral and Mesial will in fuch a cafe con-
vey the meaning of external and internal; and
in many other cafes, as we mall afterwards fee
by examples, be extremely ufeful in exprefiing
both fituation and direction.
The peculiar meanings of External and In-
ternal, as they are applied to the extremities,
will be better referred to their proper place.
As for the lateral parts of the trunk, Right
and Left might (till denote thefe ; although,
for the reafons already affigned in the general,
obfervations, Dextral and Sinistral might
perhaps be preferable ; or mould there be no
occafion fcr diftinction, as may fometimes hap-
pen, the word Lateral may ferve for both.
It
122 NEW TERMS RELATING TO
It has already been noticed, that it is chief-
ly in defcribing the heart they are apt to con-
vey an ambiguous meaning, and occafion trou-
ble to the anatomifl ; for what are called the
right and left ventricles are ftriclly fpeaking
neither right nor left ; and thofe who have
chofen to call them rather anterior and pojle-
rior have employed terms equally vague; and
more erroneous if they be extended to compa-
rative anatomy. To avoid the inaccuracies
which muft therefore arife from the ufe of fuch
language, it mould be remarked, that the vaf-
cular fyftem in all the nobler fpecies of animals
may be divided into two parts, each confifting
of veins and arteries. The one for conveying
blood from the lungs to the fyftem at large,
and the other for conveying it again from the
fyftem back to the lungs. Let the veifels which
convey it from the lungs to the fyftem be call-
ed the Systemic, and thofe which convey it
from the fyftem to the lungs be named the
Pulmonic, and all ambiguity will be avoided.
Thus the pulmonary veins, the left finus, au-
ricle,
POSITION AND ASPECT. I23
ricle, and ventricle, with the aorta and all
its branches, will bejyjiemicj while the bron-
chial veins, the veins of the head, heart, trunk,
and extremities, the right finus, auricle, and
ventricle, with the pulmonary artery and all
its branches, will be diftinguifhed by the epi^
thet pulmonic ; and if it be neceffary to mark
their fituation with refpect to the trunk, or to
one another in this or that fpecies of animal,
the terms already ufed for the trunk, as atten-
tat, facral, Jlernal, dorfal, dermal, central, dex-
iral^Jlnijlral, lateral, and mefial, may conveni-
ently be ufed for that purpofe.
Befides removing much ambiguity, another
advantage that naturally arifes from this change
in the nomenclature is, that inftead of being
obliged to enumerate the vefTels in which the
purpk and in which the vermilion blood is
contained, we may fay at once that the purple
is contained in all the pulmonic vefTels, and the
vermilion in all the fyflemic, whether veins or
arteries \ that thofe animals which have but
pne auricle and ventricle have no vena pulmo-
nic
124 NEW TERMS RELATING TO
nic fyftem, or veins which carry blood to their
lungs 5 that their pulmonary veffels, in fome
meafure, correfpond in function to our bron-
chials ; and that their blood, undergoing a
change from the action of the air, is entirely
confined to fyftemic yeins.
Terms for the Aspects of the
Extremities.
In defcribing the two kinds of extremities,
we may naturally diftinguifh them by epithets
borrowed from the regions of the trunk with
which they are connected, calling the Superior,
Atlantal, and the Inferior^ Sacral extre-
mities.
In mentioning the ends of thefe extremi-
ties, or the ends of the bones of which they
are compofed, we may, with a reference to the
courfe or direction of the extremity, denomi-
nate the end which is neareft to the trunk the
Proximal end, and that which is farthefl
from it the Distal. Thefe lad terms may be
ufed
POSITION AND ASPECT. |2j
ufed as common in defcribing both kinds of ex-
tremities, and in diftinguifhing the ends of the
coccyx and its different vertebrae. The other
terms mull be appropriate if they are to be
borrowed from the names of the parts which
conftitute the two fpecies, of organs.
Terms for the Atlantal Extremities.
In thefe extremities we may ufe the terms
Radial and Ulnar to fignify the two lateral
parts, and with little hefitation ; as thefe terms
have already been adopted by the accurate Win-
flow and other anatomifts of great eminence.
To the other two fides we may give the epi-
thets Anconal and Thenal : The word anconal
containing an allufion to that projecting point
of the elbow which the ancient Athenians
and modern anatomifls have called olecranon;
but which other Greeks denominated an-
con, the name from which we derive the epi-
thet belonging to the mufcles called anconei.
The
126 ' NEW TERMS RELATING TO
The word thenal is taken from thenar, the
Greek name for the palm of the hand : but
here we transfer the word thenar to fig-
nify the flexure or fide of the elbow oppofed
to the ancon ; allowing the word void to remain,
and ft ill to fignify that part on the thenal fide
which is called the palm.
The afpects therefore of each atlantal extre-
mity, and of all its parts from the fcapuia
downwards, will be Proximal and Distal,
Dermal, Central, Ulnar, and Radial,
Anconal and Thenal ; while the fcapuia, -
from its clofe and intimate connection, will
have its afpe6ts better exprelfed by the terms
for the trunk.
Terms for the Sacral Extremities,
Those parts in the facral extremities which
correfpond in their general form, iituation, and
function, with the ulna, radius^ thenar, and
ancon of the other extremities, are the tibia,
fibula,
POSITION AND ASPECT. tVf
fibula, poples, and rotula ; and therefore, if we
here preferve the analogy, the eight afpects of
the facral extremities will be Proximal and
Distal, Dermal, Central, Tibial, Fi-
bular, Popliteal and Rotular ; allow-
ing the word planta to remain, as we did vola,
to exprefs the fole on the popliteal fide of the
foot ; and the large lateral bones of the pelvis
to borrow their terms, as does the fcapula, from
the afpe&s of the trunk.
That the whole of thefe terms may be as
generally ufeful as poffible, they are meant to
extend in their application as far as thofe for
which they are fubftituted. Thus, forinitance,
in the Atlantal extremity, the humerus, and
every bone to the points of the fingers, is fup-
pofed to have a proximal and di/lal, a peri-
pheral and central, an ulnar and radial, a the-
nal and anconal afpect ; while the relative fitu-
ation of every nerve, mufcle, and artery, is to
be exprefTed by fome one or other of thefe epi-
thets. To illuilrate my meaning by an exam-
ple, I {hall take the interoffei mufcles, which
are
128 NEW TERMS RELATING TO
are nothing more than the adductors and ab-
ductors of the fingers. Albinus calls thofe
which appear on both fides of the hand the
external, and thofe which appear on the palms
only, the internal. Innes retains the diftinction
of Albinus with refpect to the origin of thefe
mufcles ; but when he fpeaks of their infertion,
ufes the words external and internal in a diffe-
rent fenfe to denote the lateral parts of the fin-
gers. If the terms here propofed were adopt-
ed, thefe mufcles, with refpect to their origins,
would be all either anconal or thenal, and with
refpecl to their infertion radial or ulnar. Thus
I would fay, in fpeaking of their origins, that
the two belonging to the forefinger are thenal;
the two belonging to the middle finger, anco-
nal; thofe belonging to the ring finger and
little finger, alternately, thenal and anconal ;
the fewo thenal inferted into the radial, and the
two anconal into the ulnar fides of thefe fin-
gers. I have only to add, that the happy ef-
fects refulting from the parrial ufe of fuch de-
finite terms in Murray's Defcription of the Ar-
teries,
POSITION AND ASPECT. I2<>
teries, muft make every one who is truly and
ferioufly interefled in anatomy extremely anxi-
ous to fee them more generally employed.
The objections ftarted againft thefe terms, if
there be any, will, I conceive, be probably
fomewhat of the following nature.
The words atlantal, facral, and Jlernal, al*
lude to parts that are not to be found in thofe
animals which have no vertebrae; and, befides*
the allufion is not confined to the part itfelf,
but extended to a fort of imaginary plane that
is fuppofed to be in their vicinity. The an-
fwer is, that the parts occupy correfponding
regions in all animals in which they are
found ; ihow where the planes are to be drawn \
and that, infiead of multiplying terms, and
forming new and diftincl: nomenclatures for all
the diftincl clafles of animals, it was thought
better, where no ambiguity was to be dreaded,
to give to the epithets borrowed from thefe
parts a fort of general and arbitrary fenfe, and
transfer them, by analogy, to all the corre-
I fponding
I3O NEW TERMS RELATING TO
fponding regions of the fyftem in every fpecies.
The objection ariling to the anfwer itfelf, that
thefe terms, taken in a general and arbitrary
fenfe, can no longer allude to the parts from
which they are borrowed, is eafily removed by
caufing a change in the termination, to fhow
when they allude to the part, and when to the
afpecl.
Similar objections may likewife be made to
the words ulnar, radial, tibial, fibular, rotular,
and popliteal; and a fimilar anfwer may alfo
be given : though this may be further faid in
their favour, that they have been adopted by
other anatomifts, particularly Chauflier ; and
if their ufe here be extended, it was to avoid
the unneceffary multiplication of terms, and to
preferve, as much as poffible, fimplicity, unity,
and concifenefs of arrangement, by limiting
the number of general afpedts to which the
fubordinate ones are referred.
The meaning of the words anconal and the~
nal is likewife different from their primary
meaning \ but the language from which they
are
POSITION AND ASPECT. I3I
ar*i borrowed is dead, and the primary mean-
ing will have little chance of being fuggeiled,
along with that in which they are employed,
to denote two afpe&s of the arm.
From the rotatory motions of the radius, and
its varying pofitions with regard to the ulna in
various cafes, it may be difficult, in certain
places, to diftinguifh the afpecls when they
happen to run in a fpiral courfe ; but though
this difficulty may often occur, it may always
be removed by afcertaining the different af-
pe&s at the joint of the elbow, when the ra-
dius is placed, or fuppofed to be placed, in a
Hate of fupination. From that point their fpi-
ral courfe may ealily be followed in oppofite di-
rections both along the humerus and fore arm.
Proximal and dijlal are chofen in preference
to proximate and diftant, as being no parts of
colloquial language ; and likewife for the fake
of their termination, as all the other words de-
noting pojition terminate either in a I or ar.
Central is a word borrowed indeed from col-
loquial language; but here can occafion no am-
I 2 biguity,
132 NEW TERMS RELATING TO
biguity, it being underftood in the fame lati^
tude with the other terms.
As for the terms peripheral, mejial, and der-
mal, thefe, or words of a fimilar import, were
abfolutely neceffary : but whether or not more
agreeable founds might have been gotten to ex-
prefs their fenfes, was a fubject on which I
have not bellowed very much inquiry.
Having now £ttn the defects of the terms
denoting pofition in the trunk and extremities,
and tried to remedy them, let us next fee whe-
ther or not there be any defects in their ex-
preffion when applied to the head. In the hu-
man fpecies the word fuperior, in its primary
fenfe, will allude to a part of the frontal bone,
and that part of the parietals which lies near
the fagittal future. It will likewife allude to
iimilar parts in the meep and ox, and fome
other quadrupeds ; but were thefe quadrupeds
to alfume the erect pofture, the parts that are
fuperior would be pofterior : and were man to
affume the pofture of the quadruped, the parts
that
POSITION AND ASPECT. 133
that arefuperior would become anterior. Su-
perior therefore, in thefe cafes, denotes always,
to a certain extent, fimilar parts, when the at-
titudes of the two fpecies are different; and
diffimilar parts, when they are the fame. In-
ferior, on the contrary, fimilar parts, when the
attitudes are the fame; and diffimilar parts,
when they are different : For, in the natural
and ordinary pofture of flanding or walking,
Inferior alludes to the bafis of the cranium
in the human fpecies, but to the mouth and
lips of thefe quadrupeds; yet both terms would
fignify a ftill greater variety were they farther
extended to birds, fifhes, reptiles, and infeds.
Anterior and po/Ierior, at the fame time, if thus
extended, would be equally vague ; while ex-
ternal and internal would be almoft an endlefs
fource of ambiguity. But the force of this rea-
foning will appear more evident from the fol-
lowing Statement, where the terms are ufed
in their primary fenfe, and applied to each
fpecies in its common attitude of moving or
ftanding,
I 3 Superior.
134 njew terms relating to
Superior.
In man, part of the frontal and parietal bones.
In fheep and oxen, part of the frontal, parie-
tal, and occipital bones.
In dogs and horfes, part of the parietal and
occipital bones.
In frogs, ferpents, and various fifhes, all the
^ of the cranium and face which com
pofe the plane oppofite to the bafe.
Inferior.
In man, the bafe of the lower maxillary bone,
and the bones forming the bafe of the cra-
nium.
In fheep and oxen, the middle part of the
maxillary curves.
In dogs and horfes, the fame.
In frogs, ferpents, and in various filhes, the
bafe of .the lower maxillary bone, and the
bones
Position and aspect. 135
bones forming the bafe of the crani-
um.
Anterior.
In man, the eyes, the middle part of the max-
illary curves, and the bones of the face, op-
pofed to the riling part of the occiput.
In oxen and fheep, the bones of the face, op-
pofed to the bafe of the cranium and head.
In dogs and horfes, the fame.
In frogs, ferpents, and in various fifties, the
middle part of the maxillary curves.
Posterior,
In man, part of the parietal and occipital bones.
In fheep, oxen, and mofl quadrupeds, exclu-
ding the amphibia, the bafe of the cranium.
In frogs, ferpents, and in various fifties, the
occiput,
1 4 External
I36 NEW TERMS RELATING TO
External and Internal
Are as faulty when applied in fome of their
fenfes to the regions of the head as they are
in other parts of the fyftem. What mean-
ing, for inftance, can we affix to the exter-
nal and internal angle of the eye where the
eye is round, where it is lateral, where it is
vertical, or where the line palling from one
angle to the other runs not tranfverfely, but
longitudinally with refpect to the head ?
^From this ftatement it mud be evident that
the prefent terms for denoting Jituati on will be
attended with as much confufion in defcribing
the head as any other part of the fyftem ; and
that other terms ought to be employed, if we
either wifh to avoid ambiguity, or make ufe
of general and precife language. At the fame
time, it will readily be granted, that if the
terms already propofed for the trunk or extre-
mities could, with any propriety, be extended
to
POSITION AND ASPECT. 137
to the head, new terms would not only be un-
necessary, but abfurdly fuperfluous. But while
anxious to avoid an improper multiplication of
terms, we mud recollect that two or three
words, having each a definite and precife mean-
ing* are not fo troublefome and dangerous in
fcience as one word with two or three meanings
that are different ; for every word employed
to exprefs two or three objects fpecifically dif-
ferent, muft neceflarily introduce a fort of con-
fulion into our ideas ; tend to miflead us in
the paths of inquiry ; and unlefs we are guard-
ed, conduct us at lail into the regions of igno-
rance and error. Forewarned, therefore, of
the evils which arife from fuch redundan-
cies in fenfe or expreffion, let us inquire whe-
ther any of the terms already fuggefled can
be extended to the parts of the head. In
doing this, it is needlefs to obferve that thofe
containing particular allufions to parts of the
extremities muft be ill adapted to exprefs thofe
of the cranium and face ; and that, if we con-
fider the pofition of the head in different ani-
mals,
I38 NEW TERMS RELATING TO
mals, we muft inftantly perceive that Jiernal,
dorfal, atlantal, and facral, can do no more
than mark the relative lituation of parts, or the
different politions of the head and trunk with
reipect to one another. But as even this may
be an object of fome importance ; as it may
introduce into our defcriptions a greater degree
of clearnefs and precifion ; and lead to con-
clulions in phyfiology that may be both inte-
refting and ufeful — I fhall here mow the man-
ner in which the application of fuch terms may
be extended ; and fliall take firft, in the way
of -illuftration,
Atlantal and Sacral.
In applying thefe terms to the head, let us
call the line which follows the direction of the
vertebral column from the facrum to the atlas
the Vertebral Line ; and fuppofe it conti-
nued perpendicular to the plane of the foramen
magnum till it fall on fome bone of tire cranium
or
POSITION AND ASPECT. I yj
or face. Let this bone, whatever it be, in that
cafe be called the atlantal ; we fhall find, on
inquiry, that the parietal bones will be atlan*
tal in one fpecies, the frontal in another, and
fome different bone in a third \ that the angle
formed between this bone and the vertebral
line will vary confiderably in different animals \
and that when the line happens to fall on the
fame bone, it will often fall on a different part
in a different fpecies. In man, for inflance, it
will fall on the fagittal, a little behind the co-
ronal future ; in all other animals it will fall
more towards the face. In the ape, it will fall
on the frontal bone, a little before the coronal
future ; in the dog and horfe, as far down as
the orbitary ridge \ in the mole, the rat, and
fome other quadrupeds, it will flrike on fome
part of the nofe ; in frogs and ferpents, will
defcend as low as the maxillary curves ; and
in fome animals may pafs obliquely from above
downwards through the bafis of the head.
If the term facral be applied to the head, it
mufl always denote that fide which is oppofed
to
140 NEW TERMS RELATING TO
to the atlantal, and may eafily be found from
obferving the place of the foramen magnum,
which in all cafes muft be necefiarily facral.
The fituation of the facral fide will therefore
vary with the foramen, which in human fculls
is found in the bafe \ but as we defcend thro'
quadrupeds and birds, proceeds backwards, till
in ferpents and flfhes we find it at that part of
tHe head which is oppofite to the mouth or
middle part of the maxillary curves. In fhort,
it recedes more and more backwards, towards
the one extremity of the head, as the vertebral
line comes more and more forwards towards
the other. From this fixed and mutual rela-
tion we may, from knowing the atlantal point,
afcertain in fome meafure the fituation of the
foramen ; obtain fome idea of the form of the
head, of its relative pofition with regard to the
trunk, of the moil: ufual pofture of the animal
in motion; and a variety of other circum-
fiances that neceifarily depend upon thefe
diflinclions,
Sternal
position and aspect. i4i
Sternal and Dorsal.
These terms, when applied to the head, will
fignify parts in the fame plane, in planes paral-
lel, or nearly parallel to the fternum and dor-
fum ; and mould the fternum and dorfum be
parallel, thefe planes will always be fternal which
are on the fternal fide, and thofe dorfal which
are on the dorfal fide of the vertebral line.
In the human fpecies the whole face bound-
ed by the chin, the hairy fcalp, and the
two lateral parts of the head, will be fternal.
1 — In fheep and oxen, when the head is in the
ufual pofition, with the bafe feemingly at right
angles to the vertebral line, the maxillary
curves only will be fternal. — But in ferpents
and frogs, the bails of the cranium will be found
fternal, while the maxillary curves will become
atlantal.
In the human fpecies, the word dorfal will
denote the rifing part of the occipital bone
and pofterior part of the two parietals. — In
fheep
142 NEW TERMS RELATING TO
flieep and oxen, not only a part of the occipi-
tal bone, but the upper part of the parietal
arch, thro' its whole extent, from behind for-
wards, including a part of the frontal bone. —
In ferpents and frogs, not only the upper part
of the cranium, but likewife moft of the bones
of the face, which are not on the fides or ba-
lls of the head.
It feems to be therefore a general law, that
the parts of the head which are atlantal and
flernal in man mould, in defcending through
the lower animals, gradually approach more
and more to the dorfal fituation, and the parts
which are facral more and more to that which
is fternal. From knowing therefore the parts
of the head which are fternal and dorfal, we
will be led to nearly the fame general conclu-
fionsthat we drew from the points atlantal and
facral; w7e will learn the relative polition of
the head with regard to the trunk, the fitua-
tion of the foramen, the uiual attitude of the
animal in motion, the form of the cranium, and
how far it deviates from die human fTiape. We
may
POSITION AND ASPECT. I43
may alfo acquire, in this way, fome general
idea of the nervous fyftem, The proportion
between the diameters of the cranium and fo-
ramen magnum is ufually connected with the
fhape of the head and the fituation of the fo-
ramen : from knowing therefore the fhape
and fituation, we may form fome idea of the
relative proportion of the two diameters ; and
from knowing the proportion of the two dia-
meters, we may know the proportion between
the brain and the fpinai marrow; and as the fa-
gacity and vital energy feems to be regulated
by this proportion, we hence may form pretty-
accurate conjectures with refpecl to the de-
gree of the intellectual functions, the tena-
cioufnefs of life, and power of reproduction
poffefied by the animal.
But altho' the extenfion of thefe terms may
be highly ufeful in many phyfiological deduc-
tions, they are not adapted to the feparate ana-
tomical defcription of the head. In the cafe
of a defcription, the bead, which eoniifts of
two parts, the cranium and face, neceliarily re-
quires
144 N£w TERMS RELATING TO
quires terms of its own, as well as the trunk
and the extremities ; and thefe terms might
be borrowed from the bones, if it were pof~
fible in that way to make them precife. But,
unfortunately, in the cranium there are no
bones, not even the ethmoidal, entirely confi-
ned to one of its afpe&s ; and the bones of the
face vary fo much in their form, proportion,
and general appearance in different animals,
that they are equally unfit for our purpofe.
We mud therefore endeavour to contrive names
for defcribing the afpects of the cranium and
face, that contain no allufion to the fituation of
particular parts.
Taking the head as a whole, thefe afpecls
mould be eight in number ; but fuppofing the
falx a mejial plane, dividing it into two fi-
milar halves, they will amount to nine ; and
by dividing it into cranium and face, a tenth
may be necefiary. But as dermal \ central, dex-
tral, Jiniftral, and mejial, are equally applica-
ble to the head and trunk, we only require five
that are new : two for the bafe and crown of
the
POSITION AND ASPECT. 1 45
the head, two for the hind and fore part of the
cranium, and one for the face.
The bafe and crown of the head, which are
oppoiite, may be called the Basilar and Co-
ronal afpects.
Between thefe tw7o and the lateral afpects
there is a projecting part of the cranium be-
hind, which the Romans called occiput, and
the Greeks inion. The Greek word is prefer-
able to the Latin, as it does not convey any al-
lufion to the occipital bone, which is found
in two different afpects, the bajilar, and that
which may now be called Inial.
In the oppoiite extremity of the cranium*
where the nafal bones are found connected
with the os frontis, there is a part w,hich fome
anatomifls who have written in Latin have
called glabella. This particular afpect of the
cranium, the afpect which is always oppofed
to the inion, may be named Glabellar.
The part of the face which is placed at the
greateit diftance from the inion, following the
courfe of a ftraight line, is in fome animals a
part of the inferior, in others a part of the fu-
K. perior
I46 NEW TERMS RELATING TO
perior maxillary bone, or in birds, of the
mandibles which correfpond to them, this
diftant part of the face, whatever that happens
to be, may be called the Antinion.
So that the ten afpecls of the head will be
the Dermal, Central, and Mesial, the Dex-
tral and Sinistral, the Coronal and Ba-
silar, the Inial, Antinial, and the Glabel-
lar.
Of the laft feven, if lines be drawn between
every two of the oppofite afpects, they will
conftitute the four following diameters : The
Dextro-sinistral, theCoRONO-BASiLAR, the
Inio-glabellar, and the Inantinial*. The
two former may be taken at different places of
the cranium, towards the glabella, where it has
in general the lead depth and the lean: breadth,
and towards the inion, where the depth and
breadth are ufually greateft ; the firft behind
the temporal procefTes of the os frontis ; and the
other oppofite to the prominent parts of the pa-
rietals, or of the parietal, as in fheep, oxen,
&c.
# Inantimal, a contraction for Jnio-antinial.
POSITION AND ASPECT. I47
&c. where the fagittal future is found only in
the os frontis, and where one bone fupplies the
place of the two parietals. In this way we
mall have two dext'ro-jinijlral and two corono-
hajilar diameters.
The meafurement of thefe feveral diameters
will mew the limits of varying proportion in
the heads and craniums* of the fame fpecies;
and when applied to comparative anatomy, will
difcovera number of fpecific differences as we
defcend in the fcale of being. The inio- glabel-
lar, the two corono-bajilar, and the two dextro-
finijlral, or tranfverfe diameters, will, in general^
be found to have a lefs proportion to the inanti-
nial than they have in man. The inantinial ap-
pears therefore to have fome connection with the
facial angle, which gradually diminifhes as the
inantinial diameter increafes. Should any of
my readers require an explanation of this an-
gle, it is formed by two lines, one drawn from
the middle of the meatus audit orius externus
K 2 to
* An Englifh plural inftead of crania, as the fingular is
partly naturalized.
I48 NEW TERMS RELATING TO
to the inferior part of the noitril, and another
called the facial line, drawn from the fame
part of the noftril to the fuperciliary ridge
of the os frontis. In fome of the Grecian an-
tiques, this is an angle of 100 degrees, and in
fome negroes an angle of 70. When beyond
100, the face is monftrous; when below 70, it
is that of a brute. Even when 100, the face
is unnatural ; and it is very feldom indeed that
we ever find it fo high as 90.
In the Grecian antiques, the maxillary bones,
with the depth and firmnefs of maturer years, re-
tain the fhortnefs peculiar to youth ; and are ne-
ver lengthened fo as to hold a quantity of teeth
of the number and dimenfions that are ufually
found in the jaws of an adult. The brow there-
fore projects beyond the face, and the nofe de-
fcends in a ftraight line. In reafoning coolly, the
form would ftrike us at once as abfurd, and as
an unjuftifiable deviation from nature; but the
fenfes and paffions get interefted, and we feel
pleafed with the genius of the artift who, thus
combining with tafte and judgment whatever
is comely and beautiful in youth, with what is
noble
POSITION AND ASPECT, I49
noble and dignified in age, infenfibly produces
an agreeable impreflion. Although the fea-
tures be rather extraordinary, we feel pleafed
with the general appearance, in the fame man-
ner, as we like to fee what is not very common ;
a fteady and prudent manlinefs in a child, and
a certain degree of fprightly vivacity in an old
man. But ihould it be aiked, Why a fimilar
projection of the face mould be lefs agreeable
than that of the forehead ? the anfwer is ob-
vious : The projection of the forehead, to the
extent in which it is carried in the Grecian an-
tiques, only furpafles our flandard of excel-
lence ; and fo always imprefTes us with an idea
of a more than ufual dignity in the counte-
nance. The projection of the face, on the
other hand, is rather below our ideal flandard ;
neceffarily lengthens the inantinial diameter ;
and produces an appearance that is very near-
ly approximate to the brutes. The aflbciation
of our ideas, it mufl be allowed, has alfo its in-
fluence. Many of the Simiae, though beau-
tiful in themfelves, become exceedingly ug-
ly and difgufting when viewed as men, or as
K 3 ^ intended
150 NEW TERMS RELATING TO
intended imitations of our fpecies ; while the
longer face and the more receding forehead
of the greyhound are deemed elegant, becaufe
he is tried by a ftandard of his own, and no
comparifon fecretly instituted between him and
man.
The facial line does not therefore fhow what
is beautiful and deformed in nature ; but mere-
ly afcertains the inclination of the face to that
line which is drawn from the ear to the infe-
rior part of the noftril. In Camper's figures,
this line is always fuppofed to be horizontal,
and drawn from the middle part of the orifice
of the meatus auditorius externus. Did Camper
forefee that this line might change its pofition
while the form of the head continued the fame?
In the young fkeleton, where the bony meatus
is entirely wanting, and where the line muft
confequently be drawn from the middle of the
ring to which the membrana tympani is attach-
ed, will its direction be found the fame, with
regard to the face, as in the adult ? Certainly
not. The membrana tympani, or bottom of
the external meatus, is more forward, inward,
and
POSITION AND ASPECT. 151
and downward, than the orifice where it is
joined to the concha ; and therefore the di-
rection of this line, with regard to the head,
muft vary with the changes and relative fitua-
tion of the meatus; a fituation which is known
to be different in different animals. In the cat,
for inflance, it enters horizontally; is more ba-
filar than the zygomatic arch ; and its bajilar
margin, if we now may venture to ufe that lan-
guage, is more bafilar than the bafe itfelf, or
advances farther in the bafilar direction.
In the babyrouffa, the meatus is long ; runs
from the tympanum in the coronal, lateral, and
inial directions; or rifes upwards, outwards, and
backwards, fuppofing the erect poflure of the
animal, and the bafe of the head at right angles
to the vertebral column. In this animal the
external orifice of the meatus is more coronal
than the zygoma, or more towards the crown
of the head. If in thefe two inflances, there-
fore, we were, in the manner of Camper, to
draw the horizontal line from the middle of
the orifice of the meatus, we mould draw it
from different points of the head, or from
K 4 points
152 ®EW TERMS RELATING TO
points that do not correfpond in relative fitua-
tion.
The other point to which it is drawn is
likewife variable with refped to polition. In
man and quadrupeds it is found near the max-
illary curve. In birds it is fometimes at one
extremity of the maxilla, fometimes at the
other, and fometimes in the middle. In ceta-
ceous animals, the fpirucula, or breathing holes,
run in a direction obliquely from the bafe to-
wards the corona, and terminate in the face
near the glabellar part of the cranium. The
angle formed by the facial line and the hori-
zontal, in fuch cafes, would, in fome inftan-
ces, be larger than the human t For thefe
reafons, if we wifh to afcertain the fhape of
the head in any refpect, it would be more
accurate, inftead of this auri-nafal line, to
draw a bajilar, or even two bajilar lines ; one
running along the bafllar fide of the palatine
plate of the upper maxilla, and another along
the bafe of the lower maxilla, and both produ-
ced, till they meet the facial line. With this
line? which is likewife produced, they will
form
POSITION AND ASPECT, 153
form two angles ; one, the baji-facial of the fu-
perior or coronal; and the other, the baji-fa-
cial of the inferior or bqfilar maxilla.
Where the line drawn on the palatine plate
is interrupted by the alveolar procefs, a line
may be drawn from the dermal fide on the fup-
pofed continuation of the palatine plane.
Where the palatine plate is convex or con-
cave, the line is fuppofed to be drawn on a plane
that pafTes through its inial and antinial extre-
mities; and in the other maxilla, if thebafilar
lide be convex or concave, it is fuppofed to be
drawn on a plane that proceeds from the angles
to the bajilar or lower fide of the curvature.
As the palatine plate is either parallel, or
nearly parallel to the plane of the mouth, the
angle formed by that plane and the facial
line may alfo be taken, and diftinguifhed
from the others by the name of the ori-facial
angle ; nay, as this angle may always be eafi-
ly and accurately taken in the living body, it
may oftener be ufeful in afcertaining, analogi-
cally, the inclination of the face and the form
of the head than the other two.
Should
154 NEW TERMS RELATING TO
Should the queftion be put, What advan-
tages are we to expect in compenfation fot
all this trouble ? the anfwer is, That a Hea-
dy attention to thefe lines, diameters, and
angles, muft lead to more clear and precife
ideas than we hitherto have had upon the
comparative anatomy of the head ; and if
ever a language peculiarly fitted to exprefs
thefe ideas were generally adopted, no anato-
mift, no phyfiologift, or phyfiognomift, would
prefume to indulge in vague declamation ;
or venture, with any reafon, to complain,
from affectation of myftery, or of fomething
new, that he wanted terms to exprefs his
thoughts and his lingular obfervations.
It is true that every object in nature will ex-
hibit a number of difcriminating characters if
accurately examined, and every one may have
marks of his own by which he diftinguifhes
them ; but if every one mould defcribe an object
only by marks peculiar to himfelf, we fhould ne-
ver difcover that the object, was the fame ; but
rather conclude, that the objects were as diffe-
rent
POSITION AND ASPECT. I 55
rent as the defcriptions. In this way, no one
could poflibly underfland the defcriptions of
another ; and one might defcribe an object as
new which had been defcribed an hundred
times before. It is therefore neceffary to at-
tend to marks of a certain kind, particularly
thofe by which an object is claflified and ar-
ranged. After acquainting us with thefe cha-
racters, we come to know the genus and fpe-
cies to which it belongs ; and then an author
may enumerate as many characters as he choo-
fes, for now we begin to underfland the fub-
ject of which he is treating. It was thus by
directing the attention of mankind to certain
characters, that Linnaeus taught naturalifts all
to fpeak in the fame language, and to be intel-
ligible to one another ; and it is by adopting a
limilar method that we ever can expect, on
rational principles, to improve our knowledge
in general anatomy. It is therefore to be ho-
ped that were anatomifts, in defcribing the
heads of different animals, always to give us
the proportions and magnitudes of certain lines,
diameters.
I5# NEW TERMS RELATING TO
diameters, and angles, we fhould very foon ac-
quire more general, and precife information
upon that fubjecl: than we now poffefs.
As an accurate knowledge of relative por-
tion is likewife of the greateft importance in
anatomy, we mould never negledt, where it is
poffible, to mention the fituation and afped: of
every part that is worthy of notice. A careful
attention to thefe circumflances will gradually
fecure to us more accuracy, with regard to de-
fcriptions in furgery, phyiic, zoology, and an-
atomy ; will render our knowledge of the ufes
and functions more perfect ; and will therefore
give more than an ordinary degree of clearnefs
and precilion to our phyiiological reafonings
and conclufions.
The terms here fuggefted for the head con-
taining no allufion to the bones, and being fome-
what different in principle from feveral of thofe
which have been fuggefted for the trunk and ex-
tremities, I fhall illuftrate the mode of applying
them by a few examples. Let us take, for in-
fiance*
POSITION AND ASPECT. 157
fiance, the parietal bone of the human fpecies.
It has two fides, one convex and the other con-
cave ; which, in point of afpecl, are dermal and
central. In point of fituation, coronal and late-
ral. It has four margins, which, in point of fi-
tuation, are likewife found coronal and lateral;
but, in point of afpecl:, glabellar, mejial, inial,
and bajilar. It has alfo four angles, each an-
gle lying between two of the different mar-
gins ; and which therefore may be named the
glabello-mejial, glabello- bajilar, the inio-mejial,
and the inio-bajilar.
Examining this bone in the deer and fheep,
where we fee no divifion by fagittal future, its
two furfaces are convex and concave ; and in
point of afpecl, dermal and central, as they are
in man. In point of fituation, they are fome-
what different, being inial and lateral ; and
with refpect to the different afpecls of its four
margins, two are antinial, one coronal, and a
fourth bajilar.
Take the frontal bone of the human fubjed
as another illuRration. Its two furfaces are
dermal
I58 NEW TERMS RELATING TO
dermal and central ; their fituations coronal,
bajilar, lateral, glabellar ; the afpect. of its
margins, where connected with the fphenoi-
dal bone and glabellar part of the ethmoi-
dal, is inial ; where connected with the late-
ral part of the ethmoidal bone, mejial ; where
it joins the malar bone, lateral ; and where it
meets the nafal and maxillary bones, bajilar.
The eye will ferve for our lad illuftration.
In the human fubject its fituation is glabellar.
The afpect of the pupil, as in all animals, pe-
ripheral or dermal; but where the nerve enters,
it is inial, or, more ftrictly fpeaking, inio-mejial.
The other afpects are coronal, bajilar, lateral,
and mejial.
In thofe animals where the eyes are in the
lateral parts of the head, the pupil is dermal,
the entrance of the nerve mejial ; the other
afpects coronal, bajilar, inial, antiniaL
Where the fituation of the eye is coronal,
the pupil is dermal, the entrance of the nerve
bajilar ; the other afpe&s inial, antinial, late-
ral, and mejiah
Such
POSITION AND ASPECT. I 59
Such language, it will eafily be feen, is chiefly
neceffary in comparative anatomy, where we foon
learn that the lingular variety which we difco-
ver in the actions, habits, and functions of ani-
mals is principally owing to certain changes or
modifications in the intimate ftru&ure, in the
relative magnitude, fituation, and afpects of the
different organs ; and where we perceive, that
the Author of Nature has by thefe changes
varied the fame general fabric innumerable
ways ; given it a thoufand different inftindts,
appetites, and paffions ; adapted it to every
element and climate, and to endlefs diverfities
with refpect. to food and the modes pf life.
As the means by which He has produced thefe
effects cannot be thought unworthy of inquiry,
a language calculated to exprefs the circum-
ftances on which they depend, muft furely be
defireable to every perfon the leaf! interefled in
zoological invefligations. In mere changes of
afpecl and pofition, the naturalifl muft obferve
a number of important and fpecific differences ;
the phyfiologifl muft fee correfpcndent and
neceffary
l6o NEW TERMS RELATING TO
neceflary changes on the functions ; and the
natural theologift, in iuch changes, cannot
fail to remark, with peculiar fatisfaclion, the
admirable difplays of that boundlefs power,
wifdom, and forefight, by which the great
Sovereign of the Univerfe has peopled the air,
the water, and the earth, with innumerable
myriads of animated beings ; varied the fame
general ftruclure fo as to fuit every poffible
circumftance ; and, amidft the daily and the
hourly millions of thofe events which we call
contingencies, fecured the perpetuity of the
fpecies, fixed the time of individual exiftence,
regulated the periods of thofe functions which
return occafionally, and every where fettled
the extent, duration, and fucceflion of thofe
which produce growth, vigour, and decay.
If fuch fpeculations accord not with the views
of the medical practitioner, he is at leafl cer-
tainly concerned in the knowledge of relative
lituation and afpect fo far as regards the hu-
man body ; the furgeon requires it in all his
operations; the phyfician requires it in rea-
foning
POSITION AND ASPECT. l6|
foiling upon fymptoms and the feats of difeafe;
arid for the anatomift to attempt any deicrip-
tion without it, is like venturing to fea with-
out a compafs or a fiar to guide him ; like a
geographer trying to explain a map without
lines of meridian or longitude, where he can-
not diftinguifh the north from the fouth, and
has no fcale to afcertain the relative diftances*
In fhort, without a knowledge of polition
and afpect, he is a traveller wandering at ran-
dom, blind and in the dark, not able to fay
whence he came nor whither he is goins;, and
who fleps as readily over a precipice or into a
river as he does into the road.
CHAP,
ld2 NEW TERMS*
CHAP. VII.
THE NEW TERMS ENUMERATED.
FOR THE HEAD.
See Page 144, &c. and Plates III. IV. V,
Coronal
Bafilar
Inial
Glabellar
Antinial
FOR THE TRUNK.
See p. 100. and PI. I. II.
Atlantal
Sacral
Dorfal
Sternal
To be occafionally extended to the head, when
we mean to exprefs its relative fituation with
regard to the trunk. See p. 102.
TERMS
NEW TERMS. 163
TERMS COMMON TO THE HEAD AND TRUNK,
Seep. 121. and PL I. II. III.
Dextral
Siniftral
Lateral
Mefial
FOR THE ATLANTAL EXTREMITIES*
See p. 124, 125. and PI. I. II.
Ulnar
Radial
Anconal
Thenal
FOR THE SACRAL EXTREMITIES,
See p. 127. and PI. I. II.
Tibial
Fibular
Rotular
Popliteal
L2
TERMS
I64 NEW TERMS.
TERMS COMMON TO BOTH KINDS OF EXTREMI-
TIES. See p. 124. and PL I. II.
Proximal
Diftal
TERMS COMMON TO THE HEAD, TRUNK, AND
EXTREMITIES. See p. 120.
Dermal
Peripheral
Central
SECT.
NEW TERMS. 165
SECT. I.
The new Terms, by a change of Termination,
may he ufed Adverbially.
Instead of the words upward, downward, back-
ward, forward, outward, inward, and toward,
which fo frequently occur in almoft every ana-
tomical defcription, and in a fenfe fully as vague
asfuperior, inferior, poflerior, anterior, external,
and internal, we may, with a flight degree of
variation, employ the' new terms as fo many
adverbs. Thus,
IN THE HEAD,
Coronad will lignify towards the coronal afpec"l
Bafilad ... ^ ... . towards the bafilar
Iniad towards the inial
Glabellad towards the glabellar
Antiniad towards the antinial
L 3 in
l66 " NEW TERMS.
IN THE TRUNK,
Atlantad will fignify towards the atlantal afpe$
Sacrad towards the facral
Dorfad ........ towards the dorfal
Sternad ........ towards the fternal
IN THE HEAD AND TRUNK,
Dextrad will fignify towards the dextral afped
Siniftrad towards the finiftral
fcaterad ........ towards the lateral
Mefiad ........ towards the mefial
IN THE ATLANTAL EXTREMITIES,
Ulnad will fignify towards the ulnar afpecl
Radiad . towards the radial
Anconad . towards the anconal
Thenad ....... towards the thenal
IN THE SACRAL EXTREMITIES,
Tibiad will fignify towards the tibial afpect
Fibulad towards the fibular
Rotulad ....... towards the rotular
Poplitead ...,;. towards the popliteal
in
^EW TERMS. 167
IN BOTH KINDS OF EXTREMITIES,
Proximad will lignify towards the proximate afpedl
Diftad towards the diftant
IN THE HEAD, TRUNK, AND EXTREMITIES,
Dermad will fignify towards the dermal afpect
Peripherad towards the circumference
Centrad towards the centre
L 4 SECT.
i68 NEW TERMS,
SECT. IT.
The new Terms , by another change of Termina-
tion, may exprefs Connection*
W hat belongs to the atlas, fternjmi, and fa+
crum ; to the radius, ulna, and ancon ; to the
tibia, fibula, rotula, and poples, being fome-
what different from that which belongs on}y
to their afpect or fituation, in order to prevent
any confufion, it may be necelfary to mark the
diftindtion by another change in the termina-
tion. Thus,
Atlanten
Sacren
Sternen
Radien
Ulnen
Anconen
Tibien
Fibulen
Rotulen
Popliteen
May
NEW TERMS. l6o
May be ufed in cafes where the reference is
not merely to the afpecl, but to the part from
which the afpedt has derived its name. On
this principle a radial artery, or a radial muf-
cle, will be an artery or mufcle belonging
merely to the radial afpect ; while a radien ar-
tery will be one that enters the radius itfelf,
and a radien mufcle one particularly connect-
ed with the radius by origin or infertion. Or
the principle may even be extended farther,
and a regular diftin&ion made between the
terms that denote limply pofition or afpecr,
and thofe which imply a particular connec-
tion. For inftance, let the terms of the firft
kind always terminate in al or ar9 and thofe of
the fecond always in en, as reprefented in the
following columns.
Coronal
Coronen
Bafilar
Baiilen
Inial
Inien
Glabellar
Glabellen
Antinial
Antinien
Atlanta!
170
NEW TERMS.
Atlantal
Atlanten
Sacral
Sacren
Sternal
Sternen
Dorfal
Dorfen
Dextral
Dextreri
Siniftral
Siniftren
Lateral
Lateren
Mefial
Mefien
Radial
Radien
Ulnar
Ulnen
Aconal
Anconen
Thenal
Thenen
Tibial
Tibien
Fibular f
Fibulen
Rotular
Rotulen
Popliteal
Popliteen
Diftal
Diften
Proximal
Proximen
Dermal
NEW
TERMS.
171
Dermal
Dermen
Peripheral
Peripheren
Central
Centren
Nay, as there are other terms in anatomy
which allude to particular pofitions and af-
pects, and which are likewife occafionally em-
ployed to denote a different fort of connection,
it might alfo contribute to accuracy of de-
fcription to intimate this difference in their
fenfe by a fimilar difference in their termina-
tion, I fhall here enumerate feveral of the
terms to which I allude.
Frontal
Fronten
Parietal
Parieten
Temporal
Temporen
Occcipital
Occipiten
Sphenoidal
Sphenoiden
Ethmoidal
Ethmoiden
Nafal
Nafen
Malar
Malen
Maxillar
Max Men
Cervical
1 7 2 NEW
TERM Si "
Cervical
Cervicen
Lumbar
Lumben
Coital
Coften
Chondral
Chondren
Clavicular or Clavar
Claviculen or Claveo
Scapular
Scapulen
Humeral
Humeren
Carpal
Carpen
Metacarpal
Metacarpen
Digital
Digiten
Ilial
Ilien
Pubal
Puben
IfcbiaJ
Ifchien
Femoral
Femoren
Tarfal
Tarfen
Metatarfal
Metatarfen
But as this change of the termination is in-
tended always to intimate forne change in the
.meaning, it can never be neceffary in thofe cafes
where the meaning of a word is always the
fame, or where the meaning is fixed by the
context and cannot be miftaken. It would be
a
NEW TERMS. 1 73
a childifh and abfurd affectation, for inftance,
to fay, fronten, temporen, and parieten bones,
or mufculen, glandulen, and reticulen ftruc-
ture ; when we mean nothing more than what
is expreffed by the ufual words frontal, tem-
poral, parietal, mufcular, glandular, and reti-
cular. It mould therefore be remembered,
that the change is intended only for the cafes
where the words convey, or are apt to con-
vey, a twofold meaning ; where they fame-
times allude to pofition and afpect, fometimes
to connection, and where it is proper at the
fame time to mark the diftinclion, as often
happens in our defcriptions of the nerves and
blood- veffels, where the double fenfe mod: fre-
quently occurs.
SECT,
1 74 NEW TERMS*
SECT. III.
Tojhorten Befcriptioni the new Terms may hi
made to enter into Compojition.
In expreffing pofition, direction, or attach-
ment, the above epithets may occafionally be
compounded by fubftituting o for the al or ar
of the firft column, and by adding it to the en
of the fecond. Thus the pofition of the heart
in the thorax will be expreffed by the two
compounds mejio-jiniftral and atlanto-facral; or>
uling the adverbs, we may fay its direction
from the melial plane is Jini/lrad and facrad>
or jiniftro-facrad. In defcribing the direction
of the fuperficial femoral artery, we may fay
that at firft it is rotulo-tibial, then tibio-popli-
teal. In mentioning the direction of the farto-
rius, we may fay that, like the artery, it is at
firft rotulo-tibial, then tibio popliteal, and at laft,
after*paffing the knee-joint, tibio- rotular. But
ifl
NEW TERMS. 175
in mentioning its attachments, we mull lay alide
the epithets which are made to terminate in at
or ar, and employ thofe which terminate in en.
Thus in expreffing its origin and infertion, I
would not think of uling the word Mo- tibial,
but ilieno tibien. In many defcriptions, though
this minutenefs may not be necefTary, it is al-
ways fome confolation to reflecl, that when it
is necefTary, we pofiefs a language calculated
for fuch minutenefs and accuracy.
SECT.
ij6 NEW" TERMS*.
SECT. IV.
Bivifion of the Sanguiferous Syftenl into two
Parts, and new Names.
If the fanguiferous fyftem of man and others
of the nobler animals be divided into tWcf
parts, the Pulmonic and Syftemic, in that cafe
there will naturally follow a change in the lan-
guage refulting from the change of claffifica-
tion, which the Table fubjoined is intended
to exhibit. See p. 122, 123.
Pulmonic veins* All the veins which con-
vey blood from the
fyftem at large to-
wards the lungs,
Pulmonic finus. Right finus.
Pulmonic auricle. Right auricle/
Pulmonic ventricle. Right ventricle.
Pulmonic artery. Pulmonary artery.
Syftemic
NEW TERMS
Syftemic veins.
Sy Hemic finus.
Syftemic auricle,
Sy Hemic ventricle.
Svilemic artery.
177
Pulmonary veins, or the
veins which convey
blood from the lungs
to the fyflem at large.
Left finus.
Left auricle.
Left ventricle*
Aorta.
M
EXPLA-
EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES.
See p. 162, 161, 164.
Flates I. and II. are two outlines of the ike-
leton, drawn in the attitude given by Albinus*
They mow all the afpecls of the trunk and
extremities except the dermal and central*
which are eafily underftood without any afr
liftance from a figure.
The four lines in which the trunk and part
of the neck are inclofed, exhibit the attentat,
facrat, dextraly and Jiniftral afpe&s, marked
at.fac. d.lf.i (d.L for dextral or lateral, and
././. for Jiniftral or lateral).
The line drawn in the middle, marked mef.
is the flernal edge of the mejial plane, palling
through the body from the Jternal to the dor-
M 2 fal
l8o EXPLANATION OF
jal afpedl, and dividing it into fimilar and .la-
teral halves.
In the atlantal extremities, the four dotted
lines marked r. u. th. and an. {how the radial,
ulnar, thenql, and anconal afpecls. Where the
radius is in a (late of pronation, the afpecls
appear to crofs one another towards the car*
pus.
In the Jacral extremities, other four lines
of the fame kind, marked tib.fib. rot. and pop.
fhow the tibial, fibular, rotular, and popliteal
afpe&s. From the relative position, however,
of the leg and foot towards the ancle, thefe
£ines convey only a general idea of thofe af-
pecls, which are very eafily diftinguifhed in
the ikeleton and living body.
In both kinds of extremities, the lines mark-
ed prox. and dijl. fhow the proximal and dijlal
afpects.
Plate III. fhows the afpecls of the head
and the mejial plane in different views. Fig. 3.
exhibits at the fame time the mio-glahellar and
the
THE PLATES. l8l
the inantimal diameters ; which compare with
figures 3. in Plates IV. and V.
Plate IV. fig. 1. and 3. mow how the af-
pe&s of the head and trunk correfpond refpec-
tively in man and the babyroufTa. Fig. 1. fhows,
befides, the ori-facial angle. Fig. 2. the two
baft-facial angles, and the ori-facial. Fig. 3.
the inio- glabellar and inantimal diameters.
Plate V. fhows farther how the afpecls of
the head vary with refpecl to the trunk in dif-
ferent animals ; and how the parts that are at-
lantal in man, become dorfal ; the parts that
are inial, facral ; the parts that are bafilar,
flernal; and the parts that are flernal, atlcpn-
tal as we defcend in the fcale of being. Thefe
afpe&s of the head, however, will have other
pofitions with regard to the trunk, according
to the motions of the living animal; and diffe-
rent parts may in fuccefiion be flernal, dorfal \
atlantal, and facral. To guefs therefore at the
form and ftru&ure of the animal, from thefe re-
lative
X%% EXPLANATION' 01* THE PLATES*
lative pofitions, we niuft fix on fome one that
is definite. The poiition here fuppofed is that
where the vertebral line is continued through
the cranium at right angles, or perpendicular
to the plane of the foramen magnum.
Fronted by John Brown,?
Aaeh©r Close, Edinburgh, J
Plate. 3.
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